History of Microbiology

Dr. Deepa Srivastava

Assistant Professor,
Department of Botany,
DDU Gorakhpur University,
Gorakhpur
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Content
• Discovery Era
• Transition Period
• Golden Age of Microbiology
• Competition Period
• End of Golden Age
• Golden Age of Virology
• Modern Microbiology
• Noble Prizes in Microbiology
• References
• Assignments
Introduction
• The development of microbiology as a discipline could be traced
along several historical events.
• Such events can be grouped into following historical eras
1. Discovery Era (1546-1676)
2. Transition Period (1688-1850)
3. Golden Age of Microbiology (1857-1910)
4. Modern Microbiology ( Growth during 20th Century)
Discovery Era (1546-1676)
• This period concerns with the discovery of the microbial world that
has been dominated by Anton van Leeuwenhoek.
• Girolamo Fracastoro: A Roman Physician in 1546 suggested that
invisible living creature cause disease.
• Anton ( Also Antony and Antoni) van Leeuwenhoek, said to be the
discoverer of microbial world, was the first person to observe and
describe microorganisms accurately.
Anton Van Leuwenhoek (1632-1723)
• One of the major contributions to microbiology was
the assembly of pieces of glass by Anton Van
Leuwenhoek which he used to examine life unseen
to the naked eyes.
• This invention led to the development of the
modern microscope and the scientific method of
thinking curiosity.
• He is considered as to be the first microbiologist.
• In 1676 , he discovered tiny microbes that he called
“Animalcules”
• He is best known for his work on the improvement
of the microscope and for his contributions towards
the establishment of Microbiology.
Anton Van Leuwenhoek
• He is known as Father of Bacteriology and
protozoology.
Transition Period (1688-1850)
• The science of Microbiology developed slowly after Leeuwenhoek
because
i. Lack of an efficient lens system
ii. Microbes were idle curiosities, diseases were associated with
magic and mysticism
The Transition Period continued until both the instrumentation and an
appreciation of microbes and disease came together. This could occur
only during the mid 1800s.
Transition Period continued…..
• Two noteworthy contributions enhanced the interest in microbes
and their relation to disease. These are
i. The controversy over spontaneous generation: includes
experimentations mainly of Francesco Redi, John Needham,
Lazzaro Spallanzani and Nicolas Appert
ii. Disease transmission: includes the work of Ignaz Semmelweis and
John Snow.
Jhon Needham (1713-1781)
• The belief in the spontaneous formation of
living beings from nonliving matter is known
as the doctrine of spontaneous generation
or abiogenesis.
• Jhon Needham (1713-1781) Supporter
spontaneous generation theory.
• Proposed that tiny organisms (animalcules)
arose spontaneously on mutton gravy.
John Needham Experiment (1748)
Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799)
• In 1765-1776, Lazzaro Spallanzani, an Italian
Naturalist attempted to refute Needham’s
work and attacked spontaneous generation.
• Boiled infusion and sealed vials by melting
their necks closed reported results that
contradicted Needham’s findings.
• Boiled broth would not support the growth
of microbes.
• Air carried germs to the culture medium.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
Francesco Redi (1626-1697)
• Francesco Redi, an Italian physician in 1665, put
The theory of spontaneous generation at rest
• He showed that the developing maggots coming
from meat were the larvae of flies
• The maggots could not appear when meat was
protected by placing it in a vessel closed with fine
gauze so that flies were unable to deposit their
eggs on it.
Francesco Redi
Francesco Redi and Controlled experiment

Open Jar Maggot appear on meat Closed Jar no Maggots

Pasteur’s experiment disproving the theory of
spontaneous generation
• Pasteur first poured broth into a
long-neck flask
• Next he heated the of the flask and
bent it into an S-shaped curve: then
he boiled the broth for several
minutes
• Microorganisms did not appear in
cooled solution, even after long
period .
Edward Jenner (1749-1823)
• First to prevent small pox.
• He discovered the technique of
vaccination

Edward Jenner
Golden Age of Microbiology (1857-1910)
• The early discoveries in microbiology occurred in isolated instances
with little direction or continuity.
• Spontaneous generation focused attention on the microbes and
bridge the gap to the 1850s.
• It was during this period that microbiology has its firm foundation.
• Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch during the beginning of golden age of
microbiology find indisputable proof that microbes cause disease.
• There was an acceptance of their work by the scientific community.
• The term microbe was first used by Sedillot in 1878.
• Here we see the beginning of microbiology as a discipline of Biology
Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
• French Chemist Known as Father of Microbiology
• Demonstrated air is filled with microorganisms
• Demonstrated that sterile infusions will stay sterile
in specially constructed flasks even when they were
left open to the air
• Developed vaccines for Chickenpox, anthrax, rabies
• Demonstrated that all fermentation were due to
activities of specific yeasts and bacteria.
• Developed Pasteurization to preserve wine during
storage
Louis Pasteur • Discovered that fermentative micro-organisms were
anaerobic and could live only in absence of oxygen.
Robert Koch(1843-1910)
German Doctor, Robert Koch is credited for
i. Final proofs that bacteria could be isolated
and shown to cause disease, while working
on anthrax disease of animals. Thus he
presented his germ theory of disease.
ii. Developing the series of procedure –Koch’s
postulates by which a specific organism
could be related to a specific disease.
Robert Koch iii. Development of pure culture techniques.
• Robert Koch established the relationship between Bacillus anthracis
and anthrax, also isolated the bacillus that causes tuberculosis
• During Koch’s studies it become necessary to isolate suspected
bacterial pathogens
• He cultured bacteria on the sterile surfaces of cut, boiled potatoes.
• Regular liquid medium solidified by adding gelatin, gelatin melted
at the rate greater than 28ᵒC temperature.
• The sequence of procedures by which Koch established his germ
theory of disease came to be known as Koch’s Postulates.
Koch’s Postulates
• The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms
suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy
organisms
• The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and
grown in pure culture
• The cultured microorganism should caused disease when
introduced into healthy organism
• The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated
diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the
original specific causative agent.
Competition Period
• During the Golden Age of microbiology there were also some other
workers in France, Germany, Italy, England and U.S.A. who
contributed to the development of microbiology.
• These were:
Lord Joseph Lister ( 1827-1912)
• In 1861 Lister disapproved
spontaneous generation.
• In 1867, he introduced Aseptic
surgery. He is known as father of
antiseptic surgery
• Lister concluded that wound
infections too were due to
microorganisms.
• He also devised a method to
destroy microorganisms in the
operation theatre by spraying a fine
Lord Joseph Lister
mist of carbolic into the air.
Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser(1855-1916)

Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser was a

German Physician who discovered the
causative agent of Gonorrhea, a strain of
bacteria that was named in his honour
( Neisseria gonorrhoeae) in 1879.

Albert Ludwig Sigesmund Neisser

Dr. Carlos Juan Finley(1833-1915)
• Finley Discovered Yellow Fever
• Dr. Finlay was convinced that the germ was
present in the walls of blood vessels.
• He concluded that the disease somehow
spread from an infected person’s vessels
directly to another’s.
• Dr. Carlos Juan Finlay specified the Aedes
aegypti mosquito as the vector for the
Carlos Juan Finley
disease.
Fanny Elishemius Hesse (1850-1934)
• In 1882, Fannie Eilshemius suggested
use of agar as solid media.
• It melt at 100ᵒC and Solidify 50ᵒC to
solidify.

Fanny Elishemius Hesse

Elie Metchnikoff (1845 –1916).

• Discovered Phagocytosis in 1884.

• He is Nobel Laureate in Physiology or
Medicine of 1908 for the discovery of
phagocytosis (a major contribution to the
cellular theory of immunity).
• He is also known as “The father of
gerontology” (The study of ageing)
Elie Metchnikoff –
Theodor Escherich (1857-1911)

• Discovered Escherichia coli in 1884

• Escherich described a bacterium which
he called "bacterium coli commune"
and which was later to be called
Escherichia coli.

Theodor Escherich
Julius Richard Petri (1852-1921)
Julius Richard Petri was a German
Microbiologist who is credited with
inventing the device known as the Petri dish
in 1887, which is named after him, while
working as assistant to bacteriologist Robert
Koch

Julius Richard Petri

Kitasato Shibasaburo (1853-1931)

• Japanese Physician and Bacteriologist

• First to grow Clostridium tetani in Pure
culture (1889).
• Co-discoverer of infectious agent of bubonic
plague (Y. pestis) in Hongkong (1894) almost
simultaneously with Alexendre Yersin
• Worked on antitoxins for Diphtheria and
Kitasato Shibasaburo Anthrax
• Founded the Kitasato Institute in 1914
Emil Von Behring (Emil Adolf von Behring)
(1854-1917)
• Discovered Diptheria antitoxin
• Emil Adolf Behring, was a German
Physiologist who received the 1901 Noble
Prize in Physiology or Medicine, for his
discovery of a diptheria antitoxin.

Emil Von Bering

Paul Ehrlich(1845-1915)
• Paul Ehrlich was a German physician and Scientist who worked in
the field of hematology, immunology and antimicrobial
chemotherapy.
• In 1890, he provided Theory of Immunity.
• He is known as Father of Chemotherapy
• The method he developed for staining tissue made it possible to
distinguish between different types of blood cells, which led to
the capability to diagnose numerous blood disease.
• His laboratory discovered arsphenamine (Salvarsan) the first
effective medicinal treatment for syphilis, by using arsenic
thereby initiating and also naming the concept of
chemotherapy.
• Ehrlich popularized the concept of a magic bullet.
• He studied toxins and antitoxins in quantitative terms and laid
Paul Erlich foundation of biological standardization
• In 1908, he received the Noble Prize in Physiology & Medicine
for his contributions to immunology
Sergei Nikolaievich Winogradsky (1856-1953)
• Discovered Sulphur Cycle
• Winogradsky was a Russian microbiologist,
ecologist and soil scientist who pioneered the
Cycle of life concept.
• He discovered first known form of Lithotrophy
during his research on Beggiatoa in 1887.
• He reported that Beggiatoa oxidized Hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) as an energy source and formed
intracellular sulfur droplets.
• His research on nitrifying bacteria would report
Winogradsky the first known form of chemoautotrophy,
showing how a lithotroph fixes carbon dioxide
(CO2) to form organic compounds.
Shiga Kiyoshi(1871-1957)
• Shiga Kiyoshi was a Japanese bacteriologist.
• He is chiefly noted for his discovery of
dysentery bacillus Shigella dysentariae in
1898, which was named after him.
•

Shiga Kiyoshi
Carlos Justiniano Ribeiro Chagas or Carlos
Chagas (1879-1934)
• Carlos Chagas was a Brazilian sanitary
physician, scientist and bacteriologist.
• He discovered Chagas disease, also called
American trypanomiasis in 1910.
• The disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi

Carlos Chagas
John Tyndall (1820-1893)

• He discovered highly resistant bacterial

structure, later known as endospore.
• Prolonged boiling or intermitted heating was
necessary to kill these spores, to make the
infusion completely sterilized, a process
known as Tyndallisation.

John Tyndall
Charles Chamberland (1851-1908)
• Charles Chamberland was a French
Microbiologist.
• In 1884, he developed a type of filteration
known today as the Chamberland filter or
Chamberland Pasteur filter.
• The device made use of an unglazed
porcelain bar, which can filter bacteria.
Charles Chamberland • The filter helped in discovery of virus.
Hans Christian Gram
• The Gram stain was devised by
the Danish Physician, Hans
Christian Gram, while working in
Berlin in 1883.
• He later published this
procedure in 1884.

Christian Gram
Joseph Lister
• He was known as the father of
Antiseptic surgery
• He identified atmospheric
microorganism are responsible for
the operative wound infection.
• Joseph Lister: developed system for
sterile surgery

Joseph Lister
End of Golden Age
• A dramatic turn in microbiology research was signaled by the death
of Robert Koch in 1910 and advent of World War I.
• The Pasteur Institute was closed and the German laboratories
converted for production of blood components and used to treat war
infections.
• Thus came to an end what many have called the Golden Age of
Microbiology, just over fifty year period from the 1857 work of
Pasteur on alcohol fermentation to the death of Koch.
Golden Age of Virology
• In 1892 a Russian Dmitri Iwanowaski reported that sap from a
diseased plant, even after it was filtered could cause mosaic disease
in Tobacco plants.
• He suggested a toxin as the agent of disease and used the word virus
in his report.
• The later half of the 20th century could be conceived as the Golden
Age of Virology during which many viral diseases disappeared from
the fabric of life much as the bacterial diseases declined at the turn of
the century.
Martinus W. Beijerinck (1851-1931)

• Martinus Willem Beijerinck was a Dutch

microbiologist and botanist who was one
of the founders of Virology and
environmental microbiology.

Martinus W. Beijerinck
Modern Microbiology ( Growth during 20th
Century)
• Initially Microbiology and General Biology developed in almost complete
independence of one another.
• The discovery of cell free alcoholic fermentation by Buchner in 1897
provided the key to chemical analyses of energy yielding processes.
• In the first two decades of the 20th Century parallel studies on the
glycolysis by muscle and alcoholic fermentation by yeast gradually
revealed their fundamental similarity.
• Some other discoveries on precursors of coenzymes etc from 1920 to 1935
could demonstrate the basic similarities of all living systems at the
metabolic level.
• Microbiology contributed significantly to the development of new
discipline of biochemistry.
• The second great advance of biology in the early 20th century is the
creation of a new discipline of genetics.
• The first important contact between genetics and microbiology
occurred in 1941, when George W. Beadle and Edward L. Tatum
succeeded in isolating a series of biochemical mutants from the
fungus Neurospora.
• In 1943, studies on mutation in bacteria by Delbruck and Luria
engineered genetic work on these microbes.
• In 1944, the work of Avery, McLeod and McCarty on the process of
transformation in bacteria revealed that genetic matter in living
organism is DNA.
• The confluence of microbiology, genetics and biochemistry between
1940 and 1945 brought to an end the long isolation of microbiology
from the main current of biological thought.
• Some of the major development in the history of microbiology during this
period include:
• The discovery of reverse transcriptase in reteroviruses by Temin and
Baltimore in 1970,
• Recognition of Archaea as a distinct microbial group by Woese and Fox
• Development of DNA sequencing techniques by Gilbert and Sanger in
1977.
• Synthesis of insulin using recombinant DNA technique in 1979
• Development of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in 1982
• Isolation and Identification of HIV by Gallo and Montagnier during 1983-
1984
• Approval of first vaccine (hepatitis B vaccine) produced by genetic
engineering for human use in 1986 and sequencing of genomes of
Haemophilus influenzae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Escherichia coli in
1995,1996 and 1997.
• The largest known bacterium, Thiomargarita namibiensis was also
discovered in 1997
• In year 2000, it was discovered that vibrio cholerae has two separate
chromosomes.
• During 21st century the genome of malarial parasite, Plasmodium
falciparum was sequenced in 2002.
• New branches of microbiology-bacteriology, mycology, parasitology,
virology and immunology developed during this century.
• Bacteriology, Mycology and Parasitology are currently going through
Golden age of classification.
Some eminent microbiologist of this era are who
are awarded with Noble Prize in Physiology and
Medicine for working on microbial system
Sir Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)
• Alexander Fleming was an Scottish physician and
microbiologist.
• Alexander Fleming discovered the Penicillin from
Penicillium notatum that destroy several
pathogenic bacteria
• The colony of Penicillin mold accidentally
contaminated the plate and inhibited nearby
bacterial growth.
• Alexander Fleming earned 1945 Noble prize in
Physiology and Medicine together with Howard
Alexander Fleming
Florey and Ernst Chain, who devised methods for
large scale production of penicillin
Gerald M. Edelman and Rodney R. Porter

Gerald M. Edelman and

Rodney R. Porter were
awarded Noble prize in 1972
for describing nature and
structure of Antibodies.
Gerald M.Edelman Rodney R.Porter
( born1929) (1917-1985)
Renato Dulbecco, Howard Temin and David
Baltimore
• Renato Dulbecco, Howard
Temin and David Baltimore of
United States(1975) .
Discovered reverse
transcriptase and described
how RNA viruses could cause
cancer.
• They Shared Noble Prize in
Renato Dulbecco Howard Temin David Baltimore Physiology and Medicine in
(1914-2012) (1934-1994) (Born 1938) 1975
Oncoviruses Reverse Transcriptase Virus classification
Max Delbruck, Alfred D. Hershey and Salvador
E. Luria (1969)

Jointly Awarded Noble Prize

in 1969

Max Delbruck Alfred D. Hershey Salvador E. Luria

(1906-1981) (1908-1997) (1921-1991)

Max Delbruck of Germany, Alfred D. Hershey of United states, Salvador E. Luria

of Italy: described the mechanism of viral infection of bacterial cells.
Walter Gilbert (born1932)
• Walter Gilbert is an American Biochemist, Physicist,
Molecular Biology pioneer and Nobel Laureate.
• Together with Allan Maxam, Gilbert developed a new
DNA sequencing method, Maxam-Gilbert sequencing.
• Gilbert first proposed the existence of introns and exons.
• In 1886, Gilbert proposed the RNA World Hypothesis for
the origin of life, based on a concept first proposed by
Carl Woese in 1967.
• Gilbert was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
shared with Frederick Sanger and Paul Berg. Gilbert and
Sanger were recognized for their pioneering work in
Walter Gilbert devising methods for determining the sequence of
nucleotides in a nucleic acid.
 Cesar Milstein,Georges J.F. Kohler and Niels Kai
Jerne
• Cesar Milstein of Argentina,
Georges J.F. Kohler of
Germany, and Niels Kai
Jerne of Denmark of won
the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in
Cesar Milstein
1984, "for their work on
Georges J.F. Kohler Niels Kai Jerne
(1927-2002) (1946-1995) (1911-1994) the immune system and
the production of
monoclonal antibodies" .
Susumu Tonegawa (Born 1839)
• Susumu Tonegawa is a Japanese scientist
who was the sole recipient of the Nobel Prize
for Physiology or Medicine in 1987, for his
discovery of the genetic mechanism that
produces antibody diversity.

Susumu Tonegawa
 J.Michael Bishop and Harold E Varmus
• J.Michael Bishop and Harold Eliot
Varmus ( American virologist) were
winner of Noble Prize for Physiology
and Medicine in 1989 for their work
on the origin of cancer.

J.Michael Bishop Harold E Varmus

Born 1936 Born 1839
Sir Aaron Klug (1926-2018)

• Sir Aaron Klug was a South African

biophysicist and winner of 1982 Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for his development of
crystallographic electron microscopy and
his structural elucidation of biologically
important nucleic acid-protein complexes.
• described the structure of tobacco mosaic
Aaron Klug
virus (TMV)
Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnal Thomas

Joseph E. Murray and E. Donnal

Thomas of United States was
awarded Noble Prize in 1990
performed the first successful
organ transplants by using
immuno-suppressive agents.
Joseph E. Murray E. Donnal Thomas
1919-2012 (1920-2012)
Kary B. Mullis
Kary B. Mullis of United states in recognition
of his invention of the polymerase chain
reaction technique for DNA amplification,
shared the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry
with Michael Smith of Japan

Kary B. Mullis
(1944-2019)
Alfred Gilman and Martin Rodbell
• Alfred Goodman Gilman was an
American pharmacologist and
biochemist.
• He and Martin Rodbell was an
American Biochemist and molecular
endocrinologist shared the 1994
Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine "for their discovery of G-
Alfred Gilman Martin Rodbell proteins and the role of these
(1941-2015) (1925-1998) proteins in signal transduction in
cells.
Peter C. Doherty and Rolf M. Zinkernagel
• Peter C. Doherty of Australia
and Rolf M. Zinkernagel of
Switzerland discovered how
cytotoxic T cells recognize
virus-infected cells prior to
destroying them.
• They Jointly received Noble
Peter C. Doherty Rolf M. Zinkernagel
Prize of Physiology and
(Born 1940) (Born 1944) Medicine in 1996
Stanley B. Prusiner ( born1942)
• Stanley B. Prusiner of United States
discovered prions (proteinaceous
infectious particles) and demonstrated a
relationship between prions and deadly
neurological diseases in humans and
animals
• He received Noble prize in Physiology and
Medicine in 1997
Stanley B. Prusiner
References:
• Dubey, RC and Maheshwari, DK, “A Textbook of Microbiology”, S
Chand Publishing.
• Sharma, PD., Microbiology and Plant Pathology, 4th Edition, Rastogi
Publications
Assignments
• Write a brief account of landmark of Golden Age of Microbiology.
• Write contributions of the following Microbiologist
i. Robert Koch
ii. Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
iii. Louis Pasteur
• Write notes on the following
i. Koch’s Postulates
ii. Spontaneous generation of Life
iii. Germ Theory of disease
iv. Microbiology of 20th Century
• Pointing out important contributions of researchers, trace the different phase of
history of microbiology.
Thank You