EARTH SCIENCE

For K12 STEM Students Sala

WELCOME TO EARTH SCIENCE

DR. AHMED ABDEL SALAM

Prof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geolog

Welcome to Earth Science

What is Geology?
Geology in Greek, Geo means Earth Logos means Science) is a branch of
science dealing with the study of the
Earth t is also known as carth science.
The study of the earth comprises of the
whole earth its
origin structure,
composition and history including the
development of iFe) and the nature of
the processes
Who is Geologist?
Geologists (who study Geology investigate the
composition of eanth materials and various geoloaical
processes to locate and exploit its rmineral

resources
They investigate qeological phenoineria such as

earthquak.es and volcanoes ard atempt to predict

and minimize heir damaai eFects.
to determine
They study carth olegical history
the former peslioting of continents and oceans, the
nature of ancient climates, and the evolution of life as revealed by Fossil records
Branches of Geology
Geoloay can be broadly divided into several branches like Physical Geology.
Geomorphology, structural Geology, Sedimentology, Mincralogy. Economic Gcology. ctc
recip

M
tation

Eronion & rision &

y sabous
depostio
Magma
Ground
water tion ntar Metamorphie
ToCK
Rock m
and Glaciers Metarnic4pism Mante
Hyrlogicai Cycle Rock Cycke Toctoni Cye

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOO7G3773

Prof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geology

The diverse fields

ofgeology amd their relation ship with other Science subjects
Branches Area of study Related
scence
Physi cal Endogenous Geology
Geology Geotectonics Earth's crust (conditi on and Phy sics
deformation)
Metamorphism Transformati on of existing rocks
Magmatism Interior of earth
Volcanism Volcanoes
Seismology Earthquakes Physics
Ex ogenous Geology
Weathering and Mass Alteration of sediments
Wasti ng Chemistry
Oceanography Oceans and seas
Marine Geology Oceam margin and loo Biology
Hydrogeology
Glaciology
Water resou ces
Glacias
Limnology Begs md lakes
Geomorphology Landforms
Structural Geology Kock deformation Physics
Sedimentology Sediment depositiom
Mineralogy Minerals
Economic Geologr Minerals and energy resources ChemistrY
Petrolum Geology Hydrocarbons
Coal Geology Coal
Geochemistry Chemistry of earth Chemistry
iotopeGeology Radioactive elements
Historical Geology Earth's evolutionary hi story
Geucdironology Time and history of earth Astronomny
Stratigraphy Layered sediments and
core ation
Paleontology Fossils Biology
Mircopaleontology Microorganisms (largdy single-
celled)
Paleo ecol ogy Ancient ecology and Biology
environment
Paleoclimatology Ancient dimate
Paleography Ancient geographic features and
locati ons
Earth's magnetic field Physics
Paleomagnetism
Applied Geology
Environmental Geol ogy Environment Chemistry.
Biology
Engineering Geology Geological hazards, bridges. Engineering
dams etc
Water resources
Hydrogeology
Geophysics Earth's interior Physics

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OOOOTG3773

Prof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geology

Physical Gieology
This subect deals with the physical forces and processes that bring dbout
changes in the earthis crust or to the surface of the earth on account of
their prolonged existence and action
Physical CGeology is broadly divided into two branches-those dealing with thec
termal dynamics of the carth Endogenaus Geoloay) and those with external

dynamics (Exogenous Geology).

Earth History
Sedimentaryrocks Extrusion
Igneousrocks Intrusions am
Metamorphic rocks Physical Volcanoes

Water Plate Tectonics Geology Carhkes

Wind Earth's Interior Other Planete Mo ntains
Glaciers Meteorites Solar System Surface
Erosion Asteroids Underground
Oceans Weathering
Soils Sediments
Groundwate Mineral Resources
Mass Wasting
Endogenous Geology
The movement of earth's crust, earthquakes and vocanic eruptions, etc. (ie.
the endogenaus processes) Form the preview of this branch

thiher diided into the followin subbranchee

CTeotectonic
The study of the conditions of the occurrence of rocks, movement of carths
crust, and the deformation caused by them (refer to the Tectonic cycle)

Metamorphism
ts stucics changes in rocks in the earthis interior, under condtions of hih
temperature and pressure.

Magmatism
H deals with the composition of magma and the processes taking place in it

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OlO00T63773

Prof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geology

Volcanism
s concerned with thc of volcanoes and their
study activity. This subbranch
overlaps with Maamatism

Seismology
Htis the
study of carthquakes and the carths interior
Exogenous GeoloY
Ht refers to all the processes hat are produced at the surface of he Earth
Cand other planets).
Weathering erosion transportation and sedimentation are the main exogenous
processes.
T h e result
of these processes is the formation of sedirnenis ond sedmentary
rocks.
Exogenous geology can be Aurther civided into the foiowing ub-branches
Weathering and Mass Wasting
This branch studies the process of the ateration of rocks under the action of
physical chemical and biological agents.

Oceanoaraphy
This branch deals with the qeoiogical activity of oceans and scas
Marine Cieoloay
t is the study of the ocean Aoor and ocean continent marqins.

Hyarogeology
H covers the qeoloqical activity of underaround water.
Grlaciology
The study of alociers and their phenomena Form part of this branch

Limnology
The geological activity of bogs and lakes are studied
Structural Geologyy
This branch primariy deals with the study of rock defomation in the earth's
ithosphere viewed from all scales-rom the microscopic (atomic scale) to the
macroscopic (continental scale)

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salamn OIOOOT63T73

Frof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geolog)

T h e study also incdes the defomation of rocks and their structurd atitudes
ot arrangements.

Sedimentology
Sedimentology deals with the study of modern sedments and understandng the
processes that deposit them
T h e Fomation of a seqence of deposit and the processes that case their
+onmations within the uppermost part of the earth's erust Form he
bockbone of sedmentology
MineraloY
# nvoves the study of mineras, their formation analysis. ossociaton and
clossitication
t also nchdes the study of their chemical composition speciic features of
heir structures, physical properties, and conditions of occurence, thecir
interrelationship, and their origin
Econoric Geology
Earth materias that are used For economic and/or indstrial puposes such as
petroleum coal ores, buldina stonies, sat, qemstones etc., fom the preview of
this branch
Economic Geooay s sbdivided into a number of branches but the most
important of hese include Petroeum and Coal Gecloay.
- Petroleum Geology

This branch deals with the specific search for hycrocarbons (oil exploration)
Coal Geology
t is the study of coal

Gteochemistry
t i s the study of the sources ond fates of chemica species in natura

environments
Geocheristry encompasses the investigation of the chemical composition of
the earth other planets, solar system and the universe as a whoe
(Cosmochemistry) as well as the chemica processes that occur within trem

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam O1OOOT3TT3

Earth Scerce
 Introduction to Geology
Hydrogecogy t is the area of acoloay that deals with the distrioution and
movement of graundwater in the sol and rocks of the earth's erust (mosty in

Aqufere) Gehycrology is often used interchangedbly with Hydrogeology

Gicophysics
Geophysics is the appication of physics to study of the sold carth t occupies
an important position in earth sciences.
Solid Earth Geophysies

Global or pure Geophysics Applied Geophysics

Geophysies Mning Geophysics Enginering Exploration Evironmental

(Geophysiap i (geophysics tfor Geophysica Geophtysics Geophysics
era

Expioration Archa

odel
del Geophysics
arahaeology

An Image of Our universe

What is the Structure of the univers
over the centuries two schodls of thought developed concerning how to explain
the confaration of stars ond planets, and their reltionships to the Earth Sun
and Moon
The Arrst sched advacated a aeocentric model in which the Earth sat without

moving at the center of the universe, while the Moon and the planets whirted
around t withn a revolving gobe ot stars
8 The second schodi advocated a hciocentric model in which the Sun lay at the
center o he universe. with the Earth and other planets orbiting around it.
Geocertric mode: earth sits motionless at the center of the universe.

Heiocentric modek sun lies at the ceter of the universe while th earth and
other planets orbt around it.

The Nature of Our Solar System

The Solar System
The solar system conssts ot an average sized star calcd the Sun and the
cosme bodies thot are bound to it by its gravty These bodes incude the eight

Dr Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOTG3T73

E Scee
 Introduction to Geology

planets (Mercury. Venus, Earth Mars, Jupiter, Saturn uranus, and Neptune) ther
more than 130 satelites, large number of smaller bodies (such as comets and

asteroids)
Classitication of Planets
Planets are divided into two broad groups according to their mass, density. and
other parameterrs
( The inner planets (Mercury. Venus, Earth and Mars), also called the
Terrestrial planets.
(i) The outer planets (Jupiter, Saturn uranus, and Neptune), also called the
Griant Jovian or Gas planets.
a n

(a) (b)
Interiors of Terrestrial ets nteriors of Jovian planets
(to same scale) (to same scale)

Venus Earth Saturn Jupiter

Neptune Uranus
Mercury Mars Earth to same scale
solid ion core silicate mantte silicate core liquid hydrogen

lhquid iron core silicate crust ice core gaseous hydrogen

liquid metallic hydrogen

Comparison of the internal structure of Terrestrial and Jovian planets (the earth is

taken as reference; in
green
Forming the universe

In the 9205, astronomer Edwin Hubble discovered the universe was not static.

Rather, it was expandina a find that revealed the universe was apparenty born
in a
Big Bang.
According to the Big Bang thcory. al matter and energy-everything that now

constitutes the universe-was initially packed into an intinitesimaly small point.

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOTG3TT3

Prof of Earth Seence
 Introduction to Geology

Much later, some 300 to 500 million years after te Biq Ban clumps of mater
were held by the
aravity.
Every matter grouped to om atoms
atoms to molecules, and raly. Expansion o fU n i v e r s

molecules arouped toaether to form Big

Bang
trilions of stars and bilions of
aolaxies. EO
CGalaxies are at a
areat distance away
rom each other and back at the tme.
The point exploded' and the universe
beaan, according to current estimates, B6 bilion years a
Accordng to the Big Bang theory. a cataclysmic explosion ot B6 Go fomed the
universe, which has been expanding ever since. Atoms Fomed durng the Big
Bang colected into nebulae which due to qravity, colapsed nto dense bals, the
First stars. Nebuilae- patchy clauds of hycragen and heikm qas
According to this model of the Biq Bana, profauind chanae happened at a fast and
turious rate at the outset. During the Hrst instant of existence, the universe was so
smal,so dense, and so hot that it consisted entirely of eneray-atoms, or even the smallest
subatomic particles that make up atoms, could not even exist.
Within a few seconds, however, hydroqen atoms cauld beain to form And by the time
the universe reached an aqe of
3 minutes, when its temperature had Folen below 1 bilion degrees, and its iameter had
qrown to about 53 ilion km (5 mlion miles), hydrogen atoms could fuse together to
orm helkum atomns.
Formation of new ruclei in the Pirst Few mirutes of time s caled Big Bang
nucleosynthesis becauGe it happened bekore any stars existed This process could
atorns, containing a small numoer ot protons lan atomic
produce only liaht mearing oncs

nurmioer less thon 5), and it happened very rapicly.

in Fact, virtualy all of the new atormric ruclei that wouid Form by Big Bang ruclcosynthesis
existed by the end oF the First 5 minutes.

Eventually. the Universe became cool enough tor chemical bonds to bind atoms of certain
elements together in molecules
Most notably, two hydrogen atoms could join to form moecules of H2. As he universe
continued to expand and cool further, atoms and molecules slowed down and accumulated
nto patchy clauds caled nebulae. The eariest nebuloe of the universe consisted amost
volume) and helum (249%)
entircly of hydrogen (74%. by qas.

Dr. Ahmcd Abdel Salam OIOOOT63773

Prof of Earth Scierce
 Introduction to Geology

Waves and the Doppler EFfect

Light enerqy aso moves in the Form of waves. We can represent loht wavc
symbolically by a periodic succession of crests and trouahs (Fia 14c). Visble
ght comes n many colors-the colors of the rainbow. The color you see depends
on the Prequency wavesof the loht
Ked light has a longer wavelength (lower frequency) than does blue ight. The

Doppler chHect also applies to lioht but can be noticed only it he light 9Ource
moves
very +ast, at least a Few percent of the speed otlight.
a l1ght source moves away from you the lioht you see becomes redder,

light shitts to longer wavelenqth or lower requency.

t h e GOurce moves toward you, the liaht you see becomeg u e r a s the light

shits to higher requency. We call these chanaes the red s h t and the bue

shirt, respectively
delS
del
The Dopplef eheot
or Bght

Vaves thet s8ach thie cbaerv

Movng snroe Wilaves that e h his obsee
re spread coutto kanger
b-avihed a@velergi shted seveng

wwwBila gh gh Tha doervs

Depplers
Red igt w thequency

lc) The wootierg ta than that of redlight.It sigtsource Piovesveny1ast the Doppler effect reaudtsnasutng ore
wvelengths The depends ot the ponition ef the ceserv
d) The atom ms sta ebor eerta speuibe waveerge
Sun of tight. vWe sne these wpeianghs as derk. eoes an a ight
apectra, Note hat the inen trona galny e bkes light ymary

the righe, e campariap n he liert rgm oul a Su

The Cosmic Bodies

Our Solar system is home to al cosmic bocies-ram Asteroids and Comets
to Setelites and Planets Asterois incude all Meteoroids, Meteors, and
Meteorites, a brief nomenclature of cosmic bocies is given in the next
Table

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OI000763773

Prof of Earth Science
 Introduction to Geology

C bnes

Astcds
Comets
Asteroid arc snall
minr plancts hiing ihe Sun. Thcy are madc mck and metal
x
These arc smail, irrecgularly shaped
and may alar custiun orgamk bodhes that orbi thc San. They are
etend
comanInis. They ure foond inmde the Earth' urbu and
s
to
Salurn' wbu ant hey1nd. The largest asterod s wer 66 km in diameler M t rende froen the Sun and are
All Meteorads. Melers, and Meteorites a mixture of noon-
are Asternjds oompscd
volatile gaias ad frEvzeri gases
When cloc to the Sun thcy
display a vivible coms ia fuzzyy
outline generated by uslar
radiatton) and surnetimes a tmi

Aeteond Meteors Mrteorires

Thee are cometary ruxks dehris
or
These ae Meieorols that havNe
in These are Meteoroid that have
vF Soisr Syatem They are on u urned up as they pass thrraugh the survived falling thsough the
collnon curse with Farth. They Farth' atrmonptere slargely duie t Earnh's atmsphere and have
range in are fran dhw to~ 10 m frictron) A treak ol lighl, a cullied with the Earth's surface.
in thamieter. The larget ones are shoolne star as we call a, is They do o burn up completely
called Atermds actually sering a Mettor

Where Do Elements Come From?

Nebulae From which the first-qeneration stars formed consisted entircly o the

lightest atoms, because only these atoms were qenerated by Big Bang
nucleosynthesis
I n contrast, the Universe of today contains 92 naturally occurring elemets
Where did the other 87 clemerits come Prom? In other words, how did
elements with larqer atomic numioers (such as carbon sulfur, slicon iron
qold and uranium), which orc common on Earth form? Physicists have shown
that these elements Form during the lFe eycle of stars, by the process ot

stellar rucleosyrthesis.
Because of siellar nucleosynthesis, we can consider stars to be 'element
Factorics,' corstantly fashioning larger atoms out of smaller atoms.
Stelar nuicleosynthcsis- a process ot usion reactions that occur during the liFe
cycle of stars. created intemediate weight elemets
Stellar wind- the strcam of atoms emitted rom a star during its lifctime.
Succeeding qenerations contain a progressively greater proportion of heavier
clements. When stars dic, hey contrioute heavier elements to the next qeneration
F o r most of their lives, stars use clemntal hydrogen into helum in their cores

Two atoms of hydrogen are combined in a series ot steps to create helum-4

These reactions account for 85% ot the Suns energy. The remainin 15% comes
Prom reactions that produce the elements berylium and lithium
A t this staae of our Sun's liHe cycle, hydrogen atoms are used to form helium

atoms. This nuclear reaction produees very large amounts of eneray.

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OI00O7G3773

Prof of Earth Scence
 Introduction to Geology

forms of radiation
r o m these nuclear reactions is emitted in various
The cnery ond r a a D
such as uHraviolet light, X-rays, visble light, infrared rays, microwaves
are r e c o s a
waves. In addition, enerqjzed particles such a s ncutrinos and protons
and it is these that make up the solar wind
anVes
the pianet,
Earth s n the path o this eneray strearn, which warms
able to s c r e
Wcather and provides eneray For fe. The Earth's atmosphere is
Out most o the harmful radiation, and the Earths magnetic ield can deitc

the harmrui ePfects of the solar wind

When a stars core runs out of hydrogen the star beains to die out. The dyn

carbon atoms
beqins to manufacture
star expands intoa red ajant, and this now

by tusing helum atoms.

reaction
More massive stars beain a further series of nuclearburning o r
to iron.
from oxyoen through
stages. The elements Formed in these stages ranae
as
ot eneraY a s wel
the star releases very larae arnounts
During a supernova, to
allows elements heavier thari iron
such a s uranum and god,
neutrons, which
out
In the supernova explosion al of these elements are expelled
be produced.
into space
whats left after a star dies and explodes
Supernova-
Examples of element makinq nucleogenesis) in helium burning reactions
carbon atom:
3 helium atoms rusng to give a

3 He - " C
12C + 4He o
using to give an oxyqen atom
»

carbon aton + helium atom

a neon atom o + *He 20Ne
+ heclium atorm using to qive
oxyen atom
atom usitng to qive a magnesium atom
Ne + *He 24Ma
n c o n atom + helum

Man-made clemets
so where have the others come
Only 92 of the known elements occur naturally,
from?
is to be found in the development ot nuclear power plants and
The answer
accelerators:
machines known a s particle
+ast heutrons to collide with the common
Scietists discovered that, by allowing
uranium known as U-238 n a huclear reactor, the 'new' element
isotope of
plutonurm was made.

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OIOOOT3T73

P r o f o f Earth Scernce
 Introduction to Geology

accelerators, it was
8By smashing atoms together in machines known as particle
atoms ot
discovered that new elements exomple, bombarding
couid be made. For
made element %
he clement curum (Cm 96) with atoms of neon (Ne 0)

seaborqum (Sq 09)

once used
White dwars are stars that have burned up all of thc hydrogen they
as nuclear fuel
Neutron s t a r s a r e city-size stellar obects with a mass about 14 times that ot|
the sun Born from the explosive death of another, larqer stars

Nuclear Reactions
ner Outer Fus o
Fission
lectror Neutron
he S Neuior

nucieus
Hebum

Nucleus

Ic) Two atorns tversions of hydrogen)

la) An mage of an atom
(b) Au niun tom spits during nuclear fission stck togetther to form one atom of
wth a nucle us orbited hebum during nuclear fusaion in a
by e'ectrons
hydrogen bomb

OMVERSAL ELEMENT FORMATION

A
ements
planet Earth White
and us dwarf
Red giant Planetary
nebule
Average
star

Neutron
star

Steltar
ebula

Messive Supernav
star
Super red giant
BHack thoie

Copyrigt. University of waikato t www

Dr. Ahmed Abdel Salam OOOO7G3773

Prof of Eorth Scerce
Cosmic boies

Asteroids Comets
These are small, iregularly shaped
Asteroid
and
are
small or minor planets orbiting the Sn. They are made ofrock and metal bodies that orbit the Sun. They are
may alsuo contain onganic compounds. They are found inside the Earth's orbit and o t remote from the Sun and are
extend to Saturn's orbit and
beyond. The largest asteroid is ower 966 km in diameter
All Meteoroids, Meteors, and Meteorites are Asteroids composcd of a mixture of non-
volatile grains and frozen gases
When close to the Sun they
display a visible coma ta fuzy
outline generated by solar
radiation) and sometim s a tail
Meteoroids Meteors Meteorites
These are cometary rocks or debris in These are Meteoroids that have These are Meteoroid that have
our Solar System. They are on a burned up as they pass through the survived falling through the
collision course with Earth. They Farth's atmosphere (argely due to Earth's atmosphere and have
range in size from dust to 10 m friction) A streuk of light, aa collided with the Earth's surface.
in diameter. The larger ones are sbooting star as we call it. is They do oot burn up completely
called Astcroids actually seeing a Meteor