PHARMACOGNOSY

PHARMACOGNOSY
For the students
of Pharmacy Technicians
(Category-B)

First year Paper 2

PUNJAB PHARMACY COUNCIL

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

INDEX
TOPIC PG NO
PHARMACOGNOSY 7

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY 7
SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY 7
CRUDE DRUGS 9
CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 9
Alphabetical Method 9
Morphological Method 9
Taxonomical Method 10
Pharmacological Method 10
Chemical Method 10

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF 10

PLANT
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS 15
Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation 16
Microscopic Evaluation 17
Chemical Evaluation 17
Physical Evaluation 17
Biological Evaluation 17

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST,

TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF ALLERGY
19

ALLERGY 19
Definition 19
Allergen 20
Types of Allergen 20
Inhalants 20
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 22
Contactants
Ingestants 22
Injectants 22

Signs & Symptoms of Allergy 25

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY 25
General Examination Includes… 25
Vital Signs 25
Clinical Examination Includes… 26
Investigation 26
SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY 26
Scratch Test for Allergy 27
Patch Tests (contact allergy testing) 27
Intradermal Test 27
THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION 27
GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE 27
METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY 29
Avoidance 29
Vaccinations 29
Pharmacological Methods of Treatment in Allergy 29

ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE 30

(PHYTO-ENZYMES)
Definitions 30
Difference Between Enzymes & Catalyst 30
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES 30
Catalytic Property 31
Enzymatic Property 31
Solubility 31
pH 31
Temperature 31
Specificity 32
Protein Nature 32
CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES 32
Oxidoreductases 32
Transferases 33
Hydrolases 33
 Lyases 33
Isomerases 33
Ligases 33
FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES 33
BROMELAIN 36
PAPAIN 37
SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF 38
PLANT CONSTITUENTS
Difference Between Extraction and Chromatography 38
CHROMATOGRAPHY 38
Applications of Chromatography 38
Stationary phase 39
Mobile Phase 39
Rf value 39
STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 40
Ascending Chromatography 4
0
Descending Chromatography 4
0
Circular or Radial Chromatography 40

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY 40
PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY 40
Stationary Phase in Paper Chromatography 40
Mobile Phase in Paper Chromatography 40

Procedure of Paper Chromatography 40

Styles of Paper Chromatography 41

Application of Paper Chromatography 41

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC) 41
Stationary Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 42
Mobile Phase in Thin Layer Chromatography 42

Procedure of Thin layer Chromatography 43

Styles of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 43

Application of Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 43

COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY 44
Stationary Phase in Column Chromatography 44
Mobile Phase Column Chromatography 44

Procedure of Column Chromatography 44

 44
Application of Column Chromatography

EXTRACTION 45
Extraction Definition 45
Theory of Extraction 45
Manstrum 45
Marc 46
EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS 47
Infusion 47
Procedure for Infusion Extraction 47
Decoction 48
Procedure for Decoction Extraction 48
Maceration 48
Procedure for Maceration Extraction 48
Multiple Maceration 49
Procedure for Double Maceration 49
Percolation 49
Procedure for Percolation Extraction 49
Continuous Hot Extraction 50
POISONOUS PLANTS 51

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY 51

Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants 51
Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa 52
Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth 53
Plants Causing intestinal Motility 55
PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES 56
PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES 57
CYANOGENETIC PLANTS 59
GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND
MEDICINAL USES OF IMPORTANT PLANTS
60

Glycosides Containing Plant 60

Alkaloids 60
Volatile Oils (essential oils) 60
Resins and Resin Combination 60
 Carbohydrates 60

Tannins 60
Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes) 60
GLYCOSIDES 60
Medically Important Glycoside Containing Plants 61
ALKALOIDS 62
Medically Important Alkaloids Containing Plants 62
VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS) 63
Medically Important Volatile Containing Plants 63
RESINS 64
Medically Important Resins Producing Plants 64
CARBOHYDRATES 65
Medically Important Carbohydrates Containing Plants 65
TANNINS 65
Medically Important Tannins Containing Plants 66
FIXED OILS 66
Medically Important Fixed Oils Containing Plants 66
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

PHARMACOGNOSY:

Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural

sources.

The American Society of Pharmacognosy defines

Pharmacognosy as “the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological
properties of drugs, drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin
as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources.”

INTRODUCTION OF PHARMACOGNOSY:
The word “Pharmacognosy” is derived from the Greek words Pharmakon (drug) and gnosis
or (knowledge). The term Pharmacognosy was used for the first time by the Austrian
th th
physician Schmidt in 1811. Originally during the 19 century and the beginning of the 20
century “Pharmacognosy” was used to define the branch of medicine which deals with
drugs in their crude, or unprepared, form.

Crude drugs are the dried, unprepared material of plant, animal or mineral origin used for
medicine. Although most Pharmacognostic studies focus on plants and medicines derived
from plants other types of organisms are also regarded as Pharmacognostically interesting
in particular various types of microbes (bacteria, fungi, etc.) and recently various marine
organisms.

SCOPE OF PHARMACOGNOSY:
The Pharmacognosy has played an important role in the
development of various departments of the science.
Pharmacognosy gives a sound knowledge of the vegetable
drugs under botany and animal drugs under zoology.

It also includes plant taxonomy, plant breeding, plant pathology, and plant genetics, by this
knowledge one can improve the cultivation methods for both medicinal and aromatic plants.
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Nowadays phytochemistry (plant chemistry) has undergone the significant improvement.

This includes a variety of substances that are accumulated by plants and synthesized by
plants.


A vital contribution to the advancement of natural and physical science
This has done by the advanced technologies of cultivation, purification, identification
(characterization) of pharmaceuticals from nature. Concepts of biochemistry and chemical
engineering help in the improvement of collection, processing and storage technologies of
pharmaceuticals. It also gives knowledge of chemotaxonomy, biogenic pathways for the
formation of acute ingredients.


A vital link between pharmacology and medicinal chemistry
Newly detected plant drugs are converting into medicine as purified Phytochemicals.
Pharmacognosy is essential for the evolution of new medicines because crude drugs are
used for the preparation of sources of therapeutically active metabolites.

In short Pharmacognosy is an important link between pharmaceuticals and basic science

as well as ayurvedic and allopathic system of medicines. So Pharmacognosy is a science
of active principles of crude drugs and which can be help in dispensing, formulating, and
manufacturing of dosage forms.
In other way the complete knowledge of Pharmacognosy will help in the recent trend that is
in industries, as a research tools and in new drug delivery systems, and all the
departments of pharmaceuticals and one can improve the healthcare facilities across the
world.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

CRUDE DRUGS:
A crude drug is any naturally, occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or
inorganic sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for
use in the diagnosis, cure treatment or prevention of disease in man or other animals.

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS:

Crude Drugs can be classified in following ways.

1. Alphabetical Method
2. Morphological Method
3. Taxonomical Method
4. Pharmacological Method
5. Chemical Method

ALPHABETICAL METHOD:
In this method drugs are classified according to initial letter of their names e.g.

Acacia Belladonna Camphor

Datura Ephedra Fennel

Books follow this method

 European Pharmacopoeia (EP)
 British Pharmacopoeia (BP)

MORPHOLOGICAL METHOD :
In this method drugs are classified according to their part used e.g.

Roots Drugs Leaf Drugs Bark Drugs Seeds Drugs

Glycyrrhiza Senna Cinchona Coffee Beens

Books follow this method

 Pharmacognosy by Wallis

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TAXONOMICAL METHOD:
In this method, drugs are classified according to their distinguishing characteristics (i.e.
Families) e.g.

Family Umbelliferae: Funnel, Caraway

Family Labiatae: Thyme, Peppermint.

Books follow this method

Pharmacognosy by Trease &Evans

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHOD:
In this method drugs are classified according to their therapeutic effects e.g.

Analgesic Drugs: Aconite, opium

Diuretic Drugs: Salvia, Ocimum

Books follow this method

 Pharmacology by Lippincott

CHEMICAL METHOD:
In this method drugs are classified according to their principle constituents e.g.

Members of Family Umbelliferae contain Volatile Oils

Members of Family Solanaceae contain Alkaloids

Books follow this method

 Pharmacognosy by Tyler

TERMINANOLOGY AND DIFFERENT PARTS OF PLANT:

AXIS:
The main stem.

Annulation:
Ring, belts or circle.

CORM :
A solid fleshy, underground base of stem, usually spherical in shape, covered with
thin membrane.
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

ENDOSPERM :
The multi-cellular food-storing tissue formed inside a seed.

Epicarp:
The outer layer of ovary wall.

EXUDATION:
Any discharge through an incision.

FOLLICLES:
A dry one celled capsular fruit dehiscing longitudinally.

fracture:
Act of breaking.

GLOSSY:
Having a smooth, shining surface.

GRITTY :
Sandy containing fine particles.

GALL:
An abnormal growth on a plant that is caused by insects.

HABIT:
The overall appearance of a plant.

LEAFLET:
One segment of a compound leaf.

LONGITUDINAL:
length wise ;parallel with the axis.

LUMEN:
A cell cavity.

LUSTROUS:
Luminous bright.

MESOCARP:
The middle layer of pericarp which consists of three layers.

MUCILAGE:
A gummy secretion ; dissolved vegetable jelly.

RHIZOME:
An underground stem capable of producing new stems or plants at its nodes,

SCHIZOLYSIGENOUS CAVITY:
Intracellular spaces formed in parts by separation of cells.

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PHARMACOGNOSY

STRIATION:
Marking due to the manner of formation of band.

LEAFLET:
One segment of compound leaf.

TEAR:
A solid transparent drop

WRINKLE:
A small fold in the skin.

ELUTE:
The material emerging from the column is known as the elute ‘mobile phase
plus separated chemicals’.

ELUENT:
The eluent is the carrier that moves the chemicals though the column
liquid chromatography, the eluent is the liquid solvent.

ELUTION:
Elution is a term used in analytical and organic chemistry to describe the emergence
of chemicals from the column of a chromatograph.

ANTIBODY:
An antibody also known as an immunoglobulin is a large y shaped protein used by
the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign particles called antigen.

AUTOIMMUNE:
Autoimmune diseases arise from an overactive immune response of the body
against substance and tissues normally present in the body. In other words the
body actually attacks its own cells.

IMMUNE SYSTEM:
An immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an
organism that protects against disease by identifying and killing pathogens and
tumor cells.

CRUDE DRUG:
Natural product which are not pure compounds (i.e plants or parts of plants).

ADJUVANT:
Aiding the action of a medicinal agent.

ANALGESIC:
Relieve pain.

ANAESTHETIC:
Induces loss of sensation.

ANTIANAEMIC:
Curing or preventing anaemia.
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PHARMACOGNOSY

CARMINATIVE:
Causing the release of stomach or intestinal gases.

CATHARTIC:
An active purgative producing bowl movement.

DIURETIC:
Increase urine flow.

EMETIC:
Produces vomiting.

LAXATIVE:
substances that acts to loosen the bowl contents.

ALLERGens:
A substances that causes an allergic reaction.

ANTISPASMODIC:
Used to relieve spasm of involuntary muscles.

CARDIO TONIC:
An agent increase force of contraction.

inflammation:
A localized protective reaction of tissues to irritation , injury, or infection.

ANTIGENS:
A toxin or other foreign substances which induces an immune response in the body
especially the production of antibodies.

DERMATITIS:
A group of disease that results in inflammation of skin.

SINUSITIS:
Inflammation of nasal sinus.

ECZEMA:
A medical condition in which patches of skin become rough and inflammation with
blisters which cause itch and bleeding.

ANAPHYLAXIS:
An acute allergic reaction to an antigen(e.g bee sting)to which the body has become
hypersensitive.

IMMUNOTHERAPY:
The prevention of disease with substance that stimulate the immune response.

SEDATIVE:
Promoting calm or inducing sleep.

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DEMULCENT:
A substance that relieves irritation of the mucous membrane in the mouth by
forming protective film.

PULP:
The soft, juicy, edible part of a fruit is called pulp.

ROOTS:
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically
underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous
branches and fibers. The fleshy or woody roots are used for medicinal purposes.
Roots may be solid
(ginseng), fibrous (stinging nettle), or fleshy (devil’s claw).

BARK:
The protective outer layer of a tree trunk that is formed by layers of living cells above
the wood. Active ingredients are often found in higher concentrations in the bark.
Examples of bark used for medicinal properties are quinine bark, oak bark.
HERB:
Herb, in botany, is a plant that does not form a woody stem, and in temperate
climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial
herb) by the end of the growing season.
MEDICINAL HERB:
A medicinal herb is different from botanic term “herb”. It refers to any plants used for
medicinal purposes.
For example, a medicinal herb can be a real herbal plant, a shrub (bush), other
woody plant, or a fungus. The used part may be the seeds, berries, leaves, barks,
roots, fruits, or other parts of a plants, or mushroom, which may be considered
"herbs" in medicinal use.
ESSENTIAL OIL (VOLATILE OILS):
These are defined as volatile oils that are generally extracted from plants using a
steam distillation process and have essence (smell). Examples include camphor and
peppermint oil.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

FATTY OIL (NON-VOLATILE VEGETABLE OILS):

These are defined as non-volatile vegetable oils that are pressed from the seeds or
fruits of plants and are insoluble in water and leave a spot on paper after drying.
Examples of fatty oils used in medicine are castor oil, olive oil, and safflower oil.

GUM:
Gums are solids that are mixtures of polysaccharides (sugars). They are water-
soluble and are in part digestible by humans.

RESINS:
Resins are a mixture of essential oils and terpenes that are usually not soluble in
water. They are excreted by specialized cells or in ducts of plants. Examples include
frankincense, myrrh, and mastic.
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS:

Identification of drug and determination of its quality and purity is called Evaluation of
Drug.

Following method are frequently employed for the determination of quality and purity
of Crude Drugs.

1. Organoleptic Evaluation or Morphological Evaluation

2. Microscopic Evaluation
3. Chemical Evaluation
4. Physical Evaluation
5. Biological Evaluation

ORGANOLEPTIC EVALUATION OR MORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION:

It means evaluation of drug by the organs of sense (skin,
eye, tongue, nose and ear) or macroscopic evaluation and it
includes evaluation of drugs by color, odour, taste, size,
shape and special feature, like touch, texture etc.

For example
 Color means external color which varies from white to brownish black are
important diagnostic characters.
 General appearance (external marking) of the weight of a crude drug often
indicates whether it is likely to comply with prescribed standard
 Taste is specific type of sensation felt by epithelial layer of tongue. It may be
acidic (sour), saline (salt like), saccharin (sweetish), bitter or tasteless
(possessing no taste).
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Aromatic odor of umbelliferous fruits and sweet taste of liquorice are the
examples of this type of evaluation
 Odor of drug depends upon the type and quality of odorous principles (volatile
oils) present.

MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION:
It involves detailed examination of the drug and it can be used to
identify the organized drugs by their known histological
characters. It is mostly used for qualitative evaluation of organized
crude drugs in entire and powder forms with help of microscope.

Using microscope detecting various cellular tissues, trichomes, stomata, starch

granules, calcium oxalate crystals and grains are some of important parameters
which play important role in identification of certain crude drug.

CHEMICAL EVALUATION:
Chemical evaluation involves the determination of quality,
quantity and purity of crude drugs through chemical tests.
Chemical test for alkaloids, amino acids, carbohydrates,
glycosides, tannins, volatile oils and fixed oils are performed to
ensure their quality.
Titrimetric assay, ester value, saponification value, acid value and ash value are
determined in chemical evaluation.

PHYSICAL EVALUATION:
Physical constants are sometimes taken into consideration to evaluate certain drugs.
These include moisture content, specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive, melting
point, viscosity and solubility in different solvents. All these physical properties are
useful in identification and detection of constituents present in plant.

BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION:
Some drugs have specific biological and pharmacological activity which is utilized for
their evaluation. Actually this activity is due to specific type of constituents present in
the plant extract.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

For evaluation the experiments were carried out on both intact and isolated organs of
living animals. With the help of bioassays (testing the drugs on living animals),
strength of drug in its preparation can also be evaluated.

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 PHARMACOGN
OSY

INTRODUCTION, CASE HISTORY, SKIN TEST, TREATMENT AND MECHANISM OF

ALLERGY:

ALLERGY:

DEFINITION:
According to British immunological society the allergy
can be defined as…

“Allergy is a specific hypersensitivity of an individual to

foreign particles usually a protein to which a specific
individual is exposed.”
Explanation:
Allergies are abnormal immune system reactions to things that are typically harmless
to most people. When you're allergic to something, your immune system mistakenly
believes that this substance is harmful to your body. (Substances that cause allergic
reactions, such as certain foods, dust, plant pollen, or medicines, are known as
allergens.)

In an attempt to protect the body, the immune system produces IgE antibodies to that
allergen. Those antibodies then cause certain cells in the body to release chemicals
into the bloodstream, one of which is histamine.

The histamine then acts on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs, skin, or gastrointestinal
tract and causes the symptoms of the allergic reaction. Future exposure to that same
allergen will trigger this antibody response again. This means that every time you
come into contact with that allergen, you'll have an allergic reaction.

Allergic reactions can be mild, like a runny nose, or they can be severe, like difficulty
breathing. An asthma attack, for example, is often an allergic reaction to something
that is breathed into the lungs by a person who is susceptible.
HYPERSENSITIVITY:
Hypersensitivity (also called hypersensitivity reaction) refers to undesirable
(damaging, discomfort-producing and sometimes fatal) reactions produced by the
normal immune system.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

ALLERGEN:
An allergen is any substance (antigen) that is recognized
harmful by the immune system and causes an allergic
reaction. The allergen can be a food, dust particles, drug,
insect venom, or mold spores, as well as pollen. Allergic
people often have sensitivity to more than one substance ”.

TYPES OF ALLERGEN:

There are four categories of allergens

1. Inhalants
2. Contactants
3. Ingestant
4. Injectant

INHALANTS
These allergens are dispersed in air when we inhaled air these allergen also enter in
our respiratory tract and cause allergy.
 Pollens
 Dust
 Smoke
 Perfumes
Pollen:
Pollen is the cells of flowering plants , including trees , grasses and weeds.
Pollen is the most common cause of seasonal allergic rhinitis , sometimes known as
‘hay fever’.
Dust mites:
Dust mites are microscopic organisms that can live and thrive throughout homes and
schools. The mites and their waste products are present in the following:
 Bedding and pillows
 Upholstered furniture
 Carpets
 Cloths
Symptoms:
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Sneezing, swelling of nasal cavities and eyes lacrimation.

Smoke:
The allergic attack due to bad environment is environmental allergy. If a person lives
in a smoky, or in an industrial area we can easily examine that he is allergic to
smoke.
Ingested Allergens:
These allergens are present in our food stuff. When we eat that contaminated food
these allergen are also ingested with food particles.
What is food allergy?
A food allergy is an abnormal response of the body to a certain food. It is important
to know that this is different than a food intolerance, which does not affect the
immune system.
WHAT FOOD MOST OFTEN CAUSE FOOD ALLERGY?
Approximately 90 percent of all allergies are caused by the following eight foods:
 Milk
 Eggs
 Wheat
 Soya bean
 Tree nuts
 Peanuts
 Fish
 Shellfish
SYMPTOMS:
Allergic symptoms may begin within minutes to an hour after ingesting the
food . The following are the most common symptoms of food allergy.
 Vomiting
 Diarrhea
 Cramps
 Hives
 Swelling
 Eczema
 Itching or swelling of the lips, tongue or mouth
 Itching or tightness in the throat
 Difficulty breathing
Wheezing
 Low blood pressure
INJECTABLE ALLERGEN:
 Injections of medication
 Insect sting
SYMPTOMS:
 Itching and hive over most of the body
 Swelling of throat and tongue
 Difficulty in breathing and tightness in the chest
 Dizziness
 Shock
 Loss of consciousness
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Hoarse voice of swelling of the tongue

Contact Allergen:
 Jewelry
 Cosmetics
 Pets
WHAT IS ANIMAL ALLERGEN?
Allergens found in animals are a common cause of allergic
reactions. They are caused by the protein food in animals.
 Skin
 Dander
 Saliva
 Urine
Types of hypersensitivity:
The four group classification was expounded by P.H.G Gell and Robin Coombs in 1963.
COOMBS AND GELL CLASSIFICATION:

Comparison of hypersensitivity types

TYPE ALTERNATIVE NAMES OFTEN MENTIONED DISORDER MEDIATORS
I Allergy (immediate) Hay fever IgE
Anaphylaxis
Asthma
II cytotoxic, antibody-
Dependent Erythroblastosis
Fetalis IgM or IgG
III Immune complex
Disease Serum sickness IgG
IV Delayed-type
Hypersensitivity (DTH)
Cell-mediated immune Contact dermatitis
Response, antibody-
Independent Chronic transplant T-cells
Rejection
Multiple sclerosis

1-IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVITIES:
These occur after exposure to the allergen. They are usually mediated by antibodies
of the IgE class.
IgE antibodies present on the surface of the basophils, these antibodies have no effect
until and unless they encounter allergens, when this occur the mast cell discharge
their granules. The granules contain a variety of active agents including histamine etc.
LOCAL ANAPHYLAXIS:
Release of these substances in to the surrounding tissue causes local
anaphylaxis: Swelling, redness and itching.
Example:
Allergic rhinitis(hay fever)in which airborne allergens(pollen)react with IgE-
sensitized mast cells in the mucosa and the tissues around the eyes causing
runny nose also called ‘Rhinoera’.
Pollen exposure:
 Bronchial asthma in which allergen reaches the lungs either by inhalation or
in the blood, and cause bronchoconstriction.
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Hives (physicians call it urticarial)where the allergen usually enters to

body by food.
SYSTEMIC ANAPHYLAXIS:
Some allergen can cause life-threatening collapse of the circulatory and
respiratory systems.
Frequent causes:
Insects
Drugs (e.g.
penicillin) Food
2-Antibody-Mediated hypersensitivity:
Cell damage caused by antibodies directed against cell surface antigens. In
these Disorders, the person produces antibodies directed against antigens
present on the surface of his or her own cells.
Example:
 Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh disease)
 Myasthenia gravis
Binding of antibodies to the surface of the cell can result in:
 Phagocytosis of the cell
 Lysis of the cell
Hemolytic disease of the new born (Rh disease)
Rh antigens are expressed at the surface of red blood cells. During pregnancy, there is
often a tiny leakage of the baby’s red cells in to the mother’s circulation. If the baby is
Rh-positive (having inherited the trait from its father) and the mother Rh-negative, these
red cells will cause her to develop antibodies against the Rh-antigen. The antibodies
usually IgG class may not develop fast enough to cause problems for that child, but can
cross the placenta and attack the red cells of a subsequent Rh+fetus.
Myasthenia Gravis:
The hallmark of this autoimmune disorder is weakness of the skeletal muscles
especially those in the upper part of the body.

3-Immune Complex Disorder:

In this type of hypersensitivity antibodies form complexes with antigens. Damage
caused by the deposition of these complexes in the tissues.
Example:
 Serum
sickness Serum
sickness:
Serum sickness is caused by the many proteins present in the anti-serum. Being
foreign to the recipient an active immunity develops against these proteins the
resulting antibodies bind to the forming immune complexes these are carried by the
blood and deposited in the walls of blood vessels as well as in the glomeruli of the
kidneys.
 Fever
 Hives
 Arthritis
 Protein in the urine
4-Cell-mediated hypersensitivities/Delayed type hypersensitivities:
Because it takes a day or two for the T cells to stimulate following exposure to the
antigen, these responses are called delayed type.
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities can occur with extrinsic antigens or with internal
antigens.
Extrinsic Antigens:
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

The most common example of cell-mediated hypersensitivity to external antigens

is the contact dermatitis caused in some people when their skin is exposed to a
chemical to which they are allergic.
Some examples:
 The catechol’s found in poison ivy, poison oak
 Nickle (often used in jewelry)
 Dyes
 Organic chemicals used in industry
Intrinsic (self) antigens:
Cell-mediated hypersensitivities of ‘self’ caused autoimmune diseases.
Examples:
 Type 1 diabetes mellitus
 Multiple sclerosis
 Organ transplant rejection
Type 1 Diabetes mellitus:
In this disease T cells initiate the destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells
of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
The chief culprits are CD8+cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) also by CD+helper T
cells of the TH1.
Multiple sclerosis:
T cells initiate an attack that destroys the myelin sheath of neurons.

’.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF ALLERGY:

Common Symptoms

Affected Organ Symptom

Nose Swelling of the nasal mucosa (allergic rhinitis)

Sinuses Allergic sinusitis

Eyes redness and itching of the conjunctiva (allergic conjunctivitis)

Sneezing, coughing, bronchoconstriction, wheezing and dyspnea,

Airways sometimes outright attacks of asthma, in severe cases the airway
constricts due to swelling known as laryngeal edema

Feeling of fullness, possibly pain, and impaired hearing due to the lack
of
Ears
Eustachian tube drainage.

Skin Rashes, eczema and hives (urticaria)

Gastrointestinal
Abdominal pain, bloating, vomiting, diarrhea
tract

MEDICAL CASE HISTORY:

To determine the circumstances surrounding the patient’s allergy, doctor must record
all details regarding the allergic attacks, including data on the type of occupation and
the familial background.
GENERAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…
 Name and sex  Place
 Marital status  Time
 Chief complaint  Mode of onset
 Present illness  Seasonal Variation
 Age  Duration

 Date of first attack

VITAL SIGNS:
Some scientific tools are applied to prove the disease. By using following tools the
severity of allergy can be diagnose.
 B.P  Breathing Rate
 Temperature  Pulse Rate

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 Cardiac output  Heart Rate

CLINICAL EXAMINATION INCLUDES…

 Respiratory tract  Urinary Tract
 Cardiovascular System  Reproductive Systems
 GIT

INVESTIGATION :
Investigational tests includes scratch test, patch test, intradermal test etc

SKIN TEST FOR ALLERGY:

Skin testing for allergies is used to identify the substances that are causing your
allergy symptoms. It is often performed by applying an extract of an allergen to your
skin, scratching or pricking the skin to allow exposure, and then evaluating the skin's
reaction. It may also be done by injecting the allergen under the skin, or by applying it
to a patch that is worn on the skin for a specified period of time.

Types of skin tests for allergy

The procedure varies depending on what type of allergy skin test you are having. The
three main types of skin tests are

1. Scratch Test
2. Intradermal Test
3. Patch Test

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SCRATCH TEST FOR ALLERGY:

This test involves placing a small amount of suspected
allergy causing substance on the skin (usually fore-arm,
upper arm or the back) and scratching or pricking the skin
so that the allergen is introduced under the skin surface.
The skin is observed closely for signs of a reaction, which
are usually
swelling and redness. The results of this test can be obtained within 20 minutes.

PATCH TESTS (CONTACT ALLERGY TESTING):

In patch test, an allergen is applied to a patch, which is
then placed on your skin. This type of test can detect
delayed allergic reactions. It's generally done to see
whether a particular substance is causing allergic skin
irritation or not.

INTRADERMAL TEST:
Intradermal allergy testing is another method of skin testing
to help determine whether an individual is allergic to a
specific allergen. The test involves injection of a small
amount of the suspected allergen under the surface of the
skin. After about
20 minutes the area is examined for a reaction at the site of injection. A typical
reaction looks like a small rash with swelling and redness.
THE MECHANISM OF AN ALLERGIC REACTION :
Normally, a person's immune system clearly distinguishes between harmful and
harmless foreign bodies and it reacts only to harmful bodies like various pathogenic
bacteria and virus. When immune system fails to recognize harmless bodies as
"harmless" it reacts to them and produces various symptoms in the form of allergic
manifestations.
GENERAL MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC RESPONSE:
Three players of
allergy: 1-Allergen
2- Antibodies
3-Neurotransmitters
 When an allergen enters our body, the IgE are produced.

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 Then IgE & Mast cell form a complex.

 On re-exposure Allergen binds with this complex.
 As a result the mast cell bursts and releases histamine and other chemical
substances.
 This histamine produces allergic symptoms such as redness, swelling, heat,
itching etc.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS:
Histamine
Bradykinin
Prostaglandin
Interleukin 1
Interleukin 2
Thromboxane
Leukotriene

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METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY:

AVOIDANCE:
In some cases, like food allergies, avoiding the allergen is a life-saving necessity.
That's because, unlike allergies to airborne particles that can be treated with
medications, the only way to treat food allergies is to avoid the allergen entirely. For
example, people who are allergic to peanuts should avoid not only peanuts, but also
any food that might contain even tiny traces of them.
Avoidance can help protect people against non-food or chemical allergens, too. In
fact, for some people, eliminating exposure to an allergen is enough to prevent
allergy symptoms and they don't need to take medicines or go through other allergy
treatments.
Here are some things that can help you avoid airborne allergens:

 Keep family pets out of certain rooms, like your bedroom, and bathe them if
necessary.
 Remove carpets from your room (hard floor surfaces don't collect dust as
much as carpets do).
 Clean frequently
 Use special covers to seal pillows and mattresses if you're allergic to dust
mites.
 If you're allergic to pollen, keep windows closed when pollen season's at its
peak, change your clothing after being outdoors and don't mow (plant cutting
or grass cutting) lawns.
 If you're allergic to mold, avoid damp areas, such as basements, and keep
bathrooms and other mold-prone areas clean and dry.

VACCINATIONS:
After the confirmation of specific Allergy type & kind of allergen a specific vaccine is
ingested to the patient & he/she remain save from the attack of this particular allergy
for specific period of time.

PHARMACOLOGICAL METHODS OF TREATMENT IN ALLERGY:

In pharmacological interventions usually Histamine blocking agents e.g. cetirizine
Levocetrizine etc. are used. If the Allergy is infectious than suitable antibiotic can be
added.

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ENZYMES OBTAINED FROM PLANT SOURCE (PHYTO-ENZYMES):

DEFINITIONS:
Enzymes are organic catalysts produced by living organisms.

Enzymes are important group of bio-molecules synthesized

by the living cells. They are catalysts of biological systems,
colloidal, thermo-labile and protein in nature.

Catalysts
A catalyst is an agent, which in minute amount increases the velocity of a reaction
without appearing in the final product of the reaction.

Substrates
Substances on which enzymes act to convert them into products are called
substrates.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ENZYMES & CATALYST:

Enzymes
 All the enzymes are organic
substances
 Enzymes mostly destroyed
during the reaction
 Enzymes are more specific in
Nature
 Enzymes are very complex in
Nature
 Speed of the enzyme reaction
does not depend on the
concentration
Catalysts
 All the catalysts are inorganic
substances
 Catalysts are not destroyed in the
chemical reaction
 Catalysts are non-specific in
Nature
 Catalysts are very simple
compounds or substances
 Speed of catalyst reaction will
depends upon the concentration
of catalyst

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES:
 Catalytic property
 Enzymatic property

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Solubility
 pH
 Temperature
 Specificity
 Protein nature

CATALYTIC PROPERTY:
Small amount of enzyme can catalyzed the large amount of substrate in biological
reactions.

ENZYMATIC PROPERTY:
The velocity of the enzymatic reaction increase as the concentration of the substrate
increases up to certain maximum. But after certain period of time it decreases.

SOLUBILITY:
Enzymes are mostly soluble in water and diluted alcohol solution. The enzymes
precipitate in concentrated Alcohol, Ammonium Sulphate, and Tricholoro Acetic Acid.

PH:
Acid:
Acid deactivates those enzymes that act at alkaline pH, e.g. Trypsin. At acidic pH, it
will destroy, (Trypsin is very important enzyme that secreted by Pancreas and very
important for proper digestion of food).

Base:
Base deactivates the enzymes that act at acidic pH, e.g. Pepsin, at alkaline pH, it will
destroy.

TEMPERATURE:
o o
Optimum temperature for enzymatic activity is 35 C to 40 C.
o
At 0 C inactive
o o
At 10 C to 20 C very little active
o o
At 35 C to 40 C max. Active
o
At 50 C inactive
o
At 60 C destroy

o
In solid condition, it may be stable up to 100 C.
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

SPECIFICITY:
Enzymes are usually very specific as to which reactions they catalyze and the
substrates that are involved in these reactions.

PROTEIN NATURE:
In general with the exception of “Ribozymes, which are few RNA molecules with
enzymatic activities” all enzymes are protein in nature with large molecular weight.

CLASSIFICATION OF ENZYMES:
Enzymes are generally named after adding the suffix “ase” to the name of the
substrate, e.g. enzymes acting on “nucleic acid” are known as “nuclease”. Even-
though few exceptions such as Trypsin, Pepsin, and Chymotrypsin are still in use.
Further, few enzymes exist in their inactive forms and called as Proenzymes or
Zymogens e.g. Pepsin has Pepsinogen as its zymogen.

There are six main classes of enzymes

1. Oxidoreductases
2. Transferases
3. Hydrolases
4. Lyases
5. Isomerases
6. Ligases

(Catch word to remember the classes of enzymes: OTH-LIL)

OXIDOREDUCTASES:
These enzymes catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions, e.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase,
Lactate dehydrogenase.

Examples…
 Oxidases
 Reductases

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

TRANSFERASES:
Enzymes that catalyze the transfer of a functional group (e.g., a methyl or phosphate
group) from one molecule (called the donor) to another (called the acceptor).

For example, an enzyme that catalyzed this reaction would be a transferase.

AX + B → A + BX

In this example, A would be the donor, and B would be the acceptor. The donor is
often a coenzyme.
There are many types of transferases, some important are
 Transaminases
 Phosphotransferases
 Transmethylases
 Transpeptideases

HYDROLASES:
These enzymes catalyze hydrolysis, e.g. Pepsin, Trypsin
They have many subgroups some important are
 Carbohydrases
 Amino hydrolases
 Lipids Hydrolyzing Enzymes

LYASES:
Enzymes that facilitate removal of small molecules from a large substrate, e.g.
Histidine Decarboxylase, Carbonic Anhydrase.

ISOMERASES:
Enzymes involved in isomerization of substrate, e.g. Retinal Isomerase.

LIGASES:
Enzymes involved in joining together two substrates, e.g. RNA synthetase, Glutamine
Synthetase.

FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES:
Enzyme plays a vital role in our daily life. They perform following important functions.

 Decrease in activation energy  Digestion

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 Cheese making  Curing of diseases

 Sweetener  Blood clotting
 As detergent  Alcoholic beverages
 As drug  Meat tenderizing
 For cancer treatment

Decrease in Activation Energy

Enzymes decrease activation energy.

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Digestion
Enzymes play important role in digestion for the conversion of large complex and
non-diffusible molecules into smaller, simple and diffusible molecules, e.g. Trypsin,
Lipase, and Amylase.
Cheese Making
Enzymes are also used in the manufacturing of cheese.

Sweetener
Some enzymes are used as sweetener,
(glucosidase enzyme)
E.g. Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Glucose is 72% sweeter while fructose is 132% sweeter than sucrose.

As Detergent
Carbohydrate and protein breaking enzymes are heat stabilizer and are used as
detergent, e.g. Proteases

As Drug
Some enzymes are used as drugs if there is any disturbance in the digestive system.

For cancer Treatment

Some enzymes are used for cancer treatment, e.g. L. Asparginase

Curing of Diseases
Enzymes are also play important role in curing of diseases such as rickets and
jaundice, for heart problem Lactate Dehydrogenase, and for liver problem certain
Kinases are used.

Blood Clotting
Enzymes also cause blood clotting by protein thrombin.

Alcoholic Beverages
Amylase is used in manufacturing of alcoholic beverages.

Meat Tenderizing
Trypsin, Pepsin and Papain are meat tenderizing to facilitate the process of
digestion.
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BROMELAIN:
Bromelain belongs to a group of a protein digesting enzymes
obtained commercially from the fruit or stem of pineapple plant
that helps digest protein when taken with food. However,
When taken without food (that is, with plain water on an
otherwise empty stomach), bromelain have natural
antihistamine properties and as such is believed to help
support the normal function of the respiratory tract.

Sources of Bromelain
Bromelain is an enzyme derived from the stems of pineapples

Color
Yellowish-white to tan powder

Solubility
Readily soluble in water, insoluble in most organic solvents such as acetone, ether,
ethanol and methanol.

Molecular Weight
Approximately 33,000

Uses
 Bromelain a potential anti-inflammatory agent
 It is used as a supporting agent in the treatment of inflammation and edema
 It is widely used in leather factory
 It is used in the production of protein
 Along with papain, bromelain is one of the most popular substances to use for
meat te21nderizing.
 Bromelain can prevent aggregation of human blood platelets in vivo and in
vitro.

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PAPAIN:
Papain, enzyme present in the leaves, roots, and fruit of
the papaya plant that catalyzes the breakdown of proteins
by hydrolysis (addition of a water molecule).

Source
It is obtained from the leaves, roots, and fruit of the papaya plant

Color
It has amorphous light whitish color powder

Solubility
It is easily soluble in water but insoluble in alcohol, ether and acetone

Molecular Weight
The pure crystalline enzyme, papain, has a molecular weight of 21000

Uses
 Papain is used in biochemical research involving the analysis of proteins
 Tenderizing of meat
 Clarification of beverages (soft and hard drinks)
 Papain is used in enzyme-action cleansing agents for soft contact lenses
 It is used to remove the protein molecules
 It is also used in toothpastes and cosmetics and in preparations of various
remedies for indigestion, ulcers, fever, and swelling

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SEPARATION AND ISOLATION OF PLANT CONSTITUENTS:

Medicinal plant contains number of constituents located in different concentration

in different parts of it. The plants are also very complex in nature and method for
separation and isolation depending on it. Various steps are involved in the
isolation of chemical constituents.

Extraction is the most important first step for isolation of any compound. The
solvent used for the extraction is based on the polarity of the active constituent.
Different solvent systems are available to extract the bioactive compound from
natural products.

Once extract is prepared, separation techniques e.g. chromatography is used for

further separation of the active constituents.

Chromatography and extraction are two most common processes used to isolate
or separate the plant constituents; we will discuss these two processes in detail.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRACTION AND CHROMATOGRAPHY:

Extraction
The compounds are separated on the basis of relative solubility.
Chromatography
The compounds are separated on the basis of polarity.
CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Chromatography is a process of chemistry in which mixture of different
compounds is separated on the basis of their relative polarity difference.

APPLICATIONS OF Chromatography:
The fundamental applications of Chromatography are following.
 It is involve in the separation of different protein molecule.
 It is also involve in the separation of different pharmaceutical chemicals.
 Chromatography is also used to separate different tissue and biological
fluids.
 It is also an important techniques used in analysis of medicines.
 Environmental Protection Agencies use chromatography to test drinking
water and to monitor air quality
38 -
 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Ion exchange chromatography separates compounds based on net surface

charge

STATIONARY PHASE:
The phase or components of Chromatographic procedure that are non-mobile
phase or fixed is known as stationary phase.

For example
 Chromatography paper
 Tale
 Mg-oxide
 Al-oxide
 Activated charcoal

MOBILE PHASE:
This is the phase or components of Chromatography procedure which has ability
to move e.g. solvent used in paper Chromatography.

The most popular mobile phase is used Chromatography are…

 Petroleum ether
 Propanol
 Ethanol
 Acetone

RF VALUE:
The retention factor, RF, is a quantitative indication of how far a particular
compound travels in a particular solvent. If the Rf value for the unknown
compound is close or the same as the Rf value for the known compound then the
two compounds are most likely similar or identical.

We can say that, Rf value is the ratio between the distance covered by any
substances to the distance covered by the Mobile Phase/ Solvent

Rf = Distance covered by substance / Distance covered by solvent

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STYLE OR TECHNIQUES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY:

1. Ascending Chromatography
2. Descending Chromatography
3. Circular or Radial Chromatography

ASCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY:
In ascending Chromatography the solvent are tends to move upward and the
components of mixture are separated in the form of spot.

DESCENDING CHROMATOGRAPHY:
In descending Chromatography the solvent tends to move downward. The
compounds of mixture separated in the form of spots.

CIRCULAR OR RADIAL CHROMATOGRAPHY:

In circular Chromatography the solvent tends to move in circular form and the
different compounds of mixture are separated in the form of rings.

TYPES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY:

1. Paper Chromatography
2. Thin Layer Chromatography
3. Column Chromatography

PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY:
Paper Chromatography is one of the most common types
of chromatography. It uses a strip of paper as the
stationary phase. Capillary action is used to pull the
solvents up through the paper and separate the solutes.

STATIONARY PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatographic paper is used as stationary phase in paper Chromatography.

MOBILE PHASE IN PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

PROCEDURE OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY:

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

1. First of all we will take Chromatographic paper and cut it down according to
the style of Chromatography e.g. radial , ascending, or descending
2. In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom sides in case of
descending the line is drown on upper of Chromatographic paper. The line
is called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5
cm.
3. The sample is applied in the center of baseline and the paper is applied
into mobile phase in a Chromatographic tank. After the appropriate time the
components of sample will separate and finally Rf value of each
component is calculated.
4. In case of radial Chromatography the sample is applied in the center and
thread has been passed in through the center the mobile phase will move
under the papillary action and components of sample will separate in the
form or rings finally Rf value of all the components is calculated.

STYLES OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles
 Ascending Chromatography
 Descending Chromatography
 Radial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF PAPER CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 It is used in pharmaceutical industries to separate different kinds of (API)

 It is used to determine the polarity and evaporation power of any given
compound
 It is used in the identification of poison
 It is used in the analysis of different medicine
 It is used in the separation of different body tissue
 It is used in forensic medicine for investigational purpose

THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC):

Thin-layer Chromatography uses an absorbent
material on flat glass or plastic plates.

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STATIONARY PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

The layer of adsorbent is known as the stationary phase.

MOBILE PHASE IN THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.
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PROCEDURE OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 First of all we will take special thin layer chromatographic paper coated with
the absorbent and cut it down according to the style of chromatography e.g.
radial, circular ascending descending
 In case of ascending a line has been drawn on the bottom side which case
of descending the line is drawn on upper of chromatographic paper. The line
is called baseline. The distance of this baseline from the final edge is 1.5
cm.
 After drying the plate, the sample is applied in the center of baseline and the
plate enclosed into mobile phase in a chromatographic tank. After the
appropriate time, the components of sample will separate and finally Rf
value of each component is calculated.

STYLES OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC)

Paper Chromatography can be done by following styles

 Ascending Chromatography
 Descending Chromatography
 Redial Chromatography

APPLICATION OF THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY (TLC):

 This is a simple and rapid method to check the purity of an organic

compound
 Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye
composition of fibers.
 Determination of the components a plant contains
 Detection of pesticides or insecticides in food and water
 Analyzing the dye composition of fibers in forensics sciences
 Identifying compounds present in a given substance
 Assaying the radiochemical purity of radiopharmaceuticals

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COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY:
In column chromatography, the
stationary phase, a solid adsorbent, is
placed in a vertical glass (usually)
column. The mobile phase, a liquid, is
added to the top and flows down through
the column by either gravity or external
pressure.

STATIONARY PHASE IN COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

The stationary phase or adsorbent in column chromatography is a solid. The most
common stationary phase for column chromatography is silica gel, alumina,
cellulose powder has often been used.

MOBILE PHASE COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY

Mostly ethanol, water, acetone or their mixture is used as mobile phase.

PROCEDURE OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY:

The classical preparative chromatography column is a glass tube with a diameter
from 50mm and a height of 50cm to 1m with a tap at the bottom. The stationary
phase is a powdered adsorbent which is placed in a vertical glass column. The
mixture to be analyzed is loaded on top of this column.

The mobile phase is a solvent poured on top of the leaded column. The solvent
flows down the column causing the components of the mixture to distribute
between the powdered adsorbent and the solvent thus separating the components
of the mixture so that as the solvent flows out of the bottom of the column some
components elute with early collections and other components elute with late
fractions.
APPLICATION OF COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHY:

 It is used in the separation of benzodiazepines

 It is used in the Analysis of medicine
 It is used for the purification of water & other organic solvents in
pharmaceutical industry
 It is used in the separation of different body tissue

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EXTRACTION:
Extraction is a very common laboratory procedure used when isolating or purifying
a product. Plants contain a broad range of bioactive compounds such as lipids;
Phytochemicals, pharmaceutics, flavors, fragrances and pigments.

Extraction Techniques are used to obtain such valuable natural compounds from
plants for commercialization.

EXTRACTION DEFINITION:
Separation of medicinally active portions of plant or animal tissues from the
inactive or inert components by using selective solvents is called extraction
procedures.
Or
It is the specialized type procedure that involves the separation of different
compounds on the basis of their relative solubility in two different immiscible
solvent.
OR

The extraction is a complex pharmaceutical procedure in which the active

pharmaceutical ingredient (API) is removed from crude drug (animal or plant
origin).
THEORY OF EXTRACTION:
Any extraction procedure depends upon some fundamental principles and these
are very much common on all types of extraction.

 Suitable size reduction of crude drug

 Selection of suitable solvent
 Penetration of solvent into the crude drug
 The cell should be at right position to collect to solution
 Supply of appropriate heat
 Separation of solvent from marc
 Evaporation technique is applied to get purified solid drug

MANSTRUM
Any liquid that is used for extractions procedure is called manstrum.

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MARC
The waste material that left after extraction is called marc.

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EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES/ METHODS :

1. Infusion
2. Decoction
3. Maceration
4. Percolation
5. Digestion
6. Continuous Hot Extraction

INFUSION:
Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavors from plant
material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to
remain suspended in the solvent over time.

This process or technique is usually used for soft nature of drug. The extracts that
are formulated through infusion process have shelf life of only 24 hours, so it is
recommended to use these kinds of extracts freshly.

A common example of an infusion is tea, and many tisanes (herbal tea) are
prepared in the same way. Herbal infusions in water and oil are both commonly
used as herbal remedies. Coffee can also be made through infusion, but is more
often made through percolation.

PROCEDURE FOR INFUSION EXTRACTION

 First of all the nature of the drug is checked

 If the nature of the drug is soft, no need to cut or crush it into pieces
 if drug has little harder, then cut or crush it in to pieces
 place the drug into the infusion pot
 Now heat the menstruum up to 200c to 250c
 Pour the hot menstruum on the drug and allow to settle for 15 minutes or
according to the requirement
 Finally filter it and the extract is ready to use

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DECOCTION:
It is the techniques of extraction in which the drug is used in the form of powder or
coarse particles. Drugs are together boiled with water for certain are given period
of time then cooled and filtered. Decoction preparation always used freshly
because their half-life is about 24 hours.

Decoctions are suitable for roots, barks, large seeds & berries, and other dense
material, or for lighter materials where maximum extraction is required of
constituents (such as tannins) that are stable to heat.
PROCEDURE FOR DECOCTION EXTRACTION

 Decoction is the technique of extraction in which water is used as

menstruum.
 The drug that is selected for decoction procedure should be hard.
 The drug should be in powder or coarse particles form
 Put the entire drug in large beaker (1000ml) and poured the menstruum on
the drug.
 Heat the drug and menstruum mixture to boil.
 After the definite period of time the burner should be closed and allow the
mixture to cool down.
 After the cooling phase filter the mixture.
 The filter mixture is now ready to use as an extract.

MACERATION:
This method requires prolong time. In this method drug is powdered and cover up
in the porous cloth then it is dipped in the menstruum for 2 to 14 days as required.

PROCEDURE FOR MACERATION EXTRACTION

 Drugs are triturate to fine powders

 Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
 Select suitable menstruum
 After this the pouch containing drug powder is suspended in to the
menstruum for 2 to 14 days.
 The pouch is removed after the definite time
 Finally adjust the volume of extraction as required.
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 PHARMACOGNOSY

MULTIPLE MACERATION
Multiple maceration is very important and effective procedure as far as its accuracy
is concern. The basic aim of this procedure is to remove the remaining (API) in to
menstruum.
In multiple maceration, we prefer the alcohol as menstruum on other menstruum
likewise water.

PROCEDURE FOR DOUBLE MACERATION

 Drugs are triturate to fine powders

 Cover up the drug in the porous cloth or pouch.
 Select suitable menstruum
 The menstruum is divided into two portions A and B
 The crude drug pouch is dipped into manstrum A for specific period of time.
After that time the menstruum A is separated and preserved the marc.
 The marc is again dipped into the menstruum B for specific period of time
 After that time the marc is pressed and manstrum B is separated
 Mixed the menstruum A and B and adjust the volume.

PERCOLATION:
It is an extraction technique in which a communicated drug is enclosed in a porous
vessel known as percolator and manstrum is allowed to pass through the
communicated drug. The extract that we obtained from the percolation and
procedure is called percolate. The percolation procedure can be properly explained
under following heading.
PROCEDURE FOR PERCOLATION EXTRACTION

 The drug should be of suitable size, it will enhance the surface area of drug
and the movement of manstrum becomes slow.
 The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the
specified manstrum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well
closed container
 Then drug is packed in percolator and the top of the percolator is closed
 Additional manstrum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 mixture is allowed to macerate (soften or become softened by soaking in a

liquid) in the closed percolator for 24 h
 The outlet of the percolator then is opened and collect the extraction
 Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume

CONTINUOUS HOT EXTRACTION:

In continuous hot extraction the drug is enclosed in a drug chamber and Manstrum
is placed in lower flask. A reflex condenser is placed at the upper portion. When
heat is applied to the manstrum it converts itself into vapors. These vapors are
condensed by reflux condenser. The drops of manstrum tickle down in the drug
chamber and purified extract is obtained from collection point.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

POISONOUS PLANTS:
(WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PAKISTAN)
There are many plants available in northern areas & ground areas of Pakistan. These
plants have the ability to produce some harmful and long-term effects on the human body.
These poisonous plants can be classified as

 Plants Causing GIT Toxicity

 Plants Causing CNS Toxicity
 Plants Causing CVS Toxicity
 Cyanogenetic Plants

PLANTS CAUSING GIT TOXICITY:

1. Mouth or Oral Cavity Toxic Plants

 Arisaema
triphyllum 
Colocasia
esculenta
2. Plants Toxic to Gastric Mucosa
 Narcissus tazetta
 Amaryllis

3. Plants Causing Dryness of Mouth

 Datura
stramonium 
Atropa
belladonna

4. Plants Causing Intestinal Motility

 Conium
maculatum 
Nicotiana
tobaccum

MOUTH OR ORAL CAVITY TOXIC PLANTS:

Name of Plants: Arisaema triphyllum, Colocasia esculenta

Family: Araceae

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Habitat: sindh, Gilgit, Swat, Ayubia and Nathiagli

Toxicology
The fundamental compound due to which mouth or oral cavity toxicity occur is
calcium oxalate.

Symptoms
 Intense burning sensation  Blister on tongue
 Mouth less of sensation  Increase salivation
 Dermatitis  Loss of voice is also reported

Colocasia esculenta

Arisaema triphyllum

PLANTS TOXIC TO GASTRIC MUCOSA:

Name of Plants: Narcissus tazetta, Amaryllis

Family: Amaryllidaceae

Habitat: Gilgit, Swat Wally Punjab, Sindh

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Toxicology
There are various alkaloids in these plants that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms
 Inflammation and burning sensation  Headache
of mouth  Increase salivation nasal secretion
 Gastritis

Narcissus tazetta

Amaryllis

PLANTS CAUSING DRYNESS OF MOUTH:

Name of Plants: Datura stramonium

Family: Solanaceae

Habitat: swat, Gilgit, chitral, muree and Kashmir.

Toxicology

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 There are different compound present in Datura stramonium mainly

hyoscine and hyocyamine if any human ingested there raw plants they can
cause toxicity
 If leaves and flowers of this plant eaten by some animal and their meat is
used by human can caused toxicity
Symptoms
 Dryness of mouth  Eye sight weakness
 Dyspnea  Muscular weakness
 Fatigue

Datura stramonium

Name of Plants: Atropa belladonna

Family: Solanceae

Habitat: Muree, Hazara, Nansehra, and Chitral

Toxicology
The main chemical compound which is present in Atropa belladonna is atropine.

Symptoms
 Dryness of mouth  Nausea
 Muscular relaxation  Vomiting
 Fever

Atropa belladonna
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PLANTS CAUSING INTESTINAL MOTILITY:

Name of Plants: Conium maculatum

Family: Umbelliferae

Habitat: Hazara, Abottabad, and hills of muree and Chitral

Toxicology
There are many alkaloids present in Conium maculatum that cause multiple symptoms

Symptoms
 Increase the intestinal motility  Respiratory Depression
 Paralysis of motor Nerve ending  Drowsiness
 Paralysis of spinal card

Conium maculatum

Name of Plants: Nicotiana tobaccum

Family: Solanaceae

Habitat: it is widely available in rural sindh, Punjab and N.W.F.P.

Toxicology
There are mainly alkaloids available in Nicotiana tobaccum. But the most effective
is nicotine.

Symptoms

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Enhance the motility of intestine

 Diarrhea

Nicotiana tobaccum

PLANTS CAUSING CVS DISTURBANCES:

1. Digitalis purpurea
2. Digitalis lanata
3. Nerium indicum

Name of Plants: Digitalis purpurea, Digitalis lanata

Family: Scrophulariaceae

Habitat: Hazara, Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
These are two plants contain many glycosides. In which the most active are Digoxin,
Digitoxin and Gitoxin.

Symptoms
 Ventricular tachycardia  shortness of breath
 Vomiting  Drowsiness
 Sinus arrhythmia  Fatigue

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Digitalis purpurea

Name of Plants: Nerium indicum

Family: Apocynaceae

Habitat: Muree, Chitral and Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
Roots, barks and seeds contain toxins the most active are “nerodine” and karabin.

Symptoms
 Hypertension  Nausea
 Cardiac arrhythmia  Vomiting
 Ventricular tacky cardia  Chest pain
 Increase impulse rate

Nerium indicum

PLANTS CAUSING CNS DISTURBANCES:

1. Cannabis sativa
2. Cicuta virosa

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Name of Plants: Cannabis sativa

Family: Cannabinaceae/ Moraceae

Habitat: it is widely available in NWFP and Punjab

Toxicology
The glandular trichrome of Cannabis sativa is secreted a resin which usually a waste
material called as Narcotic resin.

Symptoms
 Shrinkage of mouth
 Dryness of mouth
 Dry cough
 Constipation
 Depression
 Vomiting
 Headache
 Hallucination
 Cannabis sativa

Name of Plants: Cicuta virosa

Family: Umbelliferae

Habitat: hilly area of Azad Kashmir

Toxicology
In Cicuta virosa there is a mixture of toxic substances called cicutoxin is a slightly alcoholic
in nature the barks of the Cicuta virosa is more toxic then the seeds and leaves of this
plant.
Symptoms
 Depression  Respiratory depression which
 Tremor ultimately leads to respiratory failure
 Increase salivation

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

 Nausea  Vomiting

Cicuta virosa

CYANOGENETIC PLANTS:

Name of Plants: Manihot esculenta

Family: Euphorbiaceae

Habitat
It is easily available in the forests of Northern area

Toxicology
There is a toxic substances name cyanogenocyte which can produce harmful effect on the
living systems

Symptoms
 Convulsion
 Muscular weakness
 Liver damage
 Vomiting

Manihot esculenta

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 PHARMACO
GNOSY

GENERAL INTRODUCTION, CLASSIFICATION AND MEDICINAL USES OF

IMPORTANT
PLANTS:

GLYCOSIDES CONTAINING PLANT:

1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima

ALKALOIDS:
1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS):

1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa

RESINS AND RESIN COMBINATION:

1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin

CARBOHYDRATES:
1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer

TANNINS:
1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria

LIPIDS (FIXED OILS, FATS AND RELATED COMPOUNDS WAXES):

1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis

GLYCOSIDES :
Glycosides are a class of molecules in which, a sugar molecule is bonded to a "non-sugar"
molecule. Glycosides play important role in our lives. Many plants store medicinally
important

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. The non-sugar portion contains the
biochemically active properties of medical interest. Once the glycoside is split into its two
components (sugar and non-sugar parts), the non-sugar component is now free to exert its
chemical effects on the body.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT GLYCOSIDE CONTAINING PLANTS:

1. Cassia angustifolia
2. Cassia fistula
3. Aloe barbadensis
4. Urginea maritima

Botanical Name: Cassia angustifolia

Drug: Senna, Senna is a natural medicine containing Sennosides that are derived from
the leaves of the Senna plant.
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, Laxative, Senna is also used for weight loss.

Botanical Name: Cassia fistula

Drug: Cassia
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Sennosides
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, the fruit pulp is considered a purgative

Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis

Drug: Aloe
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Aloin
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic, speed up the process of healing to burns and other wounds,
moisturizes and softens your skin

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 PHARMACO
GNOSY

Botanical Name: Urginea maritima

Drug: Squill
Chemical Class: Glycoside
Family: Liliaceae
Chemical Constituent: Scillaridin-A
Medicinal Uses: Diuretic, Anti-emetic, Squill is a cardio tonic similar to digitalis. It also has
been used in hair tonics to treat dandruff

ALKALOIDS:
Alkaloids are naturally occurring chemical compounds containing basic nitrogen atoms.
The name derives from the word alkaline and is used to describe any nitrogen-containing
base and organic compounds.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT ALKALOIDS CONTAINING PLANTS:

1. Rauwolfia serpentina
2. Catharanthus roseus
3. Ephedra sinica

Botanical Name: Rauwolfia serpentina

Drug: Rauwolfia
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Reserpine
Medicinal Uses: Alkaloids present in this plant reduce blood pressure, depress activity of
the central nervous system and act as hypnotics and Sedative.

Botanical Name: Catharanthus roseus

Drug: Catharanthus
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Apocynaceae
Chemical Constituent: Vinblastine and Vincristine
Medicinal Uses: Anti-Cancer, the leaf juice or water decoction of Catharanthus roseus is
used for the treatment of diabetes.

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Botanical Name: Ephedra sinica

Drug: Ephedra
Chemical Class: Alkaloids
Family: Ephedraceae
Chemical Constituent: Ephedrine
Medicinal Uses: Anti asthmatic, Bronchodilator. Ephedra is widely used by athletes as a
performance-enhancing drug. Ephedra has been used as a weight-loss aid, sometimes in
combination with aspirin and caffeine.

VOLATILE OILS (ESSENTIAL OILS):

Volatile oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds
(fragrance) from plants. Volatile oils are also known as Essential oils.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Essential oils
have been used medicinally in history. Medical applications proposed by those who sell
medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT VOLATILE CONTAINING PLANTS

1. Foeniculum vulgare
2. Carum carvi
3. Curcuma longa

Botanical Name: Foeniculum vulgare

Drug: Fennel
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Fenchone
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

Botanical Name: Carum carvi

Drug: Caraway
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Umbelliferae
Chemical Constituent: Limonene
Medicinal Uses: Carminative, Flavoring agent

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Botanical Name: Curcuma longa

Drug: Curcuma
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Zingiberaceae
Chemical Constituent: Curcumin
Medicinal Uses: Anti-inflammatory, Use in jaundice, Use in gall stones

RESINS:
A natural or synthetic organic compound, consisting of non-crystalline, solid,
viscous liquid substance or mixture. Natural resins are usually transparent or
translucent yellow to brown and can melt and burn.
The resin produced by most plants is a viscous liquid, composed mainly of volatile
fluid terpenes, with lesser components of dissolved non-volatile solids which make
resin thick and sticky.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT RESINS PRODUCING PLANTS:

1. Citrullus colocynthis
2. Styrax benzoin

Botanical Name: Citrullus colocynthis

Drug: Colocynth
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Cucurbitaceae
Chemical Constituent: corocynthix, peciten phosphate
Medicinal Uses: Cathartic

Botanical Name: Styrax benzoin

Drug: Benzoin
Chemical Class: Volatile oil
Family: Styraceae
Chemical Constituent: Coniferyl benzoate
Medicinal Uses: Antiseptic, Expectorant

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

CARBOHYDRATES:
A carbohydrate is a large biological molecule, or macromolecule, consisting of carbon (C),
hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms.

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the
storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g.,
cellulose in plants).

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT CARBOHYDRATES CONTAINING PLANTS:

1. Acacia senegal
2. Astragalus gummifer

Botanical Name: Acacia senegal

Drug: Acacia Gum
Chemical Class: Carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Arabic acid
Medicinal Uses: Acacia gum is used as a demulcent (a substance that relieves irritation
of the mucous membranes in the mouth by forming a protective film). It is used topically for
healing wounds and has been shown to inhibit the growth of some bacteria. It is also used
as a binding agent.
Botanical Name: Astragalus gummifer
Drug: Tragacanth
Chemical Class: carbohydrate
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Tragacanthin
Medicinal Uses: Tragacanth has been used for constipation; Modern pharmaceutical
uses include an adhesive agent for pills and tablets, and for emulsifying oil droplets in
lotions, creams and pastes. Its superior water absorbing qualities make it an excellent
thickening agent.

TANNINS:
Any of a class of yellowish or brownish solid compounds found in many plants and used
as tanning agents, mordents, or medical astringents.

(Tanning is the process of treating skins of animals to produce

leather) (A mordant is a substance used to set dyes on fabrics or
tissue)

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

(An astringent substance is a chemical compound that tends to shrink or constrict body
tissues)

The tannin compounds are widely distributed in many species of plants, where they play a
role in protection from predation, and perhaps also as pesticides, and in plant growth
regulation.

MEDICALLY IMPORTANT TANNINS CONTAINING PLANTS:

1. Acacia catechu
2. Quercus infectoria

Botanical Name: Acacia catechu

Drug: Catechu
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Leguminosae
Chemical Constituent: Catechin
Medicinal Uses: Catechu is used in traditional medicine for sore throats and diarrhea; it is
also used as anti-inflammatory, anti-diuretic. It enhance digestion and curing skin
disorders.

Botanical Name: Quercus infectoria

Drug: Nut gall
Chemical Class: Tannin
Family: Fagaceae
Chemical Constituent: Gallic acid
Medicinal Uses: Nut gall extracts are widely used in pharmaceuticals, food and feed
additives, dyes and inks manufacturing.
FIXED OILS:
Non-volatile oils especially fatty oils of vegetable origin are called fixed oils. Fixed oils do
not evaporate like essential oil and are often called carrier oils.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT FIXED OILS CONTAINING PLANTS:

1. Prunus amygdalus
2. Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Almond
Botanical Name: Prunus amygdalus
Chemical Class: Lipids
(Fixed oil) Family:
Rosaceae

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 PHARMACOGNOSY

Chemical Constituent: Sphingolipid

Medicinal Uses: Regulation of cholesterol, Immune System Strength, Anti-Inflammation,
Regulation of blood pressure, Prevention of cancer
Botanical Name: Aloe barbadensis
Drug: Aloe Vera
Chemical Class: Lipids
(fixed oil) Family:
Asphodelaceae
Chemical Constituent: Saponins & salicylic acid
Medicinal Uses: Used for moisturizing skin, it is used in creams & lotions, It is a well
known healing and soothing agent for damaged and dry skin, It is soothing and healing for
burns skin irritations.

Course Outlines

PHARMACOGNOSY (WRITTEN)
Paper 3 Part-1 (100) Marks
1. Introduction and scope of Pharmacognosy
2. Classification of crude drugs.
3. Terminology used in Pharmacognosy.
4. Evaluation of crude drugs i.e. organoleptic, physical, chemical and biological.
5. Introduction, case history, skin test, treatment and mechanism of allergy.
6. Enzymes obtained from plant source (Phyto-enzymes)
7. General introductions of poisonous plants with special reference to Pakistan.
8. Separation and isolation of plant constitutions. An introduction to
chromatography and chromatographic techniques e.g.
a) Column chromatography
b) Paper chromatography
c) Thin layer chromatography
9. Introduction to extraction and extraction techniques.
10. General introduction, classification and medicinal uses of important plants
containing:
a) Glycosides
b) Alkaloids
c) Volatile oils (essential oils)
d) Resins and Resin combination
e) Carbohydrates
f) Tannins
g) Lipids (Fixed oils, fats and related compounds waxes)
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