CE 312

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING

John Eduard D. Gallego, CE

Instructor
College of Engineering and Technology
Digos City
ROAD BED CONSTRUCTION

I. Soil as Structure

The early road constructions have concentrated mainly on the road surface pavement. Little
attention was given to the subgrade, the base materials, and the manner of construction more
particularly, the placing and compacting of the pavement foundation. As a result, too many road
failures past and present were recorded with an endless maintenance and rehabilitation activities.

Roadway has three major structural parts, namely:

1. The Sub-grade or Sub-base
2. The Base Course
3. The Pavement
The Sub-grade or Sub-base

Is the earth beneath the road, properly arranged and graded, compacted and stabilized. It is
defined as the “Supporting Structure on which the pavement surface and its special under-courses
rest.”

In a cut section of the road, the sub-grade is the original soil lying below the layers designated as
the base and sub-base materials. On fill road sections, subgrade consists of the imported materials
taken from nearby roadway cuts or from borrow pit.

The Base Course

is the materials laid on top of the sub-grade consisting of crushed stone or gravel, sometimes
mixed with asphalt binders.

The Pavement
is the material laid over the base coarse consisting of Asphalt Concrete or Portland Cement
Concrete.
Types of Base Course

Base course is classified into two types:

1. The granular base course or untreated soil mixture.

2. Treated base course.

The granular base course is a road surface of untreated soil mixture described as
gravel road.

Gravel road consist largely of stone pebbles or crushed rock particles combined
with either; clay, lime, iron oxide or other fine materials sufficient enough to serve
as binder of the coarse particles.
Construction and Maintenance Requirements of Untreated Gravel Road
Surface

1. That, the road must be stable to support the super imposed loads without detrimental
deformation. It must be resistant against various traffic activities and could with stand
the abrasive action of traffic.

2. It must shed the large portion of rain that falls on the sur face because water
penetrating the sub grade might soften it and loosen the surface stability.

3. It must be free from large rocks or stones over one inch in diameter so that it could be
regularly maintained by blading or dragging.

4. Gravel road must possess capillarity properties sufficient enough to replace the moisture
lost through the surface evaporation. The road must maintain the desired damp
condition that is required to bind the particles together.

5. On dry weather, the moisture film on the clay particles should bind the entire mass
together, and in wet weather, the first rain that fall on the surface, should expand the
clay and close the pores to prevent water from entering and softening the materials.
Construction and Maintenance Requirements of Untreated Gravel Road
Surface

6. An excessive amount of highly expansive clay materials should be avoided because clay
will swell and unseat the coarser materials when wet and ultimately will weaken the
stability of the road.

7. Gravel road must be low cost. Funds for low traffic road is very limited that most of the
time overlooked in the list of appropriation priorities except on election period.

8. Use local materials. Meaning, those materials that could be found nearby the project
must be utilized.

If the gravel surface road is to be maintained for several years without bituminous or
asphalt surface treatment or other impervious surfacing, AASHTO standard specifications
requires maximum liquid limit of 35 and a Plastic Index of 4 to 9 and a maximum 8%
passing the No. 200 sieve.
Treated Base Course

To stabilize the base coarse, it is sometimes treated with either Asphalt, Lime, Portland
Cement or other materials as binders mixed with the aggregate base course.

Asphalt or bituminous treatment is employed to waterproof and bind the granular aggregate
to the sand and clay. Thus, the primary function of the asphalt in a treated aggregate, is
water proofing. Asphalt treated base allows a thinner over all depth of the pavement.
Different types of asphalt are used to bind the natural materials like untreated granular base
and granular aggregate with sands and even clay.

The type of asphalt binders for base course depends on several factors enumerated as
follows:
The type of asphalt binders for base course depends on several factors enumerated as
follows:

1. The mixing procedure is either by plant or field mixing.

2. If mixing is processed in the plant, the aggregate is heated to specified temperature and
mixed with either, Asphalt Cement, Cutback asphalt or Emulsion asphalt.

3. The quality of asphalt is classified as either for stabilizing or for waterproofing purposes
only.

4. If the purpose is for stability, mixtures are measured in the laboratory by the Marshall or
HVEEM Stabilometer procedures. The weight of asphalt in percentage would probably in
the range of 5% to 7%.

5. If the purpose is for waterproofing only, 2% to 3% of the asphalt binder is added.

6. If Emulsion asphalt is used, enough water is included in the mixture to allow compaction
at near optimum moisture content.
Sand and Asphalt Base Course

The sand and asphalt base course is composed of either, loose beach sand, dune
pit or river sand cemented with asphalt materials. In the early road construction,
sand and clay mixture is not only used as road surfaces but also for base courses.
But lately, the Cutback asphalt, Emulsified asphalt or Tars have been introduced as
substitute for the clay binders to produce quality base courses for roads and
highways.

Sand for mixing asphalt should be clean and strong, because the surface
properties and grain shape must have the quality to resist displacement under
load. If in the event that quality of available sand is not satisfactory, it may be
blended with sharp angular particles like crushed aggregate, stone or screened
slag, stone dust, loess, cement or other non-cohesive minerals to produce an
stable mixture. The test could be by the Hubbard Field, Marshall and Hveem
Stabilometer procedures. Asphalt binders with the grade of asphalt cement for hot
plant mixing should be:
Sand and Asphalt Base Course

Asphalt binders with the grade of asphalt cement for hot plant mixing should be:

a.) Medium viscosity, rapid or medium curing asphalts.

b.) Slow setting emulsified asphalt or
c.) Tars of grade RT-6 to RT-10.

The content of asphalt binder is in percent by weight ranging from 4% to 10%.

Compaction is done using either pneumatic tired or smooth wheeled roller. In case
the surface is tight and non-friable, sealing could be disregarded.
Fine Grain Asphalt Base

An asphalt stabilized base and sub-grade constructed with fine grained has a
controlled Plastic Index of 6 to 10 respectively. Aggregates with Plasticity Index up
to 30 are processed with lime. Those with up to 50% passing the No. 200 sieve
and Plastic Index up to 18 can be stabilized even without pre treatment.
Soil and Base Course Stabilized with Cement

The use of Portland cement in stabilizing soils and aggregates was initially
practiced after World War-1 in 1914.

1. Cement stabilization by mixing natural materials and Portland cement

compacted at optimum moisture content and cured to hydrate the cement is
considerably strong and stable base. It is less susceptible to deformation
caused by moisture and temperature changes.

2. Comparatively, this is less rigid than the Portland cement concrete because its
modulus of elasticity ranges from 100,000 for clay soils with little cement up to
1,000,000 for the strong mixture. Its compressive strength ranges from 300
psi to 600 psi with flexural strength of about 20% of the compressive value.

3. Portland cement concrete modulus of elasticity ranges from 3 million to 6

million with compressive strength of about 3,000 to 5,000 psi.
Soil and Base Course Stabilized with Cement

Materials having plasticity index greater than 30 is rarely used, unless lime is added.
Materials with high PH or sulfate content are not advisable for use. The cement content for
stabilized mixture ranges from 5% to 14% by volume of 3% to 16% by weight of dry
aggregates. Sandy and gravelly soils required less amount of cement, unlike the silty and
clayey soils that needs higher percentage of cement.

The quality of aggregate cement mixture is measured by its ability to resist abrasion and
disintegration. Other methods of testing for stabilize cement content is the Unconfined and
Tri axial Compression and Flexure Tests.
Grading and Maintenance of Untreated Surface

The cross slope of untreated surface gravel road must be sufficient enough to drain water to
prevent potholes and softening of the roadway, thus;

1. If the road materials are sufficiently stable and water tight, one inch per slope is
considered satisfactory al though 3/8 to 1/2" peer foot slope is preferred.

2. If the road is steep grade, substantial cross slope is needed to direct the water into the
roadside.

Untreated surface road is seldom constructed in less than 20 centimeters loose depth. When
compacted, will be compressed to about 15 centimeters thick. Road development
sometimes adopted the stage construction methods which means, step by step
improvement of the roadway, depending upon the availability of funds and demand of
increased traffic. The sequence of improvement could be as follows:

First: It might be an earth road surface.

Second: Untreated gravel road.
Third: Application of asphalt over the gravel.
Fourth: The use of stone type pavement with gravel as part of the base course.
Maintenance of gravel road surface is a routine activity specially in maintaining the
smoothness of the surface under the following procedures:

1. By cutting off a thin layer of the road surface using road grader distributing the
scraped layer uniformly over the roadway surface. The cut is deep enough to remove
the corrugations of the road surface.

2. The blading sequence is once or twice a year or some times monthly, depending
upon the finances, traffic and equipment availability. After blading, the road is
compacted by road roller to maintain the cross section slope and the crown of the
roadway.

3. The most effective routine maintenance is done immediately after rainfall where the
surface is soft for the blade to drag.

4. Losses of materials caused by grading and traffic wear generally ranges from ½" to 1
inch of the thickness per year although it varies due to traffic volume, rainfall, wind
intensity, frequency and maintenance practice or habit.

5. Compaction is effectively done by using pneumatic tired or steel wheeled rollers.

Where surface is tight and non variable, sealing may be omitted.
DPWH Standard Specifications on Aggregate Sub-Base Course

The Department of Public Works and Highways classified the aggregate sub-base course as
Item 200 which consists of furnishing, placing and compacting aggregate sub-base course
on a prepared sub-grade.

Item - 200 Material Requirements

That, aggregates for sub-base shall consist of hard, durable particles of fragments or
crushed stone, crushed slag or crushed or natural gravel and filler or natural crushed sand
or other firmly divided mineral matter.

The composite material should be free of vegetable matter and lumps or balls of clay that
could be compacted readily to form a firm stable base.
Conditions

1. The fraction passing the 0.075mm (200) Sieve should not be greater than 0.666 (2/3) of
the fraction passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve.

2. The fraction passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve should have a liquid limit not greater
than 35 and Plasticity Index not more than 12 as determined by AASHTO T-89 and T-90
respectively.

3. The coarse portion retained on a 3.0mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of
wear not to exceed 50 by the Los Angeles Abrasion Tests as determined by AASHTO T-
193. The CBR value should be obtained at a maximum dry density as determined by
AASHTO T-180 Method D.
Item – 201 Aggregate Subbase Course
Conditions

1. The fraction passing the 0.075mm (200) Sieve shall have a mass percent of wear not to
exceed 50.

2. The fraction passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not greater than 25
and Plasticity Index not greater than 6.

3. The coarse portion retained on a 2.0mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a mass percent of wear
not to exceed 50.

4. The materials passing the 20mm (3/4”) sieve shall have a soaked CBR value of not less than
80%.
Item – 202 Crushed Aggregate Base Course

Material Requirements:

1. The portion passing the 0.075mm (200) Sieve shall not be greater than 0.666 (2/3) of
the portion passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve.

2. The portion passing the 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve shall have a liquid limit not more than
25 and Plasticity Index not greater than 6.

3. The coarse aggregate retained on 2.0mm (No. 10) sieve shall have a mass percent of
wear not more than 45 by L.A. abrasion tests, and not less than 50 mass percent shall
have at least one fractured face.

4. The materials passing the 20mm (3/4”) sieve shall have a soaked CBR value of not less
than 80%.
Item – 203 Lime Stabilized Road Mix Base Course

This item consists of foundation for a surface course composed of soil aggregate, lime and
water proportion mixed on site and constructed on a prepared sub-grade or sub-base.

Material Requirements:
1. Soil aggregates refers to the combination of gravel, sand, silt and clay, or other
approved combination of materials free from vegetable or other objectionable matter
that might be encountered in the construction site or obtained from other approved
sources.

2. The intent of the specification is to utilized soil existing in the roadbed if the quality is
satisfactory according to the specifications and minimizing cost.

3. On the contrary, if the material quality is poor or deficient, aggregate must be obtained
wholly or partially from an approved outside sources.
Conditions:

1. That, the Plastic Index of the Item 203 should not be less than 4 or more than 10. The
aggregate mass percent of wear should not exceed 50.

2. Hydrated lime must conform to the requirements of Item 701 – Construction Lime. The
amount of lime added to soil aggregate should be from 2 to 12 mass percent of the dry
soil.
3. Lime should not be applied during windy, rainy or with impending bad weather.

4. The equipment to be used includes: scarifyer, pulverizer, mixer, spreader, hauler, water
truck, compactor and finishing machine, including slurry lime distributor equipment.

5. Distributor equipment should include: pressure gauge, volume measuring devices or a

calibrated tank. It should be equipped with power unit for the pump and full circulation
spray bars adjustable laterally and vertically and also agitator to prevent setting of solid
lime.
Preparation of the Soil Aggregate

Case – 1 For New Soil Aggregate

1. The existing roadbed is scarified lightly and bladed to a uniform grade according to the plan, then
rolled, watered and rolled.

2. All depressions appearing on the surface are filled, and the weak portion of the roadbed is
strengthened with new soil aggregate.

3. Allow one day for measuring, sampling and testing of the sample for approval of the quality and
gradation before spreading the windrow for application of the hydrated lime.

4. If the soil aggregate moisture exceeds two mass percent of the dry aggregate, apply aeration by
harrowing the soil aggregate until the moisture content is reduced to 2% or less.

5. Finally, spread the aggregate smoothly and uniformly over half the road or other convenient width
of the surface ready for the application of hydrated lime.
Preparation of the Soil Aggregate

Case – 2 Salvage Soil Aggregate

1. When the materials in the site are to be used for mixing, the surface should be scarified lightly and
bladed to a uniform grade conforming to the cross section of the plan.

2. The reshaped surface if scarified again to depth required leaving a foundation of undisturbed
material parallel with the profile and cross section.

3. The loosened materials are bladed into a windrow at the side of the roadway. The undisturbed
materials are then rolled, watered and rolled.
Application of Lime

Application of Lime shall follow correct procedures enumerated as follows:

1. The hydrated lime is uniformly spreaded at specified percent using either the dry or slurry (wet) methods.

2. The lime is distributed in successive applications at the amount and intervals as prescribed.

3. The mixing equipment follows immediately behind the distributor after each application to partially mix
lime with the soil aggregate.

4. It is applied only to specific areas as can be mixed into the soil aggregate during the day of application.

5. Dry application is either spotting bags of lime in equal pre-determined transverse and longitudinal
intervals or by applying in bulk lime from equipped self-loading trucks.

6. If lime slurry (wet) is employed, the typical slurry ratio is 1,000 kilograms lime to 2 cubic meters water.
The actual mixing proportion depends upon the percent of lime specified, the type of soil and its moisture
condition.

7. To prevent run-off and consequent non-uniformity of lime distribution, the slurry is mixed immediately
after each spreading pass.
Mixing

Mixing procedures are enumerated as follows:

1. After the last time application and partial mixing, the entire mass of mixture is withdrawn on the road
surface the mixed by blading the mixture from side to side of the road, or by manipulation producing
equivalent results until the whole mass has uniform color. The mixture should be free from lean spots or
balls of unmixed particles.

2. Should the mixture show an excess of deficiency or uneven distribution of lime, the condition must be
corrected by adding soil aggregate or lime then remixed.

3. If the mixture contains excessive amount of water or volatile matter, as may be encountered in slurry
operation, it should be bladed, aerated or manipulated until the moisture and volatile content becomes
satisfactory.

4. Whether mixing is completed or not, all loosened materials are bladed into a windrow at the end of each
day work and retained as such until operations resumed.
Spreading, Compacting and Finishing

The methods of spreading, compacting, and finishing are enumerated as follows:

1. The materials are spreaded by self-propelled pneumatic tired bladed grader or mechanical spreader of
approved type. Cutting into the underlying course should be avoided.

2. After spreading, the surface is leveled to the road centerline, then to the outer edges of the road
overlapping the shoulder.

3. Each pass should terminate at least 90 centimeters in advance or to rear of the end of the preceding
pass.

4. During the time of compaction, the surface is dragged or bladed as necessary to fill and remove incipient
corrugation or other surface irregularities.

5. Rolling must continue until after the surface is in uniform texture satisfactorily compacted.

6. Rolling should be stopped whenever there is an excessive pulverizing of the aggregate or displacement of
the mixture.
Protection, Curing and Maintenance

After stabilizing the base course by lime, it is protected against rapid drying for a period of at least 5 days by
either of the following curing methods:

1. A thorough and continuous moist condition should be maintained by sprinkling water.

2. The surface must be covered with 50mm layer of earth or sand and maintained in moist condition.
3. The surface is applied with asphalt membrane of the type and quality approved by the Highway Agency.
Item - 204 Portland Cement Stabilized Road Mix Base Course

This item consist of a foundation for surface course composed of soil aggregate, Portland
cement and water, proper proportions of the road-mixed placed on a prepared sub-grade or
sub-base.

Proportioning Mixture:

1. The amount of cement added to the aggregate shall be 6 to 10 mass percent of the dry
aggregate.
2. Construction requirement and procedures is the same as that of Item-203 wherein the
world lime is deleted and replaced with Portland Cement.
Item - 205 Asphalt Stabilized Road Mixed Base Course

Materials: Asphalt materials should be Anionic or Cationic Emulsion Asphalt of the slow
setting type.

Proportioning Mixture:

1. The amount of asphalt material to be added to the aggregate shall be from 4 to 7 mass
percent of the dry aggregate.
Item - 207 Portland Cement Treated Plant Mix Base Course

A) Travel Plant Mixing Method: The salvage or new aggregate is pulverized until at least
80 mass percent of all the materials other than stone or gravel passes a 4.75 mm (No.
40) sieve. Any material retained on a 50 mm (2") sieve and other unsuitable materials
are removed.

Procedure:
1. Aggregates to be treated, is placed in uniform windrow spreaded to a uniform thickness
to the required depth.

2. Portland cement of proper quantity is applied uniformly in a trench on top of the

windrows or spreaded uniformly over the aggregates.

3. Mixing is done by machine for thorough and uniform blended mixture.

4. When this method is used, a maximum time of 2 hours is allowed for wet mixing,
letdown and finishing.
B) Central Plant Mixing Method. The plant is equipped with feeding and metering
devices that will introduce the cement aggregate and water into the mixer in quantities
specified. Mixing continue until after a uniform mixture is attained.

C) Spreading, Compacting and Finishing. Not more than 60 minutes should elapse from
the start of mixing to compaction of the laid mixture. After spreading, the mixture is
compacted and finished in accordance with the procedures as enumerated for lime
stabilized road mix base course Item 2-3.
Item 100 - Clearing and Grubbing

It consists of clearing, grubbing, removing and disposing of all vegetable matter and debris except
those objects that are designated to remain in place or are to be removed in consonance with other
provisions of the specifications. It also includes preservation from injury or defacement of all objects
designated to remain.

Specifications for Clearing and Grubbing provides that:

1. All surface objects and all trees, stumps, roots and other protruding obstructions, not designated
to remain should be cleared and/or grubbed including the mowing required as follows:
Methods of Measurement

1. Area Basis – by hectare and fractions thereof acceptably cleared and grubbed.

2. Lump Sum Basis – No measurement of area will be made for this item.

3. Individual Unit Basis (Selective Clearing). The diameter of trees will be measured at a height of 1.4
meters above the ground. Trees less than 15cm. Diameter will not be measured for payment.

The unit basis will be designated and measured in accordance with the following schedule of sizes:

Diameter at height 1.4 meters – payment item designated

Over 15cm to 90 cm - Small
Over 90 cm - Large
Excavation

Excavation is the process of loosening and removing earth or rock from its original position in a cut
and transporting it to a fill or to waste deposit.

Roadway excavation is classified into:

1. Unclassified excavation – is the excavation and disposal of all materials regardless of its nature, or
not classified and included in the Bill of
2. Rock Excavation -
3. Common Excavation
4. Muck Excavation
5. Borrow Excavation