(Eduwaves360) Additional Topics CBSE 11 Only E

JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)
XI
·SETS · RELATION & FUNCTION
· COMPLEX NUMBERS · CONIC SECTION
·MATHEMATICALINDUCTION ·MATHEMATICALREASONING
·STATISTICS · PROBABILITY
· 3-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY · LIMIT & DERIVATIVES
CONTENT
SETS
S.No Pages
1. Theory 1–4
2. Exercise 5
RELATION & FUNCTION

1. Theory 6–9
2. Exercise 10
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. Theory 11 – 15
2. Exercise 16
CONIC SECTION
1. Theory 17 – 28
2. Exercise 29
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
1. Theory 30 – 32
2. Exercise 33
MATHEMATICAL REASONING
S.No Pages
1. Theory 34 – 40
2. Exercise-1 41 – 42
3. Exercise-2 43 – 44
4. Exercise-3 44 – 45
STATISTICS
1. Theory 46 – 58
2. Exercise 59 – 60
PROBABILITY
1. Theory 61 – 66
3-DIMENSIONAL GEOMETRY
1. Theory 69 – 70
2. Exercise 71
LIMIT & DERIVATIVE

1. Theory 72 – 78
4. Answer Key 81 – 90
SETS
SETS
Set and their representation :

A set is well defined collection of objects.
There are two methods of representing a set :

(i) Roster or tabular form
(ii) Set builder form
Roster form :
In Roster form all the element of a set are listed.
Eg : The set of all even positive integers less than 7.
= {2, 4, 6}
Note : (i) Order in which element are listed are immaterial while writing set in Roster form.
(ii) An element is not repeated in Roster form.
Set builder form :

All the element of a set possess a single common property .
Eg : V = {x : x is vowel; in English alphabet}
and A = {x : x is natural number where 1 < x < 5}
Empty set :
Aset which does not contain any element is called empty set or void set or null set.
Finite and Infinite set :

A set which contain definite element or elements is called finite set otherwise called infinite set.
Note: Infinite set can not be represented in Roster form.
Equal sets :
Two setsAand B are said to be equal if each and every element of setAis also element of set B and each
and every element of set B is also element of set A.
Subsets :
AsetAis said to be subset of set B if each and every element of setAis element of set B and represented
as A  B.
Note : (i) Every set is subset of itself.

(ii) Empty set  is subset of every set.
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SETS
Power set :
The collection of all the subset of set A is called power set ofA.
Eg : A = {1, 2}
P(A) = , 1, 2, 1, 2
n PA  = 22 = 4
If setAcontains m elements then number of elements in its power set is 2m.
Universal set :
A set consisting of all possible elements which occur in the discussion is called a universal set and is
denoted by 'U'.
Note : All set are contained in the universal set.
Venn Diagram :
Most of relationship between sets can be represented as Venn diagram. Set in Venn diagram is represented
as circle .
Eg : {x : x is even natural number where x  10}
1 A 3
2
4 6
5 8 7
9 10
Operations on Sets :
Union of sets :
The union of setsAand B is the set which consist of all the element ofAand all the element of B and the
common element taken only once.
The symbol '' is used to denote union.
Representation of union on Venn diagram :

A B
Properties of union
(i) A B = B A (Commutative law)
(ii) (A B) C = A (B C) (Associative law)
(iii) A = A (Law of identity element)
(iv) A A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) U A = U (Law of U)
SETS
Intersection of sets :
The intersection of set Aand set B is set of all the element which are common to bothA and B.
The symbol '' is used to denote intersection.
Representation of intersection on Venn diagram :
A B
Properties of Intersection
(i) A B = B A (Commutative law)
(ii) (A  B) C = A  (B  C) (Associative law)
(iii) A= (Law of )
(iv) A  U=  (Law of )
(v) A  (B C) = (A  B)  (A C) (Distributive law)
Proof of Distributive law :

(i) (B C) (ii) (A B)
U U
A B A C
C B
(iii) A (B C) (iv) (A C)
U U
A B A C
C B
(v) (A B) (A C)
U
A C
SETS
Difference of Sets :
Difference (A – B) of set Aand set B is set of those elements which belong to A but not to B.
Complement of a set :
Let U be universal set andAis a subset of U then complement ofAis set of all the element of U which
are not belong to A.
A' = {x : x U and x A}
A A' = U
A = U– A'
Properties of complement set :

(i) A A' =  (ii) A A' = 
De-morgan's law :
(i) (A B)' = A' B' (ii) (A B)' = A' B'
Double complement laws :

(i) (A')' = A
Proof of De-morgan's Law :

A B A B
A B (A B)'
A B A B
A' B'
A B
A' B'
(A B)' = A' B'
SETS
EXERCISE
(Potential Problems Based on CBSE)
Q.1 Which of the following are sets? Justify your answer.

(i) Ateam of eleven best-cricket batsman of the world.
(ii)Acollection of novels written by the writter Munshi Prem Chand.
Q.2 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Insert the appropriate symbol  or  in the blank spaces
5 …… A
Q.3 Write the following sets in roster form :

(i) C = {x : x is a two-digit natural number such that the sum of its digits is 8}
(ii) F = {The set of all letters in the word BETTER}
Q.4 Write the following sets in the set-bulider form :

(i) {3,6, 9, 12}
(ii) {1, 4, 9, ....... 100}
Q.5 List all the elements of the following sets :

(i) C = {x : x is an integer, x2  4}
(ii) D = {x : x is a letter in the word "LOYAL"}
Q.6 Which of the following sets are finite or infinite?

(i) {1, 2, 3, ……}
(ii) {1, 2, 3, …… 99, 100}
(iii) The set of lines which are parallel to the x-axis.
(iv) The set of all letters in the English alphabet
Q.7 Write down all the subsets of the following sets

(i) {a} (ii) {a, b} (iii){1, 2, 3} (iv) 
Q.8 If X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {f, b, d, g}, find

(i) X – Y (ii) Y – X (iii) X  Y
Q.9 In a group of 70 peoples, 37 like coffee, 52 like tea and each person likes at least one of the two drinks.
How many people like both coffee and tea?
Q.10 In a group of 65 peoples, 40 like cricket, 10 like both cricket and tennis. How many like tennis only and
not cricket? How many like tennis? If each person likes at least one of the two games.
Q.11 In a survey of 600 students in a school, 150 student were found to be taking tea and 225 taking coffee,
100 were taking both tea and coffee. How many students were taking neither tea nor coffee?
Q.12 In a survey it is found that 21 people like product A, 26 like product B and 29 like product C.
If 14 people like products A and B, 12 people like products C and A, 14 people like products B and C
and 8 like all the three products. How many like product C only ?
RELATION & FUNCTION
RELATION
This chapter deals with establishing binaryrelation between elements of one set and elements of another
set according to some particular rule of relationship.
ORDERED PAIRS :
An ordered pair consisting of two elements in a given fixed order.
Eg. (a, b).
An order pair is not a set consisting of two elements. The position of a point in two dimentional plane is
Eg. of an ordered pair (1, 2), (2, 2) ……
CARTESIAN PRODUCT:
The Cartesian product of two sets A, B is a non-void set of all ordered pairs (a, b),
where a  A and b  B. This is denoted by A × B
 A × B = {(a, b) | a  A and b  B}
e.g. A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}
Note : (i) A × B  B × A (Non-commutative)

(ii) n(A × B) = n(A) n(B) and n(P(A × B)) = 2n(A) n(B)
(iii) A = and B = A × B = 
(iv) IfAand B are two non-empty sets having n elements in common then (A× B) and (B ×A) have
n2 elements in common.
(v) A × (B  C) = (A × B) (A × C)
(vi) A × (B  C) = (A × B) (A × C)
(vii) A × (B – C) = (A × B) –(A × C)
RELATION:
Every non-zero subset of A × B defined a relation from set A to set B.
If R is a relation from A  B
R : {(a, b) | (a, b)  A × B and a R b}
Highlights:
Let A and B be two non empty sets and R : A  B be a relation such that
R : {(a, b) | (a, b)  R, a  A and b  B}.
(i) 'b' is called image of 'a' under R.

(ii) 'a' is called pre-image of 'b' under R.
(iii) Domain of R : Collection of all elements of Awhich has a image in B.
(iv) Co-domain of R : Collection of all the elements of set B.
(v) Range of R : Collection of all elements of B which has a pre-image inA.
RELATION & FUNCTION
Note :
(1) Range  Co-domain
(2) It is not necessary that each and every element of set A has a image in Set B and each and every
element of set B has a pre-image in Set A
(3) Elements of setAhaving image in B is not necessarily unique.
(4)Basically relation is the number of subsets ofA× B
Number of relations = no. of ways of selecting a non zero subset ofA × B

= mnC0 + mnC1 + ........ + mnCmn
= 2mn ]
Representation of a Relation :
1. Roster form : In this form we represent set of all ordered pairs (a,b) such that (a,b)R
where  a  A, b  B
2. Set builder notation : Here we denote the relation by the rule which co relates the two set
3. Arrow - diagram (Mapping): This the pictorial notation of any relation
Ex. Let A = {–2, –1, 4} B = {1, 4, 9}

A relation from A to B i.e. a R b is defined as a is less than b.
This can be represented in the following ways.
1. Roster form :
R = {(–2, 1), (–2, 4), (–2, 9), (–1, 1), (–1, 4), (–1, 9), (4, 9)}
2. Set builder notation :

R = {(a, b): a  A and b  B, a is less than b}
3. Arrow - diagram :
A B
–2 1
–1 4
4 9
RELATION & FUNCTION
FUNCTION
General Definition :
Let A and B be two sets and let there exist a rule or manner or correspondence ‘ f ’which associates to
each element of A, a unique element in B. Then f is called a function or mapping from A to B. It is
denoted by the symbol
f
f : A  B or A  B
which reads ‘ f ’is a function from A to B’ or ‘f maps A to B,
If an element a Ais associated with an element b  B then b is called ‘the f image of a’or ‘image of
a under f ’or ‘the value of the function f at a’.Also a is called the pre-image of b or argument of b under
the function f. We write it as
b = f (a) or f : a  b or f : (a, b)
Classification Of Functions:
(i) Identity function :
y=x
The function f : A  A defined by f(x) = x  x A
is called the identity of A and is denoted by IA. It is
easy to observe that identity function defined on R is a
bijection.
(ii) Constant function : y

Afunction f : A B is said to be a constant function if every element
of A has the same f image in B. Thus f : A  B ; f(x) = c ,  x  A , (0, c)
c  B is a constant function. Note that the range of a constant function y=c
is a singleton. x
(iii) Polynomial Function:

If a function f is defined by f (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn1 + a2 xn2 + ... + an1 x + an where n is a non negative
integer and a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers and a0  0, then f is called a polynomial function of degree
n.Apolynomial function is always continuous.
(iv) Fractional Rational Function:

g(x)
A rational function is a function of the form. y = f (x) = , where g (x) & h (x) are polynomials &
h (x )
h (x)  0. The domain of f (x) is set of realx such that h (x)  0.
2x 4  x 2  1
e.g. f (x) = ; D = {x | x  ± 2}
x2  4
(v) A bsolute Value Function (M odulus Function) :

A function y = f (x) = x is called the absolute value function or Modulus function. It is defined as:
 x if x  0
y = x 
 x if x  0
For f (x) = | x |, domain is R and range is R+  {0}.
RELATION & FUNCTION
(vi) Signum Function:

A function y= f (x) = Sgn (x) is defined as follows :
1 for x  0
y = f (x) =  0 for x  0

  1 for x  0
It is also written as Sgn x = |x|/ x;
x  0 ; f (0) = 0
(vii) Greatest Integer Or Step Up Function :

The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function where [x] denotes the greatest integer
less than or equal to x . Note that for :
1  x < 0 ; [x] =  1 0x< 1 ; [x] = 0
1x< 2 ; [x] = 1 2x < 3 ; [x] = 2 and so on.
For f (x) = [x], domain is R and range is I.
Algebra of Real Functions :
(i) Addition of two real functions

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g (x); Domain D1  D2
(ii) Substraction of real functions from another function

(f – g)(x) = f (x) – g (x); Domain D1  D2
(iii) Multiplication of two real functions

(f g)(x) = f (x) · g (x); Domain D1  D2
(iv) Quotient of two real functions

f  f (x )
  (x) = ; Domain = {x  D1  D2 | g (x)  0}
g g( x )
RELATION & FUNCTION
EXERCISE
x 2 5 1
Q.1 If   1, y     ,  , find the value of x and y..
3 3   3 3
Q.2 Let A = {1, 2}, B = {3, 4}. Write A × B. How many subsets will A × B have ? List them.
Q.3 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the relation of A defined by

{(a, b) : a, b A, b is exactly divisible by a}.
(i) Write R in roster form.
(ii) Find the domain of R.
(iii) Find the range of R.
Q.4 Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by

R = {(x, x + 5) : x {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}.
Q.5 Which of the following relations are functions ? Give reasons. If it is a function determine its domain and
range.
(i) {(2, 1), (5, 1), (8, 1), (11, 1), (14, 1), (17, 1)}
(ii) {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), (8, 4), (10, 5), (12, 6), (14, 7)}
(iii) {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 7)}
Q.6 Find the range of each of the following functions.

(i) f(x) = 2 – 3x, x R, x > 0
(ii) f(x) = x2 + 2, x is real number.
(iii) f(x) = x, x is a real number.
f
Q.7 Let f, g : R  R be defined, respectively by f(x) = x + 1, g(x) = 2x – 3. Find f + g, f – g and .
g
Q.8 Let f = {(1, 1), (2, 3), (0, –1), (–1, –3)} be a function from Z to Z defined by f(x) = ax + b, for some
integer a, b. Determine a, b.
Q.9 Let A= {9, 10, 11, 12, 13} and let f : A N be defined by f(n) = the highest prime factor of n. Find the
range of f.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
COMPLEX NUMBERS
1. INTRODUCTION :
Indian mathematician Mahavira (850A.D.) was first to mention in this work 'Ganitasara Sangraha'As in
nature of things a negative (quantity) is not a square (quantity), it has, therefore, no square root'. Hence
there is no real number x which satisfies the polynomial equation x2 + 1 = 0.
A symbol  1 , denoted by letter i was introduced by Swiss Mathematician, Leonhard Euler

(1707-1783) in 1748 to provide solutions of equation x2 + 1 = 0. i was regarded as a fictitious or
imaginary number which could be manipulated algebrically like an ordinary real number, except that its
square was –1. The letter i was used to denote  1 , possibly because i is the first letter of the Latin
word 'imaginarius'.
To permit solutions of such polynomial equations, the set of complex numbers is introduced. We can
consider a complex number as having the form a + i b where a and b are real number. It is denoted by
z i.e. z = a + i b. 'a' is called as real part of z which is denoted by Re (z) and 'b' is called as imaginary
part of z which is denoted by Im (z).
1.1 Classification of complex numbers :
Complex number can be classified as following forms
Hence, 0 + 0i is both a purely real as well as purely imaginary but not imaginary.
1.2 Geometrical representation of a complex number :
MasterArgand had done a systematic studies on complex numbers and

imaginary axis
represented every complex number as a set of ordered pair (a, b) on a Z = a + i b = (a, b)
plane called complex plane / argand plane. •P
real axis
O
All complex numbers lying on the real axis were called as purely real
and those lying on imaginary axis as purely imaginary.
Illustration :
i 592  i 590  i 588  i 586  i 584
Find the value of 582 580 578 576 574 + 2.
i i i i i
i 592  i 590  i 588  i 586  i 584 i584

Sol. + 2 = 574 + 2
i 582  i 580  i 578  i 576  i 574 i
10
=i +2=–1+2=1
COMPLEX NUMBERS
2. ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS :
2.1 Equality of complex numbers :
Let there be two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

If z1 = z2 then Re(z1) = Re(z2) and Im(z1) = Im(z2).
i.e., if x1 + iy1 = x2 + iy2
 x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 simultaneously.
2.2 Addition :
z1 + z2 = (x1 + i y1) + (x2 + i y2) = (x1 + x2) + i (y1 + y2)  C.

It is easy to oberve that the sum of two complex numbers is a complex number whose real (imaginary)
part is the sum of the real (imaginary) parts of the given numbers :
Re(z1 + z2) = Re(z1) + Re(z2);
Im(z1 + z2) = Im(z1) + Im(z2)
2.3 Subtraction :
z1 – z2 = (x1 + i y1) – (x2 + i y2) = (x1 – x2) + i (y1 – y2)  C.

That is
Re(z1 – z2) = Re(z1) – Re(z2) ;
Im(z1 – z2) = Im(z1) – Im(z2) .
2.4 Multiplication :
z1 · z2 = (x1 + i y1) (x2 + i y2) = (x1x2 – y1y2) + i (x1y2 + x2y1)  C.

In other words
Re(z1z2) = Re(z1) · Re(z2) – Im(z1) · Im(z2)
and Im(z1z2) = Im(z1) · Re(z2) + Im(z2) · Re(z1)
For a real number  and a complex number z = x + i y.
 · z =  (x + iy) = x + i y  C
is the product of a real number with a complex number. The following properties are obvious :
(a)  (z1 + z2) = z1 + z2
(b) 1 (2z) = (12)z;
(c) (1 + 2)z = 1z + 2z for all z, z1, z2  C and , 1, 2  R.
Actually, relations (a) and (c) are special cases of the distributive law and relation (b) comes from the
associative law of multiplication for complex numbers.
2.5 Division of Complex Numbers :
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 & z2 = x2 + iy2

z1 x1  iy1 ( x1  iy1 )( x 2  iy 2 )

Then z 2 x 2  iy 2  ( x 2  iy 2 )( x 2  iy 2 )
COMPLEX NUMBERS
( x1x 2  y1y 2 )  i ( y1y 2  x1x 2 )  x1x 2  y1y 2   y1x 2  x1y 2 

   2 
i 2 
( x 22  y 22 ) 2 2
 x 2  y2   x 2  y2 
z1 z  z 
 R  1   i Im 1 
z2  z2   z2 
1
Note : Multiplicative inverse of complex number (z) is defined as .
z
2.6 Square Root of Complex Numbers :
Let z = x + iy be the given complex number and we have to obtain its square root.
Let a + ib = (x + iy)1/2  a2 – b2 + 2iab = x + iy
 x2 = a2 – b2 and y = ab
 x2 = (a2 + b2)2 – 4a2b2  x2 + y2 = (a2 + b2)2
 a2 + b2 = | z | .......(1)  a2 – b2 = x .......(2)
| z | x | z | x | z | x | z | x
 a2 =  a=±  b2 =  b=±
2 2 2 2
 | z |  Re( z) | z |  Re( z) 
 x  iy = a + ib = ±  i 

 2 2 
Replacing i by – i, we get
 | z |  Re( z) | z |  Re( z) 
x  iy = ±  i 

 2 2 
3. THREE IMPORTANT TERMS WITH RESPECT TO COMPLEX

NUMBER :
3.1 Conjugate of Complex Number :

P(z)
Conjugate of a complex number z = a + i b is denoted as z
and defined by z = a – i b. 
In a complex number if we replace i by –i , we get conjugate O –
of the complex number. z is the mirror image of z about real
axis onArgand's Plane. Q( z )
Geometrical representation of conjugate of complex number
Note :
(a) z  z = 2Re z
(b) z  z = 2i Im z
(c) z z = a2 + b2, where z = a + i b
(d) If z lies in 1st quadrant then z lies in 4th quadrant and – z in the 2nd Quad.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
3.2 Modulus of Complex Numbers :
Modulus of complex number is a distance of the point on the argand

plane representing the complex number z from the origin.
If P denotes a complex number z = x + iy
then OP = | z | = x 2  y2
Note :
(i) | z | > 0.
(ii) All complex number having the same modulus lie on a circle with centre as origin and radius r = | z |.
3.3 Argument of Complex Numbers :
Angle () made by the line segment joining the point on the complex plane
representing the complex number z to the origin from the positive real axis

is called argument of complex number z which is denoted as arg(z) = .
(i) General Argument :
If OP makes an angle  with real axis then  is called one of the argument of z.
General values of argument of z are given by
2n + , n I . Note that any two argument differ by 2.

e.g. If z = 1 + i then arg(z) =
4
 /4
 General value of argument of z = 2n + , n  I
4
Note that by specifying the modulus and argument, a complex number is completely defined.
However for the complex number 0 + 0 i the argument is not defined and this is the only complex
number which is completely defined bytalking in terms of its modulus.
(ii) Principal value of argument :
The unique value of  such that –  <  <  is called principal value of argument. Unless otherwise
stated, amp (z) refers to the principal value of argument.
Working rule for finding principal argument of Complex number Z

Let z = a + ib
| b |
First compute  = tan 1 
|a |
(a, b)
Case I: If z lies in I quadrant i.e. a, b > 0
then amp (z) =  = .

O M
COMPLEX NUMBERS
(a, b)
Case II : If z lies in II quadrant i.e. a < 0, b > 0
then amp(z) =  = ( – )
 
M O
M O
Case III: If z lies in III quadrant i.e. a < 0, b < 0 

then amp(z) =  = – ( – )
(a, b)
O 
Case IV: If z lies in IV quadrant i.e a > 0, b < 0
then amp(z) =  = – .
Note :
(i) If z is purely real positive complex number then amp(z) = 0.

(ii) If z is purely imaginary positive complex number then amp(z) = .
2
(iii) If z is purely real negative complex number then amp(z) = .

(iv) If z is purely imaginary neagative complex number then amp(z) = .
2
4. REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN DIFFERENT

FORMS:
4.1 Cartesian Form / Algebraic Form :
Every complex number expressed in the form of z = x + iy where x, y  R and i =  1 is called

cartesian form or algebraic form of complex number
for z = x + iy, Re (z) = x and Im (z) = y
y
z  x 2  y 2 , z  x  iy , arg (z) = tan–1  x 
 
4.2 Trigonometrical Form / Polar Form : y

P(x, y)
Let the given complex number be z = x + iy |z|
r= y
r and  be the modulus and amplitude respectively.
 x
From the figure x = r cos , y = r sin  O x
 z = x + iy = r (cos  + i sin ) = r cis 
Hence, z = r (cos  + i sin ) is called polar / triangometrical form of the complex number .
COMPLEX NUMBERS
EXERCISE
Q.1 Express the following expressions in the form of a + i b :

 3 
(i) (5i)   i  (ii) i9 + i19
 5 
(iii) 3(7 + 7i) + i(7 + 7i) (iv)

 3  i 5  3  i 5 
 3  2 i   3  2 i 
Q.2 Find the multiplicative inverse of 5  3i .
Q.3 Find the modulus and the argument of z = – 3 + i.
Q.4 Convert –1 – i in polar form.
Q.5 Solve the following equations :

x
(i) x2 + 3 = 0 (ii) x2 + 3x + 5 = 0 (iii) x2 + +1
2
3
 1 
25
Q.6 Evaluate: i18    
  i  
Q.7 For any two complex numbers z1 and z2, prove that Re (z1z2) = Re z1 Re z2 – Im z1 Im z2.
Q.8 If x – iy =
a  ib
c  id

prove that x 2  y2  2 a 2  b2
= 2
c  d2
.
z1  z 2  1
Q.9 If z1 = 2 – i, z2 = 1 + i, find .
z1  z 2  1
Q.10 Let z1 = 2 – i, z1 = – 2 + i, Find

z z   1 
(i) Re  1 2  (ii) Im  
 z1   z1z1 
1 i 1 i
Q.11 Find the modulus of  .
1 i 1 i
u u
Q.12 If (x + iy)3 = u + iv, then show that  = 4 (x2 – y2).
x y
Q.13 If (a + ib) (c + id) (e + if) (g + ih) = A + iB, then show that

(a2 + b2) (c2 + d2) (e2 + f 2) (g2 + h2) = A2 + B2.
CONIC SECTION
CONIC SECTION
Point, pair of straight lines, circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola are called conic section because they
can be obtained when a cone (or double cone) is cut by a plane.
The mathematicians associated with the study of conics were Euclid, Aristarchus and Apollonius. Most
of the objects around us and in space have shape of conic-sections. Hence study of these becomes a
very important tool for present knowledge and further exploration.
Section of right circular cone by different planes :

(1) When a double right circular cone is cut by a plane
parallel to base at the common vertex, the cutting profile
is a point.
(2) When a right circular cone is cut by any plane through

its vertex, the cutting profile is a pair of straight lines
through its vertex
(3) When a right circular cone is cut by a plane parallel to

its base the cutting profile is a circle.
(4) When a right circular cone is cut by a plane parallel to a

generator of cone, the cutting profile is a parabola.
(5) When a right circular cone is cut by a plane which is

neither parallel to any generator / axis nor parallel to
base, the cutting profile is an ellipse.
(6) When a doubleright circular cone is cut byplane, parallel

to its common axis, the cut profile is hyperbola
Hence a point, a pair of intersecting straight lines, circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola, all are conic-
sections.All the conic sections are plane or two dimensional curves.
CONIC SECTION
The conic section is the locus of a point which moves such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point (focus) to perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line (directrix) is always constant (e). Here
e is called eccentricity of conic i.e.,
P(x, y)
PS M
e
PM directrix
S(, ) axis
Ax+By+C=0 focus
A line through focus and perpendicular to directrix is called - axis. The vertex of conic is that point where
the curve intersects its axis.
PS
 e  PS2  e 2PM 2
PM
2
 Ax  By  C 
2 2
 ( x   )  ( y  )  e2  
 2 2 
 A B 
Simplification shall lead to the equation of the form ax2 + by2 + 2hxy + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
Distinguishing various conics :
The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the focus S w.r.t. the directrix & also
upon the value of the eccentricity e. Two different cases arise.
Case-I : When The Focus Lies On The Directrix (De-generated conic) :
In this case   abc + 2fgh  af2  bg2  ch2 = 0 & the general equation of a conic represents a pair
of straight lines if
e > 1 i.e. h2 > ab the lines will be real & distinct, intersecting at S.
e = 1 i.e. h2 = ab the lines will coincident.
e < 1 i.e. h2 < ab the lines will be imaginary.
Case-II : When The Focus Does Not Lie on the Directrix (Non de-generated conic) :
In this case  abc + 2fgh – af 2 – bg2 – ch2  0 and conic represent
a parabola an ellipse a hyperbola rectangular hyperbola Circle
e=1 0<e<1 e>1 e= 2 e=0
h² = ab h² < ab h² > ab h² > ab; a + b = 0 h = 0, a = b
Note :
(i) For pair of straight lines e 
(ii) All second degree terms in parabola form a perfect square
CONIC SECTION
Definition of various terms related to a conic :

(1) Focus : The fixed point is called a focus of the conic.
(2) Directrix : The fixed line is called a directrix of the conic.
(3) Axis : The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the
conic.
(4) Vertex : The points of intersection of the conic and the axis are called vertices of the conic.
(5) Centre : The point which bisects every chord of the conic passing through it, is called the centre of the
conic.
(6) Latus-rectum : The latus-rectum of a conic is the chord passing through the focus and perpendicular to
the axis.
(7) Double ordinate : A chord which is perpendicular to the axis of parabola or parallel to its directrix.
CONIC SECTION
PARABOLA
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point (focus)
is equal to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line (directrix). Eccentricity of parabola is 1.
Standard Equation of a parabola :

Let S be the focus and ZN is the directrix of the parabola.
From S, draw SZ perpendicular to the directrix. Y
Let O be the middle point of ZS. Take O as the origin and OS N

as x-axis and OY perpendicular to OS as the y-axis. P
M
Let ZS = 2a, then ZO = OS = a
X
Now, S  (a, 0) and the equation of ZN is x = –a or x + a = 0. Z O S(a, 0)
x = –a
Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola.
 PS = PM (by definition of parabola).
|xa|
 ( x  a )2  ( y  0) 2 =
12  0
 ( x  a ) 2  y2 = |x + a|
or (x – a)2 + y2 = (x + a)2
or x2 – 2ax + a2 + y2 = x2 + 2xa + a2
or y2 = 4ax which is the required equation.
Terms related to Parabola :
y tangent at vertex
M L(a,2a)
P
Focal chord
Directrix x =a
Focal distance Double ordinate
Z Vertex Focus
x
A S (a,0) axis
Latus Rectum
x + a =0
y’ L’
(a,-2a)
CONIC SECTION
(1) Axis : A straight line passes through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of
parabola. For the parabola y2 = 4ax, x-axis is the axis.
Since equation has even power of y therefore the parabola is symmetric about x-axis i.e. about its axis.
(2) Vertex : The point of intersection of a parabola and its axis is called the vertex of the Parabola. For the
parabola y2 = 4ax, O(0, 0) is the vertex.
The vertex is the middle point of the focus and the point of intersection of axis and directrix.
(3) Focal Distance : The distance of any point P (x, y) on the parabola from the focus is called the focal
length (distance) of point P.
The focal distance of P = the perpendicular distance of the point P from the directrix.
(4) Double Ordinate : The chord which is perpendicular to the axis of Parabola or parallel to Directrix is
called double ordinate of the Parabola.
(5) Focal Chord : Any chord of the parabola passing through the focus is called Focal chord.
(6) Latus Rectum : If a double ordinate passes through the focus of parabola then it is called as latus
rectum. The extremities of the latus rectum are L (a, 2a) and L'(a, –2a). Since LS = L'S = 2a, therefore
length of the latus rectum LL' = 4a.
Other Standard parabola :
Equation of parabola y2 = 4ax y2 = – 4ax x2 = 4ay x2 = – 4ay
S Z
O
O
(a) Graphs Z O S S O Z
Z S
(b) Eccentricity e=1 e=1 e=1 e=1

(c) Focus S(a, 0) S(–a, 0) S(0, a) S(0, –a)
(d) Equation of directrix x+a=0 x–a=0 y+a=0 y–a=0
(e) Equation of axis y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
(f) Vertex O(0, 0) O(0, 0) O(0, 0) O(0, 0)
(g) Extremities of (a, ±2a) (–a, ±2a) (±2a, a) (±2a, –a)
latusrectum
(h) Length of latusrectum 4a 4a 4a 4a
CONIC SECTION
ELLIPSE
DEFINITION :
An ellipse is the locus of the point which moves in a plane such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point (focus) to fixed straight line (directrix) is always constant (called eccentricity).
In the given figure, S is the focus and NN'is the directrix. N
Let P be a point on the ellipse, then
M P
PS 90°
 e, e  1 (for ellipse)
PM Z S
Thus, we can find the equation of an ellipse when the
coordinates of its focus, equation of the directrix and N'
eccentricity (e) are given.
STANDARD EQUATION OF AN ELLIPSE :
Let S be the focus & ZM is the directrix of an ellipse. Draw perpendicular from S to the directrix which
meet it at Z.Amoving point is on the ellipse such that
PS = ePM M
then there is point lies on the line SZ and which divide SZ
internally at Aand externally at A' in the ratio of e : 1. Z
A C S A
therefore SA = e AZ …(i)
SA' = eA'Z …(ii)
Let AA' = 2a & take C as mid point of AA'
 CA = CA' = a
Add (i) & (ii)
SA + SA' = e (AZ + A'Z)
 AA' = e[CZ – CA + CA' + CZ]
2a = 2eCZ
y
a
 CZ = …(iii) (0,b) B
e
P(x,y)
Subtract (ii) & (i), we get M
SA' – SA = e (A'Z – AZ) x
Z' A' S' C S A Z
 (CA' + CS) – (CA – CS) (ae,0) (a,0)
(–a,0)
= e [(CA' + CZ) – (CZ – CA)] B' (0, –b)
 2CS = 2e CA a
x= e
 CS = ae …(iv)
Result (iii) & (iv) are independent of axis.
Consider CZ line as x-axis, C as origin & perpendicular to this line & passes through C is considered as
y-axis. Let P(x, y) is a moving point, then
By defintion of ellipse.
PS = ePM  (PS)2 = e2 (PM)2
2
a 
 (x – ae)2 + (y – 0)2 = e2   x  (x – ae)2 + y2 = (a – ex)2
e 
CONIC SECTION
 x2 + a2e2 – 2xae + y2 = a2 + e2x2 – 2xae  x2 (1 – e2) + y2 = a2 (1 – e2)

x2 y2 x 2 y2
  =1 or  =1 where b2 = a2 (1 – e2)
a 2 a 2 (1  e 2 ) a 2 b2
BASIC TERMS RELATED TO AN ELLIPSE :
x 2 y2
Let the equation of the ellipse be  = 1. .......(1)
a 2 b2
1. Centre :
In the figure, C is the centre of the ellipse.All chords passing through C are called diameter and bisected
at C.
2. Foci : N' Y N'

B P
x= –a/e
x= a/e
M L
S and S' are the two foci of the ellipse and their
S' C S
coordinates are (ae, 0) and (–ae, 0) respecitvely. Z'
A' A Z
X
The line containing two foci are called the focal axis
and the distance between S & S' the focal length M' B' P' L'
3. Directrices :
a a
ZN and Z'N' are the two directices of the ellipse and their equations are x = and x = respectively..
e e
Here Z and Z' are called foot of directrix.
4. Axes :
The line segmentsA'A and B'B are called the major and minor axes respectively of the ellipse.
The point of intersection of major and minor axis is called centre of the ellipse. Major and minor axis
together are called principal axis of ellipse.
Here Semi-major axis are CA = CA' = a
and Semi-minor axis are CB = CB' = b
5. Vertex :
The points where major axis meet the ellipse is called its vertices. In the given figure, A' andA are the
vertices of the ellipse.
6. Ordinate and double ordinates :

Let P be a point on the ellipse. From P we draw PM perpendicular to major axis of the ellipse. Produce
PM to meet the ellipse at P', then PM is called an ordinate and PMP' is called the double ordinate of the
point P.
It is also defined as any chord perpendicular to major axis is called its double ordinate.
CONIC SECTION
7. Latus rectum :
When double ordinate passes through focus then it is called the Latus rectum.
Let L'L = 2k, then LS = k so L  (ae, k).
Here LL' and MM' are called latus rectum.
a 2e 2 k 2 k2
Since L (ae, k) lies on the ellipse (1), therefore 2  = 1 or 2 = 1 – e2
a b2 b
2 4
b b
or k2 = b2 (1 – e2) = b2 · 2 = 2 [ b2 = a2 (1 – e2)]
a a
b2
 k=
a
b2
Hence length of semi latus rectum LS = = MS'
a
2
2b 2 (minor axis)
i.e. length of the latus rectum LL' or MM' = =
a major axis
= 2a (1 – e2)
= 2e (distance from focus to the corresponding directrix).
 b 2   2  2  2
And the end points of latus rectum are L  ae, , L'  ae,  b  , M   ae, b  & M'   ae,  b 
 a  
 a  
 a  
 a 
TWO STANDARD FORMS OF ELLIPSE :
There are two standard forms of ellipse with centre at the origin and axes along coordinate axes. The foci
of the ellipse are either on the x-axis or on the y-axis.
1. Major axis along x-axis :

x 2 y2
The equation of this type of ellipse is of the form 2
 2  1 , where a > b > 0 and b = a 1 e2 .
a b
For this ellipse :

N' Y N
(i) Major axis is 2a B(0, b)
x= –a/e
x= a/e
(ii) Minor axis is 2b.

(iii) Centre is (0, 0) S' C (0, 0) S X
Z'
(iv) Vertices are (±a, 0) A' (–ae, 0) (ae, 0) A Z
(a, 0)
(-a, 0)
(v) Foci are (±ae, 0)
B'(0, –b)
a
(vi) Equation of directrices are x = ±
e
(vii) Equation of major axis is y = 0 (viii) Equation of minor axis is x = 0
2b 2  b 2 
(ix) Length of latus rectum = (x) 
Extremity of latus rectum is   ae,  a 
a  
CONIC SECTION
2. Major axis along y-axis :

x 2 y2
The equation of this type of ellipse is of the form 2  2  1 . where 0 < a < b and a = b 1 e2 .
a b
For this ellipse :
y
(i) Major axis is 2b
y=b/e
(ii) Minor axis is 2a. L M
(iii) Centre is (0, 0) A (0, b)
(iv) Vertices are (0, ±b)
S
(v) Foci are (0, ±be) (0, be)
b x
(vi) Equation of directrices are y = ± B' C (0, 0) B
e (–a,0) (a, 0)
(vii) Equation of major axis is x = 0 S'
(0, –be)
(viii) Equation of minor axis is y = 0
A' (0, –b)
2a 2
(ix) Length of latus rectum = L' y= –b/e M'
b
 a2 
(x) Extremity of latus rectum is   ,  be 
 b 
CONIC SECTION
HYPERBOLA
DEFINITON OF HYPERBOLA :
A hyperbola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that the ratio of its distance from a fixed
point and a given straight line is always constant.
The fixed point is called the focus, the fixed line is called the directrix and the constant ratio is called the
N
eccentricity of the hyperbola and denoted by e.
In the given figure, S is the focus and N'N the directrix. M P
90°
PS Z S
Let P be any point on the hyperbola, then = e, e > 1.
PM
N
Equation of a hyperbola can be obtained if the coordinates of its focus, equation of its directrix and
eccentricity are given.
STANDARD EQUATION OF A HYPERBOLA :
Let S be the focus & ZN is the directrix of an hyperbola. Draw perpendicular from S to the directrix
which meet it at Z.Amoving point is on the hyperbola such that y
N' N
PS = ePM
then there is point lies on the line SZ and which divide SZ M
M' P(x,y)
internally at Aand externally at A' in the ratio of e : 1.
therefore SA = e AZ …(i)
SA' = eA'Z …(ii) x
S' A' Z' C Z AS
Let AA' = 2a & take C as mid point of AA' (–ae,0) (ae,0)
 CA = CA' = a
x=–a/e x=a/e
Add (i) & (ii)
SA + SA' = e (AZ + A'Z)
(CS – CA) + (CA' + CS) = e [CA – CZ + CA' + CZ]
2CS = 2e. CA
CS = ae
Subtract (ii) & (i), we get
SA' – SA = e (A'Z – AZ)
(CA' + CS) – (CS – CA) = e [(CA' + CZ) – (CA – CZ)]
a
2CA = 2e · CZ  CZ = .
e
Consider CZ line as x-axis, C as origin & perpendicular to this line & passes through C is considered as
y-axis. Now represent important parameters on coordinates plane. Let P(x, y) is a moving point, then
By defintion of hyperbola.
PS = ePM  (PS)2 = e2 (PM)2
2
 a
 (x – ae)2
+ (y – =0)2 e2  x 
 (x – ae)2 + y2 = (a – ex)2
 e 
 x + a e – 2xae + y = a + e x2 – 2xae x2 (1 – e2) + y2 = a2 (1 – e2)
2 2 2 2 2 2
CONIC SECTION
x2 y2 x2 y2
  =1 or  1 where b2 = a2 (e2 – 1)
a 2 a 2 (1  e 2 ) a 2 a 2 (e 2  1)
x 2 y2
Hence equation of hyperbola is 2
 2  1 where b2 = a2 (e2 – 1)
a b
TERMS RELATED TO HYPERBOLA :
(1) Centre :
In the figure, C is the centre of the hyperbola. All chords passing through C are called diameter and
bisected at C.
y
P
L
M B (0,b)
P
(–ae,0) (ae,0)
x
(–c, 0) S' A' C A S(c, 0)
Q
M' B' (0,–b) Q

L'
TA = 2a
(2) Foci :
S(ae, 0) and S'(–ae, 0) are two foci of hyperbola. Line containing the fixed points S and S' (called
Foci) is called Transverse Axis (TA) or Focal Axis and the distance between S and S' is called Focal
Length.
(3) Axes :
The line AA' is called transverse axis and the line BB' is perpendicular to it and passes through the centre
(0, 0) of the hyperbola is called conjugate axis.
The length of transverse and conjugate axes are taken as 2a and 2b respectively.
The transverse and conjugate axes together are called principal axes of hyperbola and their intersection
point is called the centre of hyperbola.
The points of intersection of the directrix with the transverse axis are known as Foot of the directrix
(Z and Z').
(4) Vertex :
The points of intersection (A and A') of the curve with the transverse axis are called Vertices of the
hyperbola.
CONIC SECTION
(5) Double ordiante :
Any chord perpendicular to the Transverse axis is called a Double Ordinate.
(6) Latus-rectum :
When double ordinates passes through the focus of hyperbola then it is called the latus rectum. In the
given figure LL' and MM' are the latus-rectums of the hyperbola. y
P
let LL' = 2k then LS = L'S = k M N L
x 2 y2
Let L(ae, k) lie on the hyperbola 2  2  1 Q
x
a b S' A' Z' C Z A S
a 2e 2 k 2
  2 1 M'
a2 b L'
R
 b2  x=–a/e x=a/e
or k2 = b2(e2 – 1) = b2  2  [ b2 = a2 (e2 – 1)]
a 
b2
 k= ( k > 0)
a
2b 2
 2k = = LL'
a
2b 2 (CA) 2  a
Length of latus rectum = LL' = = = 2a(e2 – 1) = 2e  ae  
a TA  e
= (2e) (distance between the focus and the foot of the corresponding directrix)
End points of latus -rectums are
 b 2  b 2   b 2   b 2 

L   ae,  , L'   ae,    ae,   ae, 
a   a  ; M   a  ; M'   a  respectively..

ECCENTRICITY :
x 2 y2
For the hyperbola 2  2  1 we have
a b
2 2 2
b = a (e – 1)
 b2   (conjugate axis)2 
 e = 1   2   e = 1  2
a   ( transverse axis) 
Eccentricity defines the curvature of the hyperbola and is mathematically spelled as :

distance from centre to focus
e=
distance from centre to vertex
Note : A hyperbola in which a = b is called an equilateral hyperbola.
CONIC SECTION
EXERCISE
Q.1 Find the coordinates of the focus, axis of the parabola, the equation of the directrix and the length of the
latus rectum.
(i) y2 = 12x (ii) y2 = 10x (iii) x2 = – 9y
Q.2 Find the equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions :
(i) Focus (6, 0); directrix x = –6
(ii) Vertex (0, 0); focus (–2, 0)
(iii) Vertex (0, 0), passing through (5, 2) and symmetric with respect to y-axis.
Q.3 Find the coordinates of the foci, the vertices, the length of major axis, the major axis, the minor axis, the
eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse
x 2 y2
(i)  =1 (ii) 16x2 + y2 = 16
49 36
Q.4 Find the equation of the ellipse that satisfies the given conditions :
(i) Vertices (0, ± 13), foci (0, ±5)
(ii) Ends the major axis (±3, 0), ends of minor axis (0, ±2)
(iii) Length of major axis 26, foci (±5, 0)
(iv) Major axis on the x-axis and passes through the points (4, 3) and (6, 2).
Q.5 Find the coordinates of the foci and the vertices, the eccentricity and the length of the latus rectum of the
hyperbolas.
x 2 y2
(i)  =1 (ii) 5y2 – 9x2 = 36
16 9
Q.6 Find the equation of the hyperbola satisfying the given conditions :
(i) Vertices (±2, 0), foci (±3, 0) (ii) Foci (±5, 0), the transverse axis is length 8.
(iii) Vertices (±7, 0), e =

4
3
(iv)  
Foci 0,  10 , passing through (2, 3).
Q.7 The focus of a parabolic mirror as shown in figure is at a distance of 5 cm from its vertex. If the mirror is
45 cm deep, find the distance AB.
Q.8 The cable of a uniformly loaded suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola. The roadway which
is horizontal and 100 m long is supported by vertical wires attached to the cable, the longest wire being
30 m and the shortest being 6m. Find the length of a supporting wire attached to the roadway 18 m from
the middle.
Q.9 A rod of length 12 cm moves with its ends always touching the coordinates axes. Determine the equation
of the locus of a point P on the rod, which is 3 cm from the end in contact with the x-axis.
Q.10 An equilateral triangle is inscribed in the parabola y2 = 4ax, where one vertex is at the vertex of the
parabola. Find the length of the side of the triangle.
FIRST PRINCIPLE OF FINITE INDUCTION:
Suppose that to each n  N there corresponds a proposition (or theorem or formula) P(n) which is
either true or false.
If (i) P(1) is true and
(ii) P (k) is true  P(k + 1) is true  k  N, then P(n) is true for  k  N.
Working Method:
A proof of P(n) by the method of induction involves the following two steps:
Step-1: Show that P(1) is true.
Step-2: Assuming that P(k) is true for some k  N, show that P(k + 1) is true.
Then from the step 1 and 2, it follows that the proposition P(n) holds good  n  N.
Note : It is given any statement is true for n  r then first step is to verify for r.
Illustration :
n ( n  1)(2n  1)
For all n  1 prove that 12 + 22 + 32 + …… + n2 =
6
Sol. n=1
1(2)(3)
1= =1 True
6
k ( k  1)( 2k  1)
P(k) = 12 + 22 + 32 + …… + k2 =
6
k ( k  1)(2k  1)
P(k + 1) = 12 + 22 …… k2 + (k + 1)2 = + (k + 1)2 [using p(k)]
6
 k (2k  1)   k ( 2k  1)  6k  6   2k 2  7 k  6 
= (k + 1)   (k  1)  = (k + 1)   = (k + 1)  
 6   6   6 
 
 2k 2  4k  3k  6  (k  1)(k  2)(2k  3) ( k  1)( k  1  1) ( 2( k  1)  1)

= (k + 1)  6
 =
 =
  6 6
Hence, when P(k) is true then P(k + 1) will be also true.
Illustration :
1 1 1 1 n
For all n  1, prove that       .
1.2 2.3 3.4 n (n  1) n  1
Sol. We can write
1 1 1 1 n
P(n) :      
1.2 2.3 3.4 n (n  1) n  1
1 1 1
Now, P(1) :   , which is true. Thus, P(n) is true for n = 1.
1 .2 2 1  1
Assume that P(k) is true for some natural number k,
1 1 1 1 k
i.e.,       ……(i)
1.2 2.3 3.4 k (k  1) k  1
We need to prove that P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. We have
1 1 1 1 1
     
1.2 2.3 3.4 k (k  1) (k  1)(k  2)
 1 1 1 1  1
=       
1.2 2.3 3.4 k (k  1)  (k  1)(k  2)
k 1
=  [Using(i)]
k  1 (k  1)(k  2)
k (k  2)  1 (k 2  2k  1) (k  1)2 k 1 k 1
= = = = =
(k  1)(k  2) (k  1)(k  2) (k  1)(k  2) k  2 (k  1)  1
Thus P(k + 1) is true whenever P(k) is true. Hence, by the principle of mathematcal induction. P(n) is
true for all natural numbers.
Illustration :
Prove that (1 + x)n  (1 + nx), for all natural number n, where x > –1.
Sol. Let P(n) be the given statement.

i.e., P(n) : (1 + x)n  (1 + nx), for x > –1
We note that P(n) is true when n = 1, since (1 + x)  (1 + x) for x > –1
Assume that
P(k) : (1 + x)k  (1 + kx), x > –1 is true. ……(i)
We want to prove that P(k + 1) is true for x > –1 whenever P(k) is true ……(ii)
Consider the identity
(1 + x)k+1 = (1 + x)k (1 + x)
Given that x > –1, so (1 + x) > 0
Therefore, by using (1 + x)k  (1 + kx), we have
(1 + x)k+1  (1 + kx) (1 + x)
i.e. (1 + x)k+1  (1 + x + kx + kx2) ……(iii)
Here k is a natural number and x2  0 so that kx2  0. Therefore

(1 + x + kx + kx2)  (1 + x + kx),
and so we obtain
(1 + x)k+1  (1 + x + kx)
i.e. (1 + x)k+1  [1 + (1 + k)x]
Thus, the statement in (ii) is established. Hence, by the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true
for all natural numbers.
Illustration :
Prove : 102n–1 + 1 is divisble by 11.
Sol. P(1) = 11 divisible by 11

P(k) = 102k–1 + 1 = 11
P(k + 1) = 102(k + 1)–1 + 1
= 102k+1 + 1
= 10(2k–1) · 102 + 1
= 102k – 1 (99 + 1) + 1
= 99 · 102k–1 + 102k–1 + 1
Hence, it will be divisible by 11 because 99 is divisible by 11. Thus 102k–1 + 1 is divisible by 11
and P(k).
Illustration :
a (r n  1)
Prove that : a + ar + ar2 + ……+ arn–1 =
r 1
a (r  1)
Sol. P(1) : a = True
r 1
a (r k  1)
P(k) : a + ar + ar2
…… =ark–1
r 1
P(k + 1) : a + ar + ar + …… + ark–1 + ark
2
a (r k  1) k
ar k  a  ar k 1  ar k a (r k 1  1)
= + ar = =
r 1 (r  1) r 1
P(k + 1) is true using P(k).
EXERCISE
Prove the following (Q.1 to Q.9)

2
 n ( n  1) 
Q.1 13 + 23 + 33 + …… + n3 = 
 2 
1 1 1 2n
Q.2 1+     =
(1  2) (1  2  3) (1  2  3   n ) (n  1)
(2n  1)3n 1  3
Q.3 1.3 + 2.33 + 3.33 + …… + n.3n =
4
 n (n  1)(n  2) 
Q.4 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + …… + n.(n + 1) =  
 3
n ( 4n 2  6n  1)
Q.5 1.3 + 3.5 + 5.7 + …… + (2n – 1)(2n + 1) =
3
1 1 1 1 n (n  3)
Q.6   + …… + =
1 .2 .3 2 .3 .4 3 .4 .5 n (n  1)(n  2) 4(n  1)(n  2)
 1  1  1   1
Q.7 1  1  1   …… 1   = (n + 1).
 1  2  3   n
1 1 1 1 n
Q.8   + …… + =
3 .5 5 .7 7 .9 (2n  1)(2n  3) 3(2n  3)
1
Q.9 1 + 2 + 3 + …… + n < (2n + 1)2.
8
Q.10 Prove that n(n + 1) (n + 5) is a multiple of 3.
Q.11 Prove that x2n – y2n is divisible by x + y.
Q.12 Prove that 32n+2 – 8n – 9 is divisible by 8.
Q.13 Prove that (2n + 7) < (n + 3)2 .
Statement:
A sentence is called a mathematically acceptable statement if it is either true or false but not both.
Astatement is neither imperative, nor interrogative nor exclamatory.Asentence which is a request, or a
command is not a statement .
Ex : The following are the statements
(a) 6 is less than 8
(b) 2 is an odd number
(c) Every square is a rectangle
(d) New Delhi is in India
Note : A sentence which is both true and false simultaneously is not a statement. Such a sentence is called a
paradox.
Open Statement :
A declarative sentence containing variable (s) is an open statement if it becomes a statement when the
variable(s) is (are) replaced by some definite value (s).
e.g. s = x is an integer
s is true if x is integer and false if x is not integer.
Compound statements :
A compound statement is a statement which is made up of two or more statements. In this case, each
statement is called a component statement.
e.g.All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are complex.
The component statement are
p : all rational numbers are real
q : all real numbers are complex numbers
Conjunction :
Compound statement are combined by the word "and "() the resulting statement is called a conjunction
denoted as p  q.
e.g. A point occupies a position and its location can be determined.
The component statement are
p : Apoint occupies a position
q : Its location can be determined
Both statements are true.
Imp. : Do not think that a statement with "And" is always a compound statement.
e.g. Amixture of alcohol and water can be separated by chemical methods.
(Here "And" refers to two things).
Note :
(i) The compound statement with 'And' is true if all its component statements are true.
(ii) The compound statement with 'And' is false if any of its component statements is false (this includes the
case that some of its component statements are false or all of its component statements are false).
The following truth table shows the truth values of p  q (p and q ) and q  p (q and p) .
Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F F F
Rule : p  q is true only when p and q are true.
Remark : The above truth table shows that p  q = q  p.
Disjunction orAlternation :
Compound statements p and q are combined by the connective 'OR' (), then the compound statement
denoted as p  q (p or q) so formed is called a disjunction.
e.g. Two lines in a plane either intersect at one point or they are parallel.
Sometimes we use the connective 'either ... or ... ' to obtain p  q and read p  q as 'either p or q'.
Note :
(i) A compound statement with an 'Or' is true when one component statement is true or both the component
statement are true.
(ii) A compound statement with an 'Or' is false when both the component statements are false.
Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F T T
F T T T
F F F F
Rule : p  q is false only when both p and q are false.
Imp. : e.g. Astudent who has taken biology or chemistry can apply for M.Sc. microbiology program.
This means that student who have taken both biology and chemistry or only biology or only chemistry
can apply for the microbiology program. This is example of inclusive "Or". In this case truth table is
same as p  q.
Imp. : e.g. Student can take French or Sanskrit as their third language.
This means that student have to choose only one subject from French and Sanskrit. It exclude the case
when one student can choose both subject. This is case of exclusive "Or". This is represented
as p  q or p  q. Truth table for exclusive or is as follows.
Truth Table (p  q)
p q p  q or p  q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
Rule : p  q is true only when one of p and q is
true and the other is false.
Negation (OR Denial) :

The denial of a statement is called the negation of the statement denoted as ~ .
e.g. p : Everyone in Germany speaks German.
~ p : it is false that everyone in Germany speaks German.
While forming the negation of a statement, phrases like, "It is not the case" or "It is false that" are also
used.
e.g. p : All integers are rational numbers.
~ p : Atleast one integer is not a rational number.
If p is true then ~ p must be false and if p is false then ~ p must be true
Truth Table (~ p)
p ~p ~ (~ p)
T F T
F T F
Rule : ~ is true only when p is false.
It may be noticed that ~ (~p) = p. Also p and ~ p are contrary.

e.g. the statements 'x is an even number' and ' x is an odd number' are contrary if x is a whole number
because both the statements cannot have the same truth value.
Imp. : If may be observed that negation is not a binary operation, it is a unary operation i.e. a modifier.
1. ~ p is true iff p is false.
2. ~ p is false iff p is true.
Quantifiers :
Quantifiers are phrases like "There exists" and "for all".
Negation of Quantifiers
(i) P = There exist a number which is equal to its square .
~ P There does not exist a number which is not equal to its square.
(ii) P = For every real number x, x is less than x + 1.
~ P = There exist a number for which x is not less than x + 1.
Implication :
There are two types of implications :
(i) "If …… then "
(ii) "Onlyif "
(iii) "If and onlyif "
(1) "If …… then " type of compound statement is called conditional statement.
The statement 'if p then q' is denoted by p  q (to be read as 'p implies q') or by p  q. Note that
p  q also means
(i) p is sufficient for q (ii) q is necessary for p (iii) p lead to q (iv) q if p
(v) q when p (vi) if p, then q
e.g. p : a number is a multiple of 9
q : a number is a multiple of 3.
Then p  q or p  q
p  q is false only when p is true and q is false. Truth table for p  q is as follows.
Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F T
F T T F
F F T T
Rule : p  q is false only when p is true and q is false.
(2) "If and only if " type of compound statement is called Bi-conditional or equivalence or 'double
implication'. Symbolically 'p iff q' is represented by p q or by p q.
(i) p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q.
(ii) q is necessary and sufficient condition for p.
(iii) If p then q and if q then p
(iv) q if and only if p.
e.g. p : If the sum of digits of a number is divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
q : If a number is divisible by 3, then the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
Anumber is divisible by 3 if and only if the sum of its digits is divisible by 3.
The following are other illustrations which actually do not appear to be so but they infact are
bi-conditional.
(i) If you work hard only then you can succeed.
(ii) You can go on leave only if your boss permits. The truth table for biconditional is as follows:
Truth Table (p  q, q  p)
p q pq qp
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F T T
Rule : p  q is true only when both p and q have the
same truth value.
Contrapositive and Converse :

Contrapositive and converse are certain other statements which can be formed from a given statement
with "if...........then".
Contrapositive of p  q is ~q  ~ p
e.g. If a number is multiple of 6 then it is multiple of 2.
Contrapositive If a number is not multiple of 2 then it is not multiple of 6.
Converse of p  q is q  p
e.g. If the angles of a triangle are equal then it is equilateral triangle.
Converse is if triangle is equilateral then angles of triangle are equal.
Truth Table (p  q)
p q pq Contrapositive Converse
(~q  ~p) (q  p)
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T T T
Note : Truth table for p  q is same as its contrapositive.
Negation of implication :
If p and q are two statements, then
~ (p q) = p  ~ q [ p  q  ~ p  q]
Proof :
p q pq ~ (p  q) p q ~q p~q
T T T F T T F F
T F F T T F T T
F T T F F T F F
F F T F F F T F
Negation of Bi-conditional statement or equivalence theorem :

If p and q are two statement, then
~ (p  q) = (p  ~ q)  (q  ~ p)
Proof :
p  q = (p  q)  (q  p)
 ~ (p  q) = {(p  q)  (q  p)}
= [~ (p  q)]  [~ (q  p)]
= (p  ~ q)  (q  ~ p)
Tautologies and fallacies :

The compound statements (or propositions) which are true for any truth value of their components are
called 'Tautologies '.
e.g. 'p  ~ p' is a tautology, p being logical statement. This is illustrated by the truth table given below
which shows onlyTs in the last column.
Truth Table (p  ~ p)
p ~p p~p
T F T
F T T
The negation of tautology is called a fallacy or a contradiction i.e. a proposition which is false for any
truth value of their components is called a fallacy. For example 'p  ~ p' is a fallacy, p being any logical
statement. This is illustrated by the truth table given below which shows only Fs in the last column.
Truth Table (p  ~ p)
p ~p p~p
T F F
F T F
Note :
(i) p  q is true iff at least one of p and q is true.
(ii) p  q is true iff exactly one of p and q is true and the other is false.
(iii) p  q is true iff both p and q are true.
(iv) A tautology is always true.
(v) A fallacyis always false.
Algebra of statements :
Statements satisfy many laws some of which are given below -
(1) Idempotent Laws : If p is any statement then
(i) p  p = p (ii) p  p = p
(2) Associative Laws : If p, q, r are any three statements, then
(i) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  r (ii) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  r
(3) Commutative Laws : If p, q are any two statements, then
(i) p  q = q  p (ii) p  q = q  p
(4) Distributive Laws : If p, q, r are any three statements, then
(i) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  (p  r) (ii) p  (q  r) = (p  q)  (p  r)
(5) Identity Laws : If p is any statement, t is tautology and c is a contradiction, then

(i) p  t = t (ii) p t = p (iii) p  c = p (iv) p  c = c
(6) Complement Laws : If t is a tautology, c is a contradiction and p is any statement, then
(i) p  (~p) = t (ii) p  (~p) = c (iii) ~ t = c (iv) ~ c = t
(7) Involution Law : If p is any statement, then ~ (~p) = p.
(8) De-morgan's Law : If p and q are two statements, then
(i) ~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q) (ii) ~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)
(i) Proof :
~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)
p q pq ~(p  q) ~p ~q (~p)  (~q)

T T T F F F F
T F T F F T F
F T T F T F F
F F F T T T T
(ii) Proof :
~ (p  q)  (~p)  (~q)
p q pq ~(p  q) ~p ~q (~p)  (~q)

T T T F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T F T T F T
F F F T T T T
EXERCISE-1 (Objective Questions)
Q.1 Which of the following is not a statement ?

(A) Every set is a finite set (B) 8 is less than 6
(C) Where are you going ? (D) Thesum of interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees
Q.2 Which of the following is a statement ?

(A) May you live long ! (B) May God bless you !
(C) The sun is a star (D) Hurrah! We have won the match
Q.3 Negation of "2 + 3 = 5 and 8 < 10" is

(A) 2 + 3  5 and 8 < 10 (B) 2 + 3 = 5 and 8 / 10
(C) 2 + 3  5 and 8 / 10 (D) None of these
Q.4 Negation of "Manu is in class X orAnu is in class XII" is

(A) Manu is not in class X but Anu is in class XII
(B) Manu is not is class X but Anu is not in class XII
(C) Either Manu is not in class X or Anu is not in class XII
(D) None of these
Q.5 Truth value of the statement "if p then q" is false when
(A) p is true, q is true (B) p is true, q is false
(C) p is false, q is true (D) p is false, q is false
Q.6 Let p and q be two statements. Then, ~ p  q   ~ p  ~ q  is a

(A) tautology (B) contradiction
(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) either tautology or contradiction
Q.7 Let p  q  r   p  q   p  r  . Then, this law is known as

(A) Commutative law (B)Associate law (C) De-Morgan's law (D) Distribute law
Q.8 The false statement in the following is

(A) p  ~ p  is a contradiction (B) (p  q)  (~ q  ~ p) is a contradiction
(C) ~ (~ p)  p is a tautology (D) p  (~ p) is a tautology
Q.9 If p : Ram is smart.

q : Ram is intelligent.
Then, the symbolic form Ram is smart and intelligent, is
(A) p  q  (B) p  q  (C) p ~ q  (D) p ~ q 
Q.10 A compound sentence formed by two simple statements p and q using connective 'or' is called
(A) conjunction (B) disjunction (C) implication (D) none of these
Q.11 The contrapositive of p  ~ q is

(A) ~ p  q (B) ~ q  p (C) q  ~ p (D) None of these
Q.12 If p = ABC is equilateral and q = each angle is 60°. Then, symbolic form of statement
(A) p  p (B) p  q (C) p  q (D) p  q
Q.13 If p = He is intelligent
q = He is strong.
Then, symbolic form of statement.
"It is wrong that he is intelligent or strong," is
(A) ~ p  ~ p (B) ~ p  q  (C) ~ p  ~ q (D) p ~ q
Q.14 If p and q are two statements, then statement p  q  ~ q is

(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) None of the above
Q.15 If p and q are two statements, then ~ p  q   ~ q  p 

(C) neither tautology nor contradiction (D) either tautology or contradiction
Q.16 Which is a statement ?

(A) x + 1 = 6 (B) 5  N (C) x + y < 12 (D) None of these
Q.17 If p : Aman is happy.

q : Aman is rich.
Then, the statement, "If a man is not happy, then he is not rich" is written is
(A) ~ p  ~ q (B) ~ q  p (C) ~ q  ~ p (D) q  ~ p
Q.18 ~ (p  q)  (~ p q) is logically equivalent to

(A) ~ p (B) p (C) q (D) ~ q
Q.19 The compound statement p  (~ p  q) is false, then the truth values of p and q are respectively
(A) T, T (B) T, F (C) F, T (D) F, F
Q.20 ~ [~ p  (p  q)] 
(A) p  q (B) q  p (C) T (D) F
EXERCISE-2
(JEE-MAIN Previous Year's Questions)

Q.1 The statement p  (q  p) is equivalent to [AIEEE- 2008]
(A) p  (p  q) (B) p  (p  q) (C) p  (p  q) (D) p  (p  q)
Q.2 ~ (p  q)  (~ p  q) is logically equivalent to

(A) ~ p (B) p (C) q (D) ~ q [DCE- 2008]
Q.3 If p, q, r are simple propositions, then (p  q)  (q  r) is true, then

(A) p, q, r are all false (B) p, q, r are all true
(C) p, q are true and r is false (D) p is true and q and r are false [DCE- 2008]
Q.4 Statement-1 : ~ (p  ~ q) is equivalent to p  q.

Statement -2 : ~ (p  ~ q) is a tautology
(A) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is true; Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statement-1 is true, Statement -2 is false
(D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true [AIEEE-2009]
Q.5 Let S be a non-empty subset of R. Consider the following statement

P : There is a rational number x  S such that x > 0.
Which of the following statements is the negation of the statement P ?
(A) There is a rational number x  S such that x  0
(B) There is no rational number x  S such that x  0
(C) Every rational number x  S satisfies x  0
(D) x  S and x  0  x is not rational [AIEEE-2010]
Q.6 The only statement among the following that is a tautology is

(A) A  A  B (B) A  A  B
(C) A  A  B  B (D) B  A  A  B [AIEEE-2011]
Q.7 Consider the following statements

P : Suman is brilliant Q : Suman is rich R : Suman is honest
The negation of the statement "Suman is brilliant and dishonest if and only if Suman is rich" can be
expressed as : [AIEEE-2011]
(A) ~P ^ (Q  R) (B) ~ (Q  (P ^ ~ R)) (C) ~ Q  ~P ^ R (D) ~ (P^ ~ R)  Q
Q.8 The negation of the statement

"If I become a teacher, then I will open a school", is
(A) Neither I will become a teacher nor I will open a school.
(B) I will not become a teacher or I will open a school.
(C) I will become a teacher and I will not open a school.
(D) Either I will not become a teacher or I will not open a school. [AIEEE-2012]
Q.9 Consider
Statement-I: (p  ~ q)  (~ p  q) is a fallacy..
Statement-II: (p  q)  (~ q  ~ p) is a tautology.
(A) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is true, Statement-II is not a correct explanation for Statement-I.
(B) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is false.
(C) Statement-I is false, Statement-II is true.
(D) Statement-I is true, Statement-II is true, Statement-II is a correct explanation for Statement-I.
[JEE- Main 2013]
Q.10 The statement ~ (p  ~ q) is

(A) a fallacy (B) equivalent to p  q
(C) equivalent to ~ p  q (D) a tautology
[JEE- Main 2014]
Q.11 The negation of ~ s  (~ r  s) is equivalent to

(A) s  ( r  ~ s) (B) s  r (C) s  ~ r (D) s  ( r  ~ s)
[JEE Main 2015]
Q.12 The Boolean Expression (p  ~ q) q  (~p  q) is equivalent to

(A) p  ~ q (B) ~ p  q (C) p  q (D) p  q
[JEE Main 2016]
EXERCISE-3
Q.1 Which of the following sentences are statements? Give reasons for your answer.
(i) There are 35 days in a month.
(ii) The square of a number is an even number.
(iii)Answer this question.
Q.2 Write the negation of the following statements:

(i) Chennai is the capital of Tamil Nadu.
(ii)All triangles are not equilateral triangle.
Q.3 Find the component statements of the following compound statements and check whether they are true
or false.
(i)All integers are positive or negative.
(ii) 100 is divisible by 3, 11 and 5.
Q.4 For each of the following compound statements first identify the connecting words and then break it into
component statements.
(i)All rational numbers are real and all real numbers are not complex.
(ii) x = 2 and x = 3 are the roots of the equation 3x2 – x – 10 = 0.
Q.5 Identify the quantifier in the following statements and write the negation of the statements
(i) There exists a number which is equal to its square.
(ii) For every real number x, x, is less than x + 1.
(iii) There exists a capital for every state in India.
Q.6 State whether the "Or" used in the following statements is "exclusive" or "inclusive". Give reasons for
your answer.
(i) Sun rises or Moon sets.
(ii) All integers are positive or negative.
Q.7 Write the contrapositive and converse of the following statements.

(i) If x is a prime number, then x is odd.
(ii) x is an even number implies that x is divisible by 4.
Q.8 Given statements in (a) and (b). Identify the statements given below as contrapositive or converse of
each other.
(a) If you live in Delhi, then you have winter clothes
(i) If you do not have winter clothes, then you do not live in Delhi.
(ii) If you have winter clothes, then you live in Delhi.
(b) If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then its diagonals bisect each other.

(i) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral do not bisect each other, then the quadrilateral is not a parallelogram.
(ii) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then it is a parallelogram.
Q.9 Show that the statement "For any real numbers an and b, a2 = b2 implies that a = b" is not true by giving
a counter-example.
Q.10 By given a counter example, show that the following statements are not true.
(i) p : If all the angles of a triangle are equal, then the triangle is an obtuse angled triangle.
(ii) q : The equation x2 – 1 = 0 does not have a root lying between 0 and 2.
Q.11 Write each of the statements in the form "if p, then q".
(i) p : It is necessary to have a password to log on to the server.
(ii) q : There is traffic jam whenever it rains.
(iii) r : You can access the website only if you pay a subscription fee.
Q.12 Rewrite each of the following statements in the form "p if and only if q"
(i) p : If you watch television, then your mind is free and if your mind is free, then you watch television.
(ii) q : For you to get anA grade, it is necessary and sufficient that you do all the homework regularly.
(iii) r : If a quadrilateral is equiangular, then it is a rectangle and if a quadrilateral is a rectangle, then it is
equiangular.
Q.13 Given below are two statements

p : 25 is a multiple of 5.
q: 25 is a multiple of 8.
Write the compound statements connecting these two statements with "And" and "Or". In both cases
check the validity of the compound statement.
STAT IS TI CS
STATISTICS
1. DEFINITION :
STATISTICS : A set of concepts, rules and procedures that help us to :

Organize numerical information in the form of tables, graphs and charts;
 Understand statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect our lives and well-being; and
 Make informed decisions.
2. DATA: Facts, observations and information that come from investigations.

Generally three types of data are used
(i) Ungrouped data, Raw data or individual series :
(ii) Discrete frequency or ungrouped data :

Definition :
Data consist of n distinct values x1, x2 ……, xn occuring with frequency f1, f2 , ……, fn respectively.
This data in tabular form is called discrete freqency distribution.
(iii) Continuous frequency or grouped data :

Definition :
A continuous frequencyDistribution is a series in which the data are classified into different class intervals
without gaps along with their respective frequencies.
3. MEASURES OF CENTRALVALUE :
Measure of central value gives rough idea about where data points are centred. Mean, mode, median
are three measure of central tendency.
(A) MEAN :
The mean is the most common measure of central tendency and the one that can be mathematically
manipulated. It is defined as the average of a distribution is equal to the X / N. Simply, the mean is
computed bysumming all the scores in the distribution (X) and dividing that sum bythe total number of
scores (N).
(I) Arithmetic mean of individual series (Ungrouped data)

If the series in this case be x1, x2, x3, ......., xn ; then the arithmetic mean x is given by
n
Sum of the series x1  x 2  x 3  ......  x n 1
i.e., x = =
N
= N  xi .
Number of terms i 1
(II) Arithmetic mean for discrete frequency distribution :

If the terms of the given series be x1, x2,........, xn and the corresponding frequencies be f1, f2, ......., fn,
then the arithmetic mean x is given by,,
f1x1  f 2 x 2  ........  f n x n 1 n  n 
x = =  fi x i .   fi  N 
 
N N i 1  i 1 
STAT IS TI CS
(III) Arithmetic mean for grouped or continuous frequency distribution :

1 n
Arithmetic mean ( x ) =A +  fi ( x i  A ) ,
N i 1
where A= assumed mean, f = frequency and x – A= deviation of each item from the assumed mean.
(IV) Combined Arithmetic mean :

If x i (i = 1, 2, ......, k) are the means of k-component series of sizes ni, (i = 1, 2, ..., k) respectively, then
the mean x of the composite series obtained on combining the component series is given bythe formula
n
 nixi
n1x1  n 2 x 2 .........  n k x k i 1
x = = n .
n1  n 2  .....  n k
 ni
i 1
(V) Weighted Arithmetic Mean :

Weighted arithmetic mean refers to the arithmetic mean calculated after assigning weights to different
values of variable. It is suitable where the relative importance of difference items of variable is not same.
WeightedArithmetic Mean is give by
n
 WiXi
XW  i 1
n
 Wi
i 1
Properties of arithmetic mean :
(i) If each of the values of a variable 'X' is increased of decreased by some constant k, then arithmetic mean
also increased of decreased by k.
Similarlywhen the value of the variable 'X' are multiplied/divided byconstant sayk, arithmetic mean also
multiplied /divided bythe same quantity k.
Illustration :
The mean weight of 150 persons in a group is 60 kg. The mean weight of men in the group is 70 kg and
that of the women is 55 kg. Find the number of men and women.
Sol. Number of person = 150; their mean weight = 60 kg;
mean weight of men ( x1 ) = 70 kg and
mean weight of women ( x 2 ) = 55 kg
Let n1 and n2 be the number of men and number of women respectively.
We know that the total number of persons (n1 + n2) = 150 or n2 = 150 – n1.
We also know that the mean weight of all persons
(n1x1  n 2 x 2 )
(x ) 
n1  n 2
70n1  55n 2
or 60 =
150
or 3n1 = (1800 – 1650) = 150
or n1 = 50 and n2 = 100
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
Find the mean of the following data :
Marks obtained 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80
Number of students 2 3 8 14 8 3 2
Sol. Method-1 :
Marks Number of
Mid - points fi xi
obtained students
10  20 2 15 30
20  30 3 25 75
30  40 8 35 280
40  50 14 45 630
50  60 8 55 440
60  70 3 65 195
70  80 2 75 150
40 1800
7 7
N=  fi = 40,  fi x i = 1800
i 1 i 1
1 7 1800
x 
N i1
fi x i =
40
= 45
Method-2 :
10  80
Asumed mean a = = 45, h = 10
2
Marks Number of x i  45
Mid - points d i  fidi
obtained students 10
10  20 2 15 3 6
20  30 3 25 2 6
30  40 8 35 1 8
40  50 14 45 0 0
50  60 8 55 1 8
60  70 3 65 2 6
70  80 2 75 3 6
40 0
7
 fi di 0
x =a+ i 1 = 45 + × 10 = 45
N 40
(B) MEDIAN :
(a) Definition : The median is the score that divides the distribution into halves; half of the scores are above
the median and half are below it when the data are arranged in numerical order. The median is also
referred to as the score at the 50th percentile in the distribution.
STAT IS TI CS
Calculation of median :
(i) Individual series : If the data is raw, arrange in ascending or descending order. Let n be the number of
observations.
th
 n 1
If n is odd, Median = value of   item.
 2 
1  n
th
n 
th 
If n is even, Median =  value of   item  value of   1  item  .
2  2 2  
(ii) Discrete series :In this case, we first find the cumulative frequencies of the variable arranged in ascending
th
n 
or descendingorder and the median is given byMedian =   1 observation, where n is the cumulative
2 
frequency.
(iii) For grouped or continuous distributions : In this case, following formula can be used.
N 
  C
2  i
Median = l +
f
where l = Lower limit of the median class
f = Frequency of the median class
N = The sum of all frequencies
i = The width of the median class
C = The cumulative frequency of the class preceding to median class.
(b) Quartile :As median, divides a distribution into two equal parts, similarlythe quartiles, quantiles, deciles
and percentiles divide the distribution respectively into 4, 5, 10 and 100 equal parts. The jth quartile is
 N 
 j C
given by Qj = l +  10  i.
 f 
 
Illustration :
The marks obtained by 10 students in an examination are 22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 11, 35, 41, 12, 32. What
is the median mark?
Sol. Number of students (n) = 10 and marks obtained by them = 22, 26, 14, 30, 18, 11, 35, 41, 12, 32
Arranging the given marks in the ascending order, we get 11, 12, 14, 18, 22, 26, 30, 32, 35, 41.
Since the number of students is even, therefore median of their marks
 10   10  2 
= Arithmetic mean of   and   marks
2  2 
= Arithmetic mean of 5th and 6th marks
22  26
= = 24 Ans.
2
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
Calculate the median of the following data:
Wages per week (in Rs) 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80

Number of worker 4 6 10 20 10 6 4
Sol. Calculation of Mean Deviation from Median

Wages per Mid-Values Frequency Cumulative
week (in Rs.) (xi) (fi) Frequency
10-20 15 4 4
20-30 25 6 10
30-40 35 10 20
40-50 45 20 40
50-60 55 10 50
60-70 65 6 56
70-80 75 4 60
N = fi
= 60
N
Here, N = 60. So = 30.
2
N
The cumulative frequency just greater than = 30 is 40 and the corresponding class is 40-50.
2
So, 40-50 is the median class.
 l = 40, f = 20, h = 10, F = 20
N
F
2 30  20
Now, Median = l   h = 40   10 = 55 Ans.
f 20
(C) MODE :
Mode is the most frequent score in the distribution.Adistribution where a single score is most frequent
has one mode and is called unimodal. When there are ties for the most frequent score, the distribution is
bimodal if two scores tie or multimodal if more than two scores tie.
Mode for continuous series
 f f 
Mode = l1 +  1 0   i
 2f1  f 0  f 2 
Where, l1 = The lower limit of the model class
f1 = The frequency of the model class
f0 = The frequency of the class preceding the model class
f2 = The frequency of the class succeeding the model class
i = The size of the model class.
STAT IS TI CS
Symmetric distribution :
A distribution is a symmetric distribution if the values of mean, mode and median coincide. In a symmetric
distribution frequencies are symmetrically distributed on both sides of the centre point of the frequency
curve.
mean = median = mode

A distribution which is not symmetric is called a skewed distribution. In a moderately asymmetric
distribution, the interval between the mean and the median is approximately one-third of the interval
between the mean and the mode i.e., when have the following empirical relation between them,
Mean – Mode = 3 (Mean – Median)  Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean. it is known as Empirical relation.
Positively skewed :
A distribution is positively skewed when is has a tail extending out to the right (larger numbers) When a
distribution is positivelyskewed, the mean is greater than the median reflecting the fact that the mean is
sensitive to each score in the distribution and is subject to large shifts when the sample is small and
contains extreme scores.
Mean > Median > Mode
Mode Median Mean
Negatively skewed :
A negativelyskewed distribution has an extended tail pointing to the left (smaller numbers) and reflects
bunching of numbers in the upper part of the distribution with fewer scores at the lower end of the
measurement scale.
Mean < Median < Mode.
Mean Median Mode
In a moderatelyasymmetric distribution, the interval between the mean and the median is approximately
one-third of the interval between the mean and the mode i.e., when have the following empirical relation
between them,
Empirical formula : mode = 3 median – 2 mean
Mean  Mode
Coefficient of skewness =

STAT IS TI CS
Limitations of central values :

An average, such as the mean or the median only locates the centre of the data and does not tell us
anything about the spread of the data.
4. MEASURES OF SPREAD OR DISPERSION :

Measures of variability provide information about the degree to which individual scores are clustered
about or deviate from the average value in a distribution i.e.,
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value is called the dispersion of the
data. The four measure of dispersion are
(i) Range (ii) Mean deviation
(iii) Variance (iv) Standard deviation
Important Note :
(a) A small value for a measure of dispersion indicate that the data are clustered closely(the mean is therefore
representative of the data).
(b) A large value of dispersion indicates that the mean is not reliable (it is not representative of the data).
(i) Range :
The simplest measure of variability to compute and understand is the range. The range is the difference
between the highest and lowest score in a distribution. Because it is based solely on the most extreme
scores in the distribution and does not fully reflect the pattern of variation within a distribution, the range
is a very limited measure of variability.
LS
Coefficient of range :
L S
L = Largest value
S = Smallest value
(ii) Mean deviation :

The arithmetic average of the deviations (all taking positive) from the mean, median or mode is known as
mean deviation.
(a) Mean deviation from ungrouped data (or individual series)

1 n
Mean deviation =  xi  M .
N i 1
n
Where  x i  M is the sum of modulus of the deviation of the variate from the mean (mean, median
i 1
or mode) and N is the number of terms.
(b) Mean deviation from continuous series :

Here first of all we find the mean from which deviation is to be taken. Then we find the deviation
x i  M of each variate from the mean M and multiplythese deviations by the corresponding frequency
1 n n
So, Mean deviation =  fi x i  M , where N =
N i 1
 fi .
i 1
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
The scores of a batsman in ten innings are : 38, 70, 48, 34, 42, 55, 63, 46, 54, 44. Find the mean
deviation about the median.
Sol. Arranging the data in ascending order, we have
34, 38, 42, 44, 46, 48, 54, 55, 63, 70
Here n = 10. So, median is the A.M. of 5th and 6th observations.
 46  48 
 Median, M =   = 47
 2 
Calculation of Mean Deviation
xi |di| = |xi – 47|
38 9
70 23
48 1
34 13
42 5
55 8
63 16
46 1
54 7
44 3
Total  |di| = 86
1 86
 M.D. =  di = = 8.6 Ans.
n 10
Illustration :
Calculate the mean deviation from the median of the following data:
Age 16  20 21  25 26  30 31  35 36  40 41  45 46  50 51  55
Number 5 6 12 14 26 12 16 9
Since given data is not continuous frequency distribution but we can make it continuous frequency
distribution by subtracting lower limit by 0.5 and adding 0.5 to upper limit of every group.
Sol. Calculation of Mean Deviation from Median
Age Mid-Values Frequency Cumulative |di|
(xi) (fi) Frequency = |xi – 38| f|di|
15.5-20.5 18 5 5 20 100
20.5-25.5 23 6 11 15 90
25.5-30.5 28 12 23 10 120
30.5-35.5 33 14 37 5 70
35.5-40.5 38 26 63 0 0
40.5-45.5 43 12 75 5 60
45.5-50.5 48 16 91 10 160
50.5-55.5 53 9 100 15 135
N =  fi fi |di|
= 100 = 735
STAT IS TI CS
N
Here, N = 100. So = 50.
2
N
The cumulative frequency just greater than = 50 is 63 and the corresponding class is 35.5-40.5.
2
So, 35.5-40.5 is the median class.
 l =35.5, f = 26, h = 5, C = 37
N
C
2  50  37 
Now, Median = l   h = 35.5     5 = 38 Ans.
f  26 
f i | d i | 735
Mean Deviation from median = = = 7.35 Ans.
N 100
(iii) Variance or Var(X) or 2 :

The variance is a measure based on the deviations of individual scores from the mean. As noted in the
definition of the mean, however, simplysumming the deviations will result in a value of 0.The get around
this problem the variance is based on squared deviations of scores about the mean. When the deviations
are squared, the rank order and relative distance of scores in the distribution is preserved while negative
values are eliminated. Then to control for the number of subjects in the distribution, the sum of the
squared deviations,  (X  X ) 2 , is divided by N(population). The average of the sum of the squared
deviations is called the variance.
(a) Variance of individual observations :

If x1, x2, ……, xn are n values of a variable X, then
2
1 n 1 n 2 1 n 
Var(X) =
n
 (xi  X) = n 
2
i 1
x i    x i 
 n i 1 
i 1
= Mean of squares – Squares of Mean
(b) Variance of discrete frequency distribution :

If x1, x2, ……, xn are n values of a variable X and corresponding frequencies of them are f1, f2, ……fn
2
 n 
1 n 2  1 
n n
1
=  fi x i    fi x i    fi  N 
Var (X) =  fi ( x i  X ) 2
N i 1
 
N i 1  N i 1   i 1 
(c) Variance of a grouped or continuous frequency distribution :

1 2  1  
2
xi  X
Var (X) = h2   fi u i    fi u i   ui =
 N N   h
where h = Class width
STAT IS TI CS
Properties :
(1) If x1, x2, x3....., xn be n values of a variable X. If these values are changed to x1 + a, x2 + a, ....xn + a,
where a  R, then the variance remains unchanged.
(2) If x1, x2, ......., xn values of a variable X and let 'a' be a non-zero real number. Then, the variance of the
observation ax1, ax2,......,axn is a2 Var(X).
(iv) Standard Deviation :

The standard deviation (s or ) is defined as the positive square root of the variance. The variance is a
measure in squared units and has little meaning with respect to the data. Thus, the standard deviation is
a measure of variability expressed in the same units as the data. The standard deviation is verymuch like
a mean or an "average" of these deviations.
Combined Standard Deviation :

If there are two sets of observations containing n1 & n2 items with respective mean x1 & x 2 and
standards deviations 1 & 2, then the mean x and the standard deviations of n1 + n2 observations,
taken together, are
n1x1  n 2 x 2
x = n1  n 2
2 =
1
   
n 2  d12  n 2 22  d 22
n1  n 2 1 1

where d1 = x – x1 , d2 = x – x 2
Illustration :
Calculate the mean and standard deviation of first n natural numbers.
Sol. Here xi = i = i = 1, 2,........, n. Let X be the mean and be the S.D. Then,
1 n 1 n 1
X =  x i =  i = (1 + 2 + 3 + ...... + n)
n i 1 n i1 n
n (n  1) n 1
 X = =
2n 2
2
1 n 2 1 n  1 2  n 1
2
 =   x i     x i 
2 2
and 2  2 = (1  2  ......  n )   
n  i 1   n i 1  n  2 
2
n ( n  1)(2n  1)  n  1  ( n  1)( 2n  1) ( n  1) 2 n 2 1
 2 =    2 =  = Ans.
6n  2  6 4 12
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
The mean and variance of 7 observations are 8 and 16 respectively. If 5 of the observations are
2, 4, 10, 12, 14, find the remaining two observations.
Sol. Let x and y be the remaining two observation. Then,
Mean = 8
2  4  10  12  14  x  y
 =8  42 + x + y = 56
7
 x + y = 14 .....(i)
Variance = 16
1 2
 (2 + 42 +102 + 122 + 142 + x2 + y2) – (Mean)2 = 16
7
1
 (4 + 16 +100 + 144 + 196 + x2 + y2) – 64 = 16  460 + x2 + y2 = 7 × 80
7
 x2 + y2 = 100 .....(ii)
Now, (x + y)2 + (x – y)2 = 2(x2 + y2)
 196 + (x – y)2 = 2 × 100  (x – y)2 = 4  x – y = ±2
If x – y = 2, then x + y = 14 and x – y = 2  x = 8, y = 6
If x – y = –2, then x + y = 14 and x – y = –2  x = 6, y = 8
Hence, the remaining two observations are 6 and 8.
Illustration :
Find the variance and standard deviation for the following distribution:
Classes 30  40 40  50 50  60 60  70 70  80 80  90 90  100
Frequency 3 7 12 15 8 3 2
Sol. Calculation of Variance and Standard Deviation

Frequency Mid-point x – 65
Class
(fi ) yi = i yi2 fi yi fi yi2
(xi) 10
30-40 3 35 –3 9 –9 27
40-50 7 45 –2 4 –14 28
50-60 12 55 –1 1 –12 12
60-70 15 65 0 0 0 0
70-80 8 75 1 1 8 8
80-90 3 85 2 4 6 12
90-100 2 95 3 9 6 18
N = 50 –15 105
Therefore x = A +
 fi yi × h = 65 – 15 × 10 = 62
50 50
variance 2
h2
N

= 2 N  f i y i    f i yi
2

2
=
(10)2
(50) 2

50 105  (15)2 =
1
25
[5250 – 225] = 201
and standard deviation () = 201 = 14.18 Ans.
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
The mean and standard deviation of 20 observations are found to be 10 and 2 respectively. On rechecking,
it was found that an observation 8 was incorrect. Calculate the correct mean and standard deviation in
each of the following cases:
(i) If the wrong item is omitted.
Sol. We have , n = 20, X = 10 and  = 2
1
 X = x i  xi = n X = 20 × 10 = 200  Incorrect xi = 200
n
1
and,  = 2  2 = 4  x i 2 – (Mean)2 = 4
n
1
 x i 2 – 100 = 4  xi2 = 104 × 20  Incorrect xi2 = 2080
20
(i) When 8 is omitted from the data.
If 8 is omitted from the data, then 19 observations are left.
Now Incorrect xi = 200  Correct xi + 8 = 200  Correct xi = 192
and Incorrect xi2 = 2080  Correct xi2 + 82 = 2080  Correct xi2 = 2016
192
 Correct mean   10.10
19
1
 Correct variance = (Correct xi2) – (Correct mean)2
19
2
2016  192 
 Correct variance =  
19  19 
38304  36864 1440
Correct variance = =
361 361
1440 12 10
 Correct standard deviation = = = 1.997
361 19
Analysis of Frequency Distributions :

Measures of dispersion are unable to compare two or more series which are measured in different units
even if they have the same mean. Thus, we require those measures which are independent of the units.
The measure of variability which is independent of units is called coefficient of variation (C.V.). The
coefficient of variation is defined as

C.V. = × 100
X
where  and X are the standard deviation and mean of the data.
For comparing the variability of two series, we calculate the coefficient of variation for each series. The
series having greater C.V. is said to be more variable or conversely less consistent, less uniform less
stable or less homogeneous than the other and the series having lesser C.V. is said to be more consistent
(or homogeneous) than the other.
STAT IS TI CS
Illustration :
The following values are calculated in respect of heights and weights of the students of a section of
Class XI :
Height Weight
Mean 162.6 cm 52.36
Variance 127.69 cm 2 23.1361 kg2
Can we say that the weights show greater variation than the heights ?
Sol. To compare the variability, we have to calculate their coefficients of variation
Given Variance of height = 127.69 cm2
Therefore Standard deviation of height 127.69 cm = 11.3 cm
Also Variance of weight = 23.1361 kg2
Therefore Standard deviation of weight = 23.1361 kg = 4.81 kg
Now, the coefficient of variations (C.V.) are given by
Standard Deviation
(C.V.) in heights = × 100
Mean
11.3
= × 100 = 6.95
162.6
4.81
and (C.V.) in weight = × 1000 = 9.18
52.36
Clearly C.V. in weights is greater than the C.V. in heights
Therefore, we can say that weights show more variability than heights.
STAT IS TI CS
EXERCISE
Q.1 Find the mean deviation about the mean for the data
4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 17.
Q.2 Find the mean deviation about the median for the data
13, 17, 16, 14, 11, 13, 10, 16, 11, 18, 12, 17
xi 5 10 15 20 25
fi 7 4 6 3 5
Height in cms 95  105 105  115 115  125 125  135 135  145 145  155
Number of boys 9 13 26 30 12 10
Q.5 Find the mean deviation about median for the following data :
Marks 0  10 10  20 20  30 30  40 40  50 50  60
Number of Girls 6 8 14 16 4 2
Q.6 Calculate the mean deviation about median age for the age distribution of 100 persons given below :
Age 16  20 21  25 26  30 31  35 36  40 41  45 46  50 51  55
Number 5 6 12 14 26 12 16 9
Q.7 Find the mean and variance for first n natural numbers.
STAT IS TI CS
Q.8 Find the mean and variance for the following frequency distributions
Classes 0  30 30  60 60  90 90  120 120  150 150  180 180  210

Frequencies 2 3 5 10 3 5 2
Q.9 The diameters of circles (in mm) drawn in a design are given below :
Diameters 33  36 37  40 41  44 45  48 49  52
No. of circles 15 17 21 22 25
Q.10 An analysis of monthlywages paid to workers in two firmsAand B, belonging to the same industry, gives
the followingresults :
FirmA Firm B
Number of wages earners 586 648
Mean of monthly wages Rs 5253 Rs 5253
Variance of the distribution of wages 100 121
(i) Which firmAor B pays larger amount as monthly wages?
(ii) Which firm,Aor B, shows greater variabilityin individual wages?
Q.11 The sum and sum of squares corresponding to length x (in cm) and weight (in gm) of 50 plant products
are given below :
50 50 50 50
 xi  212 ,  xi2  902.8 ,  yi = 261,  yi2 = 1457.6
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
Which is more varying, then length or weight?
Q.12 Given that x is the mean and 2 is the variance of n observations x1, x2, ……, xn. Prove that the mean
and variance of the observations ax1, ax2, ax3, …… axn are ax and a2x and a22, respectively, (a  0).
Q.13 The mean and standard deviation of a group of 100 observations were found to be 20 and 3, respectively.
Later on it was found that three observations wre incorrect, which wre recorded as 21, 21 and 18. Find
the mean and standard deviation if the incorrect observations are omitted.
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
RANDOM EXPERIMENTS :
In our dayto daylife, we perform manyactivities which have a fixed result no matter anynumber of times
they are repeated. For example given any triangle, without knowing the three angles, we can definitely
say that the sum of measure of angles is 180°.
We also perform many experimental activities, where the result maynot be same, when theyare repeated
under identical conditions. For example, when a coin is tossed it may turn up a head or a tail, but we are
not sure which one of these results will actually be obtained. Such experiments are called random
experiments.
An experiment is called random experiment if it satisfies the following to conditions :

(i) It has more than one possible outcome.
(ii) It is not possible to predict the outcome in advance.
Example :
(i) Tossing a coin is a random experiment.
(ii) Throwing a dice is a random experiment.
(iii) Drawing a card from a well shuffled deck of 52 playing card is also a random experiment.
OUT COMES AND SAMPLE SPACE :
A possible result of a random experiment is called its outcome.

Consider the experiment of rolling a die. The outcomes of this experiment are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6, if we are
interested in the number of dots on the upper face of the die.
The set of outcomes {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is called the sample space of the experiment.
Thus, the set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample space associated
with the experiment. Sample space is denoted by the symbol S.
Each element of the sample space is called a sample point. In other words, each outcome of the
random experiment is also called sample point.
EVENT :
Consider the experiment of tossing a coin two times.An associated sample space is
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Now suppose that we are intersected in those outcomes which correspond to the occurrence of exactly
one head. We find that HT and TH are the only elements of S corresponding to the occurrence of this
happening (event). These two elements form the set E = {HT, TH}.
We know that the set E is a subset of the sample space S. Similarly, we find the following correspondence
between events and subsets of S.
PROBABILITY
Description of events Corresponding subset of 'S'

Number of tail is exactly 2 A = {TT}
Number of tails is atleast one B = {HT, TH, TT}
Number of heads is atmost one C = {HT, TH, TT}
Second toss is not head D = {HT, TT}
Number of tails is atmost two S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
Number of tails is more than two 
Definition :
Any subset E of a sample space S is called an event.
Note : The maximum number of events which can be associated with an experiment is 2n, where n is the number
of elements in the sample space.
i.e., nC0 + nC1 + nC2 + .... + nCn = 2n
Occurrence of an event :
Consider the experiment of throwing a die. Let E denotes the event " a number less than 4 appears". If
actually '1' had appeared on the die then we say that event E has occurred. As a matter of fact if
outcomes are 2 or 3, we say that even E has occurred.
Thus, the event E of a sample space S is said to have occurred if the outcome  of the experiment is such
that  E. If the outcome  is such that  E, we say that the event E has not occurred.
Impossible and Sure Events :
The empty set  and the sample space S describe events. In fact  is called an impossible event and S,
i.e., the whole sample space is called the sure event.
To understand these let us consider the experiment of rolling a die. The associated sample space is
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Let E be the event" the number appears on the die is a multiple of 7".
Clearly no outcome satisfies the condition given in the event, i.e., no element of the sample space ensure
the occurrence of the event E. Thus, we say that the empty set only correspond to the event E. In other
words we can say that it is impossible to have a multiple of 7 on the upper face of the die. Thus, the event
E =  is an impossible event.
Now let us take up another event F " the number turns up is odd or even". Clearly F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}= S,
i.e., all outcomes of the experiment ensure the occurrence of the event F. Thus, the event F = S is a sure
event.
Simple Event :
If an event E has only one sample point of a sample space, it is called a simple (or elementary) event.
In a sample space containing n distinct elements, there are exactly n simple events.
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
There are four simple events corresponding of this sample space. These are
E1 = {HH}, E2 = {HT}, E3 = {TH} and E4 = {TT}.
PROBABILITY
Compound Event :
If an event has more than one sample point, it is called a compound event.
For example, in the experiment of "tossing a coin thrice" the events
E : 'Exactly one head appeared'
F : ' Atleast one head appeared'
G : 'Atmost one head appeared' etc.
are all compound events. The subsets of associated with these events are
E = {HTT, THT, TTH}
F = {HTT, THT, TTH, HHT, HTH, THH, HHH}
G = {TTT, THT, HTT, TTH}
Each of the above subsets contain more than one sample point, hence they are all compound events.
ALGEBRA OF EVENTS :
In the Chapter on Sets, we have studied about different ways of combining two or more sets, viz, union,
intersection, difference, complement of a set etc. Like-wise we can combine two or more events by
using the analogous set notations.
Let A, B, C be events associated with an experiment whose sample space is S.
Complementary Event :
For every eventA, there corresponds another event A' or A called the complementary event to A. It is
also called the event 'not A'.
For example, take the experiment 'of tossing three coins'.An associated sample space is
S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}
Let A = {HTH, HHT, THH} be the event 'only one tail appears'.
Clearly for the outcome HTT, the event A has not
occurred. But we may say that the event 'not A' has
occurred. Thus, with every outcome which is not inA, A
we say that 'not A' occurs.
Thus the complementary event 'not A' to the event Ais
A' = {HHH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT} Aor A
or A' = { :  S and  A} = S – A
The Event 'A or B' :
Recall that union of two sets Aand B denoted byA B contains all those elements which are either in
A or in B or in both.
A B S
When the sets A and B are two events associated with
a sample space, then 'A  B' is the event 'eitherA or B
or both'. This event 'A  B' is also called 'A or B'.
Therefore Event 'A or B' = A  B = { :  A or  B} AB
PROBABILITY
The Event 'A and B' :
We know that intersection of two sets A B is the set of those elements which are common to both A
and B. i.e., which belong to both 'A and B'.
If A and B are two events, then the set A  B denotes the event 'A and B'.
Thus, A  B = { :  A and  B}
For example, in the experiment of 'throwing a die twice'
A B
Let Abe the event 'score on the first thrown is six' and
B is the even 'sum of two scores is atleast 11' then
A = {(6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5) (6, 6)}
and B = {(5, 6), (6, 5), (6, 6)}
so A  B = {(6, 5), (6, 6)} AB
Note that the set A  B = {(6, 5), (6, 6)} may represent the vent ' the score on the first throw is six and
the sum of the scores is atleast 11.'
The Event 'A but not B' :
We know that A – B is the set of all those elements A B

which are in A but not in B. Therefore, the set A – B
may denote the event 'A but not B'. We know that
A – B = A  B'
AB
The Event 'neither A nor B' :
The set of the elements which are neither in setAnor in A B

set B. i.e. S – (A  B) and which is denoted on A  B .
AB
THREE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS :
(1) Equally Likely Events :
Events are said to be equally likely when no particular event preference to occur in relation to the other
event.
Example :
(i) The outcomes as result throwing a die are equally likely, as no particular face is more likely to occur as
compared to other faces. That is why we normally write as fair die or unbiased die.
(ii) The outcomes as result of drawing a card from a well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards are equally likely
to occur. Each card is as likely to be withdrawn as any other card.
(iii) How ever getting of a total of 7 is not as equally likely as getting of a total of 12 when a pair of dice are
rolled once. It is also to be noted that it is 6 times more likely to get a total of 7 than to get a total of 12
in a single throw with the pair of dice.
PROBABILITY
(2) Mutually Exclusive / Disjoint / Incompatible Events :
Two eventsAand B are said to be mutually exclusive A B

events if their simultaneous occurrence is impossible,
AB= 
i.e. both the events can not occur together.
Example :
(i) In throwing a fair die, to events A and B are such that
A : getting an odd number
B : getting an even number
then A& B are mutually exclusive events.
(ii) In drawing a card from a well shuffled pack of 52 playing card two events A and B are such that
A : getting an ace
B : getting a red card
thenAand B are not mutually exclusive events.
(3) Exhaustive Events :
If E1, E2, ...., En are n events associated with an experiment whose sample space is S and if
n
E1  E2  E3  ...... En =  Ei  S
i 1
then E1, E2,......., En are called exhaustive events. In other words, events E1, E2, ......., En are said to be
exhaustive if atleast one of them necessarily occurs whenever the experiment is performed.
n
Further, if Ei  Ej =  for i  j i.e., events Ei and Ej are pairwise disjoint and  Ei  S , then
i 1
events E1, E2,...., En are called mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
Example :
Consider the experiment of throwing a die. We have
S = {1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6}. Let us define the following events
A : 'a number less than 4 appears'.
B : 'a number greater than 2 but less than 5 appears'
and C : 'a number greater than 4 appears'.
Then A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {3, 4} and C = {5, 6}. We observe that
A  B  C = {1, 2, 3}  {3, 4}  {5, 6} = S.
Such events A, B and C are called exhaustive events.
PROBABILITY
ADDITION THEOREM ON PROBABILITY :
If Aand B are two events associated with an experiment then P(AB) is

A B S
called the sum of the probabilities of all the sample points in A  B or
probability of occurrence of atleast one of the events fromAand B and the
expression for P(AB) is called the addition theorem on probability
From the Venn diagram it is clear that
P(Occurence atleast one  = P(A) + P(B) – P(AB)


of the events from Aand B)  = P(A) + P ( A  B)

P(A or B or both)  = P(B) + (A  B)
  P(A  B) 
or  = P (A  B) + P(A B) + P (A  B)

P(A + B)  = 1 – P ( A  B)
 = 1 – P ( A  B)

P(occurrence of exactly one of the events)  P(A  B)  P( A  B) A B

or 
P(A or B but not both) P(A)  P(B)  P(A  B)
Note :
(i) IfAand B are mutually exclusive events then –
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) {P(A B) = 0 }
(ii) If A and B are exhaustive events then P(A B) = 1
(iii) P(A B) = 1 – P ( A  B)
PROBABILITY
EXERCISE
Q.1 Describe the sample space for the indicated experiment

(i) A coin is tossed three times.
(ii) A die is thrown two times.
Q.2 Abox contains 1 red and 3 identical white balls. Two balls are drawn at random in succession without
replacement. Write the sample space for the experiment.
Q.3 Adie is rolled. Let E be the event "die shows 4" and F be the event "die shows even number".Are E and
F mutuallyexclusive?
Q.4 A die is thrown. Describe the following events :

(i) A : a number less than 7
(ii) B : a number greater than 7
(iii) C : a multiple of 3
(iv) D : a number less than 4
(v) E : an even number greater than 4
(vi) F : a number not less than 3
Also find A  B, A  B, B  C, E  F, D  E, A – B, D – C, E  F', F'
Q.5 Two dice are thrown. The events A, B and C are as follows :
A : getting an even number on the first die.
B : getting an odd number on the first die.
C : getting the sum of the numbers on the dice  5.
Describe the events
(i) A' (ii) not B (iii) A or B
(iv) A and B (v) A but not C (vi) B or C
(vii) B and C (viii) A  B'  C'
Q.6 A coin is tossed twice, what is the probability that atleast one tail occurs?
Q.7 A card is selected from a pack of 52 cards.

(a) How many points are there in the sample sapce?
(b) Calculate the probability that the card is an ace of spades.
(c) Calculate the probability that the card is (i) an ace (ii) black card.
Q.8 Three coins are tossed once. Find the probability of getting
(i) 3 heads (ii) 2 heads (iii) atleast 2 heads
(iv) atmost 2 heads (v) no head (vi) 3 tails
(vii) exactlytwo tails (viii) no tail (ix) atmost two tails
2
Q.9 If is the probability of an event, what is the probability of the event 'not A'.
11
PROBABILITY
Q.10 A letter is chosen at random from the word 'ASSASSINATION'. Find the probability that letter is
(i) a vowel (ii) a consonent
Q.11 In a lottery, a person choses six different natural numbers at random from 1 to 20 and if these six
numbers match with the six numbers already fixed by the lottery committee, he wins the prize. What is
the probabilityof winning the prize in the game?
3 1
Q.12 Given P(A) = and P(B) = . Find P(A or B), if A and B are mutually exclusive events.
5 5
1 1 1
Q.13 If E and F are events such that P(E) = , P(F) = and P(E and F) = , find
4 2 8
(i) P(E or F), (ii) P(not E and not F)
Q.14 In an entrance test that is graded on the basis of two examinations, the probability of a randomly chosen
student passing the first examination is 0.8 and the probabilityof passing the second examination is 0.7.
The probability of passing atleast one of them is 0.95. What is the probability of passing both?
Q.15 In a class of 60 students, 30 opted for NCC, 32 opted for NSS and 24 opted for both NCC and NSS.
If one of these students is selected at random, find the probability that
(i) The student opted for NCC or NSS
(ii) The student has opted neither NCC nor NSS
(iii) The student has opted NSS but not NCC.
Q.16 Box contains 10 red marbles, 20 blue marbles and 30 green marbles, 5 marbles are drawn from the box,
what is the probability that
(i) all will be blue (ii ) atleast one will be green?
Q.17 4 cards are drawn from a well - shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of obtaining 3
diamonds and one spade?
Q.18 Three letters are dictated to three persons and an envelope is addressed to each of them, the letters are
inserted into the envelopes at random so that each envelope contains exactlyone letter. Find the probability
that at least one letter is in its proper envelope.
Q.19 A and B are two events such that P(A) = 0.54, P(B) = 0.69 and P(A  B) = 0.35. Find
(i) P(A  B) (ii) P(A'  B') (iii) P(A  B') (iv) P(B  A')
Q.20 If 4 digit numbers greater than 5,000 are randomly formed from the digits 0, 1, 3, 5 and 7, what is the
probability of forming a number divisible by 5 when,
(i) the digits are repeated? (ii) the repetition of digits is not allowed?
Q.21 The number lock of a suitcase has 4 wheels, each lablled with ten digits i.e., from 0 to 9. The lock opens
with a sequence of four digits with no repeats. What is the probability of a person getting the right
sequence to open the suitcase?
COORDINATES OF A POINT IN SPACE :
y
Consider a point P in space whose position is given by (x, y, z)
R Q
where x, y, z are perpendicular distance from yz plane, zx plane
and xy plane respectively.
S P
If we assume î , ˆj, k̂ unit vectors along OX, OY, OZ (x, y, z)
x
O C
respectively then the position vector of point P is x î  y ĵ  z k̂
or simply (x, y, z). z
A B
ts I II III IV V VI VII VIII

c tan nates
O rdi
o
Co
x + – – + + – – +
y + + – – + + – –
z + + + + – – – –
y y
VI
V
II
I x
x VII
VIII
III
IV
z
z
Distance formulae :
Distance between the points (x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) is equal to ( x1  x 2 ) 2  ( y1  y 2 ) 2  (z1  z 2 ) 2 .
Section formulae :
(1) Coordinates a point P which divides line joiningA(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n internally
 mx 2  nx1 my2  ny1 mz 2  nz1 

is given by  , , .
 mn mn mn 
(2) Coordinates of a point P which divides line joining A (x1, y1, z1) and B (x2, y2, z2) in the ratio m : n
externally is given by  mx 2  nx1 , my2  ny1

,
mz 2  nz1  .

 mn mn mn 
(3) Coordinates of mid-point of line joining A (x 1 , y 1 , z 1 ) and B (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) is
 x1  x 2 y1  y 2 z1  z 2 
 , , .
 2 2 2 
EXERCISE
Q.1 Name the octants in which the following points lie :

(1, 2, 3), (4, –2, 3), (4, –2, –5), (4, 2, –5), (–4, 2, –5), (–4, 2, 5), (–3, –1, 6) (2, –4, –7)
Q.2 Find the distance between the following pairs of points :

(i) (2, 3, 5) and (4, 3, 1)
(ii) (2, –1, 3) and (–2, 1, 3)
Q.3 Find the equation of the set of points which are equidistant from the points (1, 2, 3) and (3, 2, –1).
Q.4 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points (–2, 3, 5) and
(1, –4, 6) in the ratio
(i) 2 : 3 internally, (ii) 2 : 3 externally
 1 
Q.5 Using section formula, show that the points A(2, –3, 4), B(–1, 2, 1) and C  0, , 2  are collinear..
 3 
Q.6 Find the coordinates of the points which trisect the line segment joining the points P(4, 2, –6) and
Q(10, –16, 6).
Q.7 If the origin is the centroid of the triangle PQR with vertices P(2a, 2, 6), Q(–4, 3b, –10) and
R(8, 14, 2c), then find the values of a, b and c.
Q.8 A point R with x-coordinate 4 lies on the line segment joining the points P(2, –3, 4) and Q(8, 0, 10). Find
the coordinates of the point R.
Q.9 If A and B be the points (3, 4, 5) and (–1, 3, –7), respectively, find the equation of the set of points P
such that PA2 + PB2 = k2, where k is a constant.
LIMIT AND DERIVATIVE
LIMIT
1. CONCEPT OF LIMITS :
Suppose f(x) is a real-valued function and c is a real number. The expression lim f(x) = Lmeans that f(x)
x c
can be as close to L as desired by making x sufficiently close to c. In such a case, we say that limit of f,
as x approaches c, is L. Note that this statement is true even if f(c)  L. Indeed, the function f(x) need
not even be defined at c. Two examples help illustrate this.
Consider f(x) = x – 1 as x approaches 2. In this case, f (x) is defined at 2, and it equals its limiting value 1.
f (1.9) f (1.99) f (1.999) f ( 2) f (2.001) f (2.01) f (2.1)

0 .9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1 .1
As x aproaches 2, f(x) approaches 1 and hence we have lim f ( x )  1 .

x 2
x2  4
f(x) = in this case x approaches 2 the limiting value of f (x) is equal to 4 even if f (x) is not
x2
defined at x = 2.
f (1.9) f (1.99) f (1.999) f ( 2 .0 ) f (2.001) f (2.01) f (2.1)

3 .9 3.99 3.999  undefined  4.001 4.01 4.10
Thus, f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to the limit of 4 just by making x sufficiently close to 2.
There are two ways in which one can approach in a number c eaither from right or left.
This leads to two limits :
(i) Right hand limit (RHL)
(ii) Left hand limit (LHL)
Left-and Right-Hand Limits :
Right hand limit of a function is that value of f (x) which function tends as x moves from right to number
'a' that is RHL = Lim f ( x ) = Lim f (a  h ) (where h > 0)
x a h 0
Left hand limit of a function is that value of f (x) which function tends x moves from left to number 'a'.
that is LHL = Lim f ( x ) = Lim f (a  h ) (where h > 0)
x a h 0
Existence of Limit :
If follows from the discussions made in the previous two sections that lim f (x) exists if lim f (x) and
x a x a
lim f (x) exists and both are equal.

x a 
Thus, lim f (x) exists  lim f (x) = lim f (x).

x a x a x a
f (a–) = lim f (a  h )
h 0
f (a  )  lim f (a  h )
h 0
lim f ( x ) exists  f (a–) = f (a+) [RHL = LHL]

xa
THE ALGEBRA OF LIMITS :
Let lim f (x) = l and lim g (x) = m. If l and m exist, then

x a x a
1. lim (f ± g) (x) = lim f (x) ± lim g (x) = l ± m

2. lim (fg) (x) = lim f (x) lim g (x) = l m

f  lim f ( x ) l
3. lim  ( x )  x a  , provided m  0
x a  g  lim g( x ) m
x a
4. lim k f(x) = k. lim f(x), where k is a constant

x a x a
EVALUATION OF ALGEBRAIC LIMITS :
(i) Direct Substitution Method :
( x )
Consider the following limits : (i) lim f(x) (ii) lim
x a x a  ( x )
 (a )
If f(a) and exist and are fixed real numbers and (a)  0 then we say that lim f(x) = f(a) and
 (a ) x a
 ( x )  (a )
lim  .
x a  ( x )  (a )
(ii) Fractorization Method :
f (x)
Consider lim
xa g ( x )
f (x ) 0
If by substituting x = a, reduces to the form , then (x – a) is a factor of both f(x) and g(x). So,
g( x ) 0
we first factorize f(x) and g(x) and then cancel out the common factor to evaluate the limit.
(iii) Rationalization Method :
This is particularlyused when either the numerator or the denominator or both involve expression consists
0 
of squares roots and on substituting the value of x the rational expression takes the form , .
0 
(iv) Evaluation of algebraic limits using some standard limits :

xn  an
Lim  na n 1
x a x  a
Proof :
(xn – an) = (x – a) (xn–1 + xn–2a + xn–3a2 + …… + xan–2 + an–1)
xn  an
Lim = Lim (xn–1 + xn–2a + xn–3a2 + …… + xan–2 + an–1)
x a x  a x a
= an–1 + a an–2 + …… + an–2 (a) + an–1
= nan–1
(v) Evaluation of Algebraic Limits at Infinity :
1 1
We know that lim = 0 and lim 2 = 0
x   x x  x
1
 lim f ( x )  lim f  
x  y 0  y 
S A N DW I CH TH E OR E M OR S Q U E E Z E P LA Y TH E OR E M F OR
EVALUTATING LIMITS :
General: The squeeze principle is used on limit problems where the usual algebraic methods (factorisation
or algebraic manipulation etc.) are not effective. However it requires to “squeeze” our problem
in between two other simpler function whose limits can be easily computed and equal. Use of
Squeeze principle requires accurate analysis, indepth algebra skills and careful use of inequalities.
Statement: If f , g and h are 3 functions such that f (x)  g (x) < h (x) for all x in some interval containing the
point x =c, and if
Lim f (x) = Lim h(x) = L  Lim g (x) = L
x c x c x c
From the figure note that Lim g (x) = 1.

x 0
EVALUATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC LIMITS :
sin 
(i) Lim  1 (where  is in radians)
 0 
Proof : Consider a circle of radius r. Let O be the centre of the circle P

B
such that AOB =  where  is measured in radians and it is very small.
Suppose the tangent at A meets OB produced at P. From figure, we
have  A
O r
Area of OAB < Area of sector OAB < Area of OAP
1 1 1
 OA × OB sin  < (OA)2  < OA × AP
2 2 2
1 2 1 1
 r sin  < r2  < r2 tan  [In OAP, AP = OA tan ]
2 2 2
sin 
 sin  <  < tan   1> > cos 

sin  sin 
 1  lim  lim cos  or, lim cos   lim 1
 0   0  0  0 
sin  sin 
 1  lim 1  lim 1 (By Sandwich Theorem)
 0   0 
DERIVATIVES
1.0 INTRODUCTION :
The essence of calculus is the derivative. The derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a function
with respect to one of its variables. This is equivalent to finding the slope of the tangent line to the function
at a point. Let us use the view of derivatives as tangents to motivate a geometric definition of the derivative.
1.1 GEOMETRICAL MEANING OF A DERIVATIVE :
Let P (x0, f(x)) and Q(x0 + h, f(x0+ h)) be two points very close to each other on the curve y = f(x). Draw
PM and QN perpendiculars from P and Q on x-axis, and draw PL as perpendicular from P on QN. Let
the chord PQ produced meet the x-axis at R and QRN = QPL = .
Now in right-angled triangle QPL
QL NQ  NL NQ  MP f (x0  h)  f (x0 )
tan  =   =
PL MN ON  OM (x 0  h)  x 0
f (x0  h)  f (x0 )
= .........(1)
h
when h  0, the point Q moving along the curve tends to P, i.e., Q  P. The chord PQ approaches the
tangent line PT at the point P and then  . Now applying hLim
 0 in equation (1), we get
f (x 0  h )  f (x 0 )
Lim tan   y
h0 h Q

f (x0  h)  f (x0 ) 
tan   Lim y = f(x) P
L
h 0 h
f (x 0  h)  f (x 0 )
 f '(x0) = Lim
h0 h
This definition of derivative is also called the first  
x
O T R M N
principle of derivative. Clearly, the domain of
definition of f '(x) is wherever the above limit exits.
Note that if y = f (x) then the symbols
dy
= Dy = f ' (x) = y1 or y' have the same meaning.
dx
However a dot, denotes the time derivative.
• dS • d
e.g. S ;  etc.
dt dt
Illustration :
Find the derivative of the following functions with respect to x using first principle.
(i) y = sin 3x (ii) y = x3 – 3x
Sol.
(i) y = sin 3x = f(x)
dy f (x  h )  f (x ) sin(3x  3h )  sin 3x
 Lim = Lim
dx h  0 h h0 h
 3h   3h 
2 sin   cos 3x  
 2   2  2 ·  3  · cos3x  0   3 cos 3x
= Lim =   .
h0 h 2
(ii) y = x3 – 3x = f(x)
dy f (x  h)  f (x) ( x  h ) 3  3 x  h  ( x 3  3x )
= Lim = Lim
dx h 0 h h 0 h
( x  h )3  x 3 (3x  h  3x ) 3xh ( x  h )  h 3 x (3h  1)

= Lim  Lim = Lim  3 Lim
h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h h 0 h
x 2
= 3x (x + 0) – 3 ln 3 = 3x – 3 ln 3. x
1.2 STANDARD DERIVATIVES :

d n d x
(i) x  nx n  1 , x  R, n  R, x > 0 (ii) (e ) = ex
dx dx
d x d
(iii) (a ) = ax ln a (iv) ln | x | = 1
dx dx x
(v)
d
loga x  = 1 logae (vi)
d
(sin x ) = cos x
dx x dx
d d
(vii) (cos x ) = – sin x (viii) (tan x ) = sec2x
dx dx
d d
(ix) (cot x ) = – cosec2x (x) (sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d
(xi) (cosec x ) = – cosec x cot x
dx
2.0 THEOREM ON DERIVATIVES :
d
T-1 : f1x   f 2 x   d f1( x )  d f 2 (x ) .
dx dx dx
d
T-2 : kf x   k d f ( x ), where k is any constant.
dx dx
T-3 : PRODUCT RULE :

d
f1 (x ) f 2 x   f1( x ) d f 2 (x )  f 2 ( x ) d f1 ( x ) .
dx dx dx
T-4 QUOTIENT RULE :
f (x )
y=
g( x )
 f ( x )  g( x ) · f ' ( x )  f (x ) · g' (x )
D   = , to be remembered as
 g(x)  g2 (x)
d d
 Nr  Dr (Nr )  Nr (D r )
 
D r  = dx dx ;
D  (Dr )2
EXERCISE
LIMIT
Q.1 Evaluate thefollowinglimits
 22 
(i) Lim x   (ii) Lim r 2
x   7  x 1
3x 2  x  10 ax  b
(iii) Lim (iv) Lim
x 2 x2  4 x 0 cx  1
1 1
 sin ax
(v) Lim x 2 (vi) Lim
x 2 x  2 x0 bx
ax  x cos x Lim x sec x

(vii) Lim (viii)
x 0 b sin x x0
 x 2  1, x  1
Q.2 Find Lim f ( x ) , where f (x) =  2
x0  x  1, x  1
 | x |
, x0
Q.3 Evaluate Lim f ( x ) , where f (x) =  x
x0 0, x0
ax  bx, x  1

Q.4 Suppose f (x) = 4, x 1
b  ax , x  1
and if Lim f (x) = f (1) what are possible values of a and b?

x 1
| x | 1, x  0

Q.5 If f (x) = 0, x0
| x | 1, x  0
For what value(s) of a does Lim f ( x ) exists?

xa
f (x)  2
Q.6 If the function f(x) satisfies Lim = , evaluate Lim f ( x )
x 1 x 2  1 x1
mx 2  n, x  0

Q.7 If f (x) = nx  m, 0  x  1 . For what integers m and n does both Lim f ( x ) and Lim f ( x )
x0 x1
nx 3  m, x  1

exists?
DERIVATIVE
Q.8 Find the derivative of the following functions from first principle.
(i) x2 – 27 (ii) (x – 1) (x – 2)
1 x 1
(iii) (iv)
x2 x 1
(v) sin (x + 1) (vi) cos x
Q.9 Find the derivative of x2 – 2 at x = 10.

x100 x 99 x2
Q.10 For the function f (x) =      x  1 . Prove that f ' (1) = 100 f ' (0).
100 99 2
xn  an
Q.11 Find the derivative of for some constant a.
xa
Q.12 Find the derivative of the following functions (it is to be understood that a, b, c, d, p, q, r and s are fixed
non-zero constants and m and n are integers)
2 x2
(i) x5 (3 – 6x–9) (ii) 
x  1 3x  1
1
1
(iii) (ax + b) (cx + d)2 (iv) x
1
1
x
(v) sin x cos x (vi) 3 cot x + 5 cosec x
px 2  qx  r sin x  cos x
(vii) (viii)
ax  b sin x  cos x
sin( x  a )
(ix) sinn x (x)
cos x
4 x  5 sin x
(xi) (x + cos x) (x – tan x) (xii)
3x  7 cos x

x 2 cos 
4
(xiii) (xiv) (x + sec x) (x – tan x)
sin x
x
(xv)
sin n x
ANSWER KEY
SETS
EXERCISE
Q.1 Both are sets
Q.2 
Q.3 (i) C = {17, 26, 35, 44, 53, 62, 71, 80}, (ii) F = {B, E, T, R}
Q.4 (i) {x : x = 3n, n  N and 1  n  4}, (ii) {x : x = n2, n  N and 1  n  10}
Q.5 (i) {–2, –1, 0, 1, 2}, (ii) {L, O, Y, A}
Q.6 (i) Infnite, (ii) Finite, (iii) Infinite, (iv) Finite
Q.7 (i) , {a} , (ii) , {a}, {b}, {a, b} (iii) , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3} (iv) 
Q.8 (i) {a, c} (ii) {f, g} (iii) {b, d}
Q.9 19
Q.10 25, 35
Q.11 325
Q.12 11
ANSWER KEY
RELATION AND FUNCTION

EXERCISE
Q.1 x = 2 and y = 1
Q.2 A × B = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4)}; A × B will have 24 = 16 subsets.
Q.3 (i) R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 6), (2, 2), (4, 4), (6, 6), (3, 3), (3, 6)}
(ii) Domain of R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
(iii) Range of R = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
Q.4 Domain of R = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; Range of R = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
Q.5 (i) yes, Domain = {2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17}, Range = {1}
(ii) yes, Domain = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14), Range = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(iii) No
Q.6 (i) Range = (–, 2) (ii) Range = [2, ) (iii) Range = R
f  x 1 3
Q.7 (f + g) x = 3x – 2, (f – g) x = –x + 4,   x  , x
g 2x  3 2
Q.8 a = 2, b = –1
Q.9 Range of f = {3, 5, 11, 13}
ANSWER KEY
COMPLEX NUMBER
EXERCISE
7 2i
Q.1 (i) 3; (ii) 0; (iii) 14 + 28i ; (iv)
2
5 3
Q.2 i
14 14
5
Q.3 2,
6
  3  3 
Q.4 2  cos  i sin 
 4 4 
 3  11 i  1 7 i
Q.5 (i) ± 3 i ; (ii) ; (iii)
2 2 2
Q.6 2 – 2i
Q.9 2
2
Q.10 (i) ; (ii) 0
5
Q.11 2
ANSWER KEY
CONIC S E C T IO N
EXERCISE
Q.1 (i) F(3, 0), axis - x - axis, directrix x = –3, Length of the latus rectum = 12
5  5
(ii) F  , 0  , axis - x - axis, directrix x = – , Length of the latus rectum = 10
2  2
 9 9
(iii) F  0,  , axis - y - axis, directrix x = – , Length of the latus rectum = 9
 4  4
Q.2 (i) y2 = 24x; (ii) y2 = –8x ; (iii)2x2 = 25y
Q.3  
(i) F  13 , 0 ; V(±7, 0); Major axis = 14; Minor axis = 12, e =
13
7
; Latus rectum =
72
7
 
(ii) F 0,  15 ; V(0, ±4); Major axis = 8; Minor axis = 2, e =
15
4
; Latus rectum =
1
2
x2 y2 x 2 y2 x2 y2 x 2 y2
Q.4 (i)  = 1; (ii)  = 1 ; (iii)   1 ; (iv)  =1
144 169 9 4 169 144 52 13
5 9
Q.5 (i) Foci (±5, 0), Vertices (±4, 0); e = ; Latus rectum =
4 2
 2 14 
 , Vertices  0, 
6  14 4 5
(ii) Foci  0,   ; e = ; Latus rectum =
 5   5 3 3
x 2 y2 x 2 y2 x 2 9y2 y2 x 2
Q.6 (i)  = 1; (ii)  = 1; (iii)  = 1 ; (iv)  =1
4 5 16 9 49 343 5 5
Q.7 60 cm
Q.8 9.11 m (approx.)
x 2 y2
Q.9  =1
81 9
Q.10 8 3a
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE-1
Q.1 C Q.2 C Q.3 C Q.4 D Q.5 CD
Q.6 C Q.7 D Q.8 B Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 C Q.12 D Q.13 C Q.14 C Q.15 C
Q.16 B Q.17 A Q.18 A Q.19 B Q.20 A
EXERCISE-2
Q.1 C Q.2 A Q.3 B Q.4 C Q.5 C
Q.6 C Q.7 B, D Q.8 C Q.9 A Q.10 B
Q.11 B Q.12 D
EXERCISE-3
Q.1 (i) statement, (ii) it is not statement, (iii) it is not statement
Q.2 (i) Chennai is not the capital of Tamil Nadu. (ii)All triangles are equilateral triangle.
Q.3 (i)All integers are positive, all integers are negative (False) (ii) 100 is divisible by 3, 100 is divisible by
11, 100 is divisible by 5 (False)
Q.4 (i)And, All rational numbers are real, all real numbers are not complex (ii)And, x = 2 is the root of the
equation 3x2 – x – 10 = 0, x = 3 is the root of the equation 3x2 – x – 10 = 0.
Q.5 (i) There exists, There does not exists a number which is equal to its square (ii) For every, there exists
a real number x such that x is not less than x + 1.(iii) There exists, There exists a state in India which does
not have capital
Q.6 (i) Exclusive,(ii) Exclusive
Q.7 (i) If number x is not odd then x is not prime number (Contrapositive), if number x is odd then it is prime
number (converse); (ii) if x is not divisible by 4 then x is not even number (Contrapositive),
if x is divisible by 4 then x is even number (converse)
Q.8 (a) (i) Contrapositive (ii) converse; (b) (i) Contrapositive (ii) converse
Q.11 (i) If you log on to the server, then you have a password.
(ii) If it rains, then there is traffic jam
(iii) If you can access the website, then you pay a subscirption fee.
Q.12 (i)You watch television if an only if your mind in free.
(ii) You get anAgrade if and only if you do all the homework regularly
(iii)Aquadrilateral is equiangular if an only if it is a rectangle.
Q.13 25 is multiple of 5 and 8, False; 25 is multiple of 5 or 8, True
ANSWER KEY
STATISTICS
EXERCISE
Q.1 3 Q.2 2.33 Q.3 6.32
Q.4 11.28 Q.5 10.34 Q.6 7.35
n 1 n2 1
Q.7 , Q.8 107, 2276 Q.9 5.55, 43.5
2 12
Q.10 (i) B, (ii) B Q.11 Weight Q.13 20, 3.036
ANSWER KEY
PROBABILITY
EXERCISE
Q.1 (i) {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, TTH, HTT, THT, TTT} ]
(ii) {(x, y); x y = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}] or
{(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), …… (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), ……(2, 6), …… (6, 1), (6, 2), …… (6, 6)}
Q.2 {RW, WR, WW}
Q.3 No
Q.4 (i) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} (ii)  (iii) {3, 6} (iv) {1, 2, 3} (v) {6}
(vi) {3, 4, 5, 6}, A  B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A  B =  , B  C = {3, 6}, E  F = {6}, D  F = ,
A – C = {1, 2, 4, 5}, D – E = {1, 2, 3}, E  F' =  , f ' = {1, 2}
Q.5 A = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (6, 1),
(6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6) }
B = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (5, 1),
(5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6) }
C = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (4, 1)}
(i) A' = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (5, 1),
(5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6)} = B
(ii) B' = {(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (6, 1),
(6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 4), (6, 6)} = A
(iii) AB = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6),
(5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 1),
(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4), (6, 5), (6, 6)} = S
(iv) AB = 
(v) A–C = {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4),
(6, 5), (6, 6)}
(vi) BC = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3),
(3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6), (4, 1), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4), (5, 5), (5, 6) }
(vii) BC = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2) }
(viii) A  B'  C' = {(2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 4), (4, 5), (4, 6), (6, 1), (6, 2), (6, 3), (6, 4),
(6, 5), (6, 6)}
ANSWER KEY
3 1 1 1
Q.6 Q.7 (a) 52, (b) , (c) (i) , (ii)
4 52 13 2
1 3 1 7 1 1 3 1 7
Q.8 (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) , (vii) , (viii) , (ix)
8 8 2 8 8 8 8 8 8
9 6 7
Q.9 Q.10 (i) , (ii)
11 13 13
1 4
Q.11 Q.12
38760 5
5 3
Q.13 (i) , (ii) Q.14 0.55
8 8
20 30
19 11 2 C5 C5
Q.15 (i) , (ii) , (iii) Q.16 (i) 60 , (ii) 1 – 60
30 30 15 C5 C5
13
C3 · 13C1 2
Q.17 52 Q.18
C4 3
33 3
Q.19 (i) 0.88, (ii) 0.12, (iii) 0.19, (iv) 0.34 Q.20 (i) , (ii)
83 8
1
Q.21
5040
ANSWER KEY
EXERCISE
Q.1 I, IV, VIII, V, VI, II, III, VII
Q.2 (i) 2 5 ; (iv) 2 5
Q.3 x – 2z = 0
  4 1 27 
Q.4 (i)  , ,  (ii) (–8, 17, 3)
 5 5 5 
Q.6 (6, –4, –2), (8, –10, 2)

16
Q.7 a = –2, b = – ,c=2
3
Q.8 (4, –2, 6)

k 2  109
Q.9 x2 + y2 + z2 – 2x – 7y + 2z =
2
ANSWER KEY
LIMIT & DERIVATIVE

EXERCISE
22 11
Q.1 (i)  (ii)  (iii) (iv) b
7 4
1 a a 1
(v) (vi) (vii) (viii) 1
4 b b
Q.2 Limit does not exist at x = 1
Q.3 Limit does not exist at x = 0
Q.4 a = 0, b = 4
Q.5 Lim f ( x ) exists for all a  0
xa
Q.6 2
Q.7 For Lim f ( x ) to exists, we need m = n; Lim f ( x ) exists for any integral value of m and n.
x0 x1
2 2
Q.8 (i) 3x2 (ii) 2x – 3 (iii) (iv)
x3 ( x  1) 2
(v) cos (x + 1) (vi) – sin x
Q.9 20
nx n  anx n 1  x n  a n
Q.11
( x  a )2
 12 36 2 x (3x  2)
Q.12 (i)  (ii) 2

x 5 x10 ( x  1) (3x  1) 2
2
(iii) 2c (ax + b) (cx + d) + a(cd + d)2 (iv) , x  0, 1
( x  1) 2
(v) cos 2x (vi) – 3 cosec2 x – 5 cosec x cot x
apx 2  2bpx  bq  ar 2
(vii) (viii)
(ax  b) 2 (sin x  cos x ) 2
cos a
(ix) n sinn–1 x cos x (x)
cos2 x
(xi) – tan2 x (x + cos x) + (x – tan x) (1 – sin x)

35  15x cos x  28 cos x  28x sin x  15 sin x x cos (2 sin x  x cos x )
(xii) (xiii) 4
(3x  7 cos x )2 sin 2 x
sin x  nx cos x
(xiv) (x+sec x) (1 – sec2 x) + (x – tan x) · (1 + sec x tan x) (xv)
sin n1 x
bs ,sdfl;ghfgmh;ldgmjl;tul;mgl;m,

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JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)

RELATION & FUNCTION

LIMIT & DERIVATIVE

Set and their representation :

There are two methods of representing a set :

Set builder form :

Finite and Infinite set :

Note: Infinite set can not be represented in Roster form.

Note : (i) Every set is subset of itself.

If setAcontains m elements then number of elements in its power set is 2m.

Representation of union on Venn diagram :

Proof of Distributive law :

(iii) A (B C) (iv) (A C)

(v) (A B) (A C)

Properties of complement set :

Double complement laws :

Proof of De-morgan's Law :

(Potential Problems Based on CBSE)

Q.1 Which of the following are sets? Justify your answer.

Q.3 Write the following sets in roster form :

Q.4 Write the following sets in the set-bulider form :

Q.5 List all the elements of the following sets :

Q.6 Which of the following sets are finite or infinite?

Q.7 Write down all the subsets of the following sets

Q.8 If X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {f, b, d, g}, find

e.g. A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}

Note : (i) A × B  B × A (Non-commutative)

(i) 'b' is called image of 'a' under R.

Number of relations = no. of ways of selecting a non zero subset ofA × B

3. Arrow - diagram (Mapping): This the pictorial notation of any relation

Ex. Let A = {–2, –1, 4} B = {1, 4, 9}

2. Set builder notation :

(ii) Constant function : y

(iii) Polynomial Function:

(iv) Fractional Rational Function:

(v) A bsolute Value Function (M odulus Function) :

(vi) Signum Function:

(vii) Greatest Integer Or Step Up Function :

Algebra of Real Functions :

(i) Addition of two real functions

(ii) Substraction of real functions from another function

(iii) Multiplication of two real functions

(iv) Quotient of two real functions

(Potential Problems Based on CBSE)

Q.3 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. Let R be the relation of A defined by

Q.4 Determine the domain and range of the relation R defined by

Q.6 Find the range of each of the following functions.

A symbol  1 , denoted by letter i was introduced by Swiss Mathematician, Leonhard Euler

1.1 Classification of complex numbers :

Complex number can be classified as following forms

1.2 Geometrical representation of a complex number :

MasterArgand had done a systematic studies on complex numbers and

i 592  i 590  i 588  i 586  i 584 i584

2. ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS :

2.1 Equality of complex numbers :

Let there be two complex numbers z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2.

z1 + z2 = (x1 + i y1) + (x2 + i y2) = (x1 + x2) + i (y1 + y2)  C.