Pub. Admn. Work Book-2

SYNERGY
AN INSTITUTE FOR CIVIL SERVICES EXAMINATION
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
FOUNDATION WORK BOOK
IAS 2022-23
Work-Sheet – 02
Paper- I/Unit- 1, 2, 3, 4
“No Government On Earth Can make Men,

Who Have Realized Freedom In Their Hearts,
Salute Against Their Will.”
Mahatma Gandhi
BY
M.K. MOHANTY
&
ASHUTOSH PANDEY
Work-Sheet – 02
Paper- I | Unit- 1, 2, 3, 4
The work-sheet consists of thirty (35) questions. Most of the questions are inspired from
previous years public administration UPSC mains exams.
This exercise is value addition part of foundation programme for public administration.
The answers have been provided for a general framework related to the content of the questions
& its exact orientation would be discussed in the class.
*kindly attach the worksheet with your class notes.
1. “Public administration is not just implementation of laws; it is also a

means of social justice and social change”. Comment
The legalistic view of Public administration as advocated by thinkers like Wilson emphasized those
administrative studies should be concerned with only implementation of laws and policy. But this is a very
narrow view. Public administration encompasses wide range of activities ranging from policy formulation to
social transformation e.g. Beti-Bachao Beti Padhao campaign and Polio eradication with the ultimate
objective of social welfare.
The New Public Administration emphasized on making administration value laden, change oriented, equity
oriented and relevant to the present needs. Thus making it an instrument for social change and emphasizing
on administrators to become flag bearers in the cause of the deprived sections of the society. With schemes
like Stand Up India, Nayi Manzil and UDAAN the Indian administration is trying to focus on social
transformation and generating self confidence in the deprived sections. Schemes like SUGAMYA Bharat bring
social change.
The ultimate motive of administration is always social welfare be it with implementation of laws like Civil
Rights Act or with the implementation of schemes like MUDRA Yojana.
Some additional points;
 Value Loaded aspect- Eg. Equity – Affirmative action, Dignity – Garima;
 Economic aspect of social transformation – Eg. Mudra, Standup and bunch of others.
 Change through participative management – SHG, Mahila e-haat;
 Inclusivity and universal design in service delivery – Sugamya, PDS;
 Collaborating with international organisations and Voluntary sector – Milinda Gates, WHO, Akshayapatra
MDM;
 Mission mode time bound targets.
 Use of e-governance for social change;
2. “it would appear that any definition of this field [Public Administration]
would be either so encompassing as to call forth the wrath or ridicule of
others, or so limiting as to stultify its own disciples.” Mosher. Critically
comment.
 The question points towards confusion in defining the discipline. Highlight various aspects which give
rise to such a situation.
 Conclude w.r.t. why a demarcated definition would not give justice to public administration as organic
and evolving field.
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Public Administration, though a field of scientific study, has evaded an all accepted definition. The is because
it is the study of ‘government in action’ and government is never static rather its dynamic and rapidly
changing over period of time.
Further the various attempts that have been made to explain the discipline are very wide ranging. Some
argue that it is the study of the policy implementation arm of the state or study of tools and techniques to
bring about the efficiency in production and management etc. This view restricts the holistic approach of
Public Administration as a study as it ignores other aspects.
Aspects such as influence of judiciary, parliament, executive in the policy process, importance of
effectiveness, psycho-social aspects in administration now a days. Also, the relations and interdigitation
between society and administration. However this view blurs the boundary of Public Administration so much
so that it is ridiculed to be a subset of political science or sociology or management science.
Nevertheless it should be noted that all disciplines now a days are multidisciplinary in nature and even
though Public Administration has much in common with other disciplines, it has a staple core i.e. the
‘government in action’. Thus, while the periphery vacillates the core provides it the identity, distinction and
direction. Its about the inability of scholars to meaningfully, Comprehensively define Pub Ad. Waldo once
said each phrase of definition was “Mental Paralysis”.
Various issues
 Lacking of Narrow view (Only govt) and Broad view (Covers everything)
 Policy implementation vs Entire public policy;
 Legalistic approach – presence of non-legal elements;
 Process view – POSDCoRB vs Subject matter view – Ecological nature of Pub Ad;
 Welfare view – Presence of non-welfare functions;
 Various disciplines claimed their stake in Pub Ad; Both enriching PA and degrading it to the step sisters of
those subjects.
It can be concluded that PA is a dependent variable with geographical, Temporal, Cultural, Ecological
considerations; No definition can fully justify the nature of Pub Ad comprehensively.
3. A theory of public administration means in our time a theory of politics
also.
Among social sciences, Public Administration is most closely related to politics. It is necessary to bear in mind
that both politics and administration are certain kinds of activities as well as the names of certain studies
and so the relationship between the two must be considered in both the aspects.
Politics is concerned with the rules of accountability and control of administrative power while
administration is concerned with the rules of effective work in an organization and task performance.
Traditional administrative thinkers, like Wilson & Good now etc., believe that administration lies outside the
proper sphere of politics and administrative questions are not political questions. They say that politics has
to do with policies while administration has to do with the execution of these policies.
With more and more policy-science orientation in public administration, politics however, came to be
reunited with administration. But the real thrust toward political and value loaded public administration
came from the New Public Administration for which public administration is just another expression for the
study of politics. Appleby stated that public administration differs from all other administrative work by
virtue of its public nature. According to him, public accountability, political character, breadth of scope,
impact and consideration etc. differentiate public administration from private administration. He argues that
administration is politics interests. Government organizations are not merely administrative entities, they
are and must be political organisms.
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4. “The scope of public administration is ever expanding.” Comment
The scope of public administration is ever widening, particularly in parliamentary democracy, where a
healthy combination of politicians and administrator is most urgently needed. One of the views is that its
scope includes all governmental activities whereas the other view, is that scope of public administration is
confined merely to the execution of the policies. Whereas the former is supported by Woodraw Wilson,
Dimock & Pfiffner, Gullick and Merson have supported the other view.
The former viewpoint considerably widens the scope of subject, vis-à-vis to latter. However, modern
viewpoint about public administration is that it is government in action. It is being increasingly realized that
with the concept of welfare state becoming more and more popular state is undertaking increasingly more
and more responsibilities and this tendency in turn has widened the scope of public administration. Public
administration includes political, legislative, executive, financial, defensive and many other functions.
Public administration is a great stabilizing force in society. Government changes very often, but
administration seldom experiences violent changes. Thus the scope of public administration is over
expanding especially in the 21st century.
5. “The scope of administration is determined by the scope of government
functions which is decided politically.” Comment
The scope of the subject is ever widening, particularly in parliamentary democracies, where a healthy
combination of politicians and administrators is most, urgently needed.
Modern view about public administration is that it is government in action. It is being increasingly realized
that with the concept of welfare state becoming more and more popular state is undertaking increasingly
more and more responsibilities and this tendency in turn has widened the scope of public administration. It
is usually agreed that the functions of public administrator are similar to those of the state and as such it is
difficult to narrow the scope of the former. It is the latter which infuses a sense of practicability in the
abstract notion of the former. A public administrator is supposed to be an executive, legislator and judicial
officer. Necessarily, it is to be studied as part of the larger political processes in a country. There is besides,
that sector of activities which though not governmental in the strict sense is nevertheless supported, either
wholly or partially by the public exchequer, educational institutions, cooperatives etc.
Thus, the scope of administration is determined by the scope of government functions which is decided
chiefly politically.
6. “Publicness” of Public Administration in an ideal democratic government
remains the ultimate value in theory and practice.” Elucidate.
Administration is a process formulating policies with collective effort. It is a corporative effort, directed
towards the realization of a consciously laid down objective. Public Administration is that species of
administration which operates within a specific political setting.
The significance of ‘Publicness’ of public administration is that public administration is concerned with
purposes of society as a whole as opposed to groups within it. Public administration is concerned therefore
with the purpose of the state.
The state is uniquely placed in society. In a democracy, it operates in the name of the land and its people.
The government, a specialized group of people, representing the people of state in a democracy, can be said
to provide policies for society aimed at establishing the goals or ends of that society whilst public
administration is concerned with achieving them. Public administrators deal with the activities of the state as
compared to private administrators who is concerned with the goals of non-state organizations.
This ‘public’ aspect of public administration can be looked at formally to mean ‘government’. So, public
administration is government – administration which has vital role to play in a modern democratic state. The
focus is basically on public bureaucracy. A wider meaning of public administration has sought to expand its
ambit by including any administration that has considerable impact on the public. In another sense the term

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– ‘public’ refers to transparency or open scrutiny, under constant public ‘gaze’. Public accountability is one of
the values affecting public administration.
Thus, in modern democratic society, the role of public administration has increased manifolds. We are
witnessing the emergence of ‘Administrative State’. With the state regulating and controlling every activity
of individuals from ‘womb to tomb’.
7. “Though there are certain points of similarity between public and private
administration yet no private organization can ever be exactly the same
as a public one”. Examine
The classical writers held the view that public and private administrations are the undifferentiated members
of the genus administration. Henri Fayol, for example says that there is only one administrative science
which can be applied equally well to public and private sectors. But then no private organization can hold as
much as responsibility for public, as public organization can hold.
Both public and business administration rely on common techniques relating to planning, organization,
budgeting, delegation, control and the like.
But again, public accountability is the hall mark of public administration in a democracy, which an private
administration cannot afford to hold in any way. The public carries on his work in a “glass bowl”. His actions
are open to public review and scrutiny at all times. His activities must be guided by public needs and opinion.
Further public administration operates in large sale administration. The activity and policies of government
affect the entire socio-economic structure of the society. It employs large army of officials and spends huge
amounts of money to carry out its numerous programmes and policies. Thus private organization is no
match here against public administration.
Again certain public services such as national security, law and order, health care, transport and
communications are vital to the existence of community itself, which no private organization can ever do in a
similar way.
8. “If public administration is to play a major legitimizing role in governing
our complex society, it needs to be more fully conceptualized”. Discuss
Virtually every society today has been experiencing a transformation in its structure and functioning which is
the result of collective working of many factors like industrialization, urbanization, globalisation etc. When
the society develops it becomes more complex to administer. For this purpose the public administration also
need a change and innovation through conceptualisation to cope up with new challenges.
The world is slowly becoming a unified whole where the ‘nation state’ is no longer effective and the concept
of ‘region state’ is taking its roots, which is determined by the economic boundaries rather than political
boundaries. This puts extra burden on administration as the traditional means becomes insufficient to tackle
new problems. With rapidly increasing technological advances as well complexity the work of administration
has become not only complex but also its has widened its scope. If public administration has to survive and
take care of all these then it has to develop more techniques and ideas.
This all requires more conceptualisation in public administration. It will not only give it a new direction and
approach but also make it more flexible and innovative. It is imperative to impart new thinking in Public
Administration now otherwise it will disintegrate like a closed system. That’s why the conceptualisation is
essential not only for its effective working in changing scenario but also for its very own survival.
9. “The themes developed at 1988 Minnow-brook conference largely focus on
the current and future visions in the field of public administration.”
Elucidate.
The Minnowbrook conference was designed to compare and contrast the changing epochs of public
administration. During Minnowbrook-I in 1968, the mood of the discipline of public administration was such
that it sought to identify values and ethics as the critical issue of 1970s. By contrast, in 1988 the social
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environment of Minnowbrook-II was markedly different from that of its predecessor. The context of public
administration changed in favour of less directly performing government and governance, more privitisation
and contracting out. The values of public purpose came to be steadily replaced by the emerging values of
private interest.
If the 1968 conference had been radical and confrontational, the 1988 conference was, by contrast, more
practical and respectful to the ‘seniors’ in the profession. Minnowbrook-II includes some of the themes that
were not so prominent in 1968 such as leadership, constitutional and legal perspective, technology policy
and economic perspectives gave the second gathering an identity of its own. The first conference (1968)
offered a challenge to public administration to become practice with regard to burning social issues. By
contrast, the second conference in 1988 held in the midst of governmental cutback and ‘privatization’ policy.
The outcomes of Minnowbrook-II were therefore more pragmatic and less radical.
A comparison between the two Minnowbrook brings out both continuity in thinking and an eagerness to
break new grounds. The following five major themes of Minnowbrook-II were related to the legacy of
Minnowbrook-I: (i) concerns for social equity that predominated at the first conference and was
acknowledged as important in 1988 also (ii) democratic values and the centrality of public administration
strongly reaffirmed in 1988 with special focus on ethics, accountability and administrative leadership. (iii)
continuity of the earlier debate between normative and behaviourist perspective with special emphasis on
epistemological questions regarding how people learn about the field. (iv) acceptance of the heterogeneous
nature of work force in response of social diversity including the emerging gender dimension, and the need
for free interchange between ‘generalists’ and ‘specialists’. (v) changing outlook on ‘government’ in
Minnowbrook-II as government was no longer seen as the train on which people wanted to ride.
10. Examine the growth of the discipline of Public Administration as a
response to the developing capitalistic system in U.S.A.
The growth of the discipline of Public Administration under capitalistic system in U.S.A. is due to its great
diversity in capitalistic economy. Capitalistic system is a political, social and economic system, in which
properly, including capital assets, are owned and controlled for the most part by private person. Under
capitalism the price mechanism is used as a signaling system, which allocates resources between uses. The
extent to which price mechanism is used, the degree of competitiveness in markets and level of government
intervention, distinguish the exact forms of capitalism. Market-economies usually also involve a system of
private ownership of the means of production; they are ‘capitalist’ or ‘free enterprise’ economies.
The United States is a country of great diversity. At the core of the varied land are the people – the most
varied of all, for they stem from countries and social levels throughout the world. But in spite of many
differences, certain traditions – freedom, equality and individual rights – are common to all. No doubt, under
this environment capitalism flourished, as capitalism is founded on the freedom of the individual.
Public administration is a discipline was born in the US and that country continues to enrich it even today.
Wilson in 1887 emphasized the need for a separate study of Public Administration. Frank J Goodnow (1900)
developed the Wilsonian theme further and with greater courage and conviction argued that politics and
administration were two distinct functions of a government.
L.D. White in 1926 further reinforced the premises that politics and administration are to be kept separate
and efficiency and economy are the watchwords of public administration. These were the theme of the
contemporary period in US and reflected the values cherished in a society in which democracy as a political
philosophy and capitalism as an economic foundation were deeply founded. The second period (1927-39) in
the history of Public Administration has as its central theme the principles of administration. The central
belief of this period was that there are certain ‘principles’ of administration and it is the task of the scholars
to discover them and to promote their application. Willoughby, Follet, Gullick and Urwick were the scholars
during this period. This was the period when Public Administration commanded high degree of respectability
and its products were in great demand both in government and business, which flourished in a capitalist
system.

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The third phase (1938-47) was the period when the advocates of principles of administration began to be
challenged. The fourth phase (1947-70) witnessed the spectacle of political science separating from public
administration. Public administration was in search of an alternative and the alternative was available in the
form of administrative science.
The next phase, which is continuing, registered great progress with enriched vision. Public administration is
focussing its attention more and more on the dynamics of administration. It is also drawing heavily from
management sciences. It has come closer to policy science and related areas and has been showing ample
concern for issues in the field.
Thus, the discipline of public administration was born in the USA and it strongly bears the marks of its
parentage, freedom of individual, private enterprise, democratic ideals and capitalist ideology.
It is ‘managing’ as in a private, enterprise striving to achieve its goals using least resources. The goals could
be citizen needs, wealth and welfare as in any systems module with input-process-output elements
applicable to business in a capitalistic system.
These values became clearer in the growth and emergence of New Public Administration which also has its
origin in U.S.A. The keynote of public administration is an intense sensitivity to and concerns for the social
problems of the day. The proponents of New Public Administration express their dissatisfaction with the
state of the discipline of public administration and want to be alive to problems presented by the ‘turbulent
times’. The advocacy for a post-positive approach emphasized the need to abandon value-free and value-
neutral administration and instead to cultivate and approach emphasizing social equity. New Public
Administration is a uniquely American phenomenon founded in circumstances, where the enterprising spirit
burns brightly. Freedoms on which the capitalist society is founded are enshrined in the American
Constitution accepted as a way of life in USA.
The discipline of Public Administration has been founded on four factors predominant in USA: (1) the
administrative theory (2) the influence of democracy, coming into full play during the time of Andrew
Jackson (3) the influence of moral reform (4) the influence of technology and management arising out of the
scientific management movement and decade by decade becoming more conclusive. U.S.A. is the bastion for
capitalism. Naturally the spirit of capitalism influences and operates in the administration.
These clearly are the response to the developing capitalistic system in the USA.
11. Describe the evolution of the discipline of public administration with
special emphasis on post-1970 developments.
The discipline of public administration, despite the uncertainty and turmoil in the pre-1970s it registered
progress and entered the seventies with an enriched vision. Public administration attracted within its fold
scholars from various disciplines and thus was becoming truly interdisciplinary in its nature. Indeed of all the
social sciences, it is the public administration which is most interdisciplinary. It is focussing its attention more
and more on the dynamics of administration. It is also drawing heavily on the management science.
Public Administration has come closes to policy science and related areas and has been showing ample
concern for issues in the fields. Since 1970, some significant developments have been taken place in public
administration as a discipline.
In 1970, the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration was founded. It has been
recognized that public administration be called a separate “self-aware” field of study. Although there is not
yet a focus for the field in the form of “pure science of administration” progress, particularly in the area of
organizational theory and information science, has been made in the direction. There has been less
movement towards delineating a locus for the field. Nevertheless, public administration does appear to be
emphasizing such areas as state and local government, executive management, and administrative law.
The new development in the discipline of public administration can be discussed under the following heads:
(i) Normative concerns as value questions have recently been reassesed in public-administration; the
emergence of the philosophy of neo-liberalism provided a powerful base for the setting of public

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administration in public interest philosophy. Restoration of communication between philosophers and
administrators and raising the level of value consciousness has been the main aim of the writers like
Hodgkinson. It provided ethical dimension to public administration.
(ii) Public administration like other social sciences, too adopted interdisciplinary approach in recent years.
Three distinct inter-theoretical linkages have been identified (a) politics-administration union, (b)
Economics-administration confluence and the political economy paradigm; (c) organization theory-
administration intermixing.
Now, in the post 1970 unlike earlier politics-administration dichotomy, politics came to be reunited with
administration. New public administration movement asserted the importance of values in administration
and said that public administration is just another expression for the study of politics relating administration
to the ‘political’ - environment has been the main focus of Peterself.
Economics–administration confluence and the political economy paradigm, brings public administration
within the purview of economic analysis. The contribution of economists to organization theory has also
been quite good.
Again political economy paradigm regards political economy as the study of interplay of power, the goals of
power wielders and the productive exchange system.
However, a recent development that deserves attention is the consistent attempt to construct a radical
organization theory based chiefly on Marxist thought. It criticizes traditional theory on the ground that it is
system-maintaining and capitalism serving.
(iii) The debate over bureaucracy-democracy relationship is a reaction to over bureaucratization in the wake
of rapid expansion of governmental activities and dissatisfaction with bureaucratic inefficiency. Four
streams of thought have emerged in this context. The first is public choice school. It does not accept that
bureaucracy is rational and efficient; it is highly sceptical of its structure and actual operating behaviour.
David Beetham, for instance, says that “the central political problem posed by bureaucracy, was how to
restrict it to its proper function, how to ensure that the officials concern with administrative
effectiveness, and hence with power was properly subordinate to the politician’s function of defining the
ends that power was to serve and taking responsibility for them”.
(iv) The concept of “development administration” which was an important feature of administrative theory
in the 1960s came under criticism in recent years. The development administration concept has been
criticized on various grounds. For instance Riggs said, “The existence of a career bureaucracy without
corresponding strength in the political institutions does not necessarily lead to administrative
effectiveness- without firm political guidance bureaucrats have weak incentives to provide good service,
whatever their formal, pre entry training and professional qualification.
Its criticism has come also from techno-managerial school and the ecological school. Development
administration was also criticized as ideological and Eurocentric.
As an academic field, public administration’s evolution may thus be viewed as a succession of five over-
lapping paradigms. The emerging focus of public administration is organization theory and management
science, its locus is the public interest and public affairs. Today, a large number of universities in India
provide for the teaching of Public Administration. To this end, there are departments of public
administration in many universities. Besides, this is also taught in the joint departments of political science
and public administration as well as in the department of political science.
12. “… The paradigms of public administration may be understood in terms
of locus on focus.” – (Golembiewski) . In the light of the above statement
describe the “five-paradigms” of Nicholas Henry about the evolution of
the discipline of public administration.
According to Golembiewski, each phase may be distinguished and understood in terms of its locus or focus.
‘LOCUS’ refers directly to the ‘where’, to the context’s that are conceived to yield the phenomena of
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interest. ‘Focus’ refers to the analytical targets of public administration, the ‘what’ with which specialists are
concerned.
Now, Nicholas Henry has described the five paradigms in the intellectual development of Public
Administration, in the following manner:
Paradigms 1 : The politics/Administration Dichotomy, 1900-1926
Paradigms 2 : The Principles of Administration, 1927-1937.
Paradigms 3 : Public Administration as political science, 1950-1970
Paradigms 4 : Public Administration as Administrative Science (Management), 1956-70
Paradigms 5 : Public Administration as Public Administration.
Paradigms 1: The Politics/Administration dichotomy, in this phase of Public administration, it is in U.S.A
where advocacy of Politics and Administration dichotomy was initiated by Woodrow Wilson. He views public
administration and politics should be separated. Politics should work for framing policies and projects where
as Administration should concerned itself with execution part of these policies. And politics should not
inferred with Administration.
Paradigms 2: During second Paradigm stage, scholars believed that there are certain principles of
administration which could be discovered and applied to increase the efficiency and economy of public
administration. They argued that administration is administration of the nature and context of work because
the principles of administration have universal validity and relevancy. Hence they claimed that public
administration is Science.
This stage witnessed many scholars who have come up with various principles of administration:
(i) Henri Fayol’s Industrial and General Management (1916).
(ii) M. P. Follets Creative Experience (1924) etc.
Paradigms 3: Public administration as Political Science, during this stage the main theme was the advocacy
of ‘human relations-behavioural approach’ to the study of public administration.
Both the defining pillars of public administration were challenged. It was argued that administration cannot
be separated from politics because of its political nature and political role. Administration is not only
concerned with implementation of political policy decisions, but also plays an important role in policy
formulation-which is the domain of politics.
Paradigm 4: During this stage public administration as Administrative Science (Management) was initiated
with the view that public administration should use Principles of Management to achieve pre-determined
goals. Through these principles, efficiency and economy of public administration can be enhanced.
Paradigms 5: During this or final stage public administration as public administration evolved by 1970 and
onwards. The main theme in this final stage of evolution is the concern for public policy analysis. Public
administrations are showing much interest in the related fields of policy-science, political economy, policy-
making, policy analysis, and so on.
13. Minnowbrook conference in U.S.A. identified four features crucial to
‘new public administration’. Explain
The Minnowbrook conference held in 1968 in U.S.A. was a youth conference and it was this young academic
get together which give rise what has come to be known as ‘New Public Administration’. The conference
patronage by Dwight Waldo identified four features: (a) Relevance, (b) Values, (c) Equity and Change.
(a) Relevance: Public administration has traditionally been interested in efficiency and economy,
disregarding the contemporary problems and issues. The new movement demanded radical curriculum
change to facilitate meaningful studies, oriented towards the realities of public life.
(b) Values: Value neutrality in public administration is to be rejected and administration should be
sensitized to the needs of the society. The new movement advocated openness about values being
served through administrative action.
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(c) Social Equity: The movement calls for reduction of economic, social and physic suffering and
enhancement of life opportunities for those inside and outside the organization. A bold social-equity
attitude is expressed.
(d) Change: Social change is necessary to bring in social equity. The attack is on the status quo and against
the powerful interests entrenched in permanent institutions that steadily grew into self-perpetuating
power centre of dominant interests.
These features revolutionalized the concept of public administration.
14. “Administrative question are not political questions”. Discuss
The relationships between politics and public administration have evolved through a period of time. The
American statesman right from the beginning of their Republic have observed a difference between policy
matters and administrative matters. This developed into a dichotomy between politics and administration.
Although this thesis was finally abandoned after the Second World War
Administration according to Woodrow Wilson lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative
question are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be
suffered to manipulate its offices. The fields of administration are a field of business. It is removed from the
hurry and strife of politics: it at most points stands apart even from the debatable ground of constitutional
study. It is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting-house are a part of the life of society;
only as machinery is part of manufactured product. But it is at the same time raised very far above the dull
level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the
lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress.
Thus, it is true that Administrative questions are not political questions.
15. The advent of the concept of “roll back of the state” since the 1980’s
has been altering the role of Pub. Ad. but certainly not diminishing its
central place in human society”. Discuss
With the ever increasing complexity of Public Administration and its scope, it has become very difficult for
the governments to seen the administrative set up. The rollback of state in 1989 a humble concept given by
former U.K. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher has given a great opportunity to shed off its burden but not
its responsibility.
The scope of public administration has widened to an extent that the governments has to deploy more and
more machinery and use resources to cater the needs of citizens of a state. With this increases in the
activities new dimensions and new fields are appearing on the scenario of administrative set up which have
administrative concerns. As there is a limit for the govt. to take care of all these and it also have limited
resources it’s high time that the government gives the private players some opportunity to take initiative in
this regard.
Giving the power to private player will not only enhance the quality of the services but it also will give the
govt. opportunity to concentrate more on the more important areas. The government can save a huge
amount of resources also, that it can apply or use elsewhere.
But the role of government does not end here only. It will be playing the role of a regulator and facilitator
than the actual doer. It will have to take care of the rights of the citizens so that they do not get exploited by
the private players.
In this the role of govt. in the human society will no doubt alter but it will not be out of focus, as it will
remain in the centre for the welfare of society. It will beep a check on the private players. It will make sure
that the imitative taken by them do not hamper the initiatives taken by the citizens to develop them fully
and freely in order to convert his society in to a prosperous one.

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16. Give an account of major landmarks in the growth of the discipline of
public administration in the 20th century. What are the possible trends
in its growth in the first decade of 21st century?
Public administration as an activity has existed in human society from time immemorial, its emergence as a
branch of study and learning is rather recent, going back no farther than the closing years of 19th century.
As a field of systematic study, the development of public administration has been only recent. The credit for
making a beginning of the academic study of public administration goes to Woodrow Wilson.
The view of the earlier writers like Wilson, Goodnow, Wiloughby, White, Luther Gullick, Fayol and Wiwick
was that public administration was a separate activity with its own well marked field and principles. Its field
was demarcated on the basis of the so-called politics administration dichotomy.
In the early part of the 20th century many American Universities began to take active interest in the reform
movement in government, and thus scholars got attracted to the field of public administration.
The second period in the history of public administration can roughly demarcated between 1920s to late
1930s. This was largely based on certain ‘principles’ of administration and it is task of scholars to promote
their application.
This period opened with the publication of W. F. Willoughboy’s principles of public administration (1927).
Some other works also got published mainly by Follet, Fayol, Mooney and Reiley’s. This period reached its
climax in 1937 when Gullick and Urwick’s papers on the science of Administration appeared. To summarise,
the year 1927-1937 were the golden years of ‘principles’ in the history of public administration.
The third phase of the growth of the discipline of public administration began from late 1930s to late 1940s.
In 1938 C.I. Bernard’s ‘The functions of the executive’ was published. Herbert Simon wrote an article
entitled, “The Proverbs of Administration” in 1946, and its argument was further developed in his
Administrative Behaviour, which published in 1947.
Simon developed a rationalistic theory of administration along with ‘bounded rationality’. The claim that
public administration is a science was challenged by Robert Dahl in 1947. Public administration as a result of
all this, found itself in a deflated state, the status of the discipline was low. It was on this note that public
administration entered the fourth phase in its history.
The fourth phase of the growth of (1948-1970) public administration as a discipline proved to be in crisis,
searching for its identity. Many scholars responded to this crisis of identity by returning to the fold of the
mother science, namely, political science. But, soon the process of de-emphasis of public administration in
the larger discipline of political science got, if anything, accelerated in the 1960s. Here, thus public
administrative was in search of alternative in the form of administrative science.
The fifth period 1970s to 1980s, despite the uncertainty and turmoil of the preceding period, public
administration registered progress and entered the seventies with an enriched vision. Public Administration
started attracting within its fold scholars from various disciplines and thus was becoming truly
interdisciplinary in its nature. Public Administration has come closer to policy science and related areas and
has been showing ample concern for issues in the field.
The sixth period starting from 1991, seeds of which had been sown in the preceding period. The public
bureaucracy was viewed as the society’s favourite solution to the problems confronting. New Public
Management and the civil society are the emerging new paradigms.
As a academic field, public administration’s evolution may thus be viewed as a succession of five over-
lapping paradigms. Thus, the growth of public administration as a discipline owe to the American
contribution, especially in the 20th century. The scope and significance of the discipline of public
administration has grown widely as a subject of study.
It the 21st century growth of public administration especially in the first decade is widening, particularly in
parliamentary democracies, where a healthy combination of politicians and administrators is most, urgently
needed.
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Modern view about public administration is that it is government in action. It is being increasingly realised
that with the concept of welfare state becoming more and more popular, state is undertaking increasingly
more and more responsibilities and this, tendency in turn has widened the scope of public administration
especially in the developing countries.
Public administration has emerged as an institution of central importance in all countries in the world, and
most impressively in the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America.
The governments of the developing countries are solemn obligation to bring about all round development of
the people. They have assumed enormous responsibilities to improve the socio-economic conditions of the
people. Their commitment to achieve higher levels of economic and social development has increased the
scope of public administration in the coming decades of 21st centuries.
17. “Centralization inclines towards power and domination.

Decentralization, on the other hand, inclines towards competition and
self-determination.” Discuss
Centralization stands for concentration of authority at or near the top; decentralization, on the other hand,
denotes dispersal of authority among a number of individual or units. Decentralisation means systematic
efforts of top management to delegate as much authority as possible to the lowest levels.
Decentralisation helps to spread decision-making and relieves the management of high work load. More
effective and prompt decisions are possible because of the speed and firsthand knowledge that
decentralization provides. It encourages initiation at lower levels of management and provides increased
motivation. Decentralisation is unavoidable in large diversified organizations.
Apart from consideration of administration efficiency, decentralization may be political. Political
decentralisation implies the setting up of new levels of government. Centralization is concentration of power
at the top level. Another dimension of decentralization is the association of the people with administration
and this is secured by the dispersal of political and administrative authority in achieving the political goal of
power to the people. This encourages self-determination.
Centralisation may refer to the relations between headquarters and held in any given jurisdiction, as a description of
the relative amount of freedom left to field agents of the trends in his relationship according to White.
The establishment and maintenance of a smooth-working organization are profoundly influenced by the
location and delegation of authority. Within any administrative agency, all authority is usually vested in its
head. Subordinates are not generally granted and direct authority by law. Officials at the lower levels of
operation thus normally derive their authority by delegation from the head to the agency.
Although a variety of reasons exist for the growth of overhead controls, their acceptability varies with
political culture.
Centralization and decentralization reflect on philosophy of the whole administrations. It requires careful
selection of which decisions to push down and which to hold near the top, specific policy-making to guide
the decision-making, proper selection and training of people and adequate controls.
Absolute decentralization nullifies the role of head office or higher-level officials in an administration. A
proper balance on the basis of function and performance is essential.
18. “The inculcation of belief in the real existence of common purpose is an
essential executive function.” Comment
Organisation whether public or private is primarily concerned with co-ordination of all the resources through
the process of, planning, organizing, staffing, commanding and control to achieve the predetermined goals
or objectives of an organisation.
Now, in the above paragraph it is clear that any organizations have certain goals and it is this goal which
directs the various units of an organization to work for the achievement of these objectives and goals.

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Now, it is the top level of an organization which actually decides the primary foremost objectives of an
organization. So it is duty of the top executives or administration to bring together all the different level of
an organization and they must decide common goals taking into consideration, the aspirations of various
people of the society and people of an organization. This is possible only if the organizational goal is in
congruent with society goals or their basic needs. This is possible through participative management
technique, and this way an executive can easily handle the organization and motivate people to direct their
behaviour to achieve predetermined goals of an organization
19. Elaborate the World Bank’s concept of ‘Good Governance’.

The concept of governance and good governance were first used by World Bank in 1992. Good governance
would involve role of government only in core, strategic and sovereign functions. This may mean, the
government, whose primary business is to govern should govern the least, leaving man, society institution
and all else to govern themselves. This is reflected in privatization, corporatisation, contracts out etc.
The World Bank on the past experience has realized that despite technical soundness, programmes and
projects have often failed to produce desired results. Laws are not forced properly and these are often
delays in the implementation. Privatised production and market-led growth do not succeed unless investors
face clear rules and regulations. Against this backward of mal-governance, the World Bank mooted the idea
of good governance. Four key dimensions identified in this context are: (a) Public Sector Management (b)
Accountability (c) Legal Frame made for development and (d) Information and transparency.
In today’s complex world of governing, government alone is not capable of coping with myriad problems. A
degree of networking with other societal organizations will enhance the capacity of governance in the
society as a whole. Again, to the extent governance would be bringing in transparency, openness, rule of
law, and human rights observance, this will facilitate strengthening of democracy. Therefore, the concept of
good governance is an admirable concept.
However, the World Bank’s approach of tic up good governance with aid giving has been criticized. World
Bank is seeking to ‘politicise’ the otherwise technical issue of financial aid to the third world countries.
20. “Good Governance and Democracy appear contradictory”, are they?
Examine
Good Governance conceptualized by World Bank in 1992 considered as the crucial element to be
incorporated in the development strategy. It include participatory, transparent and accountable, effective
and equitable administration that promotes the rule of law. Governance is about processes, not about ends.
It is more about Institution building and enhancing their capacity to govern.
Democracy is a form of government in which people are sovereign, have an equal say in the decisions that
affect their lives. Either through participating directly or through representatives they control the governing
authorities. Still there are many countries which have democracy but poorly governed. Take the case of
India, which boasts of largest democracy in the world but infused with corruption due to poor governance.
on the other hand there are places like Dubai with authoritarian regime but well governed.
Some people say that because in democracy, after every election government changes, which forces it to
look for short term gains rather than long term vision. Another disadvantage which usually came about the
awareness level of the people, how well they can participate in political process.
But if we analyze deeply, there is not much contradiction between true democracy and good governance.
Take the same argument that democracy changes govt after every election and does not help in long term
vision. Point here is that even political executives got changed, still permanent executives, called
bureaucracy is same. Vision of state enshrined in constitution is still same; the path chosen by different
government may be different. We can see more deeply with example of poverty in India. Every government
has same goal to alleviate the poverty from this nation from last 65 years, we see around 30 % people in
country are still poor.

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Problem lies in poor accountability, Is our democratic process is so robust that it ensure proper
accountability. Problem is not with democracy concept per se but how it is realized on ground. Is our
electoral process ensures that no criminal takes part in law making or influencing it.
About other problem of low awareness of people, there is a concept related to human psychology called
learned helplessness. When people feel, their voices don't matter much, they start alienating themselves
and don't willingly take much interest in political issues. For them petty gains at time of election become
better option.
Solution of this vicious problem lies in democracy itself with continuous reform, electoral reform, police
reform; giving more voice to the people not just to elect but also ensuring accountability at all levels, policy
making, law making, its implementation with network governance(public+pvt+ NGO) instead of just
bureaucrats.
21. Discuss Public Choice’s ‘pleasure pain calculus of individuals’ to

Benthamite public interest in public administration. Also explain the
challenges faced by the bureaucracy to reorient itself for methodological
individualism.
The Public Choice approach is in sharp contrast to Benthamite public interest focus in public administration
to the extent that Public Choice approach argues for viewing citizens as customers and providing them best
possible services by following market practices. Since Public Choice approach is restricted to the goods
provisioning aspect of the state and ignores the re-distributive justice aspect of the state. Therefore it can be
rated as complementary to Benthamite approach.
Methodological individualism argues that individual should always be the unit of decision making and
analysis. Challenges for bureaucracy to reorient towards it are:
1. Democracy requires representative, participative administration.
2. Individual based decision making is prone to be biased, hasty, and erroneous. This can be avoided by
collective approach.
3. Further in communitarian societies like India, individualism is not viewed as a respectable value.
4. Group building, collaborative approach is best suited as it promote spirit de corps, informal organisation,
and cohesion within the organisation.
Pleasure pain calculus or Hedonism refers to the approach of maximising pleasure in a context;
In the PCT, Hedonism has client orientation; Bentham’s approach of public interest which is part of
Hedonism expects maximum good to maximum number of people through PIT(Public Interest theory).
Goals of both the approaches are similar - But the means or actors exercising choice are different. In PCT it is
the Individual; In the Public Interest Theory its the State;
Furthermore, Public interest theory assumes a benevolent state; But the Niskanen thought unearthed the
utility maximising nature of bureaucracy and hence PIT ends ups providing a platform for Bureaucracy to
self-aggrandise. The failure of Bureaucracy is in total contrast with the success of PCT put in the same
context as it envisages competition at the highest level and choice at the lowest level through state
minimalism and institutional pluralism.
Methodological individualism(MI) refers to the belief that individual agent's motivations and actions cause
various socio-economic phenomena. Reorientation of B to MI can be done by
1. Imparting uniform core values like impartiality, Empathy, Accountability, Leadership, Objectivity through
code of conduct;
2. Specialisation based on difference of non-core values and interests - to promote the growth of individual
as well as the State.
3. By imparting Fayol's value of "Subjugation of personal interest to general interest" to Bureaucracy;

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Nevertheless for speedy and more accountable administration some level of individualism is required.
Therefore a balance must be maintained by using individualism for programmed activities and using a
slightly higher collective approach for unprogrammed ones.
22. “Over reliance on rules has sidelined emotive rationality of
administrators”. What do you think? Does switching over to market
oriented (Privatization) approach could change the scenario?
An administrator is a part of a system which runs on certain rules and regulations. These are essential to
maintain stability in the system and provides a continuity in the system. But at the same time excessive
emphasis on rules makes administrators a dispassionate executor which is more concerned with rules then
public welfare. This has been one of the biggest criticism of Weberian bureaucracy where rules become an
end in themselves. Thus “goal displacement” takes place.
Issues
 Over-reliance on rules – displacement of goals(especially the welfare goals)
 Status quoist – Non-progressive B which is not participative in social change and efficiency.
 Rules are rigid – No Positive discrimination? – These aspects cover the emotive rationality.
The issue can be anaylzed from Robert Chamber’s model also where he says that administrator sitting in
cities got to decide the fate of rural administration. In this case the dispassionate and emotionally drained
administrator is more concerned with rules compliance then understanding actual issues at the ground. The
call for “putting last man first” and Panchayati raj institutions and social audit system are one way to end this
dryness and neutrality of the system.
At an organisational level, a manager trapped in rule and regulations might lose touch with his followers.
Thats why McGregor calls for “emotive rehabilitation” of managers.
A market oriented approach can be eqauted with institutional pluralism aspect of Public choice theory of
contractualisation of New right philosophy. Though it can provide efficiency to the system, yet there is a
possibility that the entire exercise will be done considering public as “customers” rather than “citizens”. Thus
emotional rehabilitation doesn’t take place, instead corporatism happens. Though not bad in itself
government must always be present in certain spheres (NPS..Denhardt) and so there is a need to provide
administrative discretion in the system. This will ensure that bureaucrats are respected as well as are
effective in the job they do.
Against Market oriented approach:
 Market is good at balancing demand and supply; not need and supply. So – non-inclusive.
 Rules limit emotive rationality of B; Profit motive limits the emotive rationality of Market; Eg. Dalit
Capitalism requires a push of positive discrimination – like Standup India;
 Lack of rules can make them unethical – Human trials in India; How many hysterectomies are done
which are unnecessary
For market oriented approach:
 Markets bring efficiency/effectiveness/”Value for money” in service delivery and so emotively rational;
 Their profit motive empowers them in emotive rationality to gain customers; Isn’t costly healthcare
more emotively rational
23. The theoretical evolution of Public Administration is essentially
‘ecological’. Elucidate.
‘Ecological’ in this context means the impact of the environment, i.e. society, polity, events etc. on the
subject matter.
Starting from the first attempt towards the proposal towards theory building from Wilson, one sees the
American ‘spoils system’ and its inefficiency as its pillars. This provoked him to propose making
administration separate, efficient, economic and effective.
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Moving ahead, scientific management theories by Fayol, Taylor and others were a response to the problems
and growing complexity of the American industry and low labour productivity therein.
Further, the human relations and behavioural theories by Mayo, Follett etc essentially sprung out from the
advances in social sciences and human behaviour in the 1940s. They were also provoked by the increasing
labour turnovers in the American industries indicating that something is wrong with the present theories.
The neo-classical theories were underpinned by the increasing complexity in decision-making and
management of enterprises. The value of fact based decision-making as propounded by Simon found the
right flavour then.
Major advances were made after the world war -II when a host of developing nations came on the horizon.
This rendered the application of conventional American administrative theories in the changed politico-
cultural context futile. And, thus the theoretical advances by Riggs and others in comparative and
development administration were born to facilitate developmental efforts in changed situations.
Finally, the latest paradigm the theoretical inclination and development in the field of Public policy are
essentially the markers of growing needs of socio-economic development and the predominance of public
administration in them.
Thus, the field of Public Administration has suitably reacted to and affected by the changes in its ecology.
24. "The notion of informal organisation is a residual or cafeteria concept of

diverse and sprawling contents”. How does Gouldner establish the need
for understanding the interdigitations between the ‘formal’ and
‘informal’ organisation?
Formal organization refers to the systematic and organized structure in a workplace. It is carefully
administered by the organization and it is always in total control of the management. Informal organizations,
as the name suggests, are organizational structures that are created informally. Observe any working group
or organization and you will notice that how much people interact with each other. Moreover, this
interaction on the workplace is not always about the job. People do interact informally with each other and
get connected personally. This is what leads to informal structures within an organization.
In short, informal organizations are created by the employees to satisfy their psychological and social
affiliation needs at the workplace.
 Unlike formal organizations that are created by the management, informal organizations are created by
the employees themselves.
 There is no definite structure or role assignment in an informal organizational structure.
 Communication is the most important aspect of an informal structure. This communication process –
which is also called the Grapevine – is in no particular order, method or route.
 Unlike formal organizations, informal organizations are heavily dependent on the individuals’
personalities, emotions and values.
 Informal structures are created spontaneously. Similarly, they are not micro-managed as the formal
structures.
 The informal organizations are created for the satisfaction of the workers, and therefore, they do not
directly contribute to the organization’s goals. The informal structures cannot be officially listed.
 The focus of an informal organization is built around the people – not their jobs. It is, therefore,
influenced by the employees of an organization, not the management.
Residual concept because the formal organisation design comes first, where roles and authority
relationships are set through the organisational chart. Diverse and sprawling contents because study of
informal organisations would involve study of human behaviour, psychology, sociological factors etc.
According to Gouldener if taken in isolation informal organisation will not make any sense. Such type of

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informal organisation would be short lived. An effective informal organisation will integrate the ethos of
organisation while relaxing the normal authority and power associate with it. This integrated approach will
help both employee and organisation in achieving their goals. This way the interdigitations of both should be
seen.
25. Administration is a “system”. Its shaped from within and with-out.
Comment
A system is a unified whole or complete entity having two or more interdependent parts or subsystems and
it is delineated from its outside environmental supra-system in which it is embedded and with which it
interacts. Changing in one part of the system affects other parts and positive growth and adaptation of a
system depend on adjustment of the system with the environment.
A system can be defined as an entity, which is a coherent whole such that a boundary is perceived around it
in order to distinguish internal and external elements and to identify input and output relating to and
emerging from the entity. A systems theory is hence a theoretical perspective that analyzes a phenomenon
seen as a whole and not as simply the sum of elementary parts. Systems thinking comes from the shift in
attention from the part to the whole , considering the observed reality as an integrated and interacting
unicum of phenomena where the individual properties of the single parts become indistinct.
According to the system theory the administrative phenomena was studied, in which the interaction
between the different administrative unit was studied and its influences on each others. The subject under
consideration is referred as system and the continuous interaction between the system and environment is
called dynamic interaction. Philip selznick had used system framework in the studies of the governments and
the complex organisation. Simon, Bernard, Nigro and Nigro, Waldo, Frederickson, Churchman are the main
contributor of system theory. System theory is an approach through which the administrative phenomenon
and its interaction among units was studied.
Under systemic perspective, instead need to apply a global vision to underline its functioning. Although we
can start from the analysis of the elementary components of a phenomenon, in order to fully comprehend
the phenomenon in its entirety we have to observe it also from a higher level: a holistic perspective.
26. “As long as the study of Public Administration is not comparative, claim
for a ‘science of public administration’ sounds rather hollow.” Explain
There is a contrast made between Art and Science. It is said that while science is systematic knowledge, art is
systematic practice. Practically every social discipline finds itself confronted with the question whether it is
or can be a science. The turn of events during and after World War II changed the state of literature on
comparative public administration. It became different from the earlier literature on public administration. It
is for this reason that the period of World War II is often regarded as the dividing line between the old and
the new literature on the subject. A number of studies were made during this period which made significant
contribution to making public administration a universal science.
During the war, the western, particularly the American, scholars and administrators came in contact with the
public administration of many developing countries, wherein they found some few features which interested
them. The emergence of large number of new nations on the world scene and attempts by them to achieve
rapid economic development which inevitably had to involve public administration, created new motives
and opportunities for scientific investigation. This furthered theoretical speculation among the scholars of
public administration. Again, the scholars had become dissatisfied with the culture bond character of the
traditional public administration. In the 1940s and thereafter, the student of comparative public
administration being aware of the intellectual developments in comparative sociology, anthropology and
other areas “became interested in developing theoretical constructs with a cross-cultural, cross-national and
cross-temporal relevance in their field. They recognized that hypothesis developed in American cultural
context, in order to be valid and part of a science of public administration, should be tested in cross-cultural
settings.

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There are many who hold that public administration is already a science in the sense that other social
sciences are, namely, that a more or less well-defined field for it has been marked out, and a vast amount of
data has been collected to which the methods of scientific enquiry are applied.
Thus, as long of the study of public administration is not comparative, claim for a ‘science of public
administration’ sounds hollow.
27. The Systems approach is relevant even today for organizational analysis.
Discuss how Barnard and David Easton adopted this approach in their
respective areas of study.
System approach says that, a system is an entity having at least two inter-dependent parts and goes through
a dynamic interaction with its sub-systems and its external environment. It is similar to an organization that,
an organization also has many sub-systems like HR, Production, Delivery etc., which are inter-dependent and
mutually influencing. The organization becomes a complete distinct entity which interacts with its
environment and also with its sub-parts. So, systems approach is very much valid for organizational analysis.
Barnard, adopting this approach, said that an organization is a system of consciously coordinated personal
activities of atleast two persons. He said that it would function through an equilibrium of contributions and
satisfaction of the people. He advocated that authority came from bottom up and gave importance to
communication and relationship. Therefore, there is an interaction in its sub-systems i.e. people, in this case.
David Easton, on the other hand, applied systems approach to political science. He defined it as an
authoritative allocation of values for the society. He used it for policy making process. He advocated a five
step systemic process – input, conversion, output, feedback and environment. Thus, David Easton
introduced systems approach in policy making and political science. Whereas, Barnard used it to define an
organization and its working.
Therefore, Systems approach is relevant even today in analyzing many fields of study and thus can be
applied in many cases.
28. “Attempts to solve administrative problems in isolation from the
structure of power and purpose in the polity are bound to be illusory.”
Comment
Woodrow Wilson, regarded by many to be the Father of the study of Public Administration, introduced the
concept of politics-administration dichotomy.
According to Wilson, politics and administration were two separate spheres. While politics concerned itself
with the formulation of laws and policies, it was the administration’s responsibility to implement them.
While stressing on the distinction between them, Wilson nevertheless seems to have recognized the
presence of an umbilical cord that bound them together.
Administrative problems deal with issues like delivery of services, implementation of policies and other
related matters. In the era of delegated legislation, administrative problems could also deal with faulty
elaboration of policies. Corruption is a major issue that plagues administration in many countries. Given that
these are some of the major problems found in administration, solutions for the same typically revolve
around the following themes
1. A system that has adequate checks at all levels of administration that either prevents or immediately
alerts higher authorities to issues.
2. A proper feedback system where the recipients of administration are able to voice their concerns to the
powers that be.
3. Swift and efficient redressal of administrative issues.
The one critical factor here is that power flows from the politician to the executive. The legislature, often
regarded to be the first among equal organs of the government, has politicians answerable to it, for all kinds
of administrative issues. Even in the recently evolving concept of delegated legislation, the quantum of

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policy formulation that is delegated to the executive is the prerogative of the power-wielders. Any
administrative setup, even if efficient, standalone, cannot sustain its efficiency without the help and
cooperation of the polity.
Polity, in itself, exists for the primary purpose of delivering governance to the people. Administrative
problems, despite being directly linked to the executive, eventually end up at the door of the political setup
of the land.
It is thus not possible to view solutions to administrative problems isolated from the structure of polity and
even if such solutions do exist, they are not sustainable.
29. "True professional help is not in playing God with the client, but in
placing professional knowledge and skill at the client's disposal"- Mc
Gregor. Justify how theory Y is indicative and not prescriptive.
McGregor was an Organisational theorist who brings out the difference between the classical and
organisation thinkers. According to McGregor, the auction of motivating people involves a certain
assumption about human nature. McGregor’s “The Human Side of the Enterprise” come out with the
theoretical assumptions which the management holds about controlling the human resources and
determining the function of the organisation.
McGregor considers traditional or classical theories as theory X and presented his theory Y as a response to
theory X. He classified theories on the basis of variables like direction and control.
According to the McGregor, the Theory X is the traditional view of the direction and control. In Theory X its
responsibility of the employers to make employees do a certain task. It follows the carrot and sticks policy.
While Theory Y is indicative in the which subordinates are committed, self-motivated and participative in
nature. Theory X places exclusive reliance on external control of human behaviour while Theory Y relies on
self-regulation and self-motivation.
Theory X assumes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this encourages an
authoritarian style of management. According to this view, management must actively intervene to get
things done. This style of management assumes that workers:
 Dislike working.
 Avoid responsibility and need to be directed.
 Have to be controlled, forced, and threatened to deliver what's needed.
 Need to be supervised at every step, with controls put in place.
 Need to be enticed to produce results; otherwise they have no ambition or incentive to work.
X-Type organizations tend to be top heavy, with managers and supervisors required at every step to control
workers. There is little delegation of authority and control remains firmly centralized. McGregor recognized
that X-Type workers are in fact usually the minority, and yet in mass organizations, such as large scale
production environment, X Theory management may be required and can be unavoidable.
On the other hand theory Y assumes a participative style of management that is de-centralized. It assumes
that employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working with greater
responsibility. It assumes that workers:
 Take responsibility and are motivated to fulfill the goals they are given.
 Seek and accept responsibility and do not need much direction.
 Consider work as a natural part of life and solve work problems imaginatively.
This more participative management style tends to be more widely applicable. In Y-Type organizations,
people at lower levels of the organization are involved in decision making and have more responsibility.
With the changing scenario where consumers/clients are educated and well aware of their rights and when
their choices are changing with time, theory Y is more successful model for professional-client relationship.

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According to the McGregor, the Theory X is the traditional view of the direction and control. In Theory X its
responsibility of the employers to make employees do a certain task. It follows the carrot and sticks policy.
While Theory Y is indicative in the which subordinates are committed, self-motivated and participative in
nature. Theory X places exclusive reliance on external control of human behaviour while Theory Y relies on
self-regulation and self-motivation.
30. Likert’s views on System 4 turn out to be bookish and often impractical
in real world situations. Discuss.
The most important contribution of Likert was to conceptualise different systems of management along a
continuum. He identifies four distinct types of management styles. These are not isolated categories but
many intermediate categories are possible in between them. These are as follows:
 Management System 1: Exploitative -  Management System 3: Consultative
Authoritative  Management System 4: Participative
 Management System 2: Benevolent -
Authoritative
Likert believed that the component parts of the management system should be consistent with its overall
philosophy. Thus an exploitative - authoritative management system would show a steep hierarchial
structure, close supervision, one to one relations, lot of pressure for high performance and low motivation
among the employees. However the System 4 of participative style will show cross-functional linkages,
tendency for group relations, joint decision making and lateral communication besides the top - down
communication etc.
Systems 2 and 3 are intermediate levels in transition from System 1 to System 4 e. g. System 2 remains to be
authoritative like System 1 but its exploitative character is replaced by the benevolence of the management
towards its members. In consultative management style of System 3 broad based decisions are taken in
which some powers are delegated to the middle level management also.
Though Likert prefers System 4 to any other management system still he doesn't favour abruptly
transplanting the management style of one system in the other system. The skills of the members of the
organisation as well those of its leaders suit a particular system. If one system is forced on a group of
individuals not suited for it then the effectiveness of the whole system would decline. This is the reason
Likert pleads for only gradual change from System 1 to System 4 and not an abrupt change.
Likert believes that the overall strategy and philosophy of the management of the organisation should
change in accordance to System 4 principles and the isolated efforts of team building, job enrichment and
participative decision making etc. would not be of much use for the organisation.
Critical Evaluation of Rensis Likert
Likert's ideas are criticised on the following grounds:
 Likert's linking pin model is often accused of only drawing the triangles around the hierarchial structures
& slowing down the process of decision making and doing nothing more.
 Likert has not dwelt on how to push organisations from System 1 to System 4.
 In practice it is observed that management often reverts back to the System 1 & 2 techniques in times of
crisis. If System 4 is that much effective then why it is not preferred in times of emergency. Does it mean
that supportive relationships break down in these situations.
 Organisations exist in an overall ecology. If the society itself is hierarchical and authoritarian culture
exists in it then it should not be expected that the organisations would follow System 4 concept,
However notwithstanding these criticisms, Likert's views on linking pin model, participative style in
accordance with System 4, and idea of supportive relationships and that of interaction-influence system
bring about employee friendly management practices in the organisation theory. His ideas de-emphasise
status, power, position, hierarchy and de-personalise problem solving. Also Cross functional linkages and
upward & horizontal linkages are recognized in the organisation due to the attractive ideas of Rensis Likert.
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31. Simon’s fixation of decision-making at the core of public administration
seems acceptable but his positivist underpinning is distorting” Critically
examine.
Simon has considered decision making as core of public administration .He also focused on positivism and
rational decision making and had criticised classical thinkers for saying their ideas are nothing more than
proverbs.
Simon had identified decision making as the core field of public administration and observed in favour of
rationality in decision making. According to Simon, only through rationality and positivism could a decision
premises be verified and a logical consistency maintained. He had stated that at all levels in an organization,
decision making is the core activity : at lower levels, programmed decisions are carried out where due to the
presence of precedents and high amount of information, rationality was exercised more easily, and at higher
levels in the organization, non-programmed decisions were carried out since precedents rarely existed and
information was non existent or fragmented making total rationality difficult. This, along with lack of infinite
computing power and time and resource constraints led Simon to observe the concept of “Bounded
Rationality”. He tempered his positivist underpinnings by rejecting the idea of “economic man” and instead
observed that “satisficing man” was the norm since in most circumstances, the alternative that fit the bill
and was adequate was the one pursued, not the absolute best one.
Simon’s focus on decision making has been seen continued in the paradigm of participative management
where involvement of subordinates in decision making is a central theme.
Simon’s idea of rationality was challenged in totality by Charles Lindblom in his incrementalist approach. He
observed that decisions do not operate in a vacuum and most policy decisions are a continuation of earlier
policy decisions for the reasons of easy acceptability, stability and ease of transition. He stated that rational
decisions may be rejected due to their wide deviation from existing policy and environment. Dwight Waldo
rejected positivism in its entirety too, calling for a value based New Public Administration.
Amitai Etzioni in his mixed scanning model incorporated rationality and rejected the “total rejection of
rationality” by Lindblom. Yehezkel Dror too, in his Optimal model incorporated rational components along
with extra rational ones in decision making. NPA was also seen rejected due to its idealistic focus on values
that was not practical.
But his concept of logical positivism appears problematic because -
1. It calls for reducing the role of values in decision making and consider only facts.
2. Use of machine logic like game theory, data processing, etc.
Empiricism brings rationality in decision making and makes the decisions more effective. e.g. Banning of fire
works in temple celebrations in India might hurt the religious values but it is for the protection of the people.
But the administration works for the society and in the realms of political theory so it can't ignore the values
as has been advocated by NPA. e.g. The administration in India has to consider Tribal customs while
implementing laws in tribal areas as has been envisaged by the Constitution.
Thus over emphasis on facts makes the decisions mechanistic and unworkable and too much values make
them illogical. So there must be a synthesis of the two. Nevertheless, it can be seen that Simon’s idea of
centrality of decision making in management and inclusion of rational components are important
contributions with validity even today.
32. Managerial Cosmology is the key to motivation in an organisation.
Comment.
McGREGOR's THEORY X AND THEORY Y OF MOTIVATION:
Theory X is the negative theory of motivation and is not advisable except in the most required or inevitable
situations whereas Theory Y is the positive theory and is suggested.
(Negative/Black)Theory X assumes:

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1) Workers have a natural dislike for work.
2) Workers do not like taking responsibility.
3) Workers do not like challenging tasks.
4) Workers work better in an environment of standardized rules and procedures.
5) Workers lack creativity and innovation.
6) Workers like to be directed/ordered and perform better when specific orders are directed at them.
7) For the motivation of workers carrot and stick arrangement can be used.
Whereas the positive(White)
Theory Y assumes:
1) Workers show interest towards work when they have sufficient work assigned.
2) Workers take responsibilities when they are provided with opportunity for recognition.
3) Workers take up challenging tasks when superiors show trust in them.
4) Workers work better when they are allowed necessary discretion in regards to selection of procedure
and methods while performing a task.
5) Workers can be creative and innovative where they are provided sufficient space for the same.
5) Workers perform better when their "self" is allowed to operate.
6) Workers are seen to be motivated when they are provided with opportunities for advancement, learning
and recognition.
33. A “leader” is always a notch above a “manager”. Comment

It is believed that leadership and management should go hand in hand and they are closely linked and
complementary there are a few differences between the two. Leadership is a process whereby an individual
influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.
The difference between leader and manager are:-
 The manager maintains; the leader develops.
 The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it.
 The manager focuses on systems and structures; the leader focuses on people.
 The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.
 The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.
 The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.
 The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her eye on the horizon.
 The manager imitates; the leader originates.

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 The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.
Leadership is a broader concept characterized by broader values which include management values along
with equity, empowerment, inspiring others, collective welfare etc. Here, the output maximization is valid to
the extent that it benefits all proportionately. The transformational leadership focuses on vision or
foresightedness to consider long-term goals and stability of the organization. Similar, views have been
mentioned by Follet through a concept like situational leaders who unlike management work need to be
more organic and dynamic to spatial and temporal changes.
In the modern rapid changing world, the leader-manager separation or coordination depends upon the
situation and organization in they are working. As the organic adaptive organization is more successful same
the leader or manager which are adaptive to the situation is most successful. Leadership is an important
aspect of administering. The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys to bring effective administrator.
34. Ad-hoc bodies though temporary are ideal for Multi-Functional problems.
Comment
The political executive as and when required to aid them in discharging their functions with all detail and
correctly need to appoint various bodies on ad hoc or advisory capacity. Ad-hoc departments are created
when there is a an urgent need for focus and resolution of a certain function (Multi-functional and multi-
disciplinary in nature ) where specialists are appointed to comprise a unit and work only on that and provide
a fast and correct solution. Once that function is over these ad-hoc bodies cease to exist and the members
are either employed in some other department or sent back to the departments they came from.
Advisory bodies are created in regard to various functional areas as and when executive is of the opinion
that a deliberation and thorough analysis by specialists shall be useful before pursuing implementation of
policy in a given issue/area. These advisory bodies may be created by the Cabinet Secretary, Prime Minister's
Office or any other appropriate levels as seemed fit by the executive.
Ex: Advisory body on Economy may have Ministers and officials from Ministry of Finance, Commerce,
Agriculture, Infrastructure related ministries.
35. Headquarters and Field agencies are plagued by multitude of Problems.
What can be done to make their functioning more robust? Suggest.
HQ refers to an Establishment that is meant to direct, supervise and monitor the execution of public policy
which is done through the field(Area of physical activity) Establishments created at the specific geographical
locations for the same. HQ and Field Establishments (FE) should always have a clear communication as that
is the basic needed for smooth implementation of policies. HQ act as the head whereas the Field
Establishments act as the hands. Headquarters receive instructions regarding policy directly from the higher
authorities and it is passed on to the Field Establishments in communication understandable to them for
implementing the same.
The following measures have been suggested to ensure the smooth functioning of these organisations and
the proper implementation of public policy through them:
1) Effective and fast communication channels should be established between Field Establishments and
headquarters.
2) HQ officials while giving instructions/directions to FE should provide sufficient detail so that FE's can
easily understand and comprehend the same.
3) HQ officials should take into consideration the inputs provided by the FE before reaching conclusions in
regards to programme schedules required to be implemented at the field levels as the FE have the
ground knowledge of the situation.
4) Training programmes shall be organised so as to improve the competence of officials at Field level so
that orders could be effectively implemented by them.

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5) HQ officials shall carry out physical inspections in the FE from time to time to gather first hand
information on the discrepancies and ground realities existing there and suitable actions required.
6) FE officials shall be provided with opportunities like seminars/conferences, etc at the HQ level in order
to be aware of the core components of the policy programme and also get the necessary direction
through which implementation could be improved.
******

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“No Government On Earth Can make Men,

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