Chemistry: Inorganic and Organic Phases of Matter

Solid Definite shape,

volume, do not flow

Crystallize Well defined

arrangement

Amorphous Do not have orderly

structured, melting
point is not definite

Trends in the Periodic Metallic Good conductor of

Table: Lecture electricity, malleable
and ductile
Liquid Flows and assume
s-block and p-block the shape of the
Group 1A Alkali metals container, volume,
diffusion occurs
Group 2A Alkaline earth metals
slowly
Group 3A Aluminum
Group 4A Carbon
Viscosity Resistance of liquid
Group 5A Nitrogen
to flow
Group 6A Oxygen
H. Tempt: L vis.
Group 7A Halogens H. atm : H vis.
Group 8A Noble gases H. IMF : H vis.
Transition metals d-block
Inner T. metals f-block Surface tension Force which
increases the surface
area
Extrinsic Describes the outside
appearance of
Vapor pressure Pressure exerted by a
matter
vapor of a liquid in
Intrinsic Inherent
equilibrium with its
characteristics of
liquid and vapor
matter
states
Extensive Depend of the H. Tempt: H pres.
amount of substance H. IMF: L pres.
Intensive Do not depend of the H pres: L b. point
amount of substance
Physical Physical appearance Boiling point Vapor pressure of a
or transformation liquid equals the
Chemical Ability to react with external pressure on
other substances its surface

Freezing point Temperature at

which a liquid
solidifies
 Gas Weak, behaving Intermolecular forces of attraction
independently,
molecules are very Lecture
far

Ion-ion Exhibited by ionic

Classification of Matter compounds
Matter Has mass and volume Ion-dipole Interaction of ion and
Substances Melt or boil at a polar compound
definite temperature (Na+ and H2O)
Elements Simplest form of Dipole-dipole Interaction of two
substance polar atoms
Compounds Composed of two Ion-Induced dipole Interaction of ion and
more different nonpolar molecule
elements Dipole-induced Interaction of dipole
Covalent Composed of dipole and nonpolar
nonmetals molecule
CO2, H2O Induced dipole Interaction between
Ionic Composed of metal nonpolar molecule
and nonmetal
NaCl Chemical Reaction

A chemical reaction is an expression that

Mixtures Physical combination represents a chemical reaction that takes the
of two or more form
distinct chemical
substances 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 → 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠
Homogenous Uniform particle:
solutions
Heterogenous Ability to scatter light Synthesis
passed through the
mixture 1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
Separating Mixtures 2
Filtration Mixture is passed Decomposition
through sieve
Distillation Mixture is heated 1
𝐻2 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2
into vapor and then 2
condensed
Displacement

𝑀𝑔 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 𝐻2
Double displacement

𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2 + 2𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐴𝑔𝐶

Writing Ionic Formulas

Lithium Oxide

𝑳𝒊 +
𝑶 = 𝑳𝒊𝟐 𝑶
𝑳𝒊 + −𝟐

Potassium Nitride

𝑲+
𝑲+ 𝑵−𝟑 = 𝑲𝟑 𝑵
𝑲+

Aluminum Oxide

𝑨𝒍𝟑+ 𝑶−𝟐
= 𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑
𝑨𝒍𝟑+ 𝑶−𝟐
𝑶−𝟐
 Determine Oxidation Number Arrhenius
Element by itself: 0 Monoatomic ion =
ion charge Acid (H+) Donator
Group 1A : always +1 Hydrogen : HCI, HNO3, HF
+1 nonmetals Base (OH) Donator
-1 metals NaOH, KOH,
Group 2A : always +2 Oxygen : Ca(OH)2
Usually, -2
Peroxide : -1
Halogens : usually -1 Fluorine: - 1
+ 1 with oxygen
Strong Acids
Sum of ONs for a neutral compound = 0 HCl
Sum of ONs for a polyatomic ion = ion charge HI
HBr
Balancing Redox Reaction
HNO3
𝐴𝑔 + 𝑁𝑂3− → 𝐴𝑔+ + 𝑁𝑂 HClO4
0 5+ 2− → 1 + 2+ 2− H2SO4

Putting strong acids/bases in an aqueous

Ag is oxidized solution will cause them to disintegrate
N is reduced
𝐻𝐶𝑙 → 𝐻 + + 𝐶𝑙 −
Reduction : Gain of electrons – ON ↑
Oxidation : Loss of electrons – ON ↓
H2SO4 is a diprotic acid which can give up 2
hydrogen ions
Acid – Base Reaction
Strong Bases
Bronsted Lowry Group 1A
Acid Proton Donator (H+) NaOH
Base Proton Acceptor (H+)
LiOH
KOH
𝐻𝐴 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐴− + 𝐻3 𝑂+ RbOH
𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛. 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 CsOH
Group 2A
strong acid → weak conjugated base Ca(OH)2
strong base → weak conjugated acid Sr(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
 Find the enthalpy change for the reaction

Thermochemistry – the study of chemical

reactions with relation to energy changes
Heat – is the energy that is transferred in
chemical reactions
𝐶𝑆2(𝑙) + 3 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 2 𝑆𝑂2(𝑔)
When:
𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔); 𝜟𝑯𝒇 = −𝟑𝟗𝟑. 𝟓 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
(𝑆(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝑆𝑂2(𝑔); 𝜟𝑯𝒇 = −𝟐𝟗𝟔. 𝟖 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍
𝐶(𝑠) + 2 𝑆(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑆2(𝑙); 𝜟𝑯𝒇 = 𝟖𝟕. 𝟗 𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍

SI unit: Joule (J) 1 J = 1 kg m2/s2

𝐶(𝑠) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔); 𝛥𝐻𝑓 = −393.5
Non-SI unit: calorie 1 cal = 4.184 J (𝑺(𝒔) + 𝑶𝟐(𝒈) → 𝑺𝑶𝟐(𝒈); 𝜟𝑯𝒇 = −𝟐𝟗𝟔. 𝟖) ∗ 𝟐
(cal) (2𝑆(𝑠) + 2𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝑆𝑂2(𝑔); 𝛥𝐻𝑓 = −593.6)
𝐶𝑆2(𝑙) → 𝐶(𝑠) + 2 𝑆(𝑠); 𝛥𝐻𝑓 = −87.9

−393.5 + (−593.6) + (−87.9) = −𝟏𝟎𝟕𝟓 𝑲𝒋/𝒎𝒐𝒍

Enthalpy ΔH Heat absorbs +ΔH; An exothermic reaction
Endothermic
Heat releases -ΔH; Chemical Kinetics and Equilibrium
Exothermic
Entropy ΔS ↑ disorder +ΔS Chemical Kinetics – studies the speed of
↓ disorder -ΔS
chemical reaction. The rate of the reaction may
depend on the nature of the reactants,
ΔH ΔS ΔG Spontaneity temperature, catalyst, surface area and
+ - + Nonspontaneous concentration of the reacting species
- + - Spontaneous
- - + or - ↑T : Nonspontaneous Determine the rate law and rate constant (k)
↓T : Spontaneous
Trial [A], M [B], M Rate M/s
+ + + or - ↑T : Spontaneous
1 0.100 0.200 1.0 𝑥 10−6
↓T : Nonspontaneous
2 0.100 0.600 9.9 𝑥 10−6
*T = temperature
3 0.400 0.600 9.9 𝑥 10−6
Thermochemical equations – chemical
𝑘[𝐴]𝑥 [𝐵]𝑦
equations that include the energy change 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 =
accompanying in the reaction. 𝑘[𝐴]𝑥 [𝐵]𝑦

2𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝐻2 𝑂𝑔 ∆𝐻 = −483.36 𝐾𝐽 9.9 𝑥 10−6 𝑘[0.100]𝑥 [0.600]𝑦

=
1.0 𝑥 10−6 𝑘[0.100]𝑥 [0.200]𝑦
Enthalpy is an extensive property. It depends 9 = 3 𝑦 = 32
on the amount of substance in the reaction. y=2

9.9 𝑥 10−6 𝑘[0.400]𝑥 [0.600]𝑦

=
9.9 𝑥 10−6 𝑘[0.100]𝑥 [0.600]𝑦
1 = 4 𝑥 = 40
x=0

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝐴]0 [𝐵]2

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑘[𝐵]2
1.0 𝑥 10−6 = 𝑘 [0.200 𝑀]2
1.0 𝑥 10−6 𝑀/𝑠 = 𝑘 0.04 𝑀2
0.04 𝑀2

K = 2.75 x 10−5 𝑀−1 𝑠 −1

Nuclear Chemistry

Alpha emission:
239 234
𝛼 particles are 92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒
helium atom, 42𝐻𝑒
Beta emission:
131 131
𝛽 particles are 53𝐼 → 54𝑋𝑒 + −10𝑒
electrons, −10𝑒
Gamma emission No charge
Positron emission
11 11
positive electron 6𝐶 → 5𝐵 + 01𝑒

Electron capture:
81
inner shell is 37𝑅𝑏 + −10𝑒 → 81
36𝐾𝑟
captured by the
nucleus

Nuclear Fission – spitting of heavy nuclei. An

exothermic reaction useful in power plants and
weaponry

91
235 36𝐾𝑟
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 142 + 3 10𝑛
96𝐵𝑎

Nuclear Fusion – union of light nuclei

1
1𝐻 + 11𝐻 → 21𝐻 + 01𝑒

𝟏
Half-life, 𝒕 𝟐 – time required for any given
quantity of a substance to react or decompose
to half its original amount

An isotope has a half-life of 6 hours. What

percentage will be left after 42 hours

Time: 6, 12, 18, 24

Percentage: 100%, 50%, 25%, 12.5%, 6.25%
1 1 1 1 1
Amount: 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32
Naming Ionic Compounds with Transition 𝑪𝒍𝑶 − Hypochlorite
Metals ← Lecture 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟐− Chlorite
𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑− Chlorate
𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 – Iron (III) Chloride 𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟒− Perchlorate
𝟑+
𝑪𝒍−
𝑭𝒆 𝑪𝒍− Name of Anion
𝑪𝒍− Monoatomic One charge
Oxoanions Two or more
When and when NOT to use Roman Numerals
in naming Ionic compounds
Contain Copper (I) Bromide
transition Iron (III) Chloride
metals Vanadium (IV) Oxide
Do NOT contain Potassium Iodide
transition Calcium Nitride
metals; has a
fixed number of
ionic charges
Exception 𝐴𝑔+
𝑍𝑛3+
𝐴𝑔𝐶𝑙 − 𝑆𝑖𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙 − 𝑍𝑖𝑛𝑐 𝐶ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
Organic Chemistry
Characteristics of a covalent bond
Alkane
Polarity – results when two atoms of different +ane
electronegativities (EN) form a covalent bond 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 + 2
such that the electrons are not equally shared
between them
Large difference C – F > C – Cl > C – Br
of EN, more polar
Difference due to Tripe > Double > Single
hybridization
Bond length – average distance separating
the nuclei of bonded atoms
↓atomic radius C – I > C – C > C – H
↓ bond length

Increase in Boiling Point

↑ polarity C–N>C–O>C–F
↓ bond length
↑ s character Single > Double > Triple
↓ bond length
↑𝜋 bond Single > Double > Triple
↓ bond length
Bond Energy/Strength – the energy needed
to disrupt a covalent bond
↑ bond strength C – F > C – Cl > C – Br
↑ polarity
↑ bond strength sp – sp > sp2 – sp
↑ s character
Ethane
↑ bond strength C ≡C>C=C
↑𝜋 bond

Carbon Chain Prefixes

Propane
1. Meth 11. Undec
2. Eth 12. Dodec
3. Prop 13. Tridec
4. But 14. Tetradec
Butane
5. Pent 15. Pentadec
6. Hex 16. Hexadec
7. Hept 17. Heptadec
8. Oct 18. Octadec
9. Non 19. Nonadec Pentane
10. Dec 20. Eicosan
Main Use: Fuels
Properties of hydrocarbon depend on the
length of carbon chain
↓ Boiling point More volatile and
flammable

Complete Combustion
- Products → Carbon and Water
Incomplete Combustion
- Products → Carbon or Carbon
Monoxide
Combustion in Alkane in bigger molecule
will produce more soot (black smoke)

Alkene
+ene
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛
- Carbon-carbon double bond
- Unsaturated hydrocarbon - Identify the longest chain
- Alkenes have lower boiling point - Double bond should always be at
than alkanes that have the same the lowest position
number of carbons
Isomer – molecules of the same formula but
have different arrangement of atoms

E-isomer : trans (opposite side)

Z-isomer : cis (same side)

- Determine which group has a

higher priority based on atomic
number
- Pair the group on the same
number of atoms attached to the
same side of the double bond
Alkyne
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 − 2

Aromatic Hydrocarbons
- Ortho (o)
o Groups on adjacent atoms on
the ring
o o – chloromethoxybenze
- Meta (m)
o Groups separated by one
carbon atom
o m – bromophenol
- Para (p)
o Groups of carbon atoms
directly opposite each other
o p – nitrophenol
Alkyl Halides
- Halogenated derivatives of Alkanes Secondary
- 𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛 + 1𝑥
- IUPAC: Halide + Parent chain

Primary
- One r-group attached to carbon

Tertiary

Secondary
- Two r-group attached to the
halogenated c-atom

Ethers
- R – O – R’
Tertiary - Contain two hydrocarbons attached
to a central oxygen atom
Symmetrical
- Groups attached to either side of
oxygen are identical

Alcohols and Phenols

- Hydrocarbon compounds with at
least one group of its hydrogen
replaced by a hydroxyl group
- IUPAC: (Subs) + Parent chain + OL Asymmetrical
- *subs – substituents - Groups attached to either side of
oxygen are not the same
Primary
Amine
- Nitrogen-containing organic
compounds that can be considered
as alkyl or aryl
- IUPAC: subs + root + -amine
- Prefix -amino (commonly name)

Primary
Carbonyl Compounds
- A carbon atom doubly bonded to an
atom

- IUPAC: subs + root + AL

- Assigned as C1

Secondary
- IUPAC: subs + root + one
- Assigned as C1

Tertiary
 Esterification
- Reaction with alcohols in the
presence of an acid catalyst
- IUPAC: subs + root + -oate
- ACETATE

Carboxylic Acid and

Derivatives
- IUPAC: subs + root + -oic acid
- Assigned the C1 of the parent chain

Amides
- The ammonium carboxylate salt is
first introduced and then heated to
form amide
- IUPAC: subs + root + -amide
Anhydrides
- Dehydration between two carboxylic
acids
- IUPAC: subs + suffix -oyl + root +
suffix -oic anhydride
 Structural Formula
Analytical Chemistry Ex. Acetic Acid
Fundamental Laws of Chemistry Molecular formula: 𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟒 𝐎𝟐
Empirical formula: 𝐂𝐇𝟐 𝐎
- Law of Conservation of Mass Structural formula: 𝐂𝐇𝟑 𝐂𝐎𝐎𝐇
o In chemical reaction, the
mass of the reactants always
equal to the mass of the
The Mole Concept
products 1 mole = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 Avogadro’s number
- Law of Definite Proportions
o A compound always consists Sample
of the same elements 1. How many atoms are in 5.5 moles of
combined in the same atoms?
proportion by mass 6.02𝑥1023
5.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 ∗ = 3.3𝑥1023
- Law of Multiple Proportions 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
o When two elements react to 2. How many moles is 4.6𝑥1024 sulfur
form more than two atoms?
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
compounds, atoms combine 4.6𝑥1024 ∗ = 7.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
in fixed whole number ratio 6.02𝑥1023

3. How many molecules in 0.63 moles

The Chemical Formula of molecules?
6.02𝑥1023
Molecular formula 0.63 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ = 3.8𝑥1023
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Ex. Acetic Acid
Molecular formula: 𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟒 𝐎𝟐 Converting between Mass and
Molecular mass:
C: 2(12.00) = 24.00
Moles
1. What is the mass in grams of 4.30
H: 4(1.00) = 4.00
moles of Aluminum?
O: 2(16.00) = 32.00
- Identify the molecular mass of
= 60g
aluminum using periodic table
- Al – 26.98g/mole
Empirical Formula
Ex Acetic Acid
26.98 𝑔 𝐴𝑙
Molecular formula: 𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟒 𝐎𝟐 4.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ∗ = 116 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Empirical formula: : 𝐂𝐇𝟐 𝐎
2. How many moles in 127.5g of NaCl?
Molecular mass:
Na: 22.99 + Cl: 35.45 =58.44 g/mole
C: 12.00
H: 2(1.00) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
O: 16.00 127.5 𝑔 ∗ = 2.182 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
58.44 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
= 30g

Stoichiometry
- gives the quantitative relationship of
reactants and products in a given
chemical equation
The relationship of the mole of products
and the reactants can be determined
1 mole H2 ≡ ½ mole O2 ≡ 1 mole H2O
2g H2 ≡ 16g O2 ≡ 18g H2O
6.02 𝑥 10 ≡ 3.01 𝑥 1023 ≡ 6.02 𝑥 1023
23
Limiting & Excess Reactant,
Theoretical & Percent Yield
Sample
1. 2 moles of propane reacts with 8
moles of Oxygen gas in a
combustion reaction. How many
moles of Carbon Dioxide are
formed? How much of the excess
reactant is left over?
- Balance the chemical equation
𝐶3 𝐻8 + 5𝑂2 → 3𝐶𝑂2 + 4𝐻2 𝑂

2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶3 𝐻8
Sample = 2 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
𝑃4 + 6𝐶𝑙2 → 4𝑃𝐶𝑙3 8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑂2
= 1.6 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Given: 5
1.45 g 𝑃4
Questions Another way to find the limiting reactant is
a. Grams of 𝐶𝑙2? 4.96 g by calculating the theoretical yield. The one
b. 𝑃𝐶𝑙3 produced? 6.41 g that has lower value is the limiting reactant
while the one that has higher value is the
P: 4(30.97) = 123.88 g/mole 𝑷𝟒 excess reactant
Cl: 2(35.46) = 70.92 g/mole 𝑪𝒍𝟐 - Identify the molar ratio

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶3 𝐻8 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑂2

1.45 𝑔 𝑃4 ∗ = 0.0117 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 𝑥 = 6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑂2
1 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶3 𝐻8
123.88 𝑔
8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑂2 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑂2
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 ∗ = 𝟒. 𝟖 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝑪𝑶𝟐 𝑳𝑹
0.0117 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4 ∗ = 0.07 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 1 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑂2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑃4
70.92 𝑔
0.07 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 ∗ = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟔 𝒈 𝑪𝒍𝟐 Percent yield
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑙2 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡
1.45 𝑔 𝑃4 + 4.96 𝑔 𝐶𝑙2 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟏𝒈 𝑷𝑪𝒍𝟑 %𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = ∗ 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡

If 4.5 mole O2 gets produced and 4.8 mole

O2 is the theoretical amount, what is the
percent yield?

4.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 O2
%𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = ∗ 100 = 93.75%
4.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 O2
100 – 93.75 = 6.25% error
Left over Percent by Volume
- Use the limiting reactant to identify 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ∗ 100
the value of excess reactant 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Total – Reacts = Left over
2 – 1.6 = 0.4 left over 1. What is the volume percent of a solution
8 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2 𝑳𝑹 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶3 𝐻8 𝑬𝑹 made from 60 mL of water with 2.5 mL of
∗ = 1.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶3 𝐻8 pure acetic acid?
1 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
2.5 𝑚𝐿
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = ∗ 100 = 4.0%
62.5 𝑚𝐿
Units of Concentration
Percent Composition % 2. How much ethanol is inside a 750-mL
Molar mass = Molecular mass wine bottle that contains 12% of alcohol?

𝑉
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 750 (12 = ∗ 100)
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∗ 100 750 𝑚𝐿
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 9000 100
( =𝑉∗ )
100 100
1. What is the percent composition of V = 90%
Hydrogen in H2O?
H: 2(1) = 2
O: 16
= 18 g/mol
2 𝑔 𝐻2
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∗ 100% = 11.11%
18 𝑔 𝐻2𝑂

2. Calculate the percent by mass of Iron in

FeCl3?
Fe: 55.85
Cl: 3(35.46)
= 162.23 g/mol
55.85 𝑔 𝐹𝑒
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∗ 100% = 34.4%
162.23 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3

3. Determine the percent by mass of Carbon

in 𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂4
C: 6(12) = 72
H:10
O: 4(16) = 64
= 146 g/mol
72 𝑔 𝐶
% 𝑏𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = ∗ 100% = 49.3%
146 𝑔 𝐶6 𝐻10 𝑂4
 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Molarity, M 42.5 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = = 0.717 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 58.45 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0.717 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 1.912 𝑀
0.375 𝐿
• Solute and solvent combined
4. How many moles of NaCl are in 3.5 L of a
Molality, m 1.5 M solution of NaCl?

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 1.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 1.5 𝑀 =
𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 1𝐿
1.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
• Solvent by itself 3.5 𝐿 = = 5.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
• Stays constant over wide range of 1𝐿
temperature and pressure
5. If you have 4.1 moles of glucose and want
to make 0.25 M solution with it, what will
Experiment
be the final volume of the solution

Sample 0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

1. Calculate the molarity of a solution 0.25 𝑀 =
1𝐿
prepared by dissolving 9.8 moles of solid 1𝐿
NaOH in enough water to make 3.62L of 4.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = 16 𝐿
0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
solution
9.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 2.7 𝑀
3.62 𝐿 6. If a student has 35.0 g of FeCl3 and needs
- There are 2.7 moles of NaOH in 1 liter of to make a 1.5 molar solution with it, what
solution will the volume of the solution be?
Fe: 55.85
2. You dissolve 152.5g of CuCl2 in water to Cl: 3(35.46)
make a solution with a final volume of = 162.23 g/mol
2.25L. what is its molarity
Cu: 63.55 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Cl: 2(35.46) 35.0 𝑔 𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙3 = = 0.216 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
162.23 𝑔
= 134.47 g/mol 1.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1.5 𝑀 =
1𝐿
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 1𝐿
152.5 𝑔 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2 = = 1.134 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 0.216 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = 0.14 𝐿
134.47 𝑔 1.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1.134 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 = = 0.504 𝑀 1000 𝑚𝐿
2.25 𝐿 0.14 𝐿 = 1𝐿
= 140 mL

3. A solution has a volume of 375 mL and 7. How many grams of NaOH do you have to
contains 42.5g of NaCl. What is its dissolve to make 725 mL of a 2.5 M
molarity? solution?
Na: 22.99 Na: 22.99
Cl: 35.46 O: 16.00
= 58.45 g/mol H: 1.00
= 39.99 g/mol
1𝐿
375𝑚𝐿 = = 0.375 𝐿
1000 𝑚𝐿
 2.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
2.5 𝑀 =
1𝐿
1𝐿
725 𝑚𝐿 = = 0.725 𝐿
1000 𝑚𝐿
2.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
0.725 𝐿 = = 1.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
1𝐿

39.99 𝑔
1.8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = = 72 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Normality 2. What is the normality of a solution that
contain 1.5 g of Ca(OH)2 dissolved in 850
𝑁 =𝑀∗𝑛 mL?
Where n is the number of protons performing unit Ca: 40.08
in the case of acids (H) or hydroxide ion in the O: 2(16.00)
case of bases (OH) H: 2
= 74.08 g/mol
1. 0.15 M HCl → 0.15(1) = 0.15 N
2. 1.4 M H2SO4 → 1.4(2) = 2.8 N 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
3. 2 M NaOH → 2(1) = 2 N 1.5 𝑔 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2 = = 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
74.08 𝑔
4. 0.4 Ba(OH)2 → 0.4(2) = 0.8 N 1𝐿
850 𝑚𝐿 = = 0.85 𝐿
1000 𝑚𝐿
0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀 = = 0.0238 𝑀
0.85 𝐿
1. What is the normality of a solution that 𝑁 = 0.0238 ∗ 2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝑵
contains 50g of H2SO4 dissolved in 15L?
H: 2(1.00) 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Ca(OH)2
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻− = = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙
S:32.08 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂𝐻 −
74.08 𝑔
O: 4(16.00) 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙− = = 37.04 𝑔
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 98. 08 g/mol

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
1ew = 37.04 g
50 𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 = = 0.5098 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
98.08 𝑔
1 𝑒𝑤 1
0.5098 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 1.5 𝑔 Ca(OH)2 = ∗ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟕𝟔 𝑵
𝑀 = = 0.033 𝑀 37.04 𝑔 0.85 𝐿
15 𝐿
𝑁 = 0.033 ∗ 2 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝑵

Other method

# 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 (𝑒𝑤)

𝑁 =
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟
1 ew = mass that yields 1 mol H+ or OH-

1 mol H+/OH- → grams = #ew

Grams → N = ew/L

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻+ = = 0.5 mol H2SO4
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 +
98.08 𝑔
0. 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 ∗ 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 49. 04 g

1 ew = 49.04 g

1 𝑒𝑤 1
50 𝑔 𝐻2𝑆𝑂4+ = ∗ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝑵
49.09 𝑔 15 𝐿
Parts per Million (PPM) Parts per Billion (PPB)
Counts the number of units of one
substance per one million units of another. 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
It can measure concentration a small 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = ∗ 109
𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
amount makes a big difference

𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = ∗ 106 The concentration of Na3PO4 is 400 ppb in
𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
a 500 mL solution with a density of 1.02
g/mL. How many micrograms of Na3PO4 is
1. 4mg of NaCl is dissolved in 8 kg of
present in the solution?
solution. What is the concentration
of NaCl in ppm?
500 𝑚𝐿 1.02 𝑔
∗ = 510 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
4 𝑚𝑔 1𝑔 1 1 𝑚𝐿
400 𝑔 𝑁𝑎3𝑃𝑂4
∗ = 0.004 𝑔 510 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 ∗ 1 𝑥 109𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 =0.0000204
1 1000 𝑚𝑔
8 𝑘𝑔 1000 𝑔 1 𝜇𝑔
∗ = 8000 𝑔 0.0000204 ∗ = 2.04 𝜇𝑔
1 1 𝑘𝑔 1 𝑥 10−6

0.004 𝑔 *1 𝜇𝑔 = 1 𝑥 10−6
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = ∗ 106 = 5 𝑝𝑝𝑚
8000 𝑔

2. The concentration of KI in 150 ppm

in a solution with a mass of 7500g.
How many grams of KI is present in
the solution?

150 𝑔 𝐾𝐼
150 𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
1 𝑥 106 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
7500 𝑔 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 150 𝑔 𝐾𝐼
∗ = 1.125 𝑔 𝐾𝐼
1 1 𝑥 106 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛