01-Physical Setting Paper-2 NEW

Geography by Ajay Raj Singh
Topic’s of Paper –
II
Chapter
1. Physical setting
2. Resources
3. Agriculture
4. Industry
5. Trade, transport and Communication
6. Political aspects
7. Regional development and planning
8. Settlement
9. Cultural setting
10. Contemporary issues.
Geographia, An Institute for excellence in Civil Services
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Topic - I
Physical Setting
Chapter
1. Space relationship of India with neighboring
countries.
2. Structure and Relief.
3. Drainage system and watersheds.
4. Physiographic regions.
5. Mechanism of Indian monsoon and rainfall pattern.
6. Tropical cyclones and western disturbances.
7. Floods and Droughts.
8. Climatic regions.
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9. Natural Vegetation.
10. Soil types and their distributions.
Topic-1
Physiographic Regions
On the basis of the stratigraphic and tectonic history, India maybe divided into four major
physiographic regions, namely-
1. The Northern mountains
2. The Great Plains
3. The Peninsular uplands and
4. The Indian coasts and Islands.
1. The Northern mountains:
A. Origin and evolution of Himalayas

B. Structure of Himalayas
C. Relief of Himalayas
A. Origin, Structure & Relief of Himalayas:

Himalayas are one of the most complex mountain systems of the world and represents great
variety of rock systems ranging from Archaean to Aryan.
In the light of the complex nature of the Himalayas, Scholars have put forward various
views regarding its origin. These views may be grouped under following two categories-
1. Geo-synclinal evolution,
2. Plate tectonics.
1. Geosynclinal evolution:
The Geo-synclinal origin of Himalayas has been widely accepted by the Scholars. The
exponents of this theory include Suess, Argand, Kober etc.
Exponents of this view largely base their deduction on the sedimentary nature of the
Himalayan rocks and the evidences of marine fossils.
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According to these scholars the disintegration of Pangea led to the formation of the
Tethys Sea between the two landmasses of Angaraland (North) and Gondwanaland (South).
This sea (the Tethys Sea) occupied the region of Himalayas during the Mesozoic Era
(about 180 million years ago). The eroded sediments from the two landmasses were
deposited in the Tethys Sea. The sediment assumed great thickness as the bed of the sea
subsided under their pressure. During Cretaceous period the beds of the sea started rising
due to convergent movement of the adjoining landmasses, which led to the folding of the
sediments into three successive ranges of the Himalayas.
The first upheaval led to the formation of the Greater Himalayas during the Eocene
period. The second upheaval during the Miocene period folded the Lesser Himalayas. The
third upheaval starting in Pliocene period gave birth to the Shiwalik range.
2. Plate tectonics and the origin of Himalayas:

Plate tectonic theory offers plausible explanations of the intriguing anomalies, high
Seismicity and instability of the Himalayas.
According to this theory the Fold Mountains like the Himalayas are formed at the
converging boundary of the plates. When two convergent plates collide, the denser plate
subducts under the lighter plate. The resultant lateral compression squeezes and folds the
sediments deposited on the margins of the plate into mountain ranges.
See figure-1.
As per Plate tectonictheory the rise of the Himalayas is viewed as the outcome of
collision between the Indian plate with the Eurasian plate. According to this theory about 70
million years ago there was an extensive Geosyncline in the place of the Himalayas called
the Tethys Sea. This sea was bordered by the Asiatic plate in the north and the Indian plate
in the south.
The Tethys Sea began to contract due to the converging movement of the two plates.
About 60-30 million years ago the Indian plate came very close to the Asian plate and
started subducting under the later; this caused lateral compression due to which the
sediments of the Tethys were squeezed and folded into three parallel ranges of the
Himalayas.
Structure of Himalayas:
Structurallythe Himalayas may be regarded as intermediate between the Alpine and
Jura type of Fold Mountain.
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In the western Himalayas i.e. in Spiti region the structure is simple Jura type; but the
Shimla, Garhwal and Kumaun Himalayas have more complex and multiple nappe structure
characterised by several thrust that is Alpine type.
Another special structural feature of the Himalayas is the existence of a number of

Syntaxis or “elbow bends” in the west as well as east.
On the basis of intensity of folds and the age of formation, four parallel structure zones
are recognized.
Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ)

1. Tethys or Tibetan Himalayas
2. Inner or great Himalayas
Main Central Thrust (MCT)

3. Middle or Lesser Himalayas
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)

4. Outer or Siwalik Himalayas
Himalayan front fault (H F F)
Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone makes the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian
plate.
1. Tethys or Tibetan Himalayas:
It is made up of highly fossiliferous sedimentary rocks ranging in age from earliest
Paleozoic to tertiary. This zone constitutes the core of the Himalayas axis and gradually
gives way to inner Himalayas toward south without any distinctive break.
2. Inner Himalayas:
It has core of Archaean rocks (i.e. granite, gneiss, schists) flanked by metamorphic
sedimentary rocks. It is regarded as the root zone of the nappes of lesser Himalayas and has
simple structure. At places due to heavy thrust older rocks are found overlying the newer
rocks.
MCT separates the inner Himalayas and the lesser Himalayas.
3. Middle or Lesser Himalayas:

It forms a complicated and often strongly folded and faulted belt. All through its extent it is
marked by thrust sheet and nappe.
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This zone is composed mainly of unfossiliferous Precambrian, Paleozoic and
Mesozoic formations.
The sequence of rocks is the oldest Precambrian lying at the top, succeeded by
Paleozoic sediments. The main rocks are slate, limestone and quartzite.
Along the southern margins of this zone lies the autochthonous belt of highly compressed
rocks, which in contrast to the nappe zone have not undergone horizontal movement.
Main boundary fault extends all the way from Assam to Punjab spreading sub Himalayas
from the middle Himalayas. It is in fact a reverse fault of great dimension.
4. Outer or Sub Himalayas:

It is made up almost exclusively of tertiary formations which are folded into a series of
simple anticlines and synclines. The zone largely consists of fossiliferous sedimentary rocks
like sandstones, sand rocks, and clay and lime stones.
As the Indian plate continues to move northward the belt of crustal deformation has shifted
southward. Now the Himalayan front fault demarcates the Shiwaliks from indo-gangetic
plains.
See figure-2.
Relief of Himalayas (General characteristics):

TheHimalayas exhibithighly rugged topography and high relief. Himalayas exhibit
practically all those landforms which develop when strata are intensely folded i.e. anticlinal
ridge, synclinal valleys, over folds, recumbent folds and even nappes.
Intermontane plateaus and large sized basins are conspicuously absent. The valley of
Kashmir is the only large level strip of land which is perhaps synclinal valley in which
Jhelum has deposited its sediment to form the level stretch of land.
Inversion of relief is yet another notable feature of Himalaya’s i.e. anticlines forming
valleys and synclines forming ridges are the rule rather than exception in the Himalayas.
The Himalayas consist of a series of several more or less parallel or converging ridges.
The individual ranges have a steep slope towards south but they present much gentler slope
towards north. The southern boundary of Himalayas is defined by the Shiwalik foothill
(300mt contour), the northern boundary is however obscure.
If the Davisian cyclic concept of landscape evolution were accepted, one would place
the Himalayas as a whole in late youth or early mature stage.
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The Himalayas consists of three parallel ranges from south to north i.e. the Shiwalik,
the Middle Himalayas, the Great Himalayas and trans-Himalayan region.
A. The Shiwalik Range:

This is the southernmost and youngest mountain range of the Himalayas, having average
elevation between 600 to 1500mt. With its steep southern slope it assumes Hogback
appearance.
This range runs almost parallel to the middle Himalayas and is broader in the west but
narrows down towards east.
It is not a continuous range, rivers descending from the northern ranges of Himalayas,
have carved out wide and steep sided valleys. The Gorges of the Tista and the Raidak have
jointly formed a 90 km gap in the Shiwalik range. Towards the north of Shiwalik lie flat
floored valleys called “Doons” in the west and “Duars” in the east. These are intensively
cultivated and densely populated. The Shiwalik range is known by various local names i.e.
Jammu hills (in J&K), Dhang and Dundwa range in western Nepal, Churia hills in eastern
Nepal, the Dafla, Miri, Abor, Mishmi hills (in Arunachal Pradesh).
See figure-3.
B. The Middle Himalayas:

This range has an average elevation of 3500-5000mt and runs parallel to Great Himalayas.
With its steep, bare southern slope and more gentle, forest covered northern slopes give
them typical Hogback look.
The important ranges of middle Himalayas include Pirpanjal range, Dhouladhar range,
Mussoorie range, Nagtiba range, and the Mahabharat range. The Pirpanjal in Kashmir is the
longest and most important range. The important passes of Pirpanjal range are Pipanjal pass,
Budil pass, Banihal pass etc. Hill stations like Shimla, Mussoorie, Nainital, Raniket,
Almora, Darjeeling etc. are situated on middle Himalayas. Famous valleys like Kashmir
Valley, Kangra valley are also lies on its flanks.
C. The Great Himalayas:

This is the most continuous, loftiest and northernmost range of the Himalayas. The range
houses most of the snow peaks of the Himalayas. The average height of this range is 6100
mt. This mountain range boasts tallest peaks of the world, where many peaks exceed
8000mt. Mt. Everest; the highest peak of the world also lies in this range. This range also
has steep southern slope and gentle northern slope.
The mountain are convex to the south, terminates abruptly in the Nanga Parbat in the
north-west and in Namcha barwa in north-east. The important passes are Burzil pass and
Zojila pass (in J&K), Thagala, Niti and Lipulekh passes (in Uttarakhand), Nathula and
Jelepla pass (in Sikkim) and Bara-la-cha-la, Shipki-la passes (in Himachal Pradesh).
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Mountain ranges north of the Great Himalayas are known as Transhimalayas. From
south to north they include Zaskar range, Ladakh range, Karakoram Range etc.
Significance:
The mighty Himalayas have significant influence on climate and life of people of the
subcontinent. They help in the genesis of summer and winter monsoon, their orientation
guide the summer monsoon winds to cause rainfall along the Gangetic plain. They protect
the subcontinent from the icy cold wind of Siberia. Their Glaciers are source of perennial
rivers of northern India which are the life support system of northern plains.
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Topic-2
Origin & Geomorphology of Great Plains
The Great plain of north India, an aggradational plain formed by the depositional work
of rivers, is the largest alluvial tract of the world extending for a length of 3200 km from the
mouth of Ganga to the mouth of Indus.
It is almost universally accepted that this vast plain is the result of filling up of a deep
depression lying between the Peninsular and the Himalayan region, by the rivers coming
from these two landmasses. But divergent views have been expressed regarding the origin of
this great depression.
1. Alluviation of the foredeep: Edward Suess

The eminent Australian Geologist Edward Suess suggested that a “foredeep” was
formed in front of the high crust-waves of the Himalayas as they were checked in their
southward advance by the inflexible solid landmass of the Peninsula. This foredeep was like
a large syncline.
According to Suess, the bed of this foredeep had gentle slope towards north and the
peninsular side depicted steep gradient.
This bed rests on the basement of hard peninsular rocks through which the region is
connected to the Himalayas and the peninsular block. According to Suess, it was the
alluviation of this foredeep by the rivers that led to the formation of the Great Plains.
2. Infilling of the rift valley:S Burrard

According to Sir S. Burrard the Indo-gangetic alluvium conceals a rift valley, formed
during the time of formation of the Himalayas, due to the sinking of a portion of land
between two parallel faults (one along the Shiwalik and another along the northern boundary
of the peninsula). According to Sir S. Burrard the great plains are the outcome of the
infilling of this rift valley by the rivers.
He further proposed that the rifting was a primary event that caused the compression
of the Himalayas to the north.
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3. Recession of the Sea:Blanford
According to Blanford during Eocene period there was one sea extending from Assam
valley to the Irrawady River in the east and another Iran and Balochistan to Ladakh (Indus
valley) in the west. During the last part of the Eocene period (later period) arms of the
western sea extended up to the Punjab.
Due to rise of Himalayas during Miocene period these seas started receding due to
gradual deposits of sediments from the rejuvenated Himalayan Rivers. After prolonged
sedimentation these gulfs (gulf of Sind in the west and eastern gulf up to Shilong plateau)
were filled up yielding place to the Great Plains.
Recent View
According to the recent views sediment deposited at the bed of the Tethys Sea was
folded and warped due to northward drift of the peninsula. Consequently the Himalayas and
a trough to the south were formed.
The origin of the depression or trough, lying at the foot of the mountain is undoubtly
intimately connected with the later. The Great Plains represents the infilling of the foredeep
warped down between the advancing peninsular block and the Himalayas.
Geomorphology of the Plain:

The great plain of the north India is generally treated as a monotonous, flat and
featureless plain. This view emanates from the fact that these plains don’t possess
contrasting relief features comparable in dimension to those of Himalayas and peninsular
India. But they have their own geomorphic varieties although smaller in dimension.
The Bhabar is the narrow belt of 8-16 km wide, extending in east-west direction along
the foot of the Shiwaliks with a remarkable continuity from the Indus to Tista.
It is a depositional plain, consisting of gravel and unsorted sediments, deposited by the

rivers descending from Himalayas, along the foothill in the form of alluvial fans. These fans
have merged together to build up the Bhabar belt which forms the northern boundary of the
great plain.
The porosity of the pebble studded rockbeds is so high that most of the streams sink
and flow underground. So the area is marked by the dry river courses except in the rainy
seasons.
The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in east and extensive in western part. This
area is not suitable for agriculture and only big trees with large roots thrive in this belt.
The Terai is a 15-30 km wide marshy tract to the south of Bhabar running parallel to
it. It is marked by the re-emergence of the underground streams of the Bhabar belt. Due to
gentle slope and defective drainage water spreads over the surface converting the area into
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marshy lands of excessive dampness covered with thick forests, giving shelter to a variety of
wild life.
The Terai is more marked in the eastern part than the west due to higher amount of
rainfall.
The Bangar represents the uplands (alluvial terrace) that lie above the flood limit of
the plains. It is composed of old alluvium of the middle Pleistocene age. It is often
impregnated with calcareous concretion known as Kankar.
Remnants of the Bangar are eroded by every change in the direction of river channels
and are being leveled down by their meandering tendencies.
The Khadar is the younger alluvium of the flood plains. It forms the flood plains
along the river banks where new layer of alluvium is deposited by the river flood almost
every year. These deposits are normally confined to the vicinity of the present river channel.
The Khadar imperceptibly merges into the deltaic accumulations of pre-historic times and
should be assigned upper Pleistocene to recent age.
Bhurs denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the bank of the Ganga River
especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. It is formed due to accumulation of wind-
blown sands during the hot dry months of the year.
A Deltaic plain is an extension of the Khadar plain. It covers about 1.86 lakh square
km of area in the lower reaches of the Ganga River in West Bengal. It mainly consists of old
mud, new mud and marsh. Here upland areas are called “Chars”, while marshy lands called
“Bils”. The Ganga delta is an active delta which is extending toward the sea.
Regional divisions of the Great Plains:

Although the great plains of the north India is treated as a geographical unit with low
elevation and gentle slope, this vast area exhibits distinctive fluvial patterns, direction of
flow and geomorphology in different parts allowing it to be divided into four major regions-
See figure-4.
1. The Rajasthan Plain (The Thar Desert):

The desert constitutes the western extremity of the northern plain. The vast desert is an
undulating plain which descends towards Indo-Pak border as well as towards Indus valley
and the Ran of Kutch.
The eastern part of the marusthali is rocky while its western part is covered by shifting
sand dunes, locally called “dharian”.
North of the Luni basin, there is a large area of inland drainage having several saline
lakes i.e. Sambhar, Didwana, Kuchaman etc.
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Geologicaly, it is part of peninsular India, and it is only at the surface that it looks like
aggradational plain.
See figure-5.
2. The Punjab-Harayana Plain:

The Great Indian Desert imperceptibly gives way to the fertile plain of the Punjab and
Haryana towards the east and north east.
The eastern boundary of the plain is demarcated by the Yamuna River and northern by
the Shiwalik foothills. The northern part of this plain (adjoining Shiwalik hills) has been
intensively eroded by numerous streams which has led to enormous gullying.
The part of plain formed as a result of alluvial deposits by 5 rivers is called Punjab
plain. It is primarily made up of “Doabs”- the land between two rivers, the area between the
Ghaggar and the Yamuna is termed as Haryana plain, which acts as water divide between
the Yamuna and the Sutluj rivers.
See figure-6.
3. The Ganga Plain:

This plain is further divided into 3 following parts-
a. Upper Ganga Plain
b. Middle Ganga Plain
c. Lower Ganga Plain
a. Upper Ganga Plain:

This plain slopes from NW to SE. Maximum height is Saharanpur (276 m) which goes on
decreasing up to Sagar (3 m). This plain is drained by Ganga and its tributaries like the
Yamuna, The Ramganga, the Sarda, The Gomti, the Ghagra etc.
The monotony of this flat plain is broken by the Terai-Bhabar submontane belt, the
ravine landscape in Chambal-Yamuna tract, by the river bluffs, river meanders, oxbow
lakes, Bhurs etc.
The western part of this plain consist of comparatively higher Ganga-Yamuna doab,
east of this are low lying Rohilkhand plain which merges into the Avadh plain further east.
b. Middle Ganga Plain:

This plain occupies eastern UP land Bihar. As such it is a transitional area par
excellence, drained by Ghagra, the Gandak and the Kosi rivers. As a result of sluggish flow
of these rivers, the area is marked by levees, bluffs, oxbow lakes, marshes etc.
The major units are Ganga-Ghagra doab, Ghagra-Gandak doab and Gandak-Kosi doab
(Mithila plain).
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c.Lower Ganga Plain:
This plain includes almost whole of West Bengal. The northern part of this plain has
been formed by the sediments deposited by the Tista, Jaldhaka and Torsa rivers. The area is
marked by the Duars (Darjeeling Tarai) and the Barind plain.
The delta formation accounts for about 2/3 of this plain; this is the largest delta of the
world. The Ganga River divides itself into several channels in the delta area. The slope of
land area is mere 2cm/km. The entire land up to Kolkata would submerge if sea level rises
by 7m. Large part of the coastal delta is carved by tidal forest called Sunderbans.
See figure-7.
4. The Brahmaputra Plain:

The plain is also known as Assam plain. Though treated as the eastern continuation of
the great plains of India, it is well demarcated physical unit girdled by eastern Himalayas of
Arunachal Pradesh in north, Patkai and Naga Hills in east and Garo-Khasi-Jayantia, Mikir
hills in south. The area is well demarcated by 150m contour, beyond which the surrounding
hill terrain dominates the scene. The northern margin has steep slope from foothills of
Arunachal Pradesh but the southern margin is marked by the gradual fall from hill ranges.
Significance of the plain:

With its fertile alluvial soil, flat surface, slow moving perennial rivers and favorable
climate, the great plain of north India is of great significance. It is the home of about half of
the Indian population, although it accounts for less than ¼ of the total area of the country.
The plain supports some of the highest population densities. The extensive use of irrigation
has made some parts of this plain, especially Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar
Pradesh, the granary of India. The development of trade and commerce in this plain is the
natural sequel of industrialization and urbanization. This vast plain is heart throb of India
and constitutes its very soul.
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Topic-3
Origin Structure & Relief of Peninsular India
Origin, structure and relief of peninsular India

Structurally, the peninsular India is geological museum of various groups of rocks, many of
which are juxtaposed, beginning with the Archaean group to recent sediments of the Aryan
group.
The Archaean group (4000my-2300my ago):

The Archaean group of rocks consists of two systems namely-
1. The Archaean System
2. The Dharwar System
1. The Archaean System (4000my ago):

These are the most ancient rocks, first to be formed at the time of cooling and
solidification of upper crust. These rocks form the foundation of peninsular India. They
often underlie the strata formed subsequently and are generally known as
fundamental/Basement complex.
These rocks are azoic, thoroughly crystalline, extremely contorted, faulted and have
foliated structure. The Archaean rocks occupy central and southern part of peninsula. To the
north east of peninsular they are found in Meghalaya, Chhota Nagpur plateau, Orissa,
Chhattisgarh and MP. To the NW they are found along the Aravalis.
The Archaean rocks are repositories of metaliferrous ores non-metallic minerals, gem
stones and building materials.
For distribution of Archaean rocks, see figure-8.

2. The Dharwar System (3100my- 2300 my ago):
These rocks are formed from the sediments derived from the denudation of pristine
Archaean rocks. These rocks represent the most ancient metamorphosed sedimentary rock
system of India.
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The Dharwar rocks are all azoic, the structure of those rocks shows no layering and
these are mostly found in tabular form. The Dharwar System is very well developed in the
Dharwar-Bellary-Mysore belt of Karnataka. It also occurs in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and
Orissa and in Aravalis between Jaipur and Palanpur.
The Dharwar rocks are economically most important rocks, because they possess
metallic minerals like high grade iron ore, manganese, copper, gold, mica etc.
For distribution of Dharwar rocks, see figure-9.

3. The Purana group (1400my- 600 my ago):
The Proterozoic rocks in India are known as the Purana group of rocks and it includes-
A. Cuddapah rock system
B. Vindhayan rock system
The Purana group is separated from the underlying Archaean group by an
unconformity. The Purana group of rocks largely consists of sediments derived from the
denudation of Dharwar landscape.
A. Cuddapah rock system:

After a long gap of time the rock system next to Dharwar began to be deposited. A
great thickness of unfossiliferous sediments derived from Dharwar landscape was deposited
in great synclinal basins. The formation is known as Cuddapah system.
The Cuddapah rocks include shale, slate, quartzite and limestone. These rocks have
been greatly metamorphosed and are azoic. These rocks are typically found in Cuddapa and
Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh, southern Chhattisgarh, Singhbhum district of Jharkhand
and Keonjhar and Kalahandi (Orissa) and along Aravalis. These rocks are rich in ores of
iron, manganese, copper, cobalt, nickel and large deposits of building purpose quartzite and
cement grade limestone.
For distribution of Cuddapah rocks, see figure-10.
B. Vindhayan rock system:

Thissystem comprise of ancient sedimentary rocks superimposed on the Archaean base.
Large area of this belt is covered by Deccan trap. The Vindhayan system is found continue
to north under the gangetic alluvium and are perhaps buckled down underneath the
Himalayas.
The Vindhayan system has been divided into the lower Vindhayan and upper
Vindhayan, which are separated by unconformity. The lower Vindhayan is marine in origin,
calcareous in nature and shows tectonic deformation.
The upper Vindhayan is fluviatile in origin and gently lie in undisturbed horizontal
strata. The upper Vindhayan beds enclose two diamond bearing horizons from which Panna
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and Golconda diamonds have been mined. Except a few traces of animal and vegetable life,
this group is devoid of any recognizable fossils.
The Vindhayan system stretches from Sasaram and Rohtak (Bihar) to Chitturgarh in
Rajasthan. The Vindhayan system on the whole is devoid of metaliferrous minerals but
provides large quantities of excellent and durable free stones, flagstones, ornamental stones,
limestone’s etc.
For distribution of Vindhayan rocks, see figure-11.

4. The Dravidian group:
The Dravidian era marks the beginning of life on the earth surface. It is supposed to
begin with the Cambrian period and lasted up to middle Carboniferous. The formation of
this era are almost absent in the peninsular region.
5. The Aryan group:
It comprises the rock formation’s ranging from the Upper Carboniferous to recent and
are fairly preserved in peninsula India.
5. The Gondwana System:
It is regarded as the last massive formation of the stratified sedimentary rocks in the
trough basin of the peninsula.
The Gondwana consist of sandstones with some shales and clay. They are of
continental origin, fluviatile and lacustrine deposits laid down in geo-synclinal trough on
ancient plateau surface. The burial of plants and vegetation along with sediments gave birth
to coal seams.
The main areas of Gondwana rocks in peninsula are along the Damodar valley,
Mahanadi valley and along Godavari valley.
Economically Gondwana rocks are the most important in India, they contain about
98% of coal reserves.
For distribution of Gondwana rocks, see figure-12.

6. The Deccan trap:
Towards the end of Cretaceous till the Eocene stupendous volcanic outburst
overwhelmed vast area of peninsular India and fully covered the preexisting topography.
This lava formed plateau with step like slope are called Deccan trap and the lava
interbedded with sedimentary beds formed inter trappen beds.
Economically basalt is the main rock obtained from here and is used for building
purposes. Also weathering of these rocks has given birth to black cotton soil called regur.
The denudation process has reduced the Deccan trap to half of its original size. The
present Deccan trap covers about 5 lakh square km mainly in parts of Kutch, Saurastra,
Maharastra, Malwa plateau and northern Karnataka.
For distribution of Deccan trap, see figure-13.

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7. Pleistocene and recent:
The coastal deposition by the rivers mainly took place in Pleistocene and recent times i.e.
formation of deltas and coastal plains.
The study of geologic structure will go a long way in optimizing the utilization of vast
mineral wealth buried beneath the surface. Moreover it will help in land use planning,
increasing potential for irrigation and understanding disasters like earthquake, volcanoes,
landslide etc.
Relief of India peninsula

Arrays of geomorphic processes have molded the landscape, over space and time,
there by generating amazing assemblage of landforms over the peninsular India.
Peninsula is like an inverted triangle with its two rigid projections formed by Aravali
and Shilong plateau. General relief can be deciphered from flow of rivers.
See figure-14 and 15.
Coastal Plains
Indian coasts that surround the peninsula are longitudinal pacific type, the west coastal
plains are narrow, as they are sandwich between Western Ghats on one side and sea on the
other. Short and swift rivers descending from precipitous Sahyadri’s have eroded and
dissected these plains. On the other side east coastal plains are wider and gentle there by
facilitating formation of major river deltas.
See figure-16.
The sedimentary rocks of these plains are said to contain large deposits of mineral oil.
The sands of Kerala coast contain large quantity of Monazite (as source of Thorium). Low
lying areas of Gujarat are famous for producing salt.
Aravalis
Aravalis represents one of the oldest fold mountains is of the earth. It acts as watershed
between the Indus and the Ganga River system. Presently it is much denuded and
discontinuous. Its southern part is broader and higher and act as/an orographic barrier to the
monsoon winds, thereby making it wetter and forested, towards NE they fan-out in to
parallel series of ridges, breaking monetary of Haryana Plains.
See figure-17.
Vindhyan Range:
These are infact erosional escarpment of Malwa plateau, flanking the northern edge of
Narmada-Son trough. The Vindhayan continue eastward as the Bhanrer range and Kaimur
range (along river Son). This range acts as water divides between the northern and southern
river system.
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See figure-18.
Malwa Plateau:
It is made up of lava flows. It has rolling surfaces and flat topped hills, dissected by
rivers such as Chambal, Betwa, Parbati etc. It is rugged, highly dissected, deforested and
semi-arid region of the country and joins northern plains imperfectly. It slopes toward north.
See figure-19.
Satpura Range:
It is covered with thick layers of basalt and has steep sided edges. It runs between
Narmada and Tapi-Purna rivers having Rajpipla hills as its western extremity and
Amarkantak plateau its easternmost part and in between is known as Mahadeo hills.
Dhupgarh near Pachmarhi is the highest point of Satpura range.(on Mahadeo hills)
See figure-20.
Western Ghats:
They rise abruptly from coastal plains and run from lower Tapi valley to the south as a
continuous range till they join Eastern Ghats, in the Nilgiri hills, the northern section is
made up of horizontal sheets of lava which on erosional have produced the typical trappen
landscape. In the middle portion near Goa smooth rounded hills of granite and gneisses
appear. The southern part is more rugged. The steep western slope of these Ghats is indented
due to deep erosion by swift flowing rivers. The western scrap of the ghat is considerably
dissected by head ward erosion of west flowing rivers.
See figure-21.
Eastern Ghats:
The hills constituting the Eastern Ghats have neither structural unity nor physiographic
continuity. True mountain character is exhibited only in its northern part that is between
Godavari and Mahanadi River. They almost disappear between the Godavari and Krishna
River, while the southern part (i.e. below Krishna River) is represented by detached hills.
All hills are highly dissected by east flowing rivers.
See figure-22.
Deccan lava plateau:
Outpouring of basaltic lava during Mesozoic era created Deccan lava plateau.
Presently it is dissected, relief where plateaus have been furrowed in to range and valley
country by rivers.
See figure-23(a) and 23(b).

Karnataka plateau:
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It represents shield character and is primarily made up of Archaean formations. It
shows sign of recent epeirogenic movements. Malnad and Maidan are its two major
subdivisions. Malnad has series of hills and mountains and is thickly forested. Maidan is a
rolling plain of low relief. This plateau rises towards west and south and its average
elevation is 600-900m.
See figure-24.
Telangana and Rayal Seema Plateau:
These plateaus consist of Archaean gneisses. The southern part is higher than its
northern part. Rain shadow effect has rendered its semiarid and devoid of forests. The entire
plateau is divided into two major physiographic regions i.e. the Ghats and the Peneplains.
Kathiawar peninsula:
The central part is a highland comprising of Mandhav hills, having radial drainage
pattern. Gir hills extending in east-west direction lie to the south and Girnar Hill’s in South
West where Gorakhnath is the highest peak of this region.
See figure-25.
Chhattisgarh plain:
The plain is a region of uniform relief of alluvial nature. The base is laid with nearly
with horizontal beds of limestones and shales. It is enclosed by hills or plateaus. Famously it
is known as “Rice bowl”.
See figure-26.
Chhota Nagpur Plateau:
This plateau is composed of Gondwana rocks with patches of Archaean granite and
gneiss and Deccan lava. This plateau virtually consists of series of plateaus standing at
different levels.
The Ranchi plateau in south, the Hazaribagh plateau in the north and Rajmahal hills in
the NE constitute its important physiographic sections.
The highest general elevation is in the mid-western portion known as Patlands
(western part of Ranchi plateau). From here land descends in all directions in a series of
steps, which are marked by water falls across the rivers. The plateau represents radial
drainage pattern (the rivers like Damodar, Subarnarekha, N.Koel, S.Koel etc. forms radial
drainage pattern). This is the richest mineral belt of India.
Shilong plateau:
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It is largely made up from Dharwarian rocks, separated from the main peninsula block
by Garo-Rajmahal gap. It is highest amongst the plateaus of peninsula. It is highly dissected
and forested. Mikir hills are its northern part.
An insight into the dynamism of the earth’s complex nature, forces mankind to rethink
and re design its way of life sothat this heritage is passed on to further generations, in its
pristine beauty.
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Topic-4
The Monsoon
In meteorology, the term Monsoon connotes the directional shifting of winds from one
season to the other. Infact monsoon circulation involves a change of 120 to 180 degree in
the direction of wind.
Origin of the monsoon:

The origin of monsoon is related to the thermal and dynamic factors, so that concepts
explaining the origin of monsoon may be grouped into two broad categories-
1. Thermal concepts
2. Dynamic concepts
1. Thermal concepts:
Halley propounded the thermal concepts of origin of Asiatic monsoon in 1686. He
considered monsoon to be the product of differential seasonal heating of continents and
Oceanic areas.
Winter Monsoon:
During winter, the Asiatic landmass cools rapidly to a higher degree than the
surrounding oceans resulting in the establishment of high pressure centre over it and low
pressure exists over the adjacent oceans. This temperature distribution establishes pressure
gradient directed from land to sea. This sets up an outflow of air from the continent
landmasses towards the adjacent oceans. These are called winter monsoon.
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Summer Monsoon:
The distributional pattern of temperature and pressure reverses during summer
seasons. Now the Asiatic landmass gets heated up thus establishing a low pressure centre
over it. This thermally induced low pressure is reinforced by the northward shifting of
ITCZ. The pressure over the adjacent oceans is high, thus a sea to land pressure gradient is
established.
The surface airflow is therefore from the highs over the oceans towards the lows over the
land. The warm and moist air moving from over the oceans towards the land is unstable and
full of moisture, which yields precipitation, when it is forced to ascend by any topographic
barrier. This is called summer monsoon.
1. Dynamic concepts:
Flohn rejected the thermal origin of the monsoon instead he propounded the concept of
dynamic origin of monsoon. According to this concept monsoon are originated due to
shifting of pressure and wind belts.
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is formed where the northeast and
southeast trade winds converges. Within this zone lies the Doldrum which is characterised
by equatorial westerlies. The northern and southern boundaries of ITCZ are called NITC
and SITC respectively.
At the time of summer solstice (June 21) when the Sun shines vertical by over the
tropic of cancer, NITC is extended up to 30 degree north latitude covering south and south-
east Asia and thus equatorial westerlies are established over these areas. These equatorial
westerlies become south-west or summer monsoon.
The NITC is associated with numerous atmospheric storms (cyclones) which yield
heavy rainfall during wet monsoon months.
Similarly, the north-east or winter monsoon doesn’t owe its origin to low pressure in
the southern hemisphere during winter solstice (southern summer). Infact north eastern
monsoons are north-east trade winds which are re-established over south and south-east
Asia during northern winter due to southward shifting of pressure and wind belt and NITC.
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Due to southward movement of the Sun at the time of winter solstice the NITC is
withdrawn from over south and south-east Asia and north-east trade winds occupy their
normal position. The north-east trade winds, thus becomes winter monsoon. Since they
came from over the land, and hence they are dry.
Recent views:
Recent views of monsoon origin are based on the findings of researches conducted
after 1950 using meteorological data from the upper atmosphere. These concepts mainly
rely on the role of the Jet streams, Tibetan plateau and ocean bodies in explaining the origin
of Indian monsoon.
A. Role of Jet streams:

Westerly Jet stream:
Jet streams are high altitude westerly winds blowing between middle latitudes with
high speed in a meandering course. This wind exerts considerable impact on surface weather
conditions.
See figure-27.
During winter season the upper air westerly Jet streams are bifurcated in two branches
due to obstruction caused by the Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau. The northern branch
blows from west to east in accurate shape to the north of the Tibetan Plateau, while the
southern branch follows a path which inscribe cyclonic (anticlockwise) arc along the
southern flank of the Himalayas.
A high pressure system is formed south of the Jet stream over Afghanistan and north-
west Pakistan from which air tends to subside over India leading to atmospheric stability
and dry conditions and causing the flow of northeast winter monsoon.
During summer (northern hemisphere) season the sun migrates towards north and
sun’s rays fall vertically over the tropic of cancer. As a result of the upper air westerly Jet
streams are also withdrawn from southern slopes of the Himalayas and shift northward.
By 6-10 June the southern branch of Jet stream disappears from the southern flank of
the Himalayas. The removal of the north of the Tibetan plateau leads to a reversal of a
curvature of flow of free air over Afghanistan and north western subcontinent. Here the
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trajectory of free air takes on a cyclonic curve (anticlockwise) leading to a dynamic
depression aloft where previously there was a high pressure system. As a result of this in
north-west of Indo-Pakistan there develops a dynamic depression overlying the thermal
depression already established at the surface and it appears that this event may well be the
trigger that sets off the “burst” of the monsoon.
B. Role of Tibetan plateau:

In 1973, the monsoon expedition (MONEX) was organized under the joint auspices of
the Soviet Union and India. On the basis of the data obtained, the Soviet meteorologist
concluded that Tibetan highland plays a crucial role in initiating the monsoon circulation
over the Indian subcontinent. In this connection Dr. Koteshwarm, the DG of Indian
observation, stated that the summertime heating of the plateau of Tibet was most important
factor in the causation and maintenance of monsoon circulation over India.
The Tibet plateau is 600km wide in the west, 1000km wide in the east. Its length is
about 2000km. The average height of the plateau is about 4000km.
The Tibet plateau effects the monsoon circulation both by way of mechanical barrier
and as a high level heat source.
Due to its height, it receives 2-3 degree centigrade more insolation than the
neighboring areas so the summer time heating of Tibet plateau makes it a heat source. As a
result of this a warm core anticyclone is formed over this plateau during the summer
monsoon period. The formation of this anticyclone takes place in the middle part of the
troposphere. On the southern part of this upper air anticyclone the direction of air flow is
from east to west. Infact these easterly winds blowing in the mid troposphere are known as
the tropical easterly Jet.
These tropical easterly Jets extended far to the south of Tibet and the air flow is
roughly along the Calcutta-Bangalore axis. These upper air easterlies descend in the
permanent high pressure area formed over the south Indian Ocean. This intensifies the
“High” already present there. It is from the high pressure cell that the onshore winds starts
blowing towards the thermally induced low pressure area developed in the north-western
part of the Indian subcontinent. After crossing the equator such winds become south-
westerly and are known as the south-west summer monsoon. Therefore higher the intensity
of the tropical easterly Jet, stronger would be the impact of south-west summer monsoon.
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See figure-27.
B. Monsoon and El-Nino:
El-Nino is a warm ocean current appearing along the Peru coast in December. It
replaces the Peru cold ocean current flowing over this region in normal years. Under normal
conditions the mixed layer over the eastern Pacific (Peru and Ecuador) is cool and shallow,
while over the western Pacific (Indonesia and eastern Australia), it is warm and deep. Such
conditions are helpful for strong SW monsoons. The appearance of El-Nino reverses the
condition i.e. there develops warm conditions over eastern Pacific and cold in western
Pacific. Whenever this happens, the amount of precipitation in the coastal areas of
S.America is unusually high while Indian monsoon weakens.
See figure-27.
Southern Oscillation (SO):
It is the name ascribed to the curious phenomenon of sea-saw pattern of
meteorological changes observed between the Pacific and Indian oceans. This great
discovery was made by Sir Gilbert Walker in 1820. He noticed that when the pressure was
high over equatorial south pacific, it was low pressure over the equatorial south Indian
Ocean and vice-versa.
Rainfall Pattern
The location and orientation of topographic barriers goes a long way in determining
the pattern of rainfall. Areas lying on the windward slope are in receipt of most of the
precipitation and those lying in the leeward side receive little rainfall.
Landforms which are transverse to the monsonic winds cause corpus precipitation i.e.
western Ghats, while those which lie parallel to those winds are not effective in causing
precipitation i.e. Aravalis. The actual rainfall pattern of India can be understood in the light
of the progress of the south-west monsoon. The south-west monsoon after striking the
Malabar Coast gets divided into two streams-
1. Arabian Sea branch

2. Bay of Bengal branch
See figure-28.
1. TheArabian Sea branch:
This branch of south-west monsoon is divided into 3 distinct streams on arriving in the
mainland of India.
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The first stream impinges on the western slope of western Ghats and gives extremely
heavy rainfall of over 250cm particularly between 10 degree north to 20 degree north
latitudes, where the impinges is perpendicular to the direction of the western Ghats. The
western slopes of the Western Ghats rise abruptly like a wall and force the moisture laden
south-west monsoon to ascend the slope thereby giving heavy rainfall in the west coastal
plain and still heavier on the western slopes of the Western Ghats.
But when these winds descend the slope after crossing the crest of the Ghats their
temperature rises and humidity decreases due to adiabatic compression. Therefore they
cause little rainfall in the area to the east of the Ghats i.e. leeward side.
Thus while Mumbai, which lies on the coast receives about 190cm of rainfall, while
Khandala lying near the crest of the Western Ghats gets 460cm of rainfall; but Pune lying on
the leeward side of the western Ghats receives only 50 cm of rainfall during monsoon
season. This speaks volumes of orographic control of the monsoon rainfall.
The second stream of Arabian Sea branch enters the Narmada and Tapi Valley and
cause heavy rainfall. The stream entering Narmada Valley causes heavy rainfall along the
precipitous slopes of Vindhyachal mts and the stream entering Tapi valley causes heavy
rainfall on the southern slopes of Satpura Mountains. The second stream is also responsible
for heavy rainfall in the Dhang district of Gujarat due to which this district is heavily forested.
The third stream of Arabian Sea move in North East direction causing rainfall in
Saurastra (Kathiawar Peninsula) and then strikes the southern end of Aravalli range because
the southern part of Aravali range is broader and higher so it acts as a barrier. But rest of the
Aravali lies parallel to this stream so there is little rainfall in Rajasthan.
2. Bay of Bengal Branch

The Bay of Bengal branch is divided into two distinct streams. The first stream crosses
the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and reaches Meghalaya. It is here that the orographic effect on
the monsoon wind is most pronounced.
Two small towns Cherapunji and Mawsynram located on the southern slope of Khasi
hills, at the northern end of a deep valley running from south to north receives highest
rainfall in the world. Here when the monsoon winds blow from the south, they are trapped
within the funnel shaped valley and strike Cherapunji and Mawsynram in a perpendicular
direction and give copious rain.
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The amount of rainfall decreases sharply on the leeward side of the Khasi hills.
Guwahati only 90km from Cherapunji gets only 161 cm of rainfall.
The second stream of the Bay of Bengal branch goes to the Himalayan foothills and
after reaching there, it is deflected to the west by the size and orientation of the Himalayas
and brings widespread rainfall to Indo-gangetic plain. The rainfall by this stream is
characterised by a steady decline as we move from east to west up the plain i.e. Kolkata gets
119cm, Patna 105cm, Allahabad 91cm, Delhi 51 cm and Bikaner only 24 cm of rainfall.
Apart from this the rainfall also decreases as we move away from the Himalayan foothills
towards south in Indo-gangetic plain.
The east coastal belt, particularly in Tamil Nadu remains relatively dry during the SW
monsoon period. This is because the Tamil Nadu coast lies in the rain shadow region of the
Arabian Sea current and parallel to the Bay of Bengal current.
Monsoon depression:
A major part of the monsoon rainfall is generated by depressions originated in the
Arabian Sea but more so in the Bay of Bengal. About 3-4 depressions are formed per month
from June to September. Almost all of them are sucked inward through the deltas of the
great rivers, the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery and cause
heavy rain in these areas. Majority of the cyclones move along the monsoon trough. The
cyclones formed in Arabian recurve north-eastward and effect Gujarat and Maharashtra
coast.
Most of the rainfall in central and northern parts of the country is caused of these
depressions. The frequency by these depressions and their track define the rainfall pattern to
a large extent.
Monsoon Breaks
During rainy season, particularly in July and August, there are certain periods when the
monsoon becomes weak. The clouding decreases and rainfall practically ceases over the
country outside the Himalayan belt. This is known as break in monsoon. These breaks most
likely occur during the 2nd week of August and their normal duration is a week but on some
occasions this duration could be longer. The breaks are believed to be brought by the “collapse
of the Tibetan high”. This results in the north wards shifting of the Monsoon trough. The axis
of the trough lies at the foot hills of the Himalayas during the break period. So there is
remarkable change in rainfall pattern over India i.e. the rain ceases abruptly over the plains of
N.India but heavy rainfall occur over the sub Himalayan region and the southern slopes of the
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Himalayas. This leads to high flooding of the rivers having their catchment areas in the
Himalayas. (This is known as “break” in Monsoon rains). Another feature of ‘break’ is the
westward passage of low pressure systems across the Indian peninsula. Parts of the peninsula
which lie in the rain shadow of the W.Ghats derive much of their Monsoon rainfall during
“break” situation.
On the other hand, when the axis of the Monsoon trough moves South (and lends to dip
into the Bay of Bengal), conditions become favorable for the formation of a low or depression.
So a southward position of the Monsoon trough is usually an indication of well distributed rain
over central and the Indo-gangetic Plains.
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Topic-5
Drainage System
The drainage system of India can be studied under two heads-
1. The Himalayan drainage (Extra peninsular drainage)
2. The peninsular drainage
Origin of Extra Peninsular River Systems
According to Pasco and Pilgrim the Tibetan plateau was drained to the west by mighty Tibetan
River (Tsangpo-Indus-Oxus combine) similarly another big river called Indo Braham (Pasco)
or the Siwalik (Pilgrim) traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalayas from Assam
to Punjab. This river was emptying its water into Sind gulf near the lower Punjab during the
Miocene period.
The former river was disrupted by the head ward erosion of its left hand tributaries, the
proto-Sind, the Proto-Sutlej, the Proto –Brahmaputra etc.
Later the Mighty Siwalik River was dismembered into three main systems (A) The Indus
and its tributaries in western part (B) The Ganga and its tributaries in central part (C) The
stretch of Brahmaputra is Assam and its tributaries in eastern part.

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The dismemberment is attributed to the Pleistocene upheavals in the western Himalayas
including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau which acted as water divide between the Indus and
the Ganga System. The down thrusting of the Malda Gap area between the Raj Mahal Hills and
the Meghalaya Plateau during the Mid-Pleistocene period attracted the Ganga and Brahmaputra
System to flow towards Bay of Bengal.
These developments brought about a reversal in the direction of flow i.e. the Ganga
taking a southerly course and annexing the Yamuna, formerly a tributary of the Indus.
This entire event was completed by the late Pleistocene period leading to the evolution of
the present drainage system of the northern India.
1. The Himalayan drainage system:
The Himalayan drainage system mainly comprises of the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. Most of the rivers here are perennial in nature and are fed both by monsoon
rains and melting of snow. These rivers are in their youthful stage and have carved out a
number of erosional features like deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in
their mountain reaches, but depicts maturity during their journey through the Great Plains
forming depositional features like flat valleys, oxbow lakes, natural levees, flood plains and
deltas.
The river regimes, although perennial, exhibit wide seasonal fluctuations, causing
divesting floods during rainy seasons but shrinking to the bottom of the valley during dry
seasons. Many of the great Himalayan Rivers are older than the mountains they traverse.
See figure-29.
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2.The Peninsular drainage system:
The peninsular rivers have reached the mature stage of development, particularly in
the lower portion of their valleys. These are characterised by broad and shallow valleys with
gentle gradient presenting almost graded profiles. Their rejuvenated character is represented
by waterfalls signifying the impact of tertiary orogenic movements in the peninsula.
The peninsular rivers are devoid of meanders and have almost fixed courses. Due to
lack of snow capped sources they either carry small quantity of water or become dry during
dry season.
Evolution of the peninsular drainage:
Before the rise of the Himalaya, The Sahyadri-Aravali axis was the main water divide
in the Gondwanaland.
According to one hypothesis the existing peninsula is the remaining half of a
landmass, which had the Western Ghats very near its center as its primeval water-shed for
two drainage systems, one easterly and the other westerly.
Sometimes during the early tertiary period half of the peninsula lying west of the
Western Ghats is presumed to have cracked and sunk beneath the Arabian Sea. This was due
to the formation of a great normal fault along the Western Ghats. This is supported by the
straight coast lines, steep slope, and absence of delta deposits along the Sahyadri coast.
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Difference between peninsular rivers and extra- peninsular rivers
Peninsular rivers Extra-peninsular rivers

1. Peninsular rivers are sequent rivers and 1. Most Himalayan Rivers are antecedent
they generally follow the slope of the in character i.e. they cut across the
land. landscape.
2. Peninsular rivers got formed after the 2. These rivers are older than the
development of the landscape. mountains across which they flow.
3. Peninsular rivers are in the old or senile 3. These rivers are in the youthful stage.
stage.
4. Peninsular rivers in major parts form 4. E rivers are characterized by I-shaped,
wide U-shaped valleys. V-shaped valleys, gorges erosion.
5. Peninsular rivers do not exhibit 5. These rivers are characterized both by
erosional process rather than vertical and lateral erosion.
depositional process is going on.
6. Peninsular rivers have achieved profile 6. These rivers have not yet reached
of equilibrium. graded profile or profile of
equilibrium.
7. These rivers are seasonal because they 7. These rivers are perennial as they
derive water only from summer derive water from both rainfall and
monsoon rainfall. snowmelt.
8. These rivers are linear and they hardly 8. These rivers are highly meandering.
meander.
9. These rivers carry less sediment, since 9. These rivers are carrying enormous
they flow through hard resistant rocks. amount of sediment.
10. These rivers are less flood prone. (only 10. These rivers are highly flood prone.
in delta region, they cause flood)
11. These rovers do not exhibit sudden 11. These rivers are characterized by
break in slope, while descending from Bhabar zone, which represents sudden
mountain to plain. break of slope.
12. These rivers are less polluted because 12. These rivers are highly polluted
industrial towns are located mostly because of series of industrial units
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along the coast. along them.
Important Rivers of India

 Decreasing order in terms of Drainage Area:-
 Ganga>Yamuna>Godavari>Krishna>Mahanadi>Chambal>Ghagra
 Decreasing order in terms of length:-
 Ganga>Godavari>Krishna>Yamuna>Narmada>Ghagra>Chambal
Ganga Drainage Basin
Its drainage basin covers 861, 404 sq km that turns out 26% of the Geographical area of
the country. Its drainage basin is shared by 10 states i.e. Uttrakhand, H.P, Haryana, Rajasthan,
U.P, Bihar, Jharkhand, M.P, Chhattisgarh, W.B. Its total length is 2525 km in India. It is
navigable between Allahabad to Haldia.
Its head stream is known as Bhagirathi which rises from Gangotri Glacier in Uttrakhand,
Bhilangana is its tributary which also originates form Gangotri Glacier. Bhagirathi meets
another head stream of Ganga that is Alaknanda at devprayag. Alaknanda before joining
Bhagirathi is joined by Mandakini at Rudraprayag , by Pindar at Karna Prayag and Nandakini
at Nand prayag. Mandakini riser from Kedarnath Peak, Pindar rises from Pindari Glacies and
Nandakini from Nandadevi. Before being joined by Nandakini, the two head stream of
Alaknanda are Vishnu Ganga and Dhauli Ganga which rises from Kamet Peak and Niti pass
respectively and join at Vishnu Prayag near Joshimath.
It is after dev Prayag that is confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda that the sacred river
is known as Ganga and retains the name Ganga up to Farraka in W.B, thereafter in Bangladesh
it is known as Padma after being joined Brahmaputra (which is known as Jamuna in
Bangladesh) at Goalundo. In west Bengal its distributaries are Julangi and Bhagirathi which
join to from Hugli.
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After Dev Prayag, the important left bank tributaries of Ganga are Ramganaga, Gomati,
Ghagra, Gandak, Koshi, Mahananda and important right bank tributaries are Yamuna, son and
Damodar.
Important dams on Bhagirathi-Tehri Dam, Koteshwaram, Kotlidam.
Ganga has two huge Barrages’ at Hardwar and Farraka.
Rivers of Ganga Drainage Systems
1. Ramganaga:-Length 596 km.
 Origin- Kumaun Himalayas
 It joins Ganga at Kannauj.
 It drains the plains of Ruhailkhand.
2. Gomati:-Length 900 km.
 Origin-From Gomattaal near
 Madhotanda in Pilibhit District.
 It joins ganga at Saidpur (Ghajipur District)
It passes through-Lucknow, Lakhimpurkheri, Sultanpur and Jaunpur.
It drains the plains of Awadh.
3. Ghagra:-Length 1080 km.
 Origin-Gurla Mandhata Peak, South of Mansarovar in Tibet. It is Trans Himalayas River

and is known as Karnali in Nepal.
 This river is highly flood prone; it joins Ganga near Chapra (Bihar). It tributaries are Sarda,
Sarju (joins at Ayodya), Rapti (Passes through (Gorakhpur)
4. Sarda:-It is also trans Himalayas in origin. In its upper reaches it is known as Kali River,
and forms international boundary between India and Nepal. It has ‘Pancheswar
Multipurpose project’ (Mahakali Treaty between India and Nepal). It is known as Sarda
(Chauka) in plains and joins Ghagra at Baharamghat.
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5. Gandak:-Length 925 km. it meets Ganga at Hajipur (Bihar). It is also Trans Himalayas in
origin.
6. Kosi:-Length 730 km. Its head water is formed by 7 rivers so it is known as Sapt Kosi,
three important head streams are Sun Kosi, Arun Kosi and Tamr Kosi. Its sources are snow
covered and also receive heavy rainfall. So this river carries huge volume of water and has
high velocity. In its upper reaches it flows through eastern Nepal and cuts across
Mahabharata range through a gorge and joins Ganga near Kursela (Bihar). This river is
highly flood prone, keeps shifting its channel, so it is known as sorrow of Bihar. To tame
this river a Barrage had been made near Hanuman nagar (Nepal).
7. Yamuna:-It is the largest and most important tributary of Ganga. Its length is 1376 km. it
originates from Yamunotri Glacier on Bandarpunch Peak in “Garwal Himalayas
(Uttrakhand). Its main tributary in upper reaches is Ton’s which joins Yamuna below Kalsi
in hills. Here ton’s carry twice the water carried by Yamuna. Yamuna there after cuts
across Nagtibba range, Mussoorie range and Shiwalik range and enters plains near
Tajewala. It joins Ganga at Allahabad. Its tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa
and Ken.
8. Chambal Origin:-MHOW in Janapao hills in Vinadhyan range (M.P). Its length is 1050
km. It flows through M.P, Rajasthan and meets Yamuna in (Auraiya) U.P. It also forms the
boundary between M.P and Rajasthan. This river has carved out deep ravines leading to
badland topography. In Rajasthan it flow’s in a Gorge from Chaurasigarh to Kota, for a
distance of 96 km. Important dams and reservoirs on this river are Gandhi Sagar,
Ranapratap Sagar, Jawahar Sagar and Kota Barrage. Important Tributaries are Shipra,
Kalisindh, Parbati and Banas.
9. Sindh: - Length-543 km.
 Origin- Vidisha Plateau (M.P)
 It joins Yamuna in Etawa.
10. Betwa:-Length 590 km.
 Origin-Bhopal district (M.P)
 It joins Yamuna at Hamirpur
 It has Matatila dam.

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11. Ken:-Length 360 km.
 Origin-Bhanrer range (M.P)
 It joins Yamuna near Hamirpur
12. Son:-Length 784 km.
 Origin-Amarkantak Plateau (M.P)
 It turns towards north east because of Kaimur range and join’s Ganga near Ara. Its
tributaries are Rihand and North Koel, Govind Ballabh Panth Sagar is located on Rihand
River.
13. Damodar:-Length 541 km.
Origin-Palamau district in Chhatanagpur plateau. This river flows in a fault, its valley is
famous for coal deposits. This river separates Ranchi Plateau from Hazaribagh plateau. It is
known as sorrow of Bengal because of flash floods which it used to cause in Bengal. In order
to tame this river Damodar Valley Project was launched on the lines of Tennisse Valley
Project. DVC project included hydro electricity generation, Canals, dams and reservoir.
Tilaiya, Maithan, Konar and Panchet dams built on this river and its tributaries are part of
DVC. DVC also includes Durgapur barrage. It joins Hugli 48 km below Kolkata.
Indus River System
1. Indus:-Origin-Near Mansarovar lake form Glaciers of Kailash range in W. Tibet. It flow’s

north westward; in Jammu-Kashmir it flows between Ladak and Zaskar range, where Leh
town is located in its valley. Zaskar River joins it from left and later it is joined by Shyok
River form right and near Gilgit it is joined by Gilgit and Hunza rivers. There after the river
takes south ward turn and cuts across Great Himalayas at Bunji through Indus gorge (north
of Naga parbat) later it turns west and enters the plains at Attock in Pakistan.
 Later it receives the water of Panchnad i.e. Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej and falls
in Arabian Sea.
 Length 2880 km (Total)
 In India its length is 709 km.
2. Jhelum (Vitista):- Length 724 km.
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Origin-rises in a spring at verinag on Pirpanjal range near Banihal passes. It flows North West
ward till Wular Lake in Kashmir Valley, there after it turns south west and cuts Gorge in
Pirpanjal range (i.e. Baramula pass) between Barmula and Muzaffrabad. At Muzaffrabad
(POK) it takes sharp southward bend and forms Indo-Pak internationalborder for 170 km
where Mangla Lake is located.
At Muzaffrabad it is joined by River Kisenganga which is its largest tributary. Jhelum is

navigable between Anantnag to Baramula (160 km). Important cities on the river are Anantnag,
Awantipura, Srinagar, Sopor, Baramula, Uri and Muzaffrabad (POK). Jhelum is an example of
Barbed River and is tributary of Chenab.
Tulbul project (wular barrage) is located at the mouth of Wular Lake. (It is navigation
project)
3. Chenab (Asikni):- Length 1,180 km.
Origin-Rises from Bara-la-cha-la pass in Zaskar range in Lahul district (H.P). It rises in the
form of two head stream’s from either side of Bara-la-cha-la pass i.e. Chandra and Bhaga
rivers. These two stream’s meet at Tandi and the united stream is called chandrabhaga which
flow’s in North West direction through Pangi Valley in H.P, Parallel to Pirapanjal (flows along
its north) and enters J&k as Chenab.
In J&k, near Kistwar it cuts deep Gorge in Pirpanjal range and turns south, then
westward, then south west ward and enters Pakistan.
Important dams & H.E.P.
1. Dulhasti H.E.P. at Kistwar
2. Baglihar dam at Doda
3. Salal H.E.P. near Reasi
4. Ravi (Iravati):- Length 725 km.
Origin-Kullu hills near Rohtang pass on Pirapanjal range (H.P). It flow’s in North-West
direction between Pirpanjal and Dhaoladhar range in H.P., Near Chamba, it turns south west
wards and cuts a deep Gorge in Dhaoladhar range. Before entering Pakistan it forms the
boundary between India and Pakistan along Gurdaspur and Amritsar districts of Punjab. It is a
tributary of Chenab.
Important dams & H.E.P
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1. Baira Sul H.E.P
2. Shahpur Kandi H.E.P.
3. Thein Dam/Ranjeet Sagar Dam.
4. Chamera I, II H.E.P.
5. Beas (Vipasa):- Length 460 km.
Origin-Near Rohtang pass from Beas Kund, on Pirpanjal range close to the source of Ravi
River.
It run’s South ward, passing through Manali and Kullu where its valley is called Kullu Valley.
It cuts across Dhauladhar range through deep Gorge and on meeting Siwalik range the river
turns North West and enters Punjab plains near Mirthal where Pong reservoir is located, there
after it takes south westerly course in Punjab and meets Sutlej at Harike.
Since some of its tributaries originate from the southern side of Great Himalayas which
are snow fed, so it has relatively large volume of water even during dry season.
This river is linked with Sutlej for power and irrigation through two tunnels in Mandi
district.
(I) Pandoh-Baggi Tunnel (13 km)
(II) Pungh-Slappier Tunnel (12 km)
Pong Dam reservoir is called Maharana Pratap Sagar. It is highest earthern fill dam. It is also a
Ramsar wetland site.
6. Sutle River (Satudri): - Length 1450 km.
Origin- Mansarover-Rakas Lake in W. Tibet it is also known as Red River.
It enters India by Shipkila Pass. It cuts deep Gorge where it cuts Himalayan range. In Nari-
khorasan province of Tibet it has created a long canyon comparable to Grand Canyon of
Colorado (900m deep) river. Spiti is the main tributary in H.P. which joins Sutlej near Shipkila
pass. It cuts a deep Gorge in Naina Devidhar range where the famous Bhakra dam has been
built across the Gorge and a large reservoir i.e. Gobind Sagar is behind the dam. Sutlej enters
the Plains at Rupanagar (Punjab). It forms the border of India and Pakistan between Ferozpur
to Fazilka.
Project:-Naptha-Jhakri H.E.P. (Kinnaur-Shimla), Karcham-Wangtoo H.E.P.

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1. Brahmaputra River:-Length 2900 km.
 Origin-Kailash Range.
It is known as Tsangpo is Tibet, Dehang in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahmaputra in Assam and

Jamuna in Bangladesh.
In Tibet it flows eastward along Indus Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ) for 1800 km between
Great Himalayas and Kailash range.
In Tibet it is navigable for 640 km at an attitude of 3000 meters. In Eastern Tibet it turns south
and makes a loop around Namcha barwa and cuts eastern Himalayas through Dihang Gorge
and enters Assam Valley at Sadiya (Dibrugarh). At Sadia its tributaries are Dibang and Lohit
which form Delta in reverse. There after it flow’s in Assam Valley. In Assam, Brahamputra
has braided channel and here it shifts its channel constantly towards south. It is 16 km wide at
Dibrugarh and has numerous Islands i.e. Majuli Island which is largest river Island of world
(Area-1250 sqkm). Brahamputra River brings disastrous floods in rainy seasons about 8-10
lakh sqkm area is effected by floods annually. So it is called river of Sorrow.
It is navigable between Sadiya to Dhubri.
West flowing River’s
1. Narmada:-Length 1310 km.
It rises form Amarkantak Plateau in Shahdol district of M.P. It is largest west flowing river. It
flow’s westward through a rift Valley between Vindhyan and Satpura range. It flows through
M.P. and Gujarat and form’s the boundary between M.P and Maharastra & Gujrat and
Maharashtra for some distance. After flowing for 400 km’s from the source, the river slopes
down at Jabalpur, where it cascades 15 m into a Gorge that is Bheraghat Gorge. Here it forms
spectacular and world famous, Dhuandhar falls (also called Kapildhara falls) Bheragat gorge is
composed of Marble (White) so it is popularly known as marble rocks.
Further below Jabalpur it flows westward in a narrow rift Valley and flows through
Mandhata Gorge where it makes “Dardifalls” and near it “Mandhar Falls”. Further west near
Maheshwar, it again forms “Sahasradhara falls”. It makes an estuary before entering Gulf of
Khambhat. Its estuary has several Islands of which Aliabet is the largest. Since Narmada flows
through narrow rift valley confined by steep hills it does not possess too many tributaries.
Among the right bank tributaries Hiran is important, which falls in Narmada near
Chindwara.
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Among left bank tributaries Tawa is important, which meets Narmada nearHoshangabad.
2. Tapi River:- Length 730 km
It rises from sacred tank of Multai on satpura range in Betual district (M.P). It is second longest
west flowing river.
It flows through Gorge between Kaliabit and Chiklada range then passes through
Burhanpur Gap, flows through the plains of Khandesh between Satpura range and Ajanta
Range. Here it receives the ‘Purna River on left bank near Bhusawal. Towards west Tapi River
crosses the Western Ghats through deep and narrow valley and flow’s through alluvial plains
of Surat and falls in Gulf of Khambat through an estuary.
48 km stretch of the river is tidal and is navigable for 32 km from mouth.
Dam’s:- Hatnur dam at Jalgaon.
-Ukai dam at Sonagarh.
Melghat tiger reserve also lies on this river.
Town’s on this River:-Surat, Bhusawal and Burhanpur.
3. Sabarmati:-Length 320 km.
It rises from hills of Mewar in Aravali range. Its head streams Sabar and Hathamathi combine
to form Sabarmati. It falls in Gulf a Khambhat. Cities of Gandhinagar and Ahmadabad are
located on this river.
4. Mahi:- Length 533 km.
It rises in Vindhyan range and falls in Gulf of Khambat. It cuts tropic of cancer twice.
5. Luni:-Length 482 km.
It rises from Aravali range near Ajmer. It is known as Sagarmati in Upper Course. After being
joined by Sarsuti at Govindgarh it is known as Luni. It dries in Ran of Kutch.
East flowing Rivers
1. Mahanadi:- Length 857 km
It rises from northern foothills of Danda karanya near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhatisgarh.
Its upper course lies in saucer shaped basin called Chhatisgarh plains. This basin in surrounded
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by hills on the north-west and south, so a large number of tributaries join the river from these
sides i.e. Seonath, Hasdeo and Tel etc.
Dams:- Hirakund dam-Longest dam in world.
Cities:- Cuttack, Bhubneswar, Sonapur. Sambalpur.
2. Godavari:-Length 1456 km.
It is the largest river system in peninsular India. It rises form Triambak plateau on Western
Ghats near Nasik it has numerous tributaries from the left bank.
Godavari cuts 60 km long Gorge in Eastern Ghats through Papikonda range. Below
Rajhmundry the river divides itself into two main streams i.e. Gautami “Godavari and
vashistha Godavari and form Lobate type delta. This river causes floods below Polawaram. It
is navigable for 300 km from its mouth.
Majara river is the important right bank tributary on which Nizam Sagar reservoir is located.
Among left bank tributaries Penganga, Wardha and Waingaga joins Godavari as Pranhita.
Indravati is another left bank tributary of Godavari which rises form Kondan hills and passes
through Bastar plateau and meets Godavari at the trijuncture of Maharashtra, Chhattigarh and
Telangana border.
Sabari and its tributary Sileru are other important tributaries of Godavari.
Dam:-
1. Dowleswarm (Aurther Cotton) Barrage
2. Triambakeswar dam.
3. Sriram sagar project in Pochampad.
4. Jayakwadi dam (Paithan)
3.Krishna:-Length 1400 km
It is second longest east flowing river of Peninsula. It rises from Western Ghats near
Mahabaleshwar. Koyna, Gatprabha, Malprabha, Tungabhadra, Bhima and Musi are its
important tributaries. Below Vijaywada it forms Digital type delta.
Dams:-
1. Srisailam dam
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2. Prakasham barrage.
3. Nagarjun Sagar dam.
4. Alamattidam.
4. Cauveri:-Also known as Daksina Ganga.
It rises from taal Cauvery on Brahma giri hills of western Ghats on Coorg Plateau.
This river is unique as its upper catchment area receives rainfall from S.W.Monsoon and
lower catchment area receives rainfall from N.E. Monsoon. So it is a perennial river with
comparatively less fluctuations of water. It is the only major river whose 95% potential with
respect to irrigation and hydro electricity generation has been tapped.
At Srirangam it divides into two channels cooleron (northern) and southern channel retains
the name Cauvery. It from Quadrilateral delta.
It has three river islands i.e. Srirangapatnam Shivasamudram and Srirangam.
Some important rivers of west Coost.
1. Ambika (Gujarat)
Konkan Plain
2. Vaitarni
3. Ulhas
4. Savitiri
5. Mandvi, Zuari(Goa)
Karnataka
6. Kalinadi
7. Gnagawati
8. Sharavati
9. Netravati
Kerala
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10. Baypore
11. Bharatpuza
12. Periyar
13. Pamba
Important River of East Coast
T.N.
1. Tamraparni
2. Vaippar
3. Vaigai
4. Valiyar
5. Kaveri
6. Ponniyar (South Pennar)
7. Palar.
A.P.
8. Swarnamukhi
9. Penner (North Pennar)
10. Kuyneru
11. Muyneru
12. Krishna
13. Godavari
14. Yaleru
15. Sarda
16. Nagvati
17. Bansdhara
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Orissa
18. Rushikulya
19. Mahanadi
20. Brahmani
21. Baitarni
22. Subarnarekha.
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Topic-6
Soils of India
Soil is the upper weathered layer of the earth’s crust affected by plants and animals. Nature of
soil depends on prevailing climate, vegetation and parent rock.
Soils of India
I. Black soil or Regur/black cotton soil

1) – Derived from the weathering of basaltic rock formed due to solidification of lava.
– Black colour of the soil is due to Presence of iron or due to color of parent rock i.e. in
southern T.N, Gnesses & Granite rocks having iron content form such soils under
semiarid conditions.
2) Area – Spread over 16.6% of geographical area 5.46 lakh sqkm. It is found in areas of high
temp & low rainfall i.e. Maharashtra, M.P, Parts of Karnataka, A.P, Gujrat, T.N.
3) Quality – It has high clay content, it is very retentive of Moisture. It swells on hydration &
becomes sticky – impossible to work upon but in dry season – Shrinks and cracks get formed
so oxygenation upto sufficient depth, so it is fertile and has self ploughing capability. It is
very suitable for cotton cultivation.
4) Composition – Deficient in Phosphate, Nitrogen and humus. But rich in lime nodules Black
soils of upland are of low fertility but those of valley are fertile.
II. Laterite
1) It is typical of tropical regions (high temp) which receive heavy seasonal rainfall (alternate
wet & dry season). Heavy rainfall promotes leaching so lime & silica are leached away. This
soil is rich in oxides of iron & Al that are left behind. If oxides of aluminum predominate
laterite is called bauxite. Oxide of Iron imparts red colour to the soil.
2) Area – spread over 2.5 lakh sqkm.

Found on high level plateaus & hills receiving heavy rain fall i.e. Eastern Ghats in Orissa,
Rajmahal hills, Vindhyas, Satpura, Southern Parts of W. Ghats.
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3) Quality – Because of interne leaching & low base status, it is acidic and lack fertility. But
they are very imp source of valuable building material because they are end product of
weathering, so they cannot be weathered further and are very durable.
4) Composition – deficient in lime, Magnesia Nitrogen & Potash.
III. Red and Yellow soils: -

1. Like laterite they are also leached soils, with considerable concentration of iron oxides which
impart reddish or yellowish colour to the soil. Since they are found in areas of comparatively
low rain fall so they are less leached then laterite. Red soils develop on crystalline
metamorphic rocks – hence they are more sandy& less clayey.
Area – Spread over 3.5 lakh sqkm 10.6%. It covers almost whole of T.N, parts of Karnataka,
S.E. Maharastra, Eastern A.P, chhatishgarh, Orissa, chhotanagpur plateau in Jharkhand.
Quality – As they are more sandy so they are not retentive of moisture, these soils are cultivated
mostly during rainy season. But they respond well to fertilizer & irrigation.
Composition – Deficient in lime, magnesia, Nitrogen, phosphate, humus but rich in potash.
IV. Alluvial soils – It has largest extent & M. important soil of India.
1) They are derived from sediment deposited by rivers as in indo genetic plains (Northern
plains) here they are called riverine alluvium. Along coastal areas alluvial soils are formed
due to sea waves here they are called coastal alluvium, along deltas they are called deltaic
alluvium.
2) Area – Spread over 15 lakh sqkm or 45% of area. They are found in Northern plains from
Punjab-Assam, along east coast and lower valley of Narmada, Tapi, Gujrat plains &
Chhatisgarh plain.
3) Quality – These soils are immature and have weak profiles. The chemical composition of
these soils makes them one of the M. fertile soils in the world. However there soils are
deficient in Nitrogen. In northern plains alluvial soils are of two types (1) Khadar, (2)
Bhangar.
Khaddar – It is found in low lying areas, i.e. flood plains. They are more sandy, less
calcareous & less clayey.
Bhangar – It is found in higher reaches, above flood plains, more clayey, dark coloured,
having lime nodules.
Tarai – It is rich in nitrogen and organic Matter but deficient in phosphate. Suitable for rice,
Sugarcane & Jute crops.
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V. Desert soils – Area-1.42 lakh sqkm/ 4.3%.It is spread over large parts of
Rajasthan,Punjab, Haryana, Gujrat. R.f <50 cm. These soils are 95% sand & 5% clay.
Rich is minerals i.e. calcium, phosphate, nitrates, so fertile where moisture is available.
Lack of humus so light colour.
VI. Peaty – Sunderbans and other marshy areas of the coastal plains of India are inundated
with Sea-water at the time of high tide, large areas are also water logged during the rainy
season. Since water logging reduces decomposition of vegetation, soils of areas are
frequently subjected to submergence are rich in peat. These peaty soils are called Kari in
Kerala state. They are generally black in colour and highly acidic. These soils are not
suitable for raising crops when the content of soluble salts is in high proportion.
Mountain Soil – There is great variety of soils in the Himalayas.

i. Brown forest soil – The warm temperate belt lying at the heights varying from 900 to 1800
meters has mostly deciduous forests. There is enough warmth for the decomposition of
vegetation, so soil of this belt is, therefore, rich in humus and deep but slightly acidic. It is a
fertile soil and is extensively used for raising a variety of crops.
ii. Podzol – Above an elevation of 1800 m. the brown forest soil grades into podzolized soils.
Podzol is the characteristic soil of cool wet temperate belt having thick coniferous forests.
The belt spreads at heights varying from 2000 to 2700 meter above sea level, vegetation is
partly decomposed due to low temperature and thick forest cover.
Excessive moisture content has promoted leaching of the soil, podzol is therefore, a
highly leached soil and acidic.
iii. Alpine meadow soil – It is thin dark coloured soil found in the apine zone of the Himalayas.
The soil is either sandy clay or sandy loam. This being a very cold area. The soil contains
mostly undecomposed plants.
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Topic-7
Vegetations
The vegetational character of any place in primarily determined by temperature,

precipitation, soil and human interferences.
It has been observed that below 900m elevation precipitation plays the dominant role
in deciding the nature of vegetation while above this elevation temperature plays more
important role.
This dominant control becomes visible when we observe the changing nature of
vegetation from evergreen to semi-evergreen, moist deciduous, dry deciduous, thorn scrub
to dry thorny scrubs in accordance with decreasing precipitation below 900m elevation.
While on the other hand vegetation changes from tropical (below 900) to subtropical,
temperate and finally alpine with increasing altitude as a result of fall in temperature.
The variable soil conditions give birth to different types of vegetation i.e. Mangrove
coastal forests, swamp forest etc.
The human interference in natural vegetation has been responsible for the
transformation of the moist deciduous forest into dry v which in turn has been transformed
into semi desert scrubs.
In accordance with the monsonic rainfall of India, the vegetation throughout the
country is tropical monsonic in character below 900m. But when the impact of different
altitudinal zones, soils and conditions are taken in to account, we get rich diversity of floral
distribution.
Tropical wet evergreen and semi evergreen forests:

These forests characterised by profusion and variety, the tropical wet evergreen forests
are found in areas below 900m, where annual rainfall is above 250cm. Tropical wet
conditions favour the growth of a large number of species.
The growth of vegetation is so profuse that the trees rise high competing with one
another for sunlight and ultimately arrange themselves like the trees in the Selvas into three
or four stories. Tiers of the trees are covered with climbers and epiphytes.
Such a dense impenetrable rain forest is at its best at an altitude varying from 300-
600mts, above sea level on the west facing slopes of the Western Ghats. In Assam the
evergreen forests is found in the eastern part especially in the east of Assam. Such forests
are also found in Mizoram, the Andaman Island and the Himalayan region adjoining West
Bengal.
The timber of these forests being hard, durable and fined grained is in great demand.
Among commercial timber trees, rosewood, poan, aini and telsur are important in the
Western Ghats and Champa, toon and Gurjan in Assam and northern West Bengal.
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Semi evergreen forests are found where annual rainfall decreases from 250cm to
200cm, the evergreen forests degenerates into semi- evergreen forests. It is extensively
distributed in Assam, northern West Bengal, coastal Orissa and its neighboring hills.
On the Western Ghats, the semi- evergreen forests from a narrow belt just along the
eastern border of the evergreen forests. They are also found on the west coastal plain south
to Mumbai.
Sub-tropical wet hill forests of south India:

Sub-tropical wet hill forests occur at height between 900m and 1850m above sea level.
It is a mixed dense forest of tropical evergreen and temperate evergreen rain forest species.
These forests are generally called “Sholas’. These forests occur largely in the highlands of
Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Panchmarhi, Mahabaleshwar, the Nilgiri hills and
Palini hills.
Temperate wet forests of south India:

This is evergreen forest. It is found above a height of 1850m and in the sheltered
valleys of Cardamom hills, south-western and western Karnataka.
The evergreen and semi evergreen forests of south India are the home of the plantation
cultivation.
Tropical deciduous forest:

The semi evergreen luxuriant vegetation degenerates to more open and less luxuriant
deciduous forest in areas where annual rainfall is less than 200cm and dry period is
relatively long.
Such forests are usually distributed over those areas which receive 100 to 200 cm of
annual rainfall. Where annual rainfall is 150-200cm, the forest is popularly called monsoon
forest. The tropical monsoon moist deciduous forest is characterised by a few species with
undergrowth of canes and bamboos. Epiphytes and climbers are also restricted to moist
deciduous forests only. In the areas where rainfall is less than 150cm, tropical dry deciduous
forest is dominant. Trees are relatively short and shrubby and grassy undergrowth replaces
canes, palms, epiphytes etc.
Tropical deciduous forests are widespread in the interior of the Indian plateau and the
Shiwalik range east of the Yamuna. Some of the useful trees are Sal in the north, Teak in the
central and western parts and Sandal in southern parts of this forest belt.
Sal which occurs gregariously in the moist deciduous forests is an important timber
found in the northeast uplands on the Indian plateau and the tropical Himalayas. Sal is
widely distributed because it can withstand cool climate also.
In the Shiwalik Sal is found at heights less than 6oom above sea level. The forest
department of West Bengal has planted Sal trees over large areas of the Bengal Duars. This
tree may reach a height of about 36mts at favourable places. In the plateau of peninsular
India Sal generally avoids lava.
Teak is an important wood of commercial importance. It is a large deciduous tree
which grows mainly in the lower frost-free slopes usually in the river valleys, where soil is
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alluvial and fertile. It also flourishes well in lava soils. Unlike Sal it does not occur
gregariously. Teak wood is durable.
It is found in central India and Western Ghats region but is less common in the
extreme south. Chandrapur district in the eastern part of Maharashtra state produces one of
the best qualities of teak.
Sandal requires nearly equable tropical climate and well-drained soil. It thrives in
those areas of the Karnataka plateau which receive 100 to 150 cm of annual rainfall and are
situated at an altitude varying from 600 to 1050 meters.
Dry Savanna or Steppe vegetation:

Dry Savanna: True treeless Savanna is not found in India. Wherever the dry deciduous
forests have been burnt, felled or excessively grazed, they degenerate to dry savanna which
is characterised by open spaced short trees (under 9 meters).
Dry Savanna occurs in areas with 60 to 100cms of annual rainfall. It is widely
distributed in the interior of the Indian peninsula and eastern Rajasthan.
Some of the tree species such as babul, shisham are of considerable importance.
Semi-desert scrubs or poor Steppe vegetation: It develops in the areas having annual
rainfall of 30 to 60 cm. As the rainy season shortens and amount of annual rainfall
decreases, dry savanna changes to semi-desert scrub which has widely scattered short thorny
trees largely of acacias and euphorbias.
It forms a transitional belt between dry savanna and desert vegetation. Development of
semi-desert scrub is mainly due to biotic changes. Dry savanna was once dominant where
now semi-desert scrub grows.
The semi-desert scrub is found in Kutch and neighboring parts of Kathiawar and in a
belt of county which fringes the Rajasthan desert in the east and north.
The Desert Vegetation:

The western parts of the Rajasthan desert where annual rainfall varies from 10 to 50
cm, has poor vegetation but is not completely without it Owing to extreme arid conditions,
plants generally grow into bushes, which are widely scattered.
The Mangrove Vegetation:

On the tropical tide washed coasts where mud and silt have accumulated, dense
mangrove forest flourishes. These forests are impenetrable due to their dense growth and the
tangle of climbers. The trunks of the trees are supported by a number of stilt-like
roots which are submerged under water at high tide presenting a scene of flooded forests.
Mangrove forests are found in thickest on western coast at a few places but on the
eastern coastthey form a fairly continuous fringe along the fronts of the deltas of the Ganga,
Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna and along the coast of Andaman Islands. They are
well developed on the muddy and swampy islands adjoining these deltas.
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HIMALYAN VEGETATION
The Himalaya’s exhibits typical mountain vegetation, but there marked difference in the
vegetation of eastern Himalaya’s and western Himalaya’s. This difference is due to following
reasons:
1. Eastern Himalaya’s are 7 degrees closer to tropic of cancer vis-à-vis Western

Himalaya’s, so climate is comparatively warm and snow line is higher in Eastern Himalaya’s.
2. The Eastern Himalaya does receive far more rainfall vis-à-vis Western Himalaya’s.
As a result of these climatic differences the vertical gradation of vegetation in Eastern

Himalaya’s is more, biodiversity is more, growing season is longer, and tree line and snow line is
higher.
Vegetation of Eastern Himalaya’s
1.) In Eastern Himalayas up to 900meters Tropical wet evergreen and semi evergreen
vegetation is found like Sal,Khair,toon(in tarai and bhabar zone)
2.) Between 900 to 1800meters Sub tropical wet hill forest is found like Pine and broad
leaved oak. In east Assam and Khasi hills Pinus khasya is found.
3.) Between 1800 to 2700meters, lies monsoon temperate zone characterized by broad
leaved trees here Oak forms pure forests, Laurels, Chestnut, Birch, Maple important
common trees.
4.) Between 2700 to 3600meters, Conifers like Silver fir, Spruce are common; Deodar is
conspicuous by its absence. Along with conifers Juniper and Rhododendron is most
common shrub.
5.) From 3600 to 4900meters Alpine vegetation is found (dwarf vegetation); Rhododendron,
Willows, Juniper and Primroses are common. At about 4000m plants are so short that
they give the appearance of carpet. Above 4200m Alpine shrub gives way to Alpine
meadows further above lies stony waste and Lichen till snowline.
Vegetation of Western Himalayas
The vegetation of western Himalayas is different from eastern Himalayas: Epiphytes and
ferns which are normally found in lower parts of eastern Himalayas are absent in lower parts
of western Himalayas instead dry savanna vegetation is found like Acacias, Sisoo, Simal etc.
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1.) In western Himalayas up to 900m tropical vegetation is found, here dry savanna
predominates like Acacias, Sisoo, Simal.
2.) Between 900 to 1500m sub tropical vegetation is found, here mixed forest is found, Chir,
a conifer, occurs gregariously which yields resin and timber.
3.) Above 1500m up to 3300m lies the temperate forest belt, here conifers are found Deodar,
Blue pine, Silver fir, Spruce; Deodar and Spruce occur gregariously. Deodar prefers cool
inner northern slopes.
4.) Above 3300m up to 4200m lies Alpine vegetation.
DEODAR: J&K and H.P are the chief suppliers and Pathankot is the biggest collecting
center of Deodar in India.
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Topic-8
Floods & Droughts
A characteristic feature of the monsoon rainfall is its variability. The actual rainfall at
a place in a year may deviate from its mean rainfall by 20 to 50%. Variability indicates the
amount of fluctuations recorded by rainfall from the mean value.
The variability over Gujarat and eastern Rajasthan is over 40% which increases even
to 80% in desert areas of the western Rajasthan.
The areas showing the high variability of rainfall have chronic deficiency of water and
are prone to droughts and famines.
On an average, one in every five years is a drought year. However its intensity varies
from year-to-year, it is generally more frequent in areas of low (below 60cm) rainfall and
high variability above 40%) where irrigation facilities are not well developed. There are
three types of droughts (1) Meteorological drought (2) Hydrological drought (3)
Agricultural drought. In India there are three well defined tracts which come under drought
prone areas.
1. Desert and semi-desert region:

This is a triangular area whose one side is formed by a line joining Ahmadabad to
Kanpur and another from Kanpur to Jalandhar. The area include Rajasthan, Gujarat, western
MP, south-west UP, Punjab and Haryana covering about 0.6 million square km of the
country’s territory.
2. Rainshadow areas of Western Ghats:

This is the region situated on the leeward side of the Sahayadris it’s about 300km wide
belt stretching from Jalgaon (Maharastra) to Chitoor (Andhra Pradesh) and occupying an
area of 0.3 million square km of the country’s territory.
2. Other areas:
These are in the form of scattered pockets in different parts of the country covering
about 1 lakh square km of area. These include
1. Kalahandi region of Orissa.
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2. Purulia district of West Bengal.
3. Mirzapur plateau.
4. Palamau region.
5. Coimbatore region.
6. Turunelveli district, south of Vaigai River.
The irrigation commission 1972 has identify two types of drought area in the country-
1. Drought prone areas: In these areas the rainfall is 25% variable from the normal.
2. Chronically affected drought areas: Here the variability of rainfall is between 25 to
40% from the normal.
An area of about 10 lakh square km is affected by droughts and inadequate rainfall. Of the
gross cultivated area of the country, about 56 million hectare is subjected to inadequate and
highly variable rainfall. The irrigation commission has (1962) identified those areas as
drought prone areas where the amount of annual rainfall was less than 10cm, the variability
of rainfall was more than 25% and less than 30% of cultivated area was enjoying irrigation
facilities.
Measures taken to prevent drought

1. Drought-Prone Area Programme (DPAP):
The DPAP, which covers 615 blocks spread over 30 districts in the country, is an
integrated area development programme in agricultural sector and aims at optimum
utilization of land, water and livestock resources, restoration of ecological balance and
stabilizing the income of the people particularly the weaker sections of the society.
Some of the important elements of the programme include-
1. Development and management of water resources.
2. Soil and moisture conservation measures.
3. Afforestation with special emphasis on social and farm forestry.
4. Development of pasture land.
These programmes are aimed at insulating the economy of these areas from the effect
of recurring droughts through diversification of agriculture and promoting Afforestation,
pasture development and soil and water conservation.
Of late operational plans for these areas are being prepared on yearly basis. It has been
realized that economic development of these areas would be achieved through activities
which in the long run contribute actively in creating conditions which mitigate the effects of
drought in these areas. Watershed management is being giving highest priority and steps are
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being taken to promote the cooperative management of the watershed by people in these
areas
1. A national water scarcity programme:
The programme has been started since 7th five year plan to promote the dry farming
which has now been made part of 20 point programme.
Floods
The monsoon rainfall which is in form of heavy downpour often causes devastating
floods in the country.
Deforestation, silting of the river beds, faulty land use practices, and unplanned
settlement activities in the flood plains, obstructions of the natural drainage by development
activities and rise of water table due to excessive irrigation are some of the causes which
have directly or indirectly helped in aggravating the menace of flood in the country.
About 2.5 million hectares of country’s area is prone to floods of which about 7.4
million hectare suffer from floods every year, out of which 3.1 million hectare is cropped
area.
Nearly 60% of the flood damage in the country occurs from river flood and remaining 40%
by cyclones and heavy rainfall.
In the Himalayan river basins damage is due to river floods while cyclones are
rampant along the coasts of the peninsula.
About 33% of the flood damage in the country is accounted for by UP, followed by
Bihar (27%) and Punjab-Haryana (15%). Every year about 1.6 million people and 30,000
cattle’s are adversely affected by the floods. Following are some of the areas generally
affected by floods in the country-
1. Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin:
This is the worst flood affected region in the country accounting for 60% of floods of
the country. Assam, west Bengal, Bihar, UP are the most flood hit states of India where
floods are recurrent phenomenon every year. The worst offenders are the Brahmaputra,
Damodar, Kosi, Gandak, Ghaghara, Rāmgangā, Ganga, and Yamunaetc. which have been
notorious for devastating large areas. Here gentle slope of plain, deforestation in the
Himalayan and the plain regions, silting of the river beds and human interference due to fast
growing population are some of the causes for ravaging floods causing colossal loss to life
and property.
Assam valley is considered to be one of the worst flood affected areas of India. Here
floods mostly occur due to heavy rainfall, sluggish nature of the streams and silting of the
river beds.
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In the Punjab and Haryana plains, flood and water logging are caused due to lack of
suitable drainage which has been obstructed by canals, transport routes and settlements.
2. Central and the peninsular India:

This occupies parts of MP, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat and deltaic
tract of Tamil Nadu. Here floods do not occur every year and are also of short duration.
The coastal tracts of the east and west coasts are at times hit by strong tropical
cyclones which cause sudden flooding and loss of property, damage to field crops and life in
these areas. Along the Orissa coast water logging and flooding are constant problem, in
deltaic tracts of Mahanadi and Brahmani due to defective drainage and blockage of the main
channel.
3. Rajasthan plians:
In Rajasthan due to sandy nature of the ground and dry climatic conditions, rivers have
not been able to carve out ideal drainage channel. Hence in the event of sudden rainfall, rain
water gets accumulated causing floods and water loggings.
Flood control programmes and strategies:

In 1954, after country-wide devastating floods, the National Flood Control Programme
was launched.
The programme comprises-
Immediate phase (this phase extends over a period of 2 years), short term phase (this phase
last 4-5 years), long term phase to develop long term strategy on flood control and
management. The government of India has set up a Rastriya Barh Aayog (National Flood
Commission) in 1976.
Following additional measures are suggested for flood control-
1. Restriction on indiscriminate cutting of trees on hilly regions and along the river
banks.
2. Protecting 1 km tract along the major rivers for massive Afforestation where in
agriculture and house construction should be prohibited.
3. Regular dredging of river beds.
4. Formation of national water grid through which flood water could be diverted to dry
areas through diversion channels or could be stored in huge storage tanks underground
reservoirs for use in lean reservoir for use in lean seasons.
5. Creating suitable drainage in water logged areas. Here care should be taken for
opening and repairing old drains.
6. Regular monitoring of floods and issue of warnings.
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7. Basin wise master plans should be prepared which should include construction of
embankments, improvement of drainage channels, diversion of channels, constructions of
storage reservoirs in upper reaches, Afforestation and soil conservation etc.
8. Effective measures should be taken for protecting coastal areas from sea-erosion.
Topic-9
Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones originate over warm tropical oceans in their western part. The
general movement of the Tropical cyclones is from east to west over the sea and near the
coast they curve to the north and northeast. The track of the monsoon depression is along the
axis of the monsoon trough of low pressure. As the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates the
track of the depression also vary. When the axis lies in the plains, the plains receives fair
amount of rainfall, but when the axis moves north and lies close to the Himalayas, the rain
abruptly cease over the plains of north India but increases equally rapidly in intensity over
the foothill of the northeast India bringing devastating floods in the plain.
The Tropical cyclones develops in early summer and in the autumn season, however
their frequency and severity along the east coast is maximum during October and
November.
In the Arabian Sea, Tropical cyclones originate west of Sri Lanka. On an average two
cyclones affect the weather of the west coast during October, November and December. A
Tropical cyclone is like a heat engine that is energized by the latent heat of the
condensation. These Tropical cyclones are generally known as depressions in India, plays a
vital role in the distribution pattern of monsoon rainfall.
The easterly Jet stream is responsible for steering the monsoon depressions into India.
It is the frequency and intensity of these depressions which imparts one of the most
important characteristic to the monsoons i.e. its pulsating nature.
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Topic-10
Western Disturbances
The dry anticyclonic weather conditions experienced over the north India during
winter season are occasionally broken by the westerly waves and depressions, which cause
some rainfall in this region. These are steered to India by sub-tropical westerly Jet Stream.
These temperate depressions which may be traced from the Mediterranean Sea and the
Persian Gulf cross north India from west to east. Most of these depressions originate in Iran
where relatively warm and moist air is sometimes invaded by the cold air of the Ukrainian
high. They are generally occluded and give only a few cm of rainfall. They are more
frequent during the months of December, January, February and March, when one
depression a week passes on an average over northern India. These depressions affect
weather not only to north western and northern India but also of north east India.
If the cyclone is un usually active, northerly winds which came from the snow bound
Himalayas are cold and blow persistently for a few days. These cold winds may lower down
temperature by over 11 degree overnight in northern India. Ground temperature may fall
below zero degree, causing frost, which damages crops. Unusually cold spell may also set in
as a result of subsidence of cold air from above. The rainfall by these depressions is very
helpful in raising rabi crop of wheat in Punjab, Haryana and Western UP. During winter
season the water flow of river’s in northern India is less, so this natural supply of Moisture
leads to bountiful of wheat production.

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Topic-11
Climatic regions of India
On the whole India has tropical monsoon climate but large regional variations are
found in important climate i.e. elements, such as rainfall and temperature. Since variations
in rainfall are much more marked than those of temperature, hence most geographers have
given more importance to rainfall than temperature. The first attempt to divide India into
climatic regions was made by Blanford towards the close of the 19 th century. Later Stamp,
Koppen, Trewartha, Jhonson etc are the geographers who also successfully attempted
India’s climatic classification.
Dr. L. Dudley Stamp’s classification of Indian climate is very much akin to that
suggested by W. Kendrew. This classification is empirical and subjective, but uses
quantitative limits to the regions in easily understood units like rainfall and temperature.
Stamp’s used 18 degree centigrade isotherm of mean monthly temperature for January to
divide the country into two broad climatic regions- temperate or continental zone in the
north and tropical zone in the south.
The two broad climatic regions are further divided into 11 regions depending upon the
amount of rainfall and temperature.
A. The Temperate or Continental Indian has been divided into following five regions-
1. The Himalayan region (Heavy rainfall).
2. The north-western region (moderate rainfall).
3. The arid low land.
4. The region of moderate rainfall.
5. The transitional zone.
B. The Tropical India has been divided into following six regions-
6. The region of very heavy rainfall.
7. The region of heavy rainfall.
8. The region of moderate rainfall.
9. The Konkan Coast.
10. The Malabar Coast.
11. Tamil Nadu.
See figure-30.
A. The Temperate or Continental Indian climatic regions

1. The Himalayan region:
This region embraces the entire Himalayan mountain area which includes from west to
east, J& K. Himachal Pradesh, large parts of Uttrakhand, northern hilly regions of West
Bengal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh. The winter and summer temperatures are 4 to7
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degree centigrade and 13 to18 degree centigrade respectively. The higher reaches are
perpetually under snow and ice. The average annual rainfall exceeds 200cm in the east but it
is much less in the west (125CM). Shimla in the west and Darjeeling in the east are its
representative cities.
2. The north-western region:

It includes the northern parts of Punjab and southern parts of J&K. The winter and
summer temperatures are 16 degree centigrade and 24 degree centigrade respectively.
Amritsar is its representative city. Rainfall received is 40 cm.
3 The Arid land:

This region is a vast dry area which includes the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, south-
western part of Haryana and Kutch of Gujarat. The average temperature in winter varies
from 16 degree centigrade to 24 degree centigrade, which shoots up to 48 degree centigrade
in summer. Jaipur is its representative city. The average annual rainfall does not exceed
40cm.
4. The region of moderate rainfall:
This region include parts of Punjab, Haryana, western UP, Union territory of Delhi,
north-west plateau area of MP and eastern Rajasthan. These are areas of average rainfall
with an annual rainfall of 40 to 80cm. The average temperature in January and July are 15
to18 degree centigrade and 33 to35 degree centigrade respectively. Delhi is its
representative city.
5. The transitional zone:
This region include eastern UP and Bihar, and lies between areas of average rainfall on
the west and areas of heavy rainfall in the east. The average annual rainfall of this zone is
100-150cn. The average temperature in January and July are 15 to19 degree centigrade and
30 to35 degree centigrade respectively. Patna is its representative city of this zone.
B. Climatic regions of tropical India

6. The region of very heavy rainfall:
These regions receive more than 200cm of annual rainfall and include large parts of
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur. Temperature remains around
18 degree centigrade in January and rise to 32 to35 degree centigrade in July. Cherapunji
and Mawsynram in Meghalaya receive 1102cm and 1221cm annual rainfall respectively.
7. The region of heavy rainfall:
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These regions include Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, gangetic west Bengal, Orissa, and north-
eastern Andhra Pradesh that receives 100-200cm of annual rainfall and are termed as area of
heavy rainfall. The amount of rainfall decreases as we move from east to west and from
north to south. The January and July temperatures range from 18 to24 degrees centigrade to
29 to35 degrees centigrade respectively. Kolkata is its representative city of this region.
8. The region of moderate rainfall:

These regions include mostly those areas between Western and Eastern Ghats which receive
annual rainfall of 50-100cm. Rainfall is comparatively low because this region lies in the
rain shadow area of the Western Ghats. The average temperature in winter is 18 to24
degrees centigrade which rise to 32 degrees centigrade in summer. The region is represented
by Hyderabad.
9. The Konkan coast:

The Konkan coast receives over 200cm annual rainfall brought by the Arabian Sea branch
of the south-west monsoon. The temperature remains fairly high and varies from 24 to 27
degrees centigrade. Thus the annual range of temperature is very low, to the tune of 3
degrees centigrade only. Mumbai is the representative city of this region.
10. The Malabar coast:

It extends from Goa to Kanyakumari and receives heavy annual rainfall of over 250cm. The
rainfall continues for about 9 months in a year. The temperature remains in the vicinity of 27
degrees centigrade and the annual range of temperature is only 3 degrees centigrade.
Thiruvanathapuram is the representative city of this region.
11. Tamil Nadu:

It includes Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra Pradesh. The rainfall varies from
100cm to 150cm, and is mainly caused by the retreating monsoon from north-east during
November and December. The temperature remains somewhere about 24 degrees
centigrade. There is not much change in the summer and winter temperature and the annual
range of temperature is only 3 degrees centigrade. Chennai is the representative city of this
region.
Koppen’s Climatic regions
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Koppen, based his classification on the nature and type of vegetation which is determined by
climatic factors like temperature and rainfall. Based on his scheme India can be divided into
following climatic regions-
1. Amw (monsoon type with short dry winter season):

This climate is found in the western coastal region, south of Mumbai. This area
receives over 300cm of annual rainfall in summer from the south-west monsoon.
2. As (monsoon type with dry season in summer Season:
This is the region in which rainfall occurs in winter and summer is dry. Coromandal
coast experiences this type of climate. Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
Pradesh are included on it. The amount of rainfall mostly in winter is 75-100cm and is
received from the retreating monsoon.
3. Aw (Tropical Savanna type):
This climate is found in the most part of the peninsular plateau. The northern boundary
of this climatic region roughly coincides with the Tropic of cancer. The average annual
rainfall is about 75cm which is received in summer season from the south-west monsoon.
The winter season remains dry.
4. Bshw (semi-arid steppe type):
Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of Rajasthan and contiguous
areas of Punjab-Haryana and Gujarat have this type of climate. Rainfall varies from 12 to
25cm and most of it occurs in summer. Winter is comparatively dry. Some arid steppe
vegetation is found here.
5. Bwhw (hot desert type):
Most of western Rajasthan has hot desert type of climate where the amount of annual
rainfall is less than 12cm. Temperatures are very high in summer. Natural vegetation is
almost absent.
6. Cwg (monsoon type with dry winters):
This type of climate is found in most parts of the Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan,
Assam and the Malwa plateau. The summer temperature rises to 40 degree centigrade which
falls to 27 degree centigrade in winter. Most of rainfall occurs in summer and winter is dry.
7. Dfc (cold, humid winter with short summers):
Some of the north-eastern states such as Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of
Assam have this type of climate. Winters are cold, humid and of larger duration. The winter
temperatures are about 10 degree centigrade. Summers are short but humid.
8. Et (Tundra type):
This climate is found in the mountain areas of Uttaranchal. The average temperature
varies from 0 to 10 degree centigrade. There is fall in temperature with altitude.
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9. E (Polar type):
The higher areas of J&K and Himachal Pradesh experiences polar climate in which the
temperature of the warmest month varies from 0 to 10 degree centigrade. The areas are
covered with snow for most part of the year.
See figure 31.
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Geography by Ajay Raj Singh

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1. Space relationship of India with neighboring

2. Structure and Relief.

3. Drainage system and watersheds.

5. Mechanism of Indian monsoon and rainfall pattern.

6. Tropical cyclones and western disturbances.

7. Floods and Droughts.

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10. Soil types and their distributions.

1. The Northern mountains:

A. Origin and evolution of Himalayas

A. Origin, Structure & Relief of Himalayas:

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2. Plate tectonics and the origin of Himalayas:

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Another special structural feature of the Himalayas is the existence of a number of

Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone (ITSZ)

Main Central Thrust (MCT)

Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)

3. Middle or Lesser Himalayas:

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4. Outer or Sub Himalayas:

Relief of Himalayas (General characteristics):

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A. The Shiwalik Range:

B. The Middle Himalayas:

C. The Great Himalayas:

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1. Alluviation of the foredeep: Edward Suess

2. Infilling of the rift valley:S Burrard

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Geomorphology of the Plain:

It is a depositional plain, consisting of gravel and unsorted sediments, deposited by the

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Regional divisions of the Great Plains:

1. The Rajasthan Plain (The Thar Desert):

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2. The Punjab-Harayana Plain:

3. The Ganga Plain:

a. Upper Ganga Plain:

b. Middle Ganga Plain:

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4. The Brahmaputra Plain:

Significance of the plain:

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