See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/289284156

Forming fabrics, drainage rates and paper properties

Article  in  Appita Journal · January 2002

CITATIONS READS

3 3,591

5 authors, including:

Richard Helmer Geoff Covey

Independent retired
49 PUBLICATIONS   557 CITATIONS    71 PUBLICATIONS   385 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Warwick Raverty Nafty Vanderhoek

Monash University (Australia) 46 PUBLICATIONS   340 CITATIONS   
59 PUBLICATIONS   1,259 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Swimming Technology View project

Fibre Composite Technologies View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Geoff Covey on 23 November 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Forming fabrics, drainage rates and
paper properties.
RICHARD J. N. HELMERX, GEOFF H. COVEY*,
WARWICK D. RAVERTY†, NAFTY
VANDERHOEK‡, and GEORGE TANÅ.
X
Postdoctoral Fellow, †Research Team Leader, ‡ Senior
Principal Research Scientist, Paper Making Systems,
CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Private Bag 10
Clayton South MDC Vic 3169 Australia.
*Associate Professor, ÅUndergraduate Student, The
University of Melbourne, Vic 3010 Australia.
Keywords: Drainage, Fibre Orientation, Formation,
Forming fabrics, Fourdrinier, Model, Paper, Pulp Flow.
ABSTRACT
The effect of the structure of forming fabrics on de-
watering during paper forming and the resultant paper
properties; including sheet formation and the extent of MD
fibre orientation and two sidedness, was investigated using
the University of Melbourne (UoM) laboratory paper
former. Sheets were formed from a virgin, unrefined,
commercial bleached eucalypt kraft pulp (dry lap) with a
small amount of fluorescent fibre: the fluorescent fibre
enabled the fibre alignment distribution to be determined
for each side of the sheet. A selection of six 2 ½ layer
forming fabrics were examined with the UoM sheet former
operated at a nominal standard flow condition: stock
consistency of 0.53 w/w %, stock flowing over the wire at
0.52 m/s, vacuum reservoir -50kPa, and with the slice set
to 10mm. The sheet forming process was captured in the z-
MD plane with a high speed digital imaging system which
enabled the flow depth during de-watering to be measured
by image analysis. The design of the forming fabric
affected the drainage rate and a series of drainage curves
was obtained. The effect of the forming fabrics’ drainage
behaviour on sheet properties is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The design of forming fabrics is known to affect stock
drainage behaviour and sheet structure and so offers a
means of controlling machine performance and paper
quality. The de-watering behaviour of pulp stocks is
routinely measured by various devices [1-5] and standard
tests [6]. These tests generally provide an indirect
indication of the drainage behaviour of the pulp and do not
consider the actual de-watering processes of particular
paper machines1. It has also not been possible to closely
observe the entire de-watering process, particularly in the
z-MD plane, except in the case of University of Melbourne
(UoM) laboratory sheet former [7,8]. The UoM laboratory
1
The time scale is generally orders of magnitude too large,
except for [4,5].
former has been demonstrated to produce paper sheets
which have planar properties that are comparable to those
of commercial papers which were formed using similar
process conditions (consistency and jet-wire difference), in
a repeatable manner [8, 9]. It has also been possible to use
this device to evaluate pulp formation potential [10] and to
correlate the process conditions of the UoM former with
the formation of sheets produced by it [8, 11]. In this
study, a high speed digital imaging system, (HSDIS) was
used in conjunction with the UoM former to determine
drainage rates during sheet forming and to examine the
impact of the de-watering process on key paper properties
under realistic operating conditions.
THEORY
The distribution of fibres in paper is largely determined in
the forming region of a paper machine which includes the
headbox and wire operations. The flow phenomena of pulp
suspensions in the forming region, immediately prior to
and during de-watering, directly influence the structural
characteristics of the final fibre network and the properties
of paper [8].
The stationary wire model approach of the UoM laboratory
sheet former simulates commercial Fourdrinier paper
machines which have a fully developed channel flow prior
to de-watering, see Figure 1.
Indirectly Simulated Direct Simulation
Pulp 1st Point of
Stock
Slice Similarity
Free Jet
Formed
Web
Headbox Wire
De-watering
Figure 1. Similarity of the UoM laboratory former and
a Fourdrinier paper machine [8].
The key wet-end features of the UoM that enable the
device to mimic commercial Fourdrinier operation include:
a velocity profile above the wire, similar suspension
characteristics, (similar consistency range and depth), and
a similar vacuum pressure profile. The stationary wire
forming concept of the UoM sheet former has a simple
relation between the commercial process operating
parameters and laboratory operating parameters as
discussed in [8].
Recent studies into forming phenomena using the UoM [7]
have identified the mechanism of forming as a boundary
layer filtration process, i.e. the stock continues to flow
throughout the de-watering process and the fibres pass
through a boundary layer located immediately above the
forming fabric before being deposited in the mat, as
depicted in Figure 2.
Appita 2002 - 247
 MD air v, bulk mean stock velocity2, (m/s),
Uniformity of Upper h, flow depth (m).
suspension
z Region of Flow Determined and,
v Upstream (in Headbox).
s
Fibres interacting with
NFI = Eq. 2
Boundary Layer BWt
Boundary Layer where,
(High Shear Region) NFI, normalised formation index.
Plug Flow wire
Developing
Velocity Profile
fibre mat
s, standard deviation basis weight (gsm),

Figure 2: Paper forming described as Boundary Layer BWt , mean3 basis weight (gsm).
Filtration process [7].
Equation 1 was derived from studies where the vacuum
Hence, the final position of the fibres is significantly application was held constant and only one type of forming
influenced by the boundary layer shear at the wire [7]. fabric was used. It is anticipated that this model might be
Thus the drainage rate and wire structure, including expanded to include a characterisation of the de-watering
permeability and smoothness, are expected to be important process, a “drainage number”, Dr such that:
factors in determining the extent to which the boundary NFI = k NFI Cr e1 Fr e2 Fa e3 Dr e4 Eq. 3
layer acts on fibres. where,
Dr, Drainage number,
The key process variables of paper forming that have been kNFI, constant, (gsm0.5),
identified to date are shown in Figure 3. e1-4, exponents for each dimensionless group.
MD The Dr might be expected to be a function of the forming
P1 fibre l
air fabrics mesh design (e.g. hole size, number) and process
z
c suspension d conditions (e.g. DP).
v h
DP = P2 - P1 The fibre orientation of the sheets formed on the UoM
laboratory former have not been correlated with process
wire conditions due to various problems associated with the
P2
testing and measurement of different basis weight sheets as
discussed in [8].
Figure 3. Flow Field Characterisation of Forming:
Time dependent point analysis in the MD-CD plane
viewed in the z-MD plane, (the point of interest is APPARATUS & PROCEDURE
represented by the dashed vertical line) [11].
UoM Sheet Former.
It has been possible to develop an empirical model for The principal components of the UoM former are shown in
predicting formation from combining these key process Figure 4.
variables into dimensionless groups [11]. The formation
(NFI) of the sheets formed on the model Fourdrinier from
three different pulps (one long fibre and two short fibre)
Head
were found to correlate well (R2= 0.94) with these groups Tank
according to Equation 1:
GV1 V1 Distributor
Self Supporting
Headbox
0.6 -0.18 -0.13 Flow Receiver
NFI = k ´ Cr Fr Fa Eq. 1 (with wall ext.)
V3
V4
for 10 < Cr < 60, 1 < Fr < 5, 3 < Fa < 15, and k~ 0.2
Receiver
gsm0.5, with, Tank
p cl 2 v2 h Vacuum
V2
Cr = , Fr = , Fa = , Pump
Reservoir
Vacuum Vessel
6d gh l (with falling plate)

where,
Cr, crowding number,
Fr, Froude number, Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the basic components
Fa, aspect ratio of flow depth to fibre length, and the configuration of the laboratory former.
c, consistency (g/l),
l, characteristic mean fibre length (mm),
d, fibre coarseness, (mg/m). 2
g, gravitational acceleration, (m/s2). I.e. jet to wire difference
3
Over bar denotes mean.

248 - Appita 2002

The UoM laboratory former represents a batch process. To
form a sheet, a stable re-circulating flow is first established
and the important process variables recorded. The
consistency was sampled from the forming region and
vacuum vessel and was measured gravimetrically. Forming
is then initiated via an electronic controller which removes
the flow support, (falling plate in Figure 4), and shuts
down the flow (closes GV1). Process changes to the
consistency and velocity are effected by diluting the system
and adjusting valve V1 (and V3, see Figure 4) respectively.
Sheets were formed at the nominal condition shown in
Table 1 with at least three sheets formed for each forming
fabric. This condition was chosen as it is representative of
commercial operation whilst typically producing
reasonable anisotropy and formation [10]. The sheets were
couched using a couching plate as described elsewhere
[12]. Further details of the method of operation are
reported elsewhere [8,10].
Table 1
UoM Forming Conditions.
Pulp c vMD slice Pres
w
/w% m/s mm kPa
BEK 0.53 0.52 10 -50
+/- 0.03 0.03 0.2 1 movement of fibres (and a buoyant particle) from one
Forming Fabrics.
Six different commercially available 2 ½ layer forming
fabrics, designated hO3, h12, h28, h34, h54 and h61, were
used. The characteristics of the forming fabrics used in this
study are shown in Appendix A, Table A1.
Pulp Stock.
An imported commercial air dried, virgin, un-refined, dry
lap bleached eucalypt kraft pulp with a small amount of
fluorescent nylon fibre was used throughout the study4.
The stocks were prepared by suspending measured
quantities of pulp in measured volumes of town water. A
small amount of commercial sodium hypochlorite was
added to prevent bacterial growth, (10 ml into the 200L
system).
Flow Analysis.
A Phantom IV C-MOS digital camera fitted with a
telephoto lens and operated at 400 and 500 pictures per
second (pps) was used to record images of the flow
structure. The camera was positioned to record the flow in
the z-MD plane through a transparent side wall, as shown
in Figure 5, and the focal point adjusted to a location just
beyond the wall similar to earlier studies [7].
4
The fibre properties (l =1 mm, d = 10 mg/100m) were
assumed to calculate the Cr and Fa for Eq 4. The fibres
were not modified during the experiment and so this
assumption does not affect the trend shown in Figure13.
Headbox
CD
Forming MD
Camera Region
Recorded
flow area Transparent
Side Wall
Flow to Receiving
Vessel
Figure 5. Location of Camera.
The lighting and camera settings were adjusted to achieve
a reasonable contrast between the more and less dense
regions of the flow and to highlight individual fibres. The
kinetic data, stock velocity relative to wire (vMD ) and
drainage velocity (vZ), were measured by scaling the image
to calibration bars and measuring the height of flow and
frame to the next at fixed intervals using commercial
software supplied with the camera. Prior to forming, the
flow structures were also observed with the naked eye.
Sheet Analysis.
A4 samples were cut from the central region of highest
uniformity as in earlier studies [9]. Formation was
measured using an Ambertec beta-ray formation tester
(Ambertec Model No. BFT-1). An aperture size of 1mm
with a scanning region of 69 x 69 mm2 was employed. The
Normalised Formation Index5, NFI, was used to
characterise formation as defined earlier (Eq 2).
The two sidedness, the fibre orientation on each side of the
sheet, was investigated using images of each side of the
sheet (190 x 110 mm) that were collected with a Kodak
Megaplus digital camera and an ultraviolet light: the small
amount of fluorescent nylon fibres gave a good contrast.
The images were thresholded to give a binary image and
the fibre orientation distribution was measured using
proprietary image analysis software. A sample set of
images and the analysis is shown in Figure 6 and 7
respectively.
5
Also referred to as the standard formation number [7].
Appita 2002 - 249
 h54-01 h54-02 h54-03 h54-04
14

12

10

Depth (mm)
8

4
h(h54) = -0.0003t2 - 0.1099t - 0.0199
2 R2 = 1

0
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Figure 6: Typical FOI images a). topside, and b). wire Tim e (m s)
side, (sheet 11092001-04).
Figure 8: Drainage curves for fabric 540

Figure 9 below shows a comparison of the drainage curves

for all six 2 ½ layer fabrics studied. In general, it was
observed that there was a large difference between the
drainage behaviour of fabrics with different structures and
more subtle differences between those with the same
structures but different yarns, (fabrics which have the same
structure have similar symbols in Figure 9, e.g. all open
shapes for 8 shed)
a b
Figure 7: A typical FOI and anisotropy result a). h34 h54 hO3 h12 h28 h61
topside, and b). wire side, (sheet 11092001-04). 14

12
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
The initial stock velocity was maintained well into the 10
forming process and then decreased rapidly during the final
Depth (mm)

stages of de-watering (i.e. slowed during last 2 – 3 mm). A 8

typical series of digital images captured during sheet
forming on each fabric (designated hO3, h12, h28, h34, 6
h54 and h61) from which the flow depth and drainage rate
was determined are shown in Appendix A, Figures A1 for 4
the sheet formed using the fabric designated h12 (sheet
06092001-01). Typical result of the de-watering behaviour 2
of one fabric , designated h54 for a number of sheets being
formed with this fabric is shown below in Figure 8, see 0
Appendix B for others. -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Tim e (m s)

Figure 9: Drainage curves for six 2 ½ layer forming

fabrics.

The de-watering curves shown in Figure 9 were well

characterised by a quadratic function. In general, the de-
watering curves obtained were repeatable although some
deviations were observed (e.g. see Appendix B, Figures
B1-B5) due to anomalies in the control and operation of
the UoM former and stabilisation of the fabric6. It can also

6
I.e. the fabric often drainage very quickly for the first
sheet formed due to its extreme cleanliness and dryness.

250 - Appita 2002

be seen in Figure 9 that different flow depths were h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All
established above each of the fabrics. This meant sheets of 0.10
slightly different basis weight being formed. The more
coarsely woven fabrics tended to cause deeper flows
suggesting a greater resistance to stock flow. It was also 0.09
noted during the study that the coarser fabrics also required
more head to achieve the desired stock velocity over the

Vz late (m/s)
0.08
wire (i.e. 0.52 m/s).

The fines retention of the fabrics was different due to the 0.07
different porous structures of the fabrics7 and the average
white water consistency8 is shown in Figure 10.
0.06

h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All

0.05
0.10
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Surface Open area %
0.08
Figure 11: Complex interaction between fabric
Ave WWC (w/w %)

structure and de-watering behaviour.

0.06
The formation of the sheets produced in this study was
0.04 comparable to commercial machine paper made at similar
conditions and all sheets exhibited a degree of anisotropy
consistent with commercially manufactured papers. The
0.02 late drainage rate (vz late) affected the formation of the
sheets most as it accounted for a greater proportion of the
0.00
sheet. It can be seen in Figure 12 that a slower drainage
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
rate led to sheets with better formation which is consistent
with general observations of machine performance. This is
Hole size (m m )
thought to be due to fibres having a greater time for
Figure 10: Average white water concentration for six 2 movement in the boundary layer and so result in greater
½ layer forming fabrics. hydrodynamic smoothing.

The properties of the sheets was affected by the fabrics h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All
drainage behaviour and the properties of the sheets formed 1.10
for each fabric are summarised in Table A1 (Appendix A).
The de-watering process was separated into an early (h > 1.05
9mm) and late (8mm > h > 0mm) drainage velocity to
investigate the effect of de-watering rate on the two 1.00
sidedness and formation of sheets. The interaction between
NFI (gsm 0.5)

0.95
the structural characteristics of the forming fabric and the
de-watering behaviour it exhibited was complex, see 0.90
Figure 11. Simple measures of permeability (e.g. surface
open area) are potentially misleading as for example the 0.85
geometry, size, and number of holes (per area) in the fabric
are all important in determining the drainage rate. Hence, 0.80
the effect of fabric design on sheet structure has first been
considered in terms of the drainage rates observed. 0.75
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Vz late (m /s)

Figure 12: The effect of late drainage velocity on

formation.

The small variation in other key variables, particularly h,

7
was thought to be also affecting the formation and so the
See note on hole size in Appendix A. correlation developed in earlier studies (Eq 1) was used to
8
The white water was slightly diluted as ca 1L water is calculate a modified formation index, NFI*, so that these
added prior to forming to fill the gap between the falling effects could be accounted for:
plate and the surface of the fabric on the UoM former.

Appita 2002 - 251

 drainage rate enabled fibres time to align with the MD
NFI during deposition. The topside of the flow has been
NFI * = Eq. 4 observed to be less oriented in the MD in earlier studies.
k ´ Cr 0.6 Fr - 0.18 Fa - 0.13

The importance of the late drainage velocity was more It was initially thought the wire side anisotropy would be
evident when the modified formation was used, as shown affected by the early drainage rate however this didn’t
in Figure 13. appear to be so, see Figure 15. The most probable
explanation for this observation is the de-watering rate
being slow enough to allow most fibres to align in the MD.
h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All
1.10
h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All
1.05 0.80

1.00
0.75

Wireside Anisotropy
0.95
NFI*

y = 5.5714x + 0.4848
R2 = 0.8178 0.70
0.90

0.85 0.65

0.80
0.60
0.75
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
0.55
Vz late (m /s)
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Figure 13: The effect of late drainage velocity on Vz early (m /s)
modified formation, NFI* (Eq 4) to allow for the small
variations in other key process variables. Figure 15: The effect of early drainage on wire side
anisotropy.
The late drainage rate also had a significant effect on the
anisotropy of the top side of the sheet with a higher vz late It appeared that the wire side was more greatly affected by
leading to lower MD fibre alignment, see Figure 14. the structure of the fabric. In particular the amount of CD
surface mesh, see Figure 16. It should be noted that the h54
fabric yielded anisotropy results which were somewhat
h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All anomalous and are not understood9.
0.60

h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61 All

0.55 0.80
Topside Anisotropy

0.50 0.75
Wireside Anisotropy

0.45 0.70

0.40 0.65

0.35 0.60
0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.11
Vz late (m /s) 0.55
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Figure 14: The effect of late drainage on Topside
anisotropy. CD Surface Mesh

Figure 16: The effect of CD surface mesh on wire side

The extent of topside MD fibre alignment was attributed to anisotropy.
the amount of time fibres spent in the boundary layer. A
higher drainage rate tending to capture the alignment 9
These sheets were formed first and it is possible that the
present in the flow prior to forming whilst a slower
concentration of long fibre was affected by stock additions.

252 - Appita 2002


Further investigations are clearly required if the structure
of the fabric is to be related to its drainage performance,
say in terms of vz late. The significant effect of late
drainage on sheet properties suggests that a combination of
fabric structural parameters to form a drainage number is
possible and may be developed into a useful predictor of
paper quality.
model paper machine relating Fourdrinier forming
variables and paper properties”, Proceedings 6th World
Congress of Chemical Engineering, Melbourne,
Australia, (2001).
12. Helmer, R. J. N., Covey, G. H., Raverty, W. D.,
Vanderhoek, N., and Tan, G., “Fine paper, formation,
and Bleached Eucalypt Kraft pulps”, Proc. 56th Appita
Annual Conf., (2002).

CONCLUSION
The late drainage rate during paper forming process
significantly affected the formation and anisotropy of
sheets formed on the UoM former.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank:
· Huyck Australia Ltd. for supplying forming fabric
samples and useful discussions.
· Australian Paper for supplying the pulp.
· Amcor Limited for use of testing equipment, loan of
experimental equipment from its Research and
Technology (R&T) Centre.

Â.

REFERENCES
1. Trepanier, R. J., “The G/W drainage-retention tester”,
Tappi J., 75(5) : 139,(1992).
2. Britt, K. W., and Unbehend, J. E., “Water removal
during paper formation”, Tappi J., 68(4) : 103, (1985).
3. Sampson, W. W., “The interdependence of sheet
structure and drainage”, Paper Tech., 38(8) : 45,
(1997).
4. Räisänen, K. O., Paulapuro, H., and Karrila, S. J., “The
efects of retention aids, drainage conditions, and
pretreatment of slurry on high vacuum de-watering: a
laboratory study”, Tappi J., 78(4): 140, (1995).
5. Siven, S., and Manner, M., “Multicomponent retention
systems in twin wire forming”, Proc. 54th Appita
Annual Conf., Vol. II, 215, (2000).
6. CPPA Standard Method C.1; TAPPI Test Methods T
227 om-85 and T 221 om-88.
7. Helmer, R. J. N., Covey, G. H., Raverty, W. R., and
Vanderhoek, N., “Flow phenomena and paper forming”
Proc. 54th Appita Annual Conf., (1999).
8. Helmer , R. J. N., “Laboratory simulation of paper
forming”, PhD thesis, The University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, Australia, (2000).
9. Helmer, R. J. N., Covey, G. H., Raverty, W. R., and
Vanderhoek, N., “Preliminary development of a
laboratory former for oriented sheets”, Proc. 53rd
Appita Annual Conf., Vol. I., 79 (1999).
10. Helmer, R. J. N., Covey, G. H., Raverty, W. D., and
Vanderhoek, N., “Optimising simulated commercial
paper for pulp quality analysis”, 54th Appita Gen. Conf.
Proc., p 663, (2000).
11. Helmer, R. J. N., Covey, G. H., Raverty, W. D., and
Vanderhoek, N., Dimensionless characterisation of a

Appita 2002 - 253

 Appendix A: Experimental Data.

air

stock

fabric
a). b). c). d).

e). f). g). h).

Figure A1. Time series of HSDIS images of drainage on the UoM, h12-01 (06092001-01), a-g). 40 ms intervals, h)
calibration image.

Table A1
Summary of selected fabric characteristics, drainage rates, and sheet properties.
Fabric h34 h54 hO3 h28 h12 h61

CD-Mesh 90 80 78 108 100 58.7

Surf-OA % 42 43.3 46.2 35.6 35.5 39.4
-2
No. holes cm 408 360 354 490 453 330
? Ave Hole Size mm 0.321 0.347 0.361 0.270 0.280 0.346
Yarn Fine Med Fine Fine Med Coarse
Design 8 shed 8 shed 8 shed 16 shed 16 shed 14 shed

Drainage Early m/s 0.033 0.033 0.022 0.034 0.03 0.045

Late m/s 0.099 0.088 0.074 0.076 0.081 0.095
Ave m/s 0.066 0.062 0.051 0.057 0.057 0.071

Anisotropy Top 0.486 0.395 0.545 0.531 0.509 0.503

Wire 0.732 0.62 0.723 0.767 0.722 0.704
2s 66.4 63.7 75.4 69.2 70.5 71.4

0.5
Formation NFI gsm 0.979 1.016 0.886 0.941 0.871 0.926
NFI* 1.03 1.015 0.868 0.934 0.923 0.997

?The size and shape (and alignment) of the holes in forming fabrics are quite varied and depend on the structure and yarn. An
average hole size was calculated for the purposes of this paper assuming a characteristic dimension for square holes according
to:
Surface Open Area
Ave Hole Size =
No. Holes

254 - Appita 2002

Appendix B: Drainage curves for forming fabrics.
h34-03 h34-02 (fail) h34-01 h12-01 h12-02 h12-03
h34-04 h34-05 h34-06 14
14

12 12

10 10

Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Tim e (m s) Time (ms)

Figure B1: h34 fabric drainage curves. Figure B4: h12 fabric drainage curves.

h03-01 h03-02 h03-03 h61-01 h61-02 (fail) h61-04 h61-05

14
14

12 12

10 10
Depth (mm)
Depth (mm)

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 -250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Time (ms) Time (ms)

Figure B2: h03 fabric drainage curves. Figure B5: h61 fabric drainage curves.
h28-01 h28-02
h28-03 (fail) h28-04
14

12

10
Depth (mm)

0
-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0
Time (ms)

Figure B3: h28 fabric drainage curves.

Appita 2002 - 255

256 - Appita 2002
View publication stats