Zach Smith 1

Water and active-lid regime plate tectonics

Geological processes have shaped planet Earth for approximately 4.55 Gyrs. These systems function as a result of complex chemical and physical reactions. Due to the chemical evolution of the earth one can conclude geological processes currently in effect may not always have been relevant. The quest of a geologist is to probe deep time to find clues pertaining to its chemical and physical evolution. Models can then be developed from data drawn from within the rocks (assuming physical laws to have been constant). This essay analyses the roll that water played in the evolution of the earth to its current state.

Oneil et al (2007) points out that the requirements of a plate tectonic regime are restrictive enough that it has only been observed on earth. He refers to this as an active-lid regime as opposed to a stagnant-lid regime thought to be in operation on Mercury and the Moon. Venus is currently in a transition phase between these two regimes. The question is, what determines and drives these very different systems?

Moresi and Solomatov (1998) state that a planets tectonic regime is a function of the ratio of lithospheric strength to stress applied by a convecting mantle. (The terms lithosphere and mantle in this case are used as reference points for an upper, cooler layer that is too viscous to flow with the hotter underlying rocks where convection occurs.) Obviously this ratio is highly subject to variability and when stress applied to the lithosphere causes brittle failure (i.e ratio < 1) the system may begin to enter a tectonic regime similar to the one on earth today. Temperature, magnitude of stresses, and water content are the factors that determine the crucial ratio. Fig 1 represents the brittle to ductile transition zone (BDT) on a graph of lithospheric strength vs. depth, dependent on the increasing coefficient of friction (u). Above the BDT line the lithosphere behaves elastically. It is in this zone that brittle failure will occur when a critical ratio is reached. It is known that water content decreases the resistive strength of the lithosphere by hundreds of percent (Oneil et al 2007); therefore this graph suggests that an active-lid regime would be
Fig 1. Graph showing the BDT on a plot of lithospheric strength against depth (of a stagnant-lid regime). The dotted lines represent different strength/depth ratios with a change in u (coefficient of friction). Source: (Worster and Leitch, 1985)

Zach Smith 2 more likely to occur with higher water content. This would decrease the convection stress required. (Alternatively the same effect could be achieved by raising the temperature).

It is generally considered that in a viscous medium - such as found in the mantle

dislocation creep is favored and that brittle deformation occurs through cataclastic flow mechanism. A combination between the two is thought to act at the transition zone though this is poorly understood (Bercovici 2002). In his paper, Bercovici explores other possible mechanisms of deformation such as pseudo-stick-slip and the relationship between these mechanisms and non-Newtonian fluid dynamics (both simple and exotic). The physical properties of the mantle and lithosphere as fluids are not well known. It is likely that water content plays an important role in affecting these properties. This is relevant as, according to Bercovici (2002), the mechanisms of developing plate tectonics from mantle convection are not known. This needs to be known if one were to quantify the effect of water on early earth.

According to Oneil et al (2007), the magnitude of the effect of free water present in the lithospheric rocks can be observed in the difference between Earth and Venuss tectonic regimes. Though Venus is far hotter, a stagnant lid regime prevails. It is thought that this is a result of cooling and that until recently (700 Ma) subduction tectonics was in operation. The surface temperature of Venus is approximately 4650C (which is after it must have cooled appreciably to allow for stagnant lid tectonics). Thus, assuming a similar rheology to that of Earth (though the planet is slightly smaller and less dense than Earth www.nasa.gov), it seems highly likely that Earths early plate tectonic regime was facilitated by the presence of water. This is not to say that plate tectonics could not have existed on Earth without water, but rather that it is unlikely to have existed for very long due to cooler temperatures than Venus (tentative evidence of biological activity presented by Menneken et al (2007) dictates this to be so). When considering the evidence for granitic continents (and thus subduction zones) presented by Menneken et al (2007) that date back to at least 4250 Ma it seems unlikely that the water content of the earth would drastically increase within a 300 myr time span from its conception at 4.55 Ga till 4.25 Ga. Taking into account possible Hadean biological activity (which requires a relatively cool earth), it seems reasonable to assume that water was an important component of the Earth since the earliest days of crust formation.

Zach Smith 3 As well as helping to initiate plate tectonics, water is the deciding factor in the crystallization of the granitic component of lithospheric continents observed today. According to de Wit and Hynes (1995) continent-forming granites can only be formed via the partial melting of hydrated mafic rocks. To simplify this, Basalt + H2O = Continental igneous rocks, i.e. the seeds for the cratons. The basalt is formed at mid oceanic ridges and melted in the subduction zones. The only way to hydrate the MORB is via the thermally driven water convection associated with metasomatism and black/white smokers. This would require a submerged spreading centre. De Wit and Hyness 1995 paper presents a model in which the first granites formed once mid-ocean ridges were submerged below sea level. This implies that the amount of water present on early Earth is highly relevant. De Wit and Hynes (1995) propose that the earliest known continental crust formed about 4 Ga. This has now been pushed back by the discovery of detrital zircons in Australia (Menneken et al 2007) to about 4.3 Ga. This requires significantly deep oceans by 4.3 Ga. The formation of granites represents a very important step in the history of the planet and is testimony to the significant roll water has played on Earth.

Without water our planet would be very different geologically then it is today. Plate tectonics, if temperatures had ever been high enough to start, would not be present by now and a stagnant-lid regime would be favored as on mercury and the moon. By this point there would be large amounts of cool basalt acting as a crust. Continents as we know them would not exist as there would be no granite excepting the tiny amounts that would have been derived from partial melting of hydrated sediments (assuming that temperatures would have been high enough to enable a dry active-lid regime to operate at some point). To sum up, water has been a major factor when defining the processes that have shaped our planet.

Zach Smith 4 Resources:

Bercovici, D., 2002. The generation of plate tectonics from mantle convection. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 205. 107121.

de Wit, M.J., Hynes, A., 1995. The onset of interaction between the hydrosphere and oceanic crust, and the origin of the first continental lithosphere. Geological society special publications. 95. 1-9.

Menneken, M., Nemchin A.A., Geisler T., Pidgeon R.T., Wilde S.A., Hadean diamonds in zircon from jack hills, Western Australia. Nature. 448. 917-920.

Moresi, L., Solomatov, V., 1998. Mantle convection with a brittle lithosphere: thoughts on the global tectonic styles of the Earth and Venus. Geophys. J. Int. 133, 669682.

O'Neill C., Jellinek A.M., Lenardic A., 2007. Conditions for the onset of plate tectonics on terrestrial planets and moons. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 261. 2032.

Worster, M.G., Leitch, A.M., 1985. Laminar free convection in confined regions. J. Fluid Mech. 156, 301319.

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/venus_worldbook.html