- NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

-any deviations from normal are resisted or is made
REVIEW MATERIAL smaller.
REVIEWER : G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA. • POSITIVE FEEDBACK:
OD.MD.RN.RM.MAP,PGCPE. When a deviation from normal value occurs, the
response of the system is to make the deviation even
INTRODUCTION: BASIS OF LIFE ANATOMICAL POSITIONS greater.
AND BODY CAVITIES
BODY POSITIONS:
ANATOMY: ANATOMICAL POSITION :
- Scientific discipline that investigates the structure of the Standing Erect
body
Face directed Forward
- SYSTEMIC , REGIONAL, SURFACE
- ANATOMICAL Imaging Upper limbs hanging to the sides
• KNOW Anatomical Anomalies: Un usual and different Palms of the hand facing forward
from usual Patterns. • SUPINE = Lying face upward
PHYSIOLOGY : • PRONE = Lying face downward
• SUPERIOR = UP
- Deals with the processes or functions of living things
• INFERIOR = Down
Goals :
1. body’s response to stimuli • CEPHALIC = Towards the Head
2. Maintenacens conditions • CAUDAL = Toward the tail
within a narrow range of values in the presence of • PROXIMAL = Nearest
continually changing environment. • DISTAL = Distant
• ANTERIOR = Front Ventral
Six Structural levels • POSTERIOR = Back Dorsal
• MEDIAN = Towards the Midline
• CHEMICAL LEVEL : Atoms> molecules • LATERAL = Away from Midline
• CELL LEVEL : Basic functional and structural levels of an • SUPERFICIAL = structure close to the
organism.Molecules to Organelles. surface of the body
• TISSUE LEVEL : A group of similar cells and the • DEEP = Toward the interior of the body
materials surrounding them. UPPER LIMB
• ORGAN LEVEL : two or more tissue types that • Arm = from shoulder to elbow
• ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL:Group of organs classified as a • Forearm = from elbow to wrist
unit because of a common function or set of functions. Lower Limb
• ORGANISM LEVEL : • Thigh = from hip to knee
- Any organism that is considered as a whole. • Leg = from knee to ankle
perform the same functions _____________
TRUNK > Thorax ( Chest )
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE Abdomen ( From Chest to Pelvis)
1. ORGANIZATION: Pelvis ( Inferior end of the trunk
- is a condition in which the parts of an organism associated with Pelvis)
have specific relationships to each other and the parts ABDOMINAL QUADRANTS
interact to perform specific functions. ABDOMINAL REGIONS
2. METABOLISM: ABDOMINAL CONTENTS
- is the sum of the chemical and PLANES
Physical changes taking place in an organism. • Sagittal plane : Separates Right and left part
3. RESPONSIVENESS: is the ability of an organism to sense • Median Plane : a saggital plane that passes
changes in its external or internal environment and make through the midline and divides it
adjustments that helps maintain life. into equal right and left halves.
4. GROWTH : • Transverse or Horizontal plane runs parallel to the
- Increase of size of all or part of the organism. surface of the ground and divides the body into
5. DEVELOPMENT : Superior and Inferior parts.
- Changes an organism undergoes through time. • Median: Middle
- greatest before birth. • Sagittal : right and Left
DIFFERENTIATION : change in cell structure and • Horizontal: Above and Below
function from generalized to specialized. • Coronal Or Frontal- Divides the body into anterior
6. REPRODUCTION: and Posterior Parts
is the formation of new cells or New organism. Section of Organs
• Longitudinal section = along the long axis
HOMEOSTASIS • Cross or transverse Section = cut is made across the
- Is the existence and maintenance of a relatively right angle to the long axis
constant environment within the body.
- Normal range of values.
 • OBLIQUE = cut made along the long axis other than
right angle Solution : is a mixture of liquids solids and gasses in which
BODY CAVITIES the substances are uniformly distributed
with no clear boundaries within the substance.
• Thoracic Cavity: Sorrounded by Rib cage and the
Solute: salt
muscular diaphragm . Solvent : water
• Mediastinun : divides the Thoracic cavity into R&L
Parts DIFFUSION : movement of molecules from area of higher
• Abdominal Cavity concentration to area of lower concentration in a solution.
• Pelvic Cavity OSMOSIS
SEROUS MEMBRANES - The movement of solvent across a permeable membrane.
SIMPLE DIFFUSION= through a lipid bi-layer
=Cover and line the organs of the trunk cavities
- For small and non- polar particles
VISCERAL = In contact with the organ FACILITATED DIFFUSION - through a transport protein
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS - Happens through a large polar particles
REVIEWEER : G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM.MAP OSMOTIC PRESSURE
- is the force required to prevent the movement of
water by osmosis across a selectively permeable membrane.
CELL : The basic unit of all organism. - “ the number of solute particles dtermines the osmotic
Single fertilized cell pressure.
• MOTHER CELL >> Nerve cell, blood cell, Bone cells ISOsmotic :
and OTHERS - the solution have the same concentration of solute prticles
and the same osmotic pressure
Parts of the Cell HYPER osmotic
CELL MEMBRANE : - Solution has greater concentration of solute particles and
Outer Boundary of the cell greater osmotic pressure than the other solution.
Point of intractions to external Environment. HYPOsmotic :
Organelles: - Lower concentration of solute particles and lower osmotic
1. Nucleous : Central area. pressure than the other solution.
Genetic cell materials = more dilute solution.
Directs cell activities Illustration:
2. Cytoplasm : Between the cell membrane and Cell : consider the movement of water.
the nucleus. • Isotonic: Cell maintains its size.
Functions of the cell : NO shrinkage or swelling
1. Cell function and energy. • Hypotonic : cell swells > rupture > lysis
metabolism , ENERGY, BODY HEAT • Hypertonic : Cell shrinks > crenation
2. Synthesis ( Production ) of Molecules
Bone produce materials that hardens the bones MEDIATED TRANSPORT
. 3. Communication: = transport proteins assist in the movement of IONS
Nerve cells >> muscle >>contraction= and molecules across the plasma membrane.
4. Reproduction and inheritance
Contains genetic information to be passed on to Carrier Proteins:
next generations - proteins that move the ions from one side of
PLASMA MEMBRANE the membrane to other side of the membrane.
encloses the cell TYPES :
Supports the cell contents UNIPORT : movement of one specific ion or molecule
Selective barrier across the membrane
Communications between cell
Intracellular SYMPORT : movement of two or more different ions in
Extracellular the same directions across the plasma
Intercellular membrane.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
• (+) Lipid bilayer ( Phospholipids and cholesterol) ANTIPORT : movement of two or more different ions
( water loving) OPPOSITE directions across the plasma membrane.
( Water fearing )
ENZYMES :
MARKER MOLECULES - Increases the rate of chemical reactions.
= allow cells to distinguish between the self and = catalyst chemical reaction without being altered in the
non self.. For immunity. process. 
Attachment proteins : ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
Cadherence:attachment to other cells - ATP powered
Integrins : attachment to other molecules - movement from lower concentration to
higher concentration.( higher to lower also)
Transport proteins : Vesicle
- moves ions or molecules across the - A membrane bound sac that surrounds substances
membranes. within the cytoplasm of the cell.
RECEPTOR Proteins : - VESICULAR TRANSPORT : is the movement of
-RECEIVES specific chemical signals.( Positive materials by vesicles into out of or within the cells.
response) - Active process( require ATP)
Plasma Membrane: ENDOCYTOCIS : Vesicular transport into the cell.
- semi permeable membrane
 Phagocytosis : Cell eating • :Peroxisomes
For Larger molecules. - membrane bound vesicles containing enzymes
Pinocytosis : cell drinking. that breakdown fatty acids, amino acids and
small molecules hydrogen Peroxide
EXOCYTOSIS : • Proteasomes
- is the movement of materials out of the cells by vesicles. - a tunnel like structure that is responsible for
Salivary glands: mucus the breakdown and recycle proteins within
Mammary glands : milk the cells.
Pancreas : Digestive enzymes
Cytoplasm is in between the nucleus and the cell membrane. MITOCHONDRIA
• Cytosol : a fluid portion, a cytoskeleton and - bean shaped, rod shaped, thread like organelles responsible
cytoplasmic inclusion. for the production of ATP.
Parts : solution : Dissolved Ions and molecules - for energy
Colloid: ions and molecules ( proteins ) • Centrioles : specialized zone of cytoplasm that is
suspended in the liquid the center for microtubule formation.
• Cilia : hair like structure responsible for
Cytoskeletons : Proteins that support the cell: movements of particles outside the cell.
hold organelles in shape and enable • FLAGELLA: longer, one per cellmovement of sperm
the cell to change its shape. Microvilli : extension of plasma membranes supported
Composed of: by microfilaments:- Intestines.
a. Microtubules : For support of the cytoplasm PROTEIN :
assist in the process of cell division - Forms structural component of the cell
Forms organelles: Flagella, cilia and spindle fibers. - Regulate the chemical reactions of the cell
b. Microfilaments : actin filaments : small fibrils - DNA is responsible for protein synthesis
that forms the bundles or networks in the DNA:
cytoplasm of the cell :. - contains the Genes
Provides shape of the cell. - Directs the production of proteins
Provides ability for the muscle to contract. - determine the cell structures and functions
Cytoplasmic inclusion :
- Chemicals that are produced by the cell : CELL DIVISION
Ex: glycogen,Hemoglobin, Melanin: - Formation of Two daughter cells from a single parent
cell.
Organelles : cell structure that are specialized for
functions such as protein manufacturing or MITOSIS: for formation new cells necessary for
production of ATP. growth and tissue repair.
NUCLEOUS : Near the center of the cell MEIOSIS: the process through which the sex cells or
( +) Nucleoplasm with nuclear envelope Gametes are formed.
( +) Pores : for passage of materials Sperm cells: gametes of males
( + ) DNA: Deoxy Ribonucleic acid) Oocytes ( egg cell) : gametes of Females
( Genes - direct cell functions and structures) _______
Chromosomes- Structures of Nuclear DNA DNA within the parent cell
Chromatin- delicate filaments of chromosomes Daughter cell: Somatic Cells Gametes
dispersed in the nucleous DIPLOID ( 2) HAPLOID( 1)
each chromosomes consist of 2 chromatids” Humans:
Pairs of Chromosomes 46 23
NUCLEOLI : located inside the nucleous 1 Pair is SEX
Round nuclear body with no sorrounding Chromosomes
membranes XX – Female
- Produces r RNA ( Ribosomal Ribonucleic acid ) XY - Male
22: Autosomes _____
RIBOSOMES : organelle where proteins are produced The cell Cycle
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 3 Events of cell cycle
- with ribosomes 1. Interphase 2. Mitosis 3. Cytokinesis
- For the synthesis of proteins for export 1. Interphase:
outside of the cell - Time when a cell undergoes growth and duplication of DNA
• Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum in preparation for the next cell division.
- Has NO ribosomes - normal cell function if NO further subdivision Happens.
- For lipid and Carbohydrate synthesis. Phases:
- For detoxification of chemicals within the cells. G1 ; Cells are growing in size and producing organelles
• GOLGI APPRATUS : S : DNA of the cell is duplicated ( Synthesis)
-POST OFFICE 2 DNA molecules are produced.
- Collects, modifies and distributes proteins and G2 : Final phase- the cell continue to grow and
lipids to various locations. prepares the process of mitosis.
Secretory Vesicles : Small membrane bound sacs that G0 : NO cell division
transports materials produced by the cell to outside of the 2. MITOSIS
cell. - nuclear division and involves the division of genetic
• LYSOSOMES : information to produce 2 identical nuclei.
- With enzymes that acts as a intracellular - Chromatin in the nucleus of the cell condenses into compact
digestive system. units called Chromosomes.
- also involved in the inflammatory process.
FOUR PHASES: 2. Consist of entirely of cells with very little extracellular
1. PROPHASE : matrix
Condensation of chromatins intochromosomes. between them.
Chromatids are the elongated arms of
3. Most epithelial cells have one free or apical surface not
Chromosomes connected by centromere.
attached
• Nucleolus begin to disappear
• Nuclear envelope begin to disassemble to each other cells:
• Mitotic apparatus becomes apparent Lateral surface:
• Formation of astral fibers at the end of the poles Basal Surface:
METAPHASE Attached to Basement Membrane
• Chromosomes align between the poles at the 4. Epithelium does not contain blood vessels
metaphase plate.
Functions of the epithelium
ANAPHASE 1. Protecting underlying structures
• Chromatids separate at the centromere and each 2. Acting as a barriers
chromatids is known as Daughter chromosomes. 3. Permitting the passage of substances (Lungs)
4. Secreting substances
TELOPHASE 5. Absorbing Substances.
• Daughter chromosomes begin to unwind into Examples: Skin Esophagus
chromatins.
• Nucleous begins to appaer
• Neclear envelope reforms Classification of Epithelium
By Number of cell layers
TOPIC : GLANDS, TISSUES, AND MEMBRANES 1. Simple Epithelium:
REVIEWEER: CLYDE REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM. Single layer of cells
-For movement of materials (lungs, glands,
intestines)
Tissue: are collection of similar cells and the
2.Stratified Epithelium
substances surrounding them
More then one layer of epithelial cells with some cells sitting
� Extracellular matrix : Substances SORROUNDING
on top of th e other.
thecells.
- for protective functions
� Histology: Microscopic study of tissues.
- skin, throat, esophagus, vagina
� BIOPSY: is the process of removing tissue sample
By shapes of the cells
from a patient surgically or with a needle for
1. Squamous (Flat and thin)
diagnostic purposes.
2. Cuboidal (Cubelike)
STAGES OF FETAL DEVELOPMENT
3. Columnar (Tall and Thin)
• FERTILIZATION
Simple Squamous Epithelium
– Union of the ovum & spermatozoa.
- Single layer of flat thin cells.
– ampulla of the fallopian tube.
- Where diffusion takes place
– The resulting structure: zygote.
- Secretes slippery fluid that prevents abrassions
• IMPLANTATION
between organs.
– Resulting structure: embryo.
� EMBRYONIC TISSUES:
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL Epithelium
� FERTILIZATION:
- Single layer of cuboidal cells that carry active
GERM LAYER
transport, facilitated diffusion or secretions.
� Endoderm (Endoderm)
- Greater volume with more organelles.
Digestive tracts and related structures)
- Active transport (ATP)
� Ectoderm (outer layer) outer most layer of the skin)
- Secretes waste products into the tubules and
NEUROECTODERM: Nervous system
reabsorb products into the tubules.
Beakaway cells: NEURAL CREST: > Peripheral
- (+) Some have cilia
Nerves,Skin pigments,Medulla and adrenal glands.
� Mesoderm (mesoderm)
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
(tissues: Bones, muscles,blood vessels)
- Is a single layer of tall thin cells
Germ Layer: Gives rise to all tissues in the body.
- Produce and secretes mucous and digestive enzymes
in the small intestines.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE :
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED Columnar Epithelium
- Protective covering of external and internal surfaces of the
- False stratified
body.
- Just one layer of cells attached to the basement
Characteristics:
membrane.
1. Covers the surfaces of the body
- Respiratory: Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea
- forms glands that are derived from the body surfaces.
- Secretes Mucous
EX: Outside surface of the body, lining of cavities of
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
intestine, respiratory tract and blood vessels.
- Consist of several layers (Thick)
Epithelial cells of esophagus
 - Cuboidal and columnar in layers that are capable of
dividing and pushing the new cells to the surface.
- Classification:
a. NON- Keratinized (Moist)
- Mouth, esophagus, rectum,vagina,
Deeper layer: living cells
Outer layers: Dead cells with keratins.
b. Keratinized.
� Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
- Two or more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
- sweat glands, ovarian follicles and salivary glands.
- for absorption, secretions, and protection.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
- more than one layer of epithelial cells but only the but
only the surface are epithelial in shape. The deeper layers are
irregularly cuboidal.
- larynx, male urethra and trachea.
- Protection, secretions and absorption
� GOBLET CELLS:
- Columnar cells which secretes a clear and viscous
materials called mucous.
- - protects the layers of intestines against the digestive
enzymes and acids produces by the stomach.
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- can be greatly stretched.
- urinary bladder. ureter, kidney, pelvis and calyces
- also protects the bladder from the caustic effects of
urine
CELL Connections
TIGHT JUNCTION : bind cells together and form permeability
barriers.
- prevent the passage of materials between the epithelial
cells.
- found in small intestine
� DESMOSOMES :
- Are mechanical bodies that bind cells together
Hemi desmosomes:
- anchor the cells to the basement membranes.
GAP JUNCTIONS :
- Small proteins channels that allows small molecules and
ions to pass from one epithelial cells to adjacent one.
- Acts as communication signals to coordinate the activities
of the cells.
GLANDS
- - secretory structure: secretes hormones
- - classification:
a. Unicellular : Goblet cells
B. . Multicellular :
Endocrine : ( Inside)Do not have ducts
Exocrone: (Outside) release the secretions into cavities.
Ex : Sweat gland and mammary glands
Classification based on the number of ducts:
1. Simple : One duct
2. Compound: glands with ducts that branch
repeatedly
Classification based on the ends of the ducts:
a. Tubular : ends in tubules ( straight or Coiled)
b. Acini : ends in sac like structures
c. Alveoli : ends in a hollow sacs.
Classification based on how the cells leave the cell
1. Merocrine glands : Water producing sweat glands
2. Apocrine glands : milk in mammary glands
Holocrine glands : Sebaceous glands on the skin
� CONNECTIVE TISSUE :
- it consist of cells separated from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix.
Functions :
1.Enclosing and separating :
capsules around organs,muscles, arteries & ETC.
2.Connecting Tissues to one onother.
Tendons : cable of bands of connective tissues
that attach muscles to bones
Ligaments : are connective tissue bands that
holds the bones together.
3. Supporting and moving :
skeletons provide support for the body
- cartilage: semi rigid structure that supports
joint surfaces, ears and nose.
- Joints : between bones allow one part of the
body to move relative to other parts.
4. Storing : Adipose tissue stores fats
Bones stores minerals, calcium and phosphates.
5. Cushion and insulation :
Adipose tissue protects the tissue that
surrounds it. IT ALSO conserve heat.
6. Transportation : Blood
7. Protecting : Blood and immune system provide protection against
toxins and tissue injury and microorganisms.
CELLS AND EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
Blasts : germ cells that produce he cell matrix
Ex. Fibroblasts: cells that forms fibers and ground
substances in the fibrous connective tissue.
Osteoblasts : form the bones
Cyte : (cells) Cells maintain it
Fibrocytes: cells that maintain the
connective tissues
Osteocytes: maintain the bones
Clasts : ( clasts)Cells break it down for remodeling
purposes.
Osteoclsts : breakdown the bones.
Cells in the immune System that are found in the connective tissue.
Macrophages : ingest foreign substances, microorganism and
connective tissue.
Mast Cells : Release histamine that promotes
inflammation.
Three major components of Extracellular Matrix :
1. PROTEIN FIBERS:
A. COLLAGEN fibers : are like ropes, flexible resists stretching
B. RETICULAR FIBERS :
- fine, short collagen fibers that branch to form supporting network.
C. ELASTIC FIBERS : have a structure similar to
the coiled metal bed springs.. If stretched, they
can recoil to back to the original shapes.
2. GROUND SUBSTANCE
- shapeless background seen in light microscopes but its
molecules are highly structured..
3.PROTEOGLYCANS:
- holds large quantities of water.
FREE CELL SURFACES :
Smooth surface : reduce friction as blood flows in the blood vessels
Microvilli : cylindrical extension of cell membranes that increases
the cell surface area.
CILIA : Propel materials along the surface of the cells.
- in the nasal cavity and trachea.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Mesenchyme : the origin of the connective tissue.
Major Categories of Connective tissue
A. Loose or Areolar Connective tissue
- consist of elastin and Collagen fibers.
Fibroblast: most common cell in the ACT.
- fills the spaces between muscles, glands and nerves
2.DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- Densely packed fibers produced by fibroblasts.
Types:
1. DENSE regular Connective tissue.
- oriented in one directionds.
 - has abundant collagen fibers, resist - connnective tissue
stretching and give strength ( Ligaments ) - structural strength of the skin.
ADIPOSE TISSUE : Subcutaneous : Not a part of the integumentary system
- Connects the skin to bones or muscle.
- Adipocytes( Fat cells ) are filled with lipids, large and
EPIDERMIS :
closely packed together. - stratified squamous epithelium.
- store energy - no blood vessels
- acts as pads and protects parts of the body. - Nourishment by diffusion
- acts as Thermal insulators. - Cells:
- Yellow Bone marrow: Adipose tissue within Keratinocytes: Produces keratin
the cavities of the bones. Resist abrasion and resist water loss.
RETICULAR TISSUE :
Melanocytes: skin color
- produced by Reticular cells. Langerhans cells: immune system.
- forms the framework of lymphatic tissue merkel cells: related to nerve endings for the sensation
- present in spleen and lymph node, bone marrow and of touch and superficial pressure.
liver.
CARTILAGE : Desquamation by mitosis:
- Chondrocytes: cartilage cells Older cells ( Strata )
Mitosis :
; located in space >> Lacunae.
New cells ( replication )
- has Collagen and proteoglycans - provides support. 40 to 56 days.
- resumes back to its original shape if compressed.
- heals slowly. LAYERS OF THE SKIN
Types of Cartilage: SRATUM BASALE
1.Hyaline cartilage - Deepest layer
- single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells.
- Most abundant
Hemi desmosomes : anchors epicermis to the
- covers the bones to form joints basement membrane
- Ex: Cartilage rings of respiratory tracts, Desmosomes : holds keratinocytes together.
2. FIBROCARTILAGE: Stratum spinosum :
- with bundles of collagen fibers - consist of many sided cells ( flat)
- Resist pulling and tearing forces. - keratinocyes (+) Lamellar bodies
- Ex: Disk within vertebra
Stratum Granulosum
3. Elastic cartilage :
- 4- 5 layers of diamond shaped cells
- (+) Elastic fibers plus collagen and - (+) : keratohyalin : protein granules that
proteoglycans. accumulates in the cytoplasm of the cells.
BONE : hard connective tissue that consist of a living cells and a - its most superfial layer, the cells Starts to die.
mineralized matrix.
- Osteocytes: Bone cells. STRATUM LUCIDUM :
-Lacunae: spaces where the cells are embedded - thin clear zone composed of layers of dead cells.
- cells appears somewhat transparent.
1. Compact Bones : has more bones than spaces.
Lamellae : thin layers of bones organized STRATUM Corneum :
to become a bone matrix. - Most superficial
2. Cancellous or Spongy Bones - (+) desquamation
- Resembles a sponge. - (+) Cornified cells
- Has spaces between trabeculae - ( +) keratins > structural strenghts

C ALLUS : thickened areas of the skin caused

by pressure or constant friction.
CORN : cone shape structures in the bony
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM prominences.

Prepared by G.C.E REBADULLA THICK skin : has all the strata.

- Covers the outside of the body and indicate a physiological - areas with pressure : soles, palms
imbalance. Thin skin : more flexible skin and present in other
- Appearance parts of the body.
A. Skin : + ( hair )
B. Accessory structures: Hair Skin Color : factors:
Glands 1. Blood circulation
Nails 2. Pigments of the skin
Functions: 3. Thickness of the stratum corneum
1. Protection: abrasion, microorganism. dehydration. Pain. Melanin : pigments for skin, hair and eyes.
Melanin. Hair.nail. -produced by melanocytes.
2. Sensation - protects skin against sunlight.
3. Temperature regulation Melanosomes : vesicles with melanin produced by the
4. Vitamin D production golgi apparatus.
5. Excretion: Waste products.
ALBINISM : Deficiency or absence of melanin.
SKIN : Color is determined by: Sunlight
LAYERS: Epidermis : Outermost layer Hormones
- epithelial tissue Genetics
- resist abrasion and dehydration. Erythema : redness of the skin due to increased
DERMIS : blood flow
- thicker than the epidermis
Cyanosis : pale or bluish : decrease in blood
flow. 2. Sweat glands. Merocrine
Strawberry birthmark - palms and soles
bright red or deep purple soft elevated mass - sweat evaporates and cools the body in warm
- disappears by 7 years old temperature.
Port wine stain : a flat, dull red or bluish patches
- persist throughout life APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
- Produces thick secretions
DERMIS: - Present in axilla and genitalia.
- collagen : main connective tissue. - Active during puberty due to hormones( body odor)
Layers :
Papillary : Superficial Other skin glands
- from dermal papillae 1. Ceruminous gland - cerumen or ear wax
- loosely arranged connective tissue 2. Mammary glands- Breast. Produce milk.
- with blood vessels
Reticular : deeper. NAILS :
- main layer of the dermis. - Thin plate consisting of layers of dead stratum corneum
Cleavage and tension lines cells with Keratins.
- orientation and direction f collagen and - Nail body : the visible part
elastin. - Nail Root : Nail covered by the skin.
Striae or stretch marks ; scar tiisue cuses by rupture - Nail fold : a fold of skin that covers the lateral and
of lines visible in the epidermis. proximal areas of the nails.Holds the
(+) in pregnancy. nail in place.
Tension lines - Eponychium : or cuticle : stratum corneum of the nail
fold that extends onto the nail body.
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE Lanula : a whitish crescent shaped area at the base
- “Hypodermis “ of the nail.
- - attaches the skin to underlying bone and muscle and • Clinical significance:
supplies it with blood vessels and nerves. Cyanosis.
- - loss connective tissue with collagen and elastin Jaundice.
- Not a part of integumentary syatem. Rashes
- Stores fat Sand Paper texture of the skin : Vitamin Adeficiency
- Used to estimate the total body fat Flat or concave ( spoon shaped nails). Iron
deficiency anemia
ACCESSORY STRUCTURE
HAIR : • Effects of aging in the integumentary system.
LANUGO : fift to sixth month of development 1. Easily bruised and damage
- Fetus 2. Increased incidence of infection
TERMINAL HAIRS : long , course and pigmentedreplace 3. Sag and wrinkles
the lanugo near the scalp, eye lids and eye brows 4. Poor ability to regulate body temperature.
Velus Hairs : short, fine and unpigmented 5. Dry skin
repalcesthe lanugo at the time of Puberty. 6. Age spots.
7. Gray hair
HAIR STRUCTURE :
- Made up of columns of dead keratins arranged in 3 ESTIMATING BURN DAMAGE
concentric layers. (Draw the RULE OF NINE’S)

- MEDULLA- central axis of the cell

- CORTEX – bulk of the hair containing hard SKELETAL SYSTEM
keratins REVIEWEER:
- CUTICLE – surface of the hair.
- Shaft : hair above the skin surface G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD,MD.,RN.,RM
- Root : below the surface
- the base is the hair bulb SKELETAL SYSTEM
FUNCTIONS:
HAIR FOLLICLE
1. Support : bears the weight> majorsupporting structure of the
- tube-like invagination of the epidermis into the dermis from which
body.
the hair develops.
Cartilage : firm , flexible support ( ex, trachea)
HAIR GROWTH
2. Protection : hard and protects the organ itsurrounds.
- Growth stage : hair is formed by the matrix cells,
3. Movements : Tendons
differentiates, keratinized, continue to grow and die.
Ligaments
- 90% of hair
joints: two bones come together and
- Resting stage : there is no growth and hair is held in the
allows movements.
follicle.
4. Storage : calcium and phosphorus, fats
5. Blood cell production.
HAIR COLOR : depends on the amount of melanin as
Cavities are filled with RED bone marrow that
the hair ages.
results to blood cell and platelets.
ERECTOR PILI
- Hair stand on the end, Goose flesh. CARTILAGE
1. Hyaline
Major gland of the skin 2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic cartilage
1. Sebaceous glands Hyaline : associated with the bone
- Simple compound alveolar gland
- Produce SEBUM – oily white substance. CHONDROBLAST : are cells that produce cartilage
- lubricate the hair and skin surfaces. matrix.
Chondrocytes : cells with matrix that surrounds a chodroblast and COMPACT BONES
occupies a pace called lacuna within the matrix. - denser and fewer space than cancellous bones.
Proteoglycan > taps water and makes the cartilage - has blood vessels
resilient. Haversian Canal :
Perichondrium : covers the cartilage. Concentric lamellae : circular layers of bone matrix that surrounds the
Note : there is no blood vessels in the cartilage central canal.
Diffusion ; process whereby the nutrients is passed to Haversian system or OSTEON : single central canal.
the cartilage. The other contents Concentric lamellae Osteocytes

ARTICULAR CARTILGE Haversian system :

- present in joints - resembles a bulls –eye target.
- NO blood vessels or nerves. central canal ithe bulls eye target
Interstitial growth: is the addition of matrix within the cartilage. Concentric lamellae forms the ring.
Osteocytes are located between the lamellar rings
BONE MATRIX : Cannaliculi connects the Lacunae
35% : Organic : Collagen and proteoglycans
Flexible strength circumferential lamellae: thin plates that extend around the bone and
65% : Inorganic : Calcium phosphate crystals Forms the outer surfaces of the compact bones.
( Hydroxy apatite) INTERSTITIAL LAMELLAE
Weight bearing strength. - located between the osteons
Bone : remove the Collagen: >> Brittle - these are remnants of circumferential or concentric
remove the Mineral : >> Overly flexible lamellae that were partially removed during the bone
remodelling.
BONE CELLS :
1. Osteoblast : produce collagen and Volkmann’s canal : these area canal through which the blood vessels from
proteoglycans the pereosteum or medullary cavity enters the bones.
Ossification : formation of the bones by -the area also where the osteocytes receive
osteoblasts : nutrients and eliminate waste products.
- Formation of new layers of bones. Volkmanns Canal= serves as a connection
2. OSTEOCYTES :
- mature bone cells that maintain the bones. BONE ANATOMY :
- its an osteblast surrounded by bone matrix Shapes :
- LACUNAE : spaces occupied by the osteocyte LONG BONES : Longer than wide
cell bodies. - upper and lower limbs
- Canaliculi : spaces occupied by by the osteocyte cell processes.
Bone cells are in contact with one onother SHORT BONES : nearly cubed shaped or round
through canaliculi. - Wrist bones ( Carpals)
- Ankle Bones ( Tarsals)
3 Osteoclasts : for resorption or breakdown of cells. FLAT BONES
; releases H+ for bone decalcification. -Thin, flattened and are curved.
: also releases enzymes that digests the - skull bones,
protein components of bones. breast bone ( sternum )
Shoulder blades ( Scapula)
ORIGIN OF BONES : - cancelous bone sandwiched between two
- From mesenchymal cells Bone Marrow Stem cell layers of compact bones.
- stem cells White blood cells IRREGULAR BONES
- shapes that do not fit in the other 3 categories.
Osteochondral progenator cells Monocytes - Vertebrae and facial bones.

Osteoblasts and Chondroblasts OSTEOCLASTS STRUCTURE OF THE LONG BONES

Osteocyte Chondrocyte DIAPHYSIS or SHAFT
- primarily a compact bone
Classification of bone tissue : - end of the long bone is cancellous bone with
1, Woven = collagen are randomly oriented in many outer layer of compact bones.
directions. ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
happens in fetal development - a hyaline cartilage at the end of the lond
Repair of fractures. bones within joints.
Osteclasts break the bone EPIPHYSEAL PLATE or GROWTH PLATE
Osteolblasts make the new bone. - a long bone that is still growing located
woven bone is remodeled to become a - site of growth in bone length.
lamellar bone. EPIPHYSIS : the end of long bones
2. Lamellar bone : mature bone that is organized
into thin sheets of layers called lamellae. EPIPHYSEAL LINE : a bone that serves as a replacement of the epiphyseal
Classification of bones based on the amount of matrix and space present plate that has stopped growing.
within the bones. MEDULLARY CAVITY :
CANCELLOUS Bones - a large internal space in the diaphysis of the
less bone matrix more space long bone where the marrows are located.
COMPACT Bones RED BONE MARROW
More bones matrix Less space - The site RBC production
YELLOW BONE MARROW
Cancellous Bones - Mostly adipose tissue.
Trabeculae : - thin rods of plates of interconnecting bone • Note marrow from the HIP bone is used as a source of donating
- bear weight and help bones resist being red none marrow.
and stretching PERIOSTEUM:
- between this trabeculae are filled with bone a connective tissue membrane that covers the outer surface of the bone.
marrow and blood vessels. Outer fibrous : DICT
Inner circular/ ENDOSTEUM : single
 layer of bone with progenator cells,
osteocllasts and osteoblasts. BONE REMODELLING :
- The process of replacing the old bones with the new bones.
BONE DEVELOPMENT: - OSTEOCLASTS - remove the old bones
- OSTEOBLASTS - deposits the new bones
INRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION : CALCIUM HEMOSTASIS
- Is a formation of bones within a connective tissue membrane. - Bone is the major storage site of calcium in the body.
CENTER OF OSSIFICATION - Helps in the maintenance of calcium in the blood.
- old bone with a expanding edges of youngest BLOOD BONE
bone. CALCIUM as osteoblasts builds the bones
- FONTANELLES “ spaces of the skull bone that
have not yet been ossified. CALCIUM as osteoclasts break
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICAION MORE Calcium in the blood down the bone calcium
- is the formation of bone within the cartilage. moves out of the bone
BONE GROWTH
• Appositional Growth : the way Bones develop. PARATHYROID HORMONE
- deposition of new bone matrix by osteoblasts onto the surface major regulator of blood calcium
of the trabeculae. Calcium level Decrease: PTH increases
• Growth in Long Bones Osteoclasts breaks the bone to release
• Bone length is achieved by the calcium into the bone
growth of EPIPHYSEAL PLATE. Calcium level in the bone Increases

GROWTH IN BONE LENGTH PTH : increases the uptake of calcium in the intestine
Bone length is achieved by the growth of EPIPHYSEAL PLATE. - Promotes the formation in vitamin D
1. ZONE of RESTING STAGE in the intestines
nearest to the epiphysis and contains - Increases the reabsorption of calcium
chondrocytes that do not divide rapidly. from urine in the kidneys.
2. ZONE of PROLIFERATION IF the calcium is HIGH in the blood
Chondrocytes form a new cartilage thru interstitial cartilage - PTH levels decrease
growth. Chondrocytes divide and form columns resembling stacks of plates - (+) movement of calcium to the bones
or coins. - Vitamin D is decreased so less
absoprtion in the intestines.
3. ZONE of HYPERTROPHY - Less reabsorption of Calcium in urine.
- the chondrocytes produced in the zone of CALCITONIN :
proliferation mature and enlarges. - Decreases Osteoclastic activity resulting to the decrease
in blood calcium levels.
4. ZONE of CALCIFICATION -
- very thin and contains hyperthropied EFFECTS OF AGING in the skeletal SYSTEM
chondrocytes and calcified cartilage matrix. 1. Bone is more brittle in older clients
Diapysis increases in length due to new cartilage are formed in the zone of 2. Bone Mass decreases
proliferation and enlargement of cells in the zone of hypertrophy. 3. Increases the like hood of bone fracture.
• NOTE : as the bone achieves Normal adult size, 4. Increase like hood of bone compression
bone growth stops as the epiphyseal plate is ossified and becomes an Curvature of the spine, stooped posture)
epiphyseal line. 5. Tooth loss
- 12 to 15 years old.
BUT
The articular cartilage does not become ossified AXIAL SKELETONS :
when growth of the epiphyseal plate stops. A. SKULL
B. VERTEBRAE, STERNUM AND HYOID
FACTORS AFFECTING THE BONE GROWTH REVIEWEER : G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
1. Nutrition
> Vitamin D. Increases the absorption of calcium n the intestines. AXIAL SKELETON : SKULL
- expose to sunlight. SKELETON
RICKETS = Vitamin D deficiency in Chidren Skeleton : 206 Bones
Paired Bones : same bones on both sides of the body
OSTEOMALCIA = Vitamin D defficiency in ADULTS
86
2. HORMONES Unpaired Bones : bones in the midline of the body,
- GROWTH Hormones : increases the over all 34
tissue growth.
Tubercle : small rounded bump
GIGANTISM : Abnormally increased Height.
a ligament may be attached to this
ACROMEGALLY : increase in connective tissue growth including the bones Process : a prominent projection
after the epiphyseall plate have ossified. Foramen : Hole : maybe occupied by a nerve or
-Increase in the diameter or thickness of the
blood vessel
bone.
Dwarfism : Condyle : has a smooth rounded end covered by a
- Abnormally decreased in height. particular cartilage.
SEX HORMONES : AXIAL SKELETON :
ESTROGEN ( female sex hormones)
- forms the upright axis of the body.
TESTOSTERONE ( male sex hormones )
Both caused burst of growth in puberty. - protects the brain, spinal cord, and vital
However >> both can stimulate the ossification of organs housed within the thorax
epiphyseal plate. SKULL
RESULT : Female stop growing earlier than males cause
- other name is cranium
estrogen can cause a quicker clossure of the epiphyseal plate.
 Brain case : 8 bones - it’s a single bone that extends completely
Paired : Parietal and temporal across the skull.
UN Paired : Frontal, Occipital, Zygomatic or Cheekbone : seen and felt on the face.
sphenoid and ethmoid bones. Zygomatic arch : consist of joint processes from the temporal
FACIAL BONES : and zygomatic bones and forms a
- forms the structure of the face bridge on the side of the skull.
- 2 Maxilla MAXILLA :
2 Zygomatic Upper Jaw > anterior to the zygomatic bone
2 Palatine Mandible :
2 lacrimal Lower Jaw : inferior to the maxilla.
2 nasal Consist of two parts :
2 Inferior nasal concha 1. Body
1 Mandible 2. Ramus: (+) MANDIBULAR
1 Vomer CONDYLE > articulates with the temporal bone
____ allowing movement of the mandible.
14 Bones Coronoid Process is the attachment site of the
Facial Bones >support the organs of vision, smell temporalis muscle to the mandible.
and taste. Alveolar Process : Present in the Maxilla and the mandible
> attachment for muscles of mastication for the attachment of teeth.
Facial expression and Eye movements.
Maxilla Anterior view of the skull
Mandible holds the teeth Frontal bone : Forehead
Temporal bones : holds the Auditory ossicles. Zygomatic Bones : Cheekbone
Calvaria Or Skullcap : top of the skull Maxilla
*** Mandible.
Superior View of the skull : see the sutures. Cavities of the skull :
Posterior view of the skull ORBITS
Lamdoid suture : the suture that connects the NASAL cavity.
parietal bones and the occipital bones. ORBIT : Enclose the eyeball
Wormian or Sutural bones : extra small bones that - eye ball rotates within
lines the lambdoid suture. - Provides protection of the eye
External occipital protruberance : - attachment for the muscle of the eye
- Present on the postereior surface of the
occipital bone. OPENINGS OF THE ORBIT :
- site of attachment of ligamentun NUCHA Superior and inferior Orbital fissure
Ligamentum Nucha : - provide openings through which the nerves and blood
an elastic ligament that extend the neck down and vessels communicate with the orbit or pass to the face.
helps keep the head erect by pulling on the occipital region
of the skull. OPTIC canal : entry of the optic nerve from the
Nuchal lines : smal ridges that extend laterally from cranial cavity to the eye.
the protuberance and are the point of Nasolacrimal canal: from the orbit to the nasal cavity.
attachments of several neck muscles. > carries tears from the eyes to the nasal cavity
LATERAL VIEW OF THE SKULL : Nasal cavity :
Temporal largest part of the side of the skull Nasal Septum : divides the nasal cavity into right
Parietal and left halves.
Squamous Suture : Joins the parietal and temporal Superiorly : Perpendicular plate of ethmoid
bones. Inferiorly : Vomer
External accoustic or auditory meatus : Anterior : septal cartilage
large hole that serves as a Lateral : 3 bony shelves : Nasal Concha.
passageway for sound towards the ear drum. Note L: nasal concha and nasal septum increases the surface
Mastoid Process : area in the nasal cavity which promotes moistening and
- Large inferior projection warming of the inhaled air and the removal of particles from
- just below the inferior auditory meatus the air by overlying mucous membranes.
- filled with mastoid air cells connected to the Nasal Septum
middle ear. • Paranasal Sinuses :
- serves as attachment for muscles that - Paranasal sinuses : air filled cavities within bones
rotates the neck. which opens up in the nasal cavity.
> lightens the weight of the bones
Shenoid Bone : Greater Wing > Acts as resonating chambers during voice
- anterior to the temporal bones. production
Inferior View of the Skull VERTEBRAE
: Base of the skull Parts :
FORAMEN MAGNUN Body : Weight bearing portion of the vertebra.
Vertebral arc = projects posteriorly from the body
- present in the occipital bone
Two parts of the vertebral arch:
- where the spinal cord passes through from 1. TWO PEDICLES = attached to the body
the brain 2. TWO Laminae = extends from the transverse
- passageway of the vertebra arteries. process to the spinous process.

Occipital condyles : connects the skull to the Vertebral SPINE ( SEE ILLUSTRATION )
vertebrae. Located just adjacent to the
foramen magnun.
Vertebral Foramen
CAROTID CANAL = its an opening formed by vertebral arch and the posterior
- seen from the inferior side part of the body.
- the entry of the carotid artery to supply the brain.
JUGULAR FORAMINA VERTEBRAL CANAL
-Exit point of the Internal jugular vein = formed by vertebral foramina and the next vertebral
STYLOID PROCESS foramina.
= contains the spina l cord and cauda equina
- two long pointed pen shaped processes from the inferior
surface of the temporal bone. Transverse process
- attached are muscles for movement of the tongue, hyoid = extends laterally from each side of the vertebral arch
bone and pharynx. between the lamina and the pedicle
Mandibular Fossa
- where mandibular condyle articulates with the SPINOUS PROCESS
skull. ( anterior to the mastoid) = located at the junction between the two laminae.
= a series of lumps down the
Nasal Septum
midline of the back.
> Posterior surface is bounded on each side by the NOTE : Transverse and spinous process are attachment sites
vertical bony plates of sphenoid bone. for muscles moving the vertebral column
a. Medial pterygoid plates
b. Lateral pterygoid plates Articular process
VOMER : forms most of the posterior portion of the = for the support and movement of the vertebral
culumn
nasal septum.
a. Two Suprior A.P.
Hard Palate or the BONY PROMINENCE
b. Two Inferior A.P.
- forms the floor of the nasal cavity. Note : Superior A.P of one vertebra articulates with the
inferior process of tye next Superioor Vertebrae.

AXIAL SKELETON : VERTEBRAE, STERNUM AND HYOID ARTICULAR FACET

- A part of the articular process (smooth part) which
HYOID BONE allows movements between the processes
- Provides attachment for tongue muscle and also an
attachment point for important neck muscle that elevates the
larynx during speech or swallowing. Intervertebral Foramina
- unpaired = exit points of the spinal nerves in the vertebral
- not a part of the adult skull column.
Vertebral column
- “ Backbone” REGIONAL DIFFERENCES IN VERTEBRAE
- central axis of the skeleton Cervical vertebrae
- extends from base of the skull to slightly past = all have a transverse foramen in each transverse process
the end of thepelvis. through which the vertebral arteries extends towards their
Head.
Functions of the skeleton. ATLAS
1. Supports the weight of the head and trunk = the first cervical vertebrae.
2. Protects the spinal cord = NO body
3. Provides a site for muscle attachment. = has large superior articular facets to articulate with
4. Provides a site for muscle attachment the occipital condyles at the the base of the skull.
5. Permits movement of the head and trunk = the joint allows the head too say YES.
FIVE REGIONS of the Vertebral column = atlas does not have an spinous process
1. Cervical = 7 “C“
2. Thoracic = 12 “T” AXIS
3. Lumbar = 5 “L” = the second vertebra.
4. Sacral = 1 “S” = it has projections around which the atlas rotates to
5. Coocygeal = 1 “CO” produce a NO motion of the head.
Note : Embryo has 33 or 34 Vertebra but the 5 sacral
fuse to form 1 bone. ODONTOID Or DENS
: 4-5 coccygeal also fuse to form 1 bone. = the projection in the axis.
Spinous process
= the spinous process of most vertebra ends n two a. Bones of the upper limb
parts. And are called “ BIFID spinous process b. Bones of the Lower Limb
c. Girdles :
VERTEBRA PROMINENCE = the most prominent spinous
Pelvic ( attachment of the Lower Limb)
process and located in the 7nth cervical vertebra. It is felt as a
= support and movement
lump between the shoulders. It is not bifid.
= stronger and attached more firmly
THORACIC VERTEBRA to the body
= have attachment sites for the ribs = lower limb : thicker and longer than
= have long , thin spinous process which are directed the upper limb
inferiorly. Pectoral (attachment of Upperlimb)
Pectoral Girdle :
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
= have large and thick bodies and heavy rectangular other name : Shoulder
transverse and spinous process. Consist of : Scapula : 2
Clavicles: 2 ( Collar bones )
SACRAL VERTEBRA Note: The humerus is attached to the Scapula, connected by
= 5 in number the clavicle to the sternum.
= fused into one bone called the SACRUM SCAPULA :
= flat triangular bone.
ALAE = the superior part of the sacrum which forms
a wing shaped area GLENOID Cavity : a depression where Humerus
connects to the scapula.
AURICULAR SURFACES 3 Fossae of the Scapula
= the shape of the lateral surface of the sacrum are ear a. Supraspinous Fossae
shaped ( Auricular ) and joins the sacrum to the - Superior to the spine
pelvic bones. b. Infraspinous Fossa.
- Inferior to the spine
MEDIAN SACRAL CREST
= these are the first four sacral vertebrae that partially c. Subscapular Fossa
forms the projections. - anterior surface of the scapula
Acromion : Extension of the spine forming the
SACRAL HIATUS point of the shoulder.
= this is suppose to be the spinal process of the fifth = Protective covering of the shoulder joint.
sacral vertebrae the did not form, resulting to gap.
= Attachment site for the clavicle and some
which exposes the sacral canal.This gap is called the
of the shoulder muscle.
sacral hiatus.
Corocoid process : curves below the clavicle and
SACRAL HIATUS provides attachment for arm and chest muscle.
= is used to gain entry into the sacral canal to
administer anesthetic injections CLAVICLE : is a long bone with a slight sigmoid
curve.
SACRAL PROMONTORY
Acromial end : Laterally located
= the anterior edge of the body of the first sacral
vertebrae = articulates with the acromion of the
= a land mark that separates the abdominal cavity from scapula.
the pelvic cavity Sternal end : Medially located.
= felt in the vagina examination and is used as reference = articulates with the manubrium of the
point to determine the adequacy of the pelvic sternum. ( only point of attachmen to the axial
opening if it can allow the passage of the fetus skeleton.
during vaginal delivery.
UPPER LIMB
COCCYX bones of the : Arm, Forerarm , Wrist,Hand
= otherwise known as a tail bone ARM:
= consist of four or more or less fused vertebrae. = From the shoulder to the elbow
= easily broken in a fall or maybe fractured during child =HEMERUS =>> the only bone of the arm
birth. HUMERUS :
- articulates with the Glenoid Cavity of the Scapula
End of lecture
Anatomical neck: Located around the head of
REVIEWEER : G.C.E. REBADULLA
the humerus
- where the connective tissue holding
TOPIC: APPENDICULAR SKELETON
the shoulder is attached.
REVIEWER: Surgical neck
GIOVANNI CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM - common fracture site of the humerus.
GREATER tubercle =
LESSER Turbercle = point of muscle attachment.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
Appendicular Skeleton INTERTUBERCULAR OR BICIPITAL GROOVE
= located between the tubercles contains the tendon - Supports the weight of the body
muscles of the biceps Brachi. - Attachment for the lower limb
Deltoid Tuberosity = located on the lateral - Right and left COXAE or HIP JOINTS
surface of the humerus. - Joints each other anteriorly and posteriorly
= attachment site for the deltoid muscle. at the SACRUM
Condyles : Distal end of the humerus that - PELVIC GIRDLE : the basin formed by the
articulates with the two forearm bones. Hip joints and the SACRUM
CAPITULUM : head shaped end that articulates 3 Bones of the COXAE
with the Radius. - a. ILIUM
TROCHLEAR : articulates with the ulna. - b. ISCHIUM
Medial and Lateral epicondyle - c. PUBIS
= points of attachment of the muscle of the forearm
FOREARM SYMPHYSIS PUBIS : the meeting point of the
Two Bones : COXAL BONE anteriorly
1. ULNA : Medial side of the forearm ( Little finger) SACROILIAC JOINT : the meeting point of the
2. RADIUS : on the Lateral side of the forearm ( Cocxal bones with the SACRUM Posteriorly.
thumb ) ACETABULUM
- The point of articulation of the lower limb with the
Throchlear or Semi Lunar Notch pelvic Girdle.
- C shaped articular surface at the proximal - Located on each surface of each coxal bone
end of the ulna.
- form most of the elbow joint. LUNATE SURFACE : articular surface of the
OLECRANON acetabulum which is crescent shape
- posterior process forming the tip of the elbow OBTURATOR FORAMEN
- it’s the elbow. - located ion the lower portion
CORONOID Process = the smaller anterior process
- closed by connective tissue
HEAD : the proximal end of the radius.
ASIS= located on the superior portion of the
- articulates with the capitulum of the humerus.
Ilium.
Radial tuberosity
GREATER SCIATIC NOTCH – superior to the
Ulnar tuberosity : attachment site of the arm muscle.
ischial spine
LESSER SCIATIC NOTCH – inferior to the ischial
Styloid processs of the uradius and ulna
spine.
- attachment for the ligaments of wrist.
• FALSE OR GREATER PELVIS
Note:
• TRUE PELVIS
Radius is the most commonly fractured bone seen as a
• PELVIC INLET
complete transverse fracture known as COLLE’S fracture.
• PELVIC OUTLET
WRIST
FEMALE PELVIS
- Between the forearm and hand.
• Broader
- Composed of *8 Carpal bones.
• Larger
Arrangements :
• More rounded pelvic inlet and outlet.
Proximal row, lateral to medial
MALE PELVIS
-1. SCAPHOID - boat shaped.
Greater weight and size
- 2. LUNATE – Moonshaped
LOWER LIMB
- 3. TRIQUETRUM - Three cornered
Bones of Thigh >>Leg>>Ankle>>Foot
- 4. PISIFORM – Pea shaped
Thigh
Distal row of carpals ( From Medial to Lateral )
- the region between the hip and knee.
- 1. HAMATE - Hook shape
- Main Bone : FEMUR
-2. CAPITATE – Head
FEMUR
-3. TRAPEZOID – Four sided geometric form
- HEAD of femur articulates with the
with 2 parralel sides
acetabulum of the coxal bone.
- 4. TRAPEZIUM - Four sided geometric form.
- NECK; Connects the head to the body.
NO parallel sides.
- GREATER TROCHANTER
HAND
LESSER TROCHANTER – attachment sites
-METACARPALS
that fasten the hip to the thigh.
- attached to the carpal bones
MEDIAL CONDYLE articulate with the TIBIA
- the bony framework of the hand.
LATERAL CONDYLE
DIGITS : Fingers and thumb
MEDIAL EPICONDYLE Site of ligament
PHALANGES : the bones in the digits
attachment
LATERAL EPICONDYLE
******************************************
PELVIC GIRDLE
PATELLA
- Protects the internal organ
 - Other name : Knee cap • 2. CARTILAGENOUS
- A sesamoid bone • 3. SYNOVIAL
- Articulates with the Patellar Groove. FIBROUS JOINTS :
LEG - United by fibrous tissues
- Between the knee and the ankle - have no joint cavities
- Two Bones : TIBIA = larger and supports the - Exhibits Little or NO movements.
SUTURES
weight of the Leg
- Fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.
FIBULA - smaller
- A dense regular connective tissue
TIBIA : shin bone FONTANELLE
- has medial and lateral condyles at the - a large area of unossified membrane between skull
proximal end bones. A soft spot.
INTERCONDYLAR PROMINENCE - (+) Pulse
- ridge between the condyles - makes the skull flexible during birth process.
TIBIAL TUBEROSITY - inferior to the patella - Allows growth of the Head after birth.
attachment for the quadriceps femoris muscle HEAD
Infants
Anterior fontanelles
ANTERIOR CREST
Closes at age
- Forms the sharp edge on the Shin.
12 – 18 months
MEDIAL MALLEOLUS Posterior fontanelles
- enlarged distal end of the tibia. Closes by the end of age 2 months
- medial side of the ankle
FIBULA SYNOSTOSIS
- does not articulate with the femur - when two bones grows together across a joint to form a
- its small proximal head articulates with the TIBIA single bone.
- lateral maleolus - Distal end of the tibia SYNDESMOSES
- a fibrous joints which binds two bones together but
- Lateral wall of the ankle joint.
allows some movements or flexibility.
FOOT
Ex: Radius and Ulna
Seven tarsal bones of the Foot GOMPHOSES
1. TALUS- ankle bone - Consists of pegs held in place within sockets by fibrous
2. CALCANEUS – heel tissue.
3. CUBOID – Cuboidal in shape Ex: teeth and the sockets of the mandible. And
4. NAVICULAR – boat shaped maxilla.
5. CUNEIFORMS- Wedge shaped ( 3)
Distal row of bones 2. CARTILAGENOUS JOINTS
- unite two bones by means of either hyaline
MILC C- Medial, Intermediate, Lateral
cartilage or Fibrocartilages.
Cuneiforms
SYNCHONDROSES
Proximal rows :
- Joint of two bones with Little or NO movements at all.
No thanks Cow Ex : Joints in the ISP
navicular, talus and calcaneus. Synchondrosis
Metarsals SYMPHYSES
Phalanges - Fibrocartilage uniting two bones.
FOOT ARCHES Ex: manubrium/ sternal junction
- distribute the weight of the body between the Heel Symphyses Pubis
and the Ball of the foot during standing and walking. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
- joints are freely movable
- with synovial fluid
TRANSVERSE ARCH
ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
LONGITUDINAL ARCH - a thin layer of hyaline cartilage which provides a
smooth surface where the bones meet.
ARTICULATION OR JOINTS
LECTURER: Articular Hyaline cartilage
G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA, OD.,MD.,RN.,RM ARTICULAR DISKS
- a flat plate or pad of fibrocartilge located between the
ARTICULATION OR JOINT
articular surface of the bones.
- is a place where two or more bones come
- absorbs and distribute the forces between the articular
together.
cartilages as bones move.
- consider the degree of movement
EX; JOINTS : Temporomanibular
Sternoclavicular
Types of joints
Acromioclavicula
SYNARTHRODIAL= immovable joints
MENISCUS
AMPHIARTHRODIAL = slightly movable joint
- an incomplete crescent shaped fibrocartilage pad found
Diarthrodial = freely movable joint
in joints
• Classes of Joints:
Ex: knee and Joints
• 1. FIBROUS
JOINT CAPSULE
 - surrounds the ends of the bones forming
synovial joints forming a joint cavity.
- helps holds the bones together while allowing
movements.
Parts :
a. Fibrous capsule (outer) – for strength and
mobility
b. Synovial membrane
- produces synovial fluid ( +) Hyaluronic acid
- a thin lubricating film that covers the surface
of the joints
BURSA :
- a pocket or sac containing synovial fluid providing
TYPES OF JOINTS
TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
1. PLANE OR Gliding Joints
- consist of two opposed flat surfaces in which a
light amount of gliding motion can OCCUR BETWEEN THE
BONES.
- rotation is possible but is limited by
ligaments and adjacent bones.
Ex. Articular process between vertebrae.
2. PIVOT JOINTS
- consist of a cylindrical process that rotates within the ring
composed partly by ligaments or bones.
-uni axial joint that restricts movements to rotation around
a single axis.
Ex : Head of radius and end of the ulna
Dens and the atlas
HINGE Joints
- consist of a convex cylinder in one bone applied to a
corresponding concavity in the other bone.
Ex : Elbow and Knee joints
Ball and Socket Joints
- consist of a ball (head) at the end of one bone and a
socket in an adjacent bone into which a portion of the ball fits.
- Multi – axial
Example : Shoulders
Hip Joints
ELLIPSOID JOINT
- Other name : Condyloid Joint
- modified ball and socket joint
- the shape of the articular surface is Elipsoid
`- Like a hinge, restricts ;location
- Ex: Atlanto occcipital joint that allows YES
movement;.
SADDLE JOINT
- consist of two saddle shaped articulating surfaces
oriented at right angle to each other so that the complimentary
surfaces articulate with each other.
EX; carpometacarpal joint
MOVEMENTS :
GLIDING MOVEMENTS :
- bone surfaces slide or glide over each other
- slight movements just like carpal bones
ANGULAR MOVEMANTS
- One part of the linear structure such as the body or a limb
is bent relative to another part of the structure thereby
changing the angle between the two parts.
FLEXION : to bend
- Movement of the body part anterior to the coronal plane
- Moves the leg to posterior direction
EXTENSION : to straighten
- Movement of thee body part posterior to the coronal
plane.
- Moves the leg in anterior direction
FLEXION and EXTENSION
PLANTAR FLEXION
- Movement of the foot towards the plantar surface such as
standing on toes
DORSIFLAXION
- Movement of the toes towards the shin such as when walking
on hills
• HYPEREXTENSION
- An abnormal forced extension of a joint beyond its normal
range of motion.
ABDUCTION
- Movement away from the median plane
ADDUCTION
- “ to bring together”
- Movements towards the median plane
LATERAL FLEXION
- Bending of the body, side to side.
CIRCULAR MOVEMENTS
- Involves the rotation of a structure around an axis or
movement of the structure in an arc
A. ROTATION
- Turning of an structure around its long axis such as the
movement of the atlas around the axis when shaking the
HEAD “ NO” .
- MEDIAL rotation of the humerus within the forearm
flexes brings the hand towards the body
- LATERAL Rotation of the humerus is the rotation of the
humerus so that the hands moves from the body
PRONATION AND SUPINATION
PRONATION
- Arm lying facedown ; Palms of the hand facing inferiorly
SUPINATION
- Arm lying face up: Palmof the hand faces supperiorly
CIRCUMDUCTION
- Combination of flexion , extension, abduction and adduction
SPECIAL MOVEMENTS
ELEVATION = moves the structure superiorly
DEPRESSION = Moves the structure inferiorly
Protraction and Retraction
PROTRACTION= moving a structure in a gliding motion in
ANTERIOR direction
RETRACTION= = moving a structure in a gliding motion in
POSTERIOR direction
LATERAL EXCURSION
- Moving the mandible to either right or left of the midline
such as grinding the teeth or chewing
MEDIAL EXCURSION
- Returns the mandible to neutral position
TOPIC: MUSCULAR HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOY
LECTURER: G.CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
Histology and Physiology of Muscles
Major Functions of the Muscles
1. Body movements:
Contractions >> walking, running, movements of the hands
2. Maintenance of Posture
Muscle tone >> sitting or erect posture
3. Respiration
-muscle of the thorax
4. Production of Body Heat
Muscular contractions produce body Heat
5. Communication
Facial expression, talking, writing
6. Constriction of Organs and vessels
 Constriction propels the food in the digestive tract, = The cytoplasm without the myofibrils.
Movements of secretions in the organs. And regulate blood flow the blood Myofibrils
vessels. = A thread like structure approximately 1-3 um in diameter that extends
7. Heart Beat. - Blood circulation from one end of one muscle fiber to the next.

Major Components of Myofibrils

Properties of a muscle a. Actin
1. Contractility b. Myosin
ability of the muscle to contract forcefully SARCOMERES = are highly ordered units which are joined end to end to form
Contractions = Active process( shorten ) the myofibrils.
Moves structures ACTIN and MYOSIN
Increase pressure inside hollow organs TROPONIN
Relaxation : = Passive process ( elongation ) = attached at a specific interval along the actin myofilaments and have aCA+
Contraction of opposing muscle /gravity + binding sites.
Pressure of fluid in the muscle or organs
2. Excitability : Myosin
Ability to respond to the stimulus = or thick myofilaments / = like golf clubs.
Contraction s results from nerve stimulations . The energy from ATP enables the the movements of the head of the region
3. Extensibility during contractions.
muscles can be stretched beyond its normal
resting length and still able to contract SARCOMERES
4. Elasticity : = Extends from Z disk to the adjacent Z disk within a myofibrils.
is the ability of the muscle to recoil to its Z disk -- is a filamentous network of protein forming a disk like structure for
original resting length after it has been stretched. the attachment of actin myofilaments.
Actin and myosin has a banded appearance .

Types of Muscles SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL

SKELETAL MUSCLE : Sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle.
- Connective tissue - 40% of body weight = it is the smallest portion of the skeletal muscle capable of contracting.
- Responsible for locomotion, facial expression and REVIEW :
posture and body movements. • Myofibril: A cylindrical organelle running the length of the muscle
- Controlled by the nervous system fibre, containing Actin and Myosin filaments.
• Sarcomere: The functional unit of the Myofibril, divided into I, A and H
SMOOTH Muscle bands.
- greatest variety of functions/ widely distributed • Actin: A thin, contractile protein filament, containing 'active' or
- Areas : walls of hollow organswalls of blood vessels/ INSIDE EYES 'binding' sites.
Functions : propelling of urine through the urinary tract • Myosin: A thick, contractile protein filament, with
: Mixing of food in the intestines protusions known as Myosin Heads.
: Dilation and contractions of pupils • Tropomyosin: An actin-binding protein which regulates muscle
: Regulating the blood flow in blood vessels contraction.
CARDIAC Muscles • Troponin: A complex of three proteins, attached to
- found in the heart Tropomyosin.
- Blood flow to the different parts of the body. sarcomere = a part of myofibril
CARDIAC AND Smooth Muscles • This is the smallest unit of skeletal muscle that can contract.
- Contract spontaneously at regular intervals Sarcomeres repeat themselves over and over along the length of the
- not consciously controlled by the nervous system. myofibril.
- Controlled by : a. autonomic nervous system
b. Endocrine system Myofibrils – these are smaller fibers from each
SKELETAL MUSCLE muscle fibers.
- Smaller amounts of connective tissue, blood vessels and nerves. • Actin and myosin filaments are smaller structure within the myofibrils.
- A single fiber can extend from one end of the muscle to the other end. • These filaments slide in and out between each other to form a muscle
- Skeletal muscle fiber contractions, hence called the sliding filament theory!
Connective tissue coverings of muscle
FASCIA : Connective tissue sheets within the body PHYSIOLOGY OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
Muscular Fascia or DEEP FASCIA MUSCLE TWITCH
- separates and compartmentalizes the individual muscles or group of - Is the contraction of a muscle in response to a stimulus that
muscles. causes an action potential in one or more muscle fibers.
Facia = encases the muscles LAG OR LATENT PHASE
SKELETAL MUSCLE - Is the time between the application of the stimulus to the beginning of the
Epimysium= a connective tissue that sorrounds individual muscle. contraction.
• Muscle Fasciculi Contraction phase
= bundles of muscle fibers surrounded by a connective tissue. = time during which the contraction occurs.
PERIMYSIUM : RELAXATION PHASE
= extension of epimysium in the muscle = time during which relaxation occurs.
Endomysium = a layer of reticular fibers sorrounding each muscle
tissue. Motor Unit
Tendon = functional organization of muscle fibers within a muscle.
= interconnections of muscle tissues to other muscle tisue. = consist of a single motor neuron and all of the muscles it innervates.
Connects muscle to bone. = the response is : CONTRACTIONS producing a constant force

Note. Connective tissue provides a pathway for nerves and blood to reach ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLE
muscle fibers. *********
STIMULUS
Muscle fibers Subthreshold stimulus
Sarcolemma = is not strong enough to cause an action potential in any axons in the nerve
= plasma membrane of the muscle fibers. supplying the muscle
Sarcoplasm = No contractions
Threshold stimulus Reduction of muscle fibers leading to reduction of muscle mass .
= strong enough to produce an action potential causing all the fibers to Loss of strength and speed is due to loss of fast twitch muscle.
contract Decrease in the density of capillaries in skeletal muscles
Submaximal = stronger stimuli After exercise, a longer period of time is required to recover.
Maximal Stimulus most common cause : Sedentary lifestyle
= produce action potentials in the axons of all motor units of that muscle
Supra maximal even greater strength but No additional effects. SMOOTH MUSCLES
Types : 1. Visceral smooth muscles
Multiple wave summmation 2. Multiunit smooth muscles
= Increased tension resulting from increased frequency VISCERAL SMOOTH MUSCLE ( Organs)
of stimulation. = in the walls of most organs of the body like the intestines,
=Muscle contractions >Relaxation >C >R>C>RC>RC>R>C reproductive tract and Urinary tracts.
One contraction is added to the previous contraction = ALSO CALLED SIGLE UNIT OR UNITARY SMOOTH MUSCLES.
RESULT : Overall force of contraction increases.
INCOMPLTE TETANUS = muscle fibers partially re;lax during MULTI UNIT SMOOTH MUSCLES
contractions = Present in the walls of the blood vessels.
COMPLETE TETANUS = action potentials are produced rapidly = and iris of the eye.
that that NO relaxation occurs.
Calcium is needed for muscular contractions. REGULATION OF SMOOTH MUSCLE SCONTRACTIONS
- If elevated will continue to cause contractions. = involuntary
TREPPE = Multi unit contracts only when stimulated by nerves, hormones and other
= In case of a muscle that has rested for a long time: substances.
upon the application of Low frequency stimuli, and a resting state = CAN PERIODICALLY AND SPONTANEOUSLY CONTRACT. Ex: thee digestive
after stimulation, the contraction triggered by a second stimulus is greater system
that the first and the third contraction is greater than the second. Hormones can affect the regulation of smooth muscles.
Types of Muscle contractions
ISOMETRIC Contractions SMOOTH MUSCLES
The length of the muscles does not change, but the amount of - spindle shape with single nucleus in the middle of the cell.
tension increases during the contraction process. - no myo fibrils and does not have strated appearance.
Ex : Constant length of postural muscles - NO troponin. No T tubules- less cytoplasmic reticulum to store Calcium
ISOTONIC Contractions - CALMODULIN = a protein where calcium attaches because
= The amount of tension produced by the muscles is constant smooth muscle does not have troponoin.
during contractions but the length of the muscle changes.
Concentric and Eccentric contractions Functional properties of Smooth muscles
Concentric contractions 1. Capable of of autorythmic contractions.
- Isotonic contractions in which muscle tension increases and the 2. Contracts slower than the skeletal muscles.
muscle shortens 3. Has the ability to control tension for long periods while spending very
- SHORTENS the muscles little energy.
ECCENTRIC Contractions - help maintain blood pressure
- are isotonic contractions in which tensions is maintained - relaxation can cause a drop in blood vessels
as the muscle lengthens. 4. Can maintain a constant pressure despite the change in volume like the
- Lengthens the muscles. urinary bladder.
Muscle tone 5. The ability of the smooth muscles to contract effectively remains relatively
- is the constant tension produced by the muscles over a long constant despite changes in the muscle length.
period of time.
- Physiological position of rest. CARDIAC MUSCLES
Fatigue - found in the heart.
= decreased capacity to do work and the reduced efficiency of performance - striated with one nucleus in the center
that normally follows as period of activity. (+) Intercalated disks = specialized cell to cell attachment which have gap
PSYCHOLOGIC Fatigue junctions that allow action potential to pass from one cell to cell.
= the muscles are capable of functioning but thye individua - has pacemaker
percieves that additional muscular work is not possible - With auto rythmicity
MUSCULAR Fatigue
= results from depletion of ATP.
PHYSIOLOGIC contracture MUSCULAR SYSTEM
- muscles occationally becomes incapable of contracting and
relaxing due to extreme muscle fatigue. - the driving force behind movement
ATP is the immediate source of Muscle contractions - Cause: muscles contracting and lengthening.
***** - Other functions : define body shape
Muscular hypertrophy and Atrophy : maintain posture.
Hypertrophy Muscles are masters ofpulling on bones.They can pull, pull,
- Increase in muscle size.
pull.
- but the number of cells or muscle fibers are the same.
Moves body parts by contracting (getting shorter
ATROPHY
- A decrease in muscle size
- Individual muscle fibers decrease in size and with progressive loss Controls life functions (breathing, heartbeat, digestion,
of myofibrils. etc.)
DISUSE ATROPHY Voluntary muscles
- Decrease in muscle size due to disuse.( unused muscle) - bring about movement.
- Examples: Bed ridden people, Stroke patients casts - consciously controlled,
Management: Exercise - can be trained to be stronger.
DENERVATION ATROPHY - Note : These are the muscles used when exercising
- results when the nerves innervating the muscles are severed.. and playing sport
RESULT : Flaccid Paralysis. - Another name for skeletal muscle is striated muscle.
management : Reinnervation of muscle
• When the bicep contracts and the triceps relaxes,
the arm bends.
Effects of Aging in Skeletal muscles
 • When the Tricep contracts and the bicep relaxes the
arm straightens.
Structures/Types of Muscle
Two varieties of Skeletal muscles.
1. Flexors
2. extensors.
Flexors and extensors usually work in pairs,
Example :
flexor – bends a joint (biceps)
extensor – straightens a joint (triceps
TENDONS : attaches muscle to bone
⚫ . Each muscle is made up of muscle fibres and when
these contract, or pull against the skeleton,
movement takes place.
TENDON : A tissue attaching the Muscles and bones
⚫ It is the tendons that allow muscles to move the
bones.
antagonistic pairs
= muscle contracts and pulls the other one relaxes
to allow the joint to work.
NOTE : Even sitting still we are using muscles.
The heart beats, the diaphragm causes us to
breathe, etc
⚫ AGONIST OR PRIME MOVER= The muscle doing the
work (contracting) and creating the
movement.
⚫ ANTAGONIST : The muscle which is relaxing and
letting the movement take place.
SYNERGIST : Other muscles support the prime
mover (agonist) in creating movement
Origin- is where the tendon of the muscle joins the
stationary bone(s).
Insertion- is where the tendon of the muscle joins the
moving bone(s).
3 Kinds of Muscle
SKELETAL- striated, voluntary, attached to bones and
causes skeletons to move.
SMOOTH- involuntary, NO conscious thinking, in
arteries, veins stomach and intestine(
peristalsis).
CARDIAC – autonomic, involuntary, in the heart.
******************
VOLUNTARY MUSCLE : muscles that can be controlled
INVOLUNTARY muscles : muscles that can not be
Controlled
Muscles work by contracting and pulling
Skeletal muscles make us move. However, muscles are only
capable of one type of force. PULLING.
IMPORTANT MUSCLE FOR EXAMINATION
⚫ Deltoid - shoulder muscles (abducts the upper
arm from body)
⚫ Trapezius - upper back muscle (rotates the
shoulder blades backwards)
⚫ Latissimus dorsi - lower back muscle (rotates
upper arm at the shoulders)
⚫ Pectorals - front of chest muscles (adduction of
the arm)
⚫ Abdominals - stomach muscles (flexion and
rotation of the trunk)
⚫ Biceps - top of arm muscles (flexion of arm at
the elbow)
⚫ Triceps - underneath of arm muscles (extension
of arm at the elbow)
⚫ Gluteals - bum muscles (extension of the upper
leg)
⚫ Quadriceps - front of leg muscles (extension of
the leg at the knee)
⚫ Hamstrings - back of leg muscles (flexion of the
leg at the knee)
⚫ Gastrocnemius - calf muscles
= Plantar flexes the foot.
● Gluteus maximus = Extends the upper leg.
_______
Isometric contractions
= are muscle contractions which result in
increased tension but the length of the muscle
stays the same.(SAME LENGHT )
No movement.
Example : when pushing against a wall.
Isotonic contractions
= are muscle contractions which result in
limb movement.
= The muscle changes length as it works; either
lengthening or shortening.
-Shortening is called a concentric contraction.
-Lengthening is called an eccentric
contraction.
- With movement
THE EFFECTS OF EXERCISE
1.Muscle hypertrophy - increase in muscle mass
2.Increase in muscular strength
3. Increase in muscular endurance
Potential injuries to the muscular system
⚫ Muscle atrophy - a loss of muscle mass and strength
when strength training is stopped .
⚫ Soft tissue injuries to muscles - these include tears,
pulls, and strains.
Unused muscle cells actually become smaller if
not used regularly. Become weak and flabby
RICE
⚫ Rest - a period of time to allow the injury to recover.
⚫ Ice - this directs cold to the injured tissue and
can relief pain and limit swelling.
⚫ Compression - helps limit and reduce swelling
of the injury.
⚫ Elevation - reduces swelling by elevating injured
part of body above the level of the
NERVOUS SYSTEM
lecture:
G.CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
TOPICS : NERVOUS SYSTEM
BRAIN AND SPINAL NERVES
PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions: (N.S)
1. Communications between region of the body
2. Coordination of body functions
3. Orientation to environment
4. Assimilation
NEURON – the basic functional unit of the nervous System
NEUROGLIA AND Glial cells
1. help increase the neuron transmission,
2. provide nutrients to the neuron,
3. affect synapse
4. protect the neuron.
Central nervous system
a. Brain
b. Spinal cords
Peripheral Nervous system
 A. spinal nerves Note ; Myelinated nerve fibers appears white that’s why its called
B. Somatic nerves white matter.
C. Dorsal root ganglia Nmyelinated nerve fibers are called gray matter.
D. Cranial nerves Nodes of Ranvier : allows the nerve transmission from node to
Peripheral Nervous system node increasing the transmission speed of the neuron.
Afferent or sensory division= conduct Saltatory conduction
impulses to the CNS - jumping transmission in the nodes of ranvier.
Efferent or Motor division= conduct impulses from the NEUROGLIAL CELLS
brain to the different parts of the body. - -Provide support, nourishment, and protection to
SUB UNITS ; Neuron.
SOMATIC MOTOR N.S REVIEWER: G. Clyde e. Rebadulla
= receives impulse from the brain and innervaqte the muscles
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
= innervates glands , smooth muscles , cardiac muscles and organs. BRAIN AND SPINAL NERVES
Centers in the Brain for ANS ; ( subconscious directions ) BRAIN : 1.4 kilograms
Midbrain • Procencephalon : Forebrain :
Pons 1. Cerebral hemisphere
medulla oblongata 2. Diencephalon
spinal cord Mesencephalon : Mid brain
THE NEURON or nerve cell Rhombencephalon : Hind brain :
- functional unit of the nervous system 1. Pons
• Dendrites – receive neural messages & transmits towards 2. Medulla Oblongata
cell body/nucleus. 3. Cerebellum
• Axon – transmits neural messages away from cell body. Central Nervous System (CNS)
AXON A. BRAIN
myelinated vs unmyelinated I. Cerebrum
- nodes of Ranvier - L and R hemispheres
- synaptic knob/ presynaptic terminal - processing center for though, language,
- synapse memory, sensory information & movemnt
Nerve Body or Soma
Parts of the nerve Cells - has 5 regions/lobes:
1. Neuroplasm - cytoplas of the nueron 1. frontal lobe
2. Nissl Bodies – the endoplasmic reticulum of the nerve cell > for complex mental processes (speech
3. Nucleus – thought, learning, emotion, mvmnt judgement, reasoning
AXON HILLOCK – triangular region of the nerve cell body that is 2. temporal lobe
devoid of nissl bodies. > for speech, auditory center
_____ 3. parietal lobe
Parts of the Nerve cell > for interpretation of bodily sensations
1. cell body 4. occipital lobe
- has nucleus & cytoplasm > for 1° visual center
2. dendrites 5. limbic lobe
- small processes extending from the cell body > for emotion, learning, memory
3. axon Meninges
- long process extending from the cell body to another DURA MATER
neuron or end organ - tough and fibrous membrane
Function s of the neurons; - Thickest
1. SENSORY OR Efferent ARACHNOID MATER
= conducts impulses to the CNS - delicate membrane
2. Motor or EFFEERENT PIA MATER
= conducts impulses away from the CNS - very tightly bound brain and spinal cord
3. ASSOCIATION OR INERNEURONS - vascular membrane
= located between sensory and motor and also transmitts impulses
to the brain for processing. SPACES
Classification of Neurons based on synapse EPIDURAL SPACE
1. MULTIPOLAR NEURONS SUBDURAL SPACE
- with single nerve cell and axons SUBARACHNOID SPACE
- with multiple dendrites. ********
- majority of neurotransmitter are of this type Ventricles of the brain
2. BIPOPLAR NEURONS • From the neural tube
- nerve cell bodies has two poles • Lateral ventricle : Occupies each of the hemispheres
- has axon on one pole and a dendrite on Choroid plexus : secretes the CSF
on other pole Small areas in the superior portion of the ventricles
= for vision and smell Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation (CSF)
3. UNIPOLAR OR PSEUDO UNIPOLAR - ventricles
- a single body with a single process attached to it ▪ 4 fluid filled cavities that connect w/ 1 another & w/
- most common nerves of the body are unipolar : EX :ulnar nerve. the spinal canal
SYNAPSE : ▪ contain choroid plexus
- a space between the neurons
- area of communication between neurons containing - cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
chemicals for neurotransmission. • - analysis of CSF composition and pressure for diagnostic
NEUROTRANSMITTERS – chemicals in the synapse purposes
NEUROGLIA OR GLIAL CELLS • CSF : provides cushion and buoyancy to the
SWANN cell or Neurolemmocyte brain.
- these cells wrap around the axons leaving small gaps between CSF in the lateral ventricles
successive cells called the Nodes of Ranvier. Foramina of Monroe
Myelin = these are lipoproteins which are the main component of Third ventricle ( located in the thalamus )
neurolemmocyte. by cerebral aqueduct ( aqueduct of sylvius )
MYELIN SHEATH = a series of Myelin. Fourth ventricle
 Central canal - Corpus callosum = C – shaped structure that connects the
Spinal cord cerebral hemispheres.
CSF Genu ; Anterior portion
Copy the chart : Splenium : Posterior portion
• CSF : 150 ml • Septum Pellucidum : separates the two lateral ventricles
• goes to the dura matter, to the venous sinuses, and the fluid Brainstem
goes to the cardiovascular system thru the internal Jugular 1. midbrain
vein. - reticular activating system (RAS)
- relay station for auditory & visual information
FOREBRAIN - control of body movement
• CEREBRUM 2. pons
• Convolutions : Folds and ridges in the cerebrum - cardiac acceleration and vasoconstriction centers
Gyri = ridges 3. medulla
Sulci = Depressions : Fissures - cardiac slowing, respiratory, vomiting vasomotor, swallowing
LOBES : Frontal center
Parietal
Occipital Cerebellum
Temnporal -receives info from muscles, joints and tendons
Lateral Fissure : Separates the temporal lobe from the frontal and - coordinates voluntary movement and maintains trunk stability &
Parietal lobes of the brain. equilibrium
Frontal Lobe : • Diencephalon : consist of Thalamus
Central sulcus : responsible for higher functions Hypothalamus
= Intellect Thalamus : Relay center that receives all the sensory information
Abstract reasoning, Creativity from the body and serves and sends it to the cerebral cortex.
Social awareness , Language HYPOTHALAMUS : directs some parts of ANS
BROCCA’S area : Motor speech Area : Involved in the endocrine function of
= responsible for speech formation the Pituitary gland.
Precentral Gyrus = center for water balance, thirst, pleasure hunger, sleep
Primary Motor Cortex : This cortex is important for pattern, Temperature regulation sexual desire, rage,
directing a part of the body to move. aggression.
Motor Homunculus : Construct s the image of the body on the brain Diencephalon
and produces the image of the person. 1. thalamus
PARIETAL LOBE : - major relay center/
Post Central Gyrus or Primary sensory cortex “central switchboard”
- Receives sensory information from the body. 2. hypothalamus
- Pinpoints the sensory part of the body that is affected. - regulates endocrine (e.g. hormonal activity)
- Sensory Homunculus autonomic functions
- ASSOCIATION AREAS : Interprets the sensation (e.g. stressresponse,appetite,body tempfluid balance,
- Pain, cold and etc. emotions)
WERNICKE’S area : responsible for Language development. ; for PINEAL GLAND = located in the thalamus
Written and spoken Language and coherent sentences. = endocrine glands that secretes
OCCIPITAL LOBE : Melatonin
= responsible for Vision = A hormone that regulates daily
= Shapes, color, Distant vision, and recollection of past rhythm
visual images. MID brain : is a small area posterior to the
Transverse Fissure : Separates the area between the occipital lobe diencepahlon
and the cerebellum Cerebral peduncles : occupies an area
superior to the pons.
TEMPORAL LOBE: • Cerebral Aquiduct : a canal that passes
- Contains the Primary Auditory Cortex : through the midbrain.
- Interprets hearing, interpretes the nature of sound, location, Corpora Quadrigemina : Consist of :
rhythm and distance. Superior Colliculi : For Visual Reflexes
- Translate words into thoughts Inferior Colliculi.
- Also contains 1. Olfactory center : smell Substancia Nigra : Causes Parkinsons disease
2. Gustatory center : taste. if not functioning Properly.,
INSULA - a small mass of cortical material in the HIND BRAIN : consist :
temporal lobe. a. PONS : Anterior : relay center : Respiratory
Center b.
CEREBRAL HEMESPHERES Medulla oblongata : Center for Respiration
Longitudinal fissure BP Control
= Separates the 2 brain hemispheres Area of transfer of information from right
LEFT Cerebral : involves in Language and reasoning to left hemispheres.
RIGHT : For space, pattern, Perception artistic awareness, Terminates in the Foramen magnum and continue as a
imagination and music Comprehension. cervical region of the spinal cord.
Cerebral Dominance : also known as Cerebral Symmetry. Cerebellum : For maintenance of Posture
Especialization of cerebral hemispheres to different tasks. For Balance. Muscle Coordination.
Cerebellum ;
FOREBRAIN Consist of :
- Pituitary gland Outer cerebellar cortex :
- Optic chiasm – transmits visual impulses from the Inner Arbor Vitae ( White Matter )
optic nerve to the brain
- Mammillary bodies : two small process posterior to the FOURTH Ventricle : Triangular space anterior
pituitary which function for olfactory reflexes to the cerebellum.
• HIND BRAIN BRAIN
• CEREBellum • Consist of Gray Matter : Myelinated.
- PONS = relay center for information This forms the cerebral cortex.
- Medulla Oblongata = Connects the brain to the spinal cord Cerbral cortex : area for active integrative
- FOREBRAIN : process
 - Located in the superficial region of the - Autonomic Nervous System
brain > Sympathetic Nervous System
- Main metabolic area > Parasympathetic Nervous System
- Thinking Area of the brain.
Organization of Nervous Tissue
• WHITE matter : Unmyelibnated.
- CNS - PNS
- Consists of tracts that take information from one region of the ▪ cortex & nuclei ▪ ganglia
brain to the cerebral cortex for processing ant integration. ▪ pathway or tracts ▪ nerves
- Brings the sensory information from the spinal cord to Neuron
the cortex o r back from the cor4tex to the spinal cord.. - basic unit of the nervous system
• BASAL NUCLEI - characteristics:
- deep islands of gray matter in the brain.
1. ability to generate nerve impulse
- involved in the subconcious process
ex. Swinging of the arms while walking. 2. transmit impulse w/in the cells
- - also for regulation of Muscle tone 3. transmit impulse to other cells
• LIMBIC SYSTEM :
- involved in formation of mood, emotions, • SPINAL CORD
memory, = major communication link between the brain and PNS.
- center for feeding, sexual desire, fear and = Integration of stimulus and \response
satisfaction.
= from the foramen magnum to the level L1 and L2.
_____
THE CRANIAL NERVES =31 pairs
• Cranial Nerves
- 12 pairs SPINAL NERVES
- A. Cranial nerves - 31 paired nerves that exit the spinal cord
- - 12 paired nerves that exit the cranial cavity - each nerve has ventral (anterior) and dorsal (posterior)
- - cranial nerve:
branch
*******
CRANIAL NERVES Enlargements
1.OLFACTORY – Nose smell Sensory S CERVICAL ENLARGEMANT
2. OPTIC - eyes Vision Sensory S = supplies the upper limbs ( T3 to T2 )
3. OCULOMOTOR Eyes All eye muscles M LUMBOSACRAL ENLARGEMENTS
Except = Supplies the lower limbs. ( T 7 to T11 )
those supplied by CN. 4 & CONUS MEDULLARIS
6
= tapered end of SC to form a conelike
Ciliary and Iris Sphincter
4. THROCHLEAR Eyes Superior Oblique M regions at L2
6. ABDUCENS Eye lateral rectus M FILUM TERMINALE- a thin thread like connective tissue
5. TRIGEMINAL B that attaches the SC to the coccyx
Sensory to Face, Nose, sinuses CAUDA EQUINA
Motor: To Muscles for mastication = the end\ part of the SC that resembles a horse tail.
7. FACIAL Face Muscles of the face B - parallel cluster of nerves
Nervus Intermedius
Motorfor:Submaxillart, Sublingual,
Lacrimal gland Cross section of the spinal cord
Sensory: Anterior part of the tongue GRAY MATTER
Soft Palate - H shaped or butterfly
8.VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR B WHITE Matter – located on the periphery
Ears Hearing and Balance Gray Matter
9. GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL B
- two NARROW HORNS (posterior horns)
Sensory: Posterior part of the
toungue, Tonsils, Pharynx, Middle Ear for SENSORY information from the somatic
Motor : Stylopharyngeus nerves
Pharyngeal musculature - Two rounded horns
10. VAGUS B sends MOTOR signals to the spinal nerves
Motor: Pharynx, Heart, Lungs,Bronchi, Lateral horns = additional section of the gray matter.
GI Tract • Gray commissure = connection on each
Sensory : Heart, Lung, Bronchi, Trachea
side of the gray matter.
Larynx, Pharynx. GI Tract, External Ear M
11. ACCESSORY • CENTRAL CANAL = runs the length of the spinal cord.
Sternocliedomastoid, Trapezius • WHITE Matter – located on the periphery
12. HYPOGLOSSAL M
Tongue Musculature Tracts or Fasciculi
ASCENDING TRACTS
= takes sensory information to the brain
PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL DESCENDING TRACTS
= receive MOTOR information from the brain
NERVOUS SYSTEM COLUMNS = bundles of tracts in larger units
Posterior median sulcus
PERIPHERAL AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
depression in the posterior surface of the
Divisions of the Nervous System:
spinal cord
- CNS -PNS
Anterior Median Fissure
▪ brain ▪ nerves & ganglia
= deeper depression the anterior side of the
▪ spinal cord >sensory division
spinal cord.
>motor division
SPINAL CORD
- Somatic Motor Nervous System
anatomically: from C1 – L2 – 12 thoracic
- functionally: carries sensory and motor info. – 5 lumbar
: involuntary response to pain – 5 sacral
- x-section: gray matter – 1 coccygeal
: white matter PLEXUSES
dermatome: area of skin innervated by - Brancing network of spinal nerves.
the sensory fibers of a single dorsal
root of a spinal nerve CERVICAL PLEXUS
- from upper spinal nerves of the neck
SPINAL CORD ASCENDING TRACT - Phrenic nerve - stimulates diaghragm - for breathing
SPINAL CORD DESCENDING TRACT - for muscles and skin of the neck and skin and ears.
Meninges of the Spinal Cord ( pinch clients ears for sensory )
DURA MATTER = superficial Brachial Plexus
Thecal sac = the membrane that = C5 to T 1
covers or sorrounds the spinal cord. - innervates the upper extremities
EPIDURAL SPACE - AXILLary NERVE the major nerve
= the space that separates the spinal cord from the periosteum for upper shoulders
= area for epidural anesthesia RADIAL nerve: for the extensors of the hand
Musculocutaneos nerve
Meninges - extensors of the hand
Ulnar nerve – flexors of hand muscles
DURA MATER Median nerve - hand and forearm flexors
- tough and fibrous membrane
- Thickest BRACHIAL PLEXUS
ARACHNOID MATER THORACIC NERVES
- delicate membrane - Exits through the foramina of the vertebral column
PIA MATER - for ribs, muscles and the thoracic wall.
- very tightly bound brain and spinal cord • Lumbar and Sacral plexus
- vascular membrane • LUmbosacral plexus)
- For the lower limbs
SPACES INBETWEEN MENINGES EXAMPLE:
EPIDURAL SPACE, SUBDURAL SPACE, SUBARACHNOID SPACE OBTURATOR nerves
- Innervates the adductor muscle of the thigh.
ARACHNOID SPACE Pinch your medial thigh
- the thin spiderlike, cobweb like membrane FEMORAL nerve; Innervates the muscle of the anterior thigh
Subdural space – space between the Dura and arachnoid Pinch your anterior thigh
PIA matter – third deepest layer. Nerves innervating the leg and foot
Tibial nerve Common fibular (peroneal nerve
Subarachnoid space SCIATIC NERVE
- the space between the archnoid and Pia matter. TEST; pinch the posterior aspect of the thigh,
Subarachnoid
- contains blood vessels and CSF.
NERVES: END OF LECTURE;
• Parallel neuron fibers that carry information from one REVIEWER: G.C.E. REBADULLA
area to onother.

Nerve wrappings:

ENDONEURON EYES AND VISION

wraps a single nerve fibers. Retina = receptive layer of the eye that converts light energy
PERINEURON
to neural impulses.
- the sheath that wrps around groups of
• Optic nerve
nerve fibers.
• Brain
EPINEURON
- the wrapping that that covers the entire • Occipital lobe: interpreted as sight
nerve.
SPINAL NERVES AND PLEXUSES • Pupil = A black-looking aperture, that allows
Periphery light to enter the eye
>> Dorsal ramus ( S and M ) >> Ventral ramus >> NERVE.. = dark due to the absorbing pigments in
SPINAL NERVE = Location: Intervertebral foramen the retina).
Division: • Iris = A colored circular muscle that gives the
Dorsal Root ganglion ( Sensory nerves)
eye color. This circular muscle controls
ventral root Gangleon ( Motor nerves )
the size of the pupil
• Spinal merves
• 31 pairs
• Exists from the spinal cord. • Cornea = A transparent external surface,
• Mixed nerves ( S and M ) This is the first and most powerful lens of the optical
– 8 cervical system of the eye and allows, together with the
 crystalline lens, the production of a sharp image at the • Macula
retinal photoreceptor level. • Fovea centralis
• Sclera = The "white of the eye", = forms part of the Near Vision or Near Point
supporting wall of the eyeball, continuous with the = the minimum distance an object can be seen
cornea. at focus.
Three layers: CONVERGENCE: the ability of the eye to focus brought about
by the elasticity of the lens.
The external layer
BINOCULAR OR STEREOSCOPIC VISION
1. sclera 
= perception of depth
2. cornea.
Visual Acuity
The intermediate layer
= the smallest print at which a client could read the
1. iris 
lines without errors.
2. ciliary body
ASTIGMATISM
3. choroid).
= the cornea or lens are not perfectly smooth.
The internal layer / sensory part of the eye
Ophthalmoscopy
1. retina.
• + diopter = Hyperopia = far sightedness
Three chambers of fluid: 
• - diopter = myopia = near sightedness
• A. anterior chamber (between cornea and iris),
• O Normal = Emmetropia
aqueous humor
CONSENSUAL LIGHT REFLEX
• B. posterior chamber (between iris, zonule fibers
• COLOR BLINDNESS
and lens) aqueous humor
• ISHIHARA TEST PLATES
• C. vitreous chamber (between the lens and the
RHODOPSIN
retina). vitreous humor. (more viscous)
• = Photosensitive pigments of the eye.
Accommodation = changes the shape of the lens that allows
Positive After image
the formation of sharp image on the retina.
= seeing a colored image against a dark
 fovea centralis: Finest detail. Point of Keenest
background
vision
Negative after Image
Aqueous humor:  fluid in the front and rear chambers of the
= seeing a dark image against a colored
eye. It is a clear, watery fluid that flows between and
background
nourishes the lens and the cornea; it is secreted by the ciliary
processes. 
Central vision: fine, sharp, straight-ahead vision EARS AND HEARING
Choroid:  a thin vascular layer between the sclera and the
retina. REVIEWER: G.CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
= supplies blood to the retina and conducts arteries
and nerves to other structures in the eye. EARS , HEARING AND BALANCE
Ciliary body: a thin vascular (blood vessel-filled)
Outer ear
middle layer of the eye.
Conjunctiva: A thin, clear, moist membrane that coats a. 1. pinna
palpebral area; the inner surfaces of the eyelids b. bulbar - also known as the auricle
area; outer surface of the eye -external ear part
Eyelid: The lid or cover of the eye, a movable fold of skin and -made up of cartilage and soft tissue.
muscle that can be closed over the eyeball or opened at will. - helps in maintaining a particular ear shape and
remains pliable.
= Also known as a palpebra.
- like a funnel that collects the sound vibrations
Lacrimal gland: A small almond-shaped structure that
2. external auditory meatus.
produces tears and is located just above the upper, outer External auditory meatus
corner of the eye. - is also called the ear canal.
Lens: The transparent structure inside the eye that - extends from the pinna to the tympanic membrane.
focuses light rays onto the retina. - Skin and hair cover the outer ear canal.
Macula: a small spot where vision is keenest in the retina. - (+) cerumen gland or the wax gland is present in this area.
Lacrimal gland: A small almond-shaped structure that Eardrum
produces tears and is located just above the - is an extremely sensitive organ.
-vibration is transferred to the inner ear for further
upper, outer corner of the eye.
processing within the brain.
Optic nerve: connects the eye to the brain.
- vibrates according to the frequency and the amplitude of
= The optic nerve carries the impulses formed by the sounds that strike it.
retina and dispatches the image to the brain for Middle ear
interpretation. - begins at the end of the tympanic membrane.
Orbital area: pertaining to the orbit, the bony cavity that - (+) three tiny bones (ossicles)
contains the eyeball. - Ossicles connect the eardrum to the inner ear.
• Suspensory Ligaments - Sound waves >>> pinna >>> eardrum >>>ossicles move
• RODS >>> convertion into mechanical vibration.
• CONES
 - Middle ear is present in the mastoid section of the 1. Conduction deafness
temporal bone = involves the outer or middle ear where mechanical
Eustachian tube vibrations in the external environment do not reach the cochlea
- runs from the middle ear front wall to the back of the nose and Ex: Blockage, Perforated T.M.
nasopharynx 2. Sensorineural deafness
- provide ventilation and access to the external air and balance the Present in Cochlear damage
air pressure on the both sides of the eardrum. Vestibulocochlear damage
Middle ear movement pushes the mechanical energy in Problems in the auditory centers of the
the oval window inside the cochlea. temporal lobe of the brain
The tiny hair cells are stimulated due to the force that
moves the fluids inside the cochlea. Nystagmus: twiching of the eyes.
The hair cells translate signals into nerve impulses.
CN VIII acoustic nerve, END OF LECTURE
transmit the nerve impulses to the brain. REVIEWER; G.C.E. REBADULLA
Inner ear
(+) sensory organs that help in hearing and
maintaining balance.
Cochlea = involved in the function of hearing TOPIC: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- snail –like bony structure filled with
REVIEWER: G. CLYDE, REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
endolymph and perilymph
- inside is the Organ of Corti
It has hair cells and nerve receptors, required RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
for hearing. Atmosphere oxygen
- the actual organ that helps in hearing functions as a sound wave Lungs
interpreter and converter. circulatory system
Ears = maintain balance of the body.
individual cells of the body
Semicircular = help in balancing
carbon dioxide (metabolic waste product) released
1. utricle
2. saccule from the intercellular environment
The three tiny bones forming the ossicles travels via the blood
1. malleus = also known as the hammer is Lungs
connected to the eardrum on one side exhalation.
2, incus = or the anvil on the other side, Ventilation
connected to the stapes • Breathing = “pulmonaryventilation”
3. stapes. = stirrup – Pulmonary means related to the lungs
Two phases
The sound waves converted into mechanical energy are transferred Inspiration (inhalation) – air in
through this ossicular chain. There is an in and out movement at the Expiration (exhalation) – air out
stirrup base known as the stapes footplate, that matches the Pulmonary ventilation
incoming sound waves. The beginning of the inner ear is marked by – Air moves in and out of lungs
the oval window that fits in the stapes footplate. External respiration (LUNGS)
>> The sound waves converted into mechanical energy are – O2 (oxygen) in air diffuses into blood
transferred through this ossicular chain. – CO2 (carbon dioxide) in blood diffuses into air
Inner ear is marked by the oval window that fits in the stapes Internal respiration (TISSUES)
footplate. – O2 in blood diffuses into tissues
Vestibular system
– -CO2 waste in tissues diffuses into blood
Note:
- sense of equilibrium
Blood is the transporting fluid (Cardiovascular System)
- present in the inner ear.
- fluids present in the cochlea are present in the Purpose of Breathing:
vestibular. 1. Oxygen (O2) is used by the cells
Note: Many other systems like vision, muscle response, help the
2. Oxygen needed in conversion of glucose to cellular energy
(ATP)
vestibular system in performing its balancing function
What is the waste product of respiration? Carbon dioxide
semicircular canals
Conducting zone
1. utricle
– Respiratory passages (Tubes) Ex. Bronchus.
2. saccule
– Filters, humidifies and warms air
- lie in anatomically different planes at a right
Respiratory Zone
angle to each other.
– Site of gas exchange (Inside the Lung)
- These planes each have a specific function that – Composed of
deals with movement, that is, up and down, side to side and tilting • Respiratory bronchioles, Alveolar
from one side to the other side. - (+) sensory hair cells ducts, Alveolar sacs
- activated by the movement of the endolymph fluid. • End-point of respiratory tree
When the head tilts to one side, the sensory hair cells send a nerve • Structures that contain air-exchange chambers are called
impulse to the brain with the help of acoustic nerve. alveoli
HEARING TESTS • Respiratory bronchioles lead into alveolar ducts:
TICKING STOP WATCH TEST walls consist of alveoli
AUDIOMETER = determines the threshold for hearing for standard • Ducts lead into terminal clusters called alveolar sacs
frequencies. *********************************************
Two Kinds of Hearing loss • Nasus or nose
• nasal cartilages
• external nares (nostrils)
• nasal septum.
• The nasal septum separates the nasal cavities
composition:
1. perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone,
2. vomer,
3. septal cartilage.
NOSE
• Moistens and warms air
• Filters air
• Resonating chamber for speech
• Olfactory receptors
Nasal cavity
– NARES
– Nasal septum divides nasal cavity in midline
– Nose is connected to the pharynx through a nasal
aperture known as CHOANAE
– The floor or base of the nasal cavity is the roof of the
mouth called the PALATE
• Anterior Palate is hard palate
• Posterior Palate is soft
External nares = (+) guard hairs.
nasal vestibule = the region of the nose just
posterior to the external nares
lined with stratified squamous epithelium.
nasal cavity = Behind the vestibule
= lined with a mucous membrane
Function of mucous membrane
- moistens air entering the respiratory system
- traps dust particles
- overlays a superficial venous plexus that warms the air.
- The membrane consists of connective tissue and
respiratory epithelium,
Respiratory epithelium
- composed of pseudostratified ciliated
columnar epithelium with goblet cells.
nasal conchae
=three protrusions in the lateral walls of the cavity have
that push into the nasal cavity
= cause the air to swirl into the cavity and come into contact
with the mucous membrane.
=Reclaims moisture as air exits from respiratory system
Internal nares, or choanae
= openings in the nasal cavity that lead to pharynx
Paranasal sinuses
– Ex. Frontal, sphenoid and others
– Open into nasal cavity, lighten the skull
– Infection: sinusitis
Pharynx
• 3 parts: naso-, oro- and laryngopharynx
• (+) tonsils
• Uvula closes off nasopharynxduring swallowing so
food doesn’t go into nose
• Epiglottis: keeps food out of airway loctated
posterior to the tongue
• Common: passageway for food and air: Oropharynx
and laryngopharynx.
Pharynx
3 regions:
1. Nasopharynx – the upper most area, which is directly
posterior to the nasal cavity.
Two openings on the lateral walls
: auditory, or Eustachian tubes.
2. Oropharynx - is a common passageway of
food, liquid and air.
3. Laryngopharynx - is the most inferior portion of the
pharynx, which is located superior to the larynx.
Larynx
- “voice box” for sound production.
- located at about the level of the 4th through 6thcervical
vertebrae and consists of a number of cartilages.Inferiorly is
continuous with trachea (windpipe)
Functions of The Larynx
1. Produces vocalizations (speech)
2. Provides an open airway (breathing)
3. Switching mechanism to route air and food into proper
channels
NOTE:
Closed during swallowing
Open during breathing
Innervation of larynx
– Recurrent laryngeal nerves of Vagus
– Damage to one: hoarseness
– Damage to both: can only whisper
Three cartilages attach to the posterior end of the vocal folds
(true vocal cords)
1. Thyroid cartilage
2. Cricoid cartilage
3. Arytenoid cartilage
Corniculateandcuneiform cartilages.
Behind thyroid cartilage and above cricoid: 3 pairs of small
cartilages
1. Arytenoid: anchor the vocal cords
2. Corniculate
3. Cuneiform
– 9th cartilage: epiglottis
Epiglottis
- the most superior cartilage in the larynx
- composed of elastic cartilage.
- covers the opening of the larynx during
swallowing which is known as the glottis.
This cause a reflex called cough reflex
Epiglottis = During swallowing, larynx is pulled superiorly
Epiglottis tips inferiorly to cover and seal laryngeal inlet
Keeps food out of lower respiratory tract
Glottis is the space between the vocal cords
• Laryngeal muscles control length and size of opening
by moving arytenoid cartilages
• Sound is produced by the vibration of vocal cords as
air is exhaled
• Trachea and bronchi
- Also known as “windpipe” (straight tube)
Tracheal cartilages
- cartilagenous rings that keeps the lumen of the tracheaopen
Divides in thorax into two main (primary) bronchi
• 16-20 C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
Carina - the center point at the most inferior portion of
the trachea
Carina
= Ridge on internal aspect of last tracheal cartilage
Point where trachea branches (when alive and standing (T7)
Mucosa highly sensitive to irritants: cough reflex
*******
Main or primary bronchi
- two tubes from the trachea, which enters the
lung
- Each lung receives air from a primary bronchi
- contain hyaline cartilage and are lined with
respiratory epithelium.
- divide into the lobar or secondary bronchi
segmental or tertiary bronchi.
Tracheobronchial tree.
 - structure showing the extensive branching of the
bronchi.
• Right lung: 3 lobes
– Upper lobe,Middle lobe, Lower lobe
• Left lung: 2 lobes
– Upper lobe, Lower lobe
Bronchial tree bifurcation
– Right main bronchus (more susceptible to aspiration)
– Left main bronchus
• cardiac notch - an indention occupied by the heart
Lungs and Pleura
• Location: is located in the pleural cavities on each
side of the mediastinum
Membranes:
1. parietal pleura = outer membrane on the chest
cavity wall
2. visceral pleura = membrane on the surface of the
lungs
• Pleural cavity – slit-like potential space filled with
pleural fluid
bronchi
bronchioles (small respiratory tubules with smooth
muscle on their walls).
respiratory bronchioles
= alveoli – small structures that are attached to the
walls of respiratory bronchioles
= alveolar ducts - passageways
which branches to the alveoli.
Alveoli
- are air sacs in the lungs that exchange oxygen and carbon
dioxide with the blood capillaries of the lungs.
alveolar sacs
= collective term for Alveoli that are clustered
around an alveolar duct.
Autonomic stimulation for: Smooth muscle:
• Sympathetic relaxation (“bronchodilation”)
• Parasympathetic constriction
(“bronchoconstriction”)
Type I pneumocytes
- make up about 90% of the alveoli
- composed of simple squamous epithelium like the
capillaries that surround the alveoli.
note: The division of the lung into many small
sacs tremendously increase the surface
area of the lung.
This increase is vital for the rapid and extensive
diffusion of oxygen across the respiratory
membranes.
• Oxygen moves across the respiratory membrane,
Components of the respiratory membrane:
a. alveolus
b. capillary epithelium
c. basement membrane
type II pnuemocytes (septal cells)
= they decrease the surface tension of the lung by
secreting surfactant.
• Emphysema = a disease caused by Breakdown of the
alveoli.
*********
Blood supply
• Lungs get their own blood supply from
bronchialarteries and veins
Innervation:
>>pulmonary plexus on lung root contains sympathetic,
parasympathetic and visceral sensory fibers
• During inspiration, the dome shaped diaphragm flattens
as it contracts
– This increases the height of the thoracic cavity
– The external intercostalmuscles contract to raise the ribs
– This increases the circumference of the thoracic cavity
EXPIRATION
=passive process
– Inspiratory muscles relax
– Rib cage drops under force of gravity
– Relaxing diaphragm moves superiorly (up)
– Elastic fibers in lung recoil
– Volumes of thorax and lungs decrease simultaneously,
increasing the pressure
– Air is forced out
END OF LECTURE:
REVIEWER: G. CLYDE E. REBADULLA
TOPIC : CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
REVIEWER: G.C.E REBADULLA .OD.,MD.,RN. RM
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM:
● The functions of the cardiovascular system are :
1. to deliver oxygen and nutrients
2. To remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
Mediastinum
= location of the heart.
= deep in the thorax between the lungs.
= contains the heart, the coverings of the
heart (pericardia) and other structures
Heart = is a four-chambered pump with two atria and
two ventricles.
= has a pointed end, or apex, and a blunt end,
or base.
= composed of two large inferior ventricles and
two smaller and superior atria.
• The left ventricle is larger than the right ventricle.
atrioventricular sulcus,or groove.
= At the junction of the right atrium and the right
ventricle.
Superior vena cave and inferior vena cava
= two vessels that also return blood to the right atrium.
Pulmonary veins- carry blood from the lungs to the
left atrium.
Right ventricle = is much thinner-walled than the
left ventricle.
• PERICARDIUM= Encases the heart & protects it from
trauma & infection
• Parietal endocardium
• Visceral pericardium
• Pericardial fluid
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
HEART & LAYERS
• Located at the left side of the mediastinum
3 major layers of the heart:
• Epicardium or serous pericardium
= outer most layer
= composed of epithelial and connective tissue.
• Myocardium
= middle layer/contracting unit
= the is the thickest of the three layers.
= mostly made of cardiac muscle.

MUSCLES FOR RESPIRATION • Endocardium

= inner layer of the heart wall.
INSPIRATION
 = This is a serous membrane and consists of
endothelium (simple squamous
epithelium) and connective tissue.
• Fibrous pericardium- tough outer connective
tissue sheath encloses the heart.
• Parietal pericardium – is the inner lining of the
fibrous pericardium.
• pericardial cavity
= Deep to the parietal pericardium
= serous pericardial fluid = reduces the
between the outer surface of the heart and the parietal
pericardium.
• Serous pericardium- layer closest to the heart
heart→arteries →arterioles
↑ ↓
veins←venules ←capillaries
HEART VALVES
= control flow of blood from one chamber to another.
= Prevent backflow
= The heart is a double pump
HEART CHAMBERS
• Right atrium- deoxygenated blood from the
superior & inferior vena cava
• Right ventricle- receives blood from the RA
then pumps it to the heart via
pulmonary artery
• Left atrium- receives oxygenated blood from
the lungs via the 4 pulmonary veins
• Left ventricle- largest of the chambers, pumps
oxygenated blood to the aorta
• Atrioventricular valve
- Closes at the beginning of the ventricular contraction
& prevents blood from flowing back into the atria
from the ventricles
- They open when the ventricle relaxes
● Semilunar valves = prevent the blood from flowing back
into the ventricles during relaxation
-They open during ventricular contraction &
when the ventricles relax
Bicuspid /Mitral valve- left side
Tricuspid valve- right side
Pulmonic semilunar valve- right ventricle &
pulmonary artery
Aortic semilunar valve- left ventricle & aorta
• Interventricular septum
= forms a wall between the two ventricular
chambers.
• Right atrium = the wall is thin
• interartrial septum the location
name of the medial wall.
The medial wall of the atrium is known as
fossa ovalis = A thin oval depression in the
atrial wall.
foramen ovale = fossa ovale in fetal hearts
• Right atrioventricular valve, or tricuspid valve = prevents the
return flow of blood from the
right ventricle into the right atrium during
ventricular contraction.
=chordae tendineae = thin, tough threadlike /
cords that are attached to larger papillary
muscles, which are extensions from the wall
of the ventricle.
Trabeculaecarneae -a small extension of the right
ventricle wall.
• Pulmonary semilunar valve
- appears as three small cusps between the right
ventricle and the pulmonary trunk and keeps blood
from flowing backwards from the pulmonary trunk
into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation.
• pulmonary veins
= carry oxygenated blood from the lungs into the
left atrium.
• Bicuspid valve / mitral valve / left atrioventricular valve
friction two large cusps between the left atrium and left ventricle
• Aortic semilunar valves
= prevents the flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle.
Blood from the left ventricle moves into the aorta and subsequently
to the
rest of the body.
CARDIAC CONDUCTION CYCLE
• Sinoatrial node – also known as pacemaker of the heart,
has an intrinsic rate of 60-100 bpm
• Atrioventricular node – intrinsic rate of 40-60
bpm
Conduction system of the heart
• Heart contracts as a unit
• Atrial and ventricular syncytia help conduct
electrical signals through the heart
• Sinoatrial (S-A) node is continuous with atrial
syncytium
• S-A node cells can initiate impulses on its
own; activity is rhythmic
Electrocardiogram (ECG) can trace conduction
of electrical signals through the heart
Regulation of the cardiac cycle
Parasympathetic: from medulla oblongata
(vagus nerve)
Nerve branches to S-A and A-V nodes, and
secretes acetylcholine (slows rate)
closes Sympathetic nervous system
secretes norepinephrine
increases force of contractions
Medulla oblongata: cardiac control.
maintains balance between the two
CONDUCTION SYSTEM OF THE HEART
Sinus Node: Primary Pacemaker of the Heart
• Bundle of His/ atrioventricular bundle -
specialized muscle fibers in the septum
• Purkinje fibers – where the impulse
terminates, resulting to contraction
CORONARY BLOOD SUPPLY
• Right and left coronary arteries branch off
of aorta
Branch into smaller vessels
• Cardiac veins deliver blood to coronary sinus,and back to the
right atrium
The heart and associated great vessels
● Aorta
● Leaves left ventricle
● Pulmonary arteries
● Leave right ventricle
● Vena cava
● Enters right atrium
● Pulmonary veins (four)
● Enter left atrium
Blood in the heart chambers does not nourish the myocardium breathing rate
● The heart has its own nourishing circulatory system ILLUSTRATION :
● Coronary arteries
● Cardiac veins Long term regulation of blood flow (hormones)
● Blood empties into the right atrium via the coronary case: If blood pressure is too low:
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) promotes water
sinus
retention
General circulatory pattern: Angiotensin 1 TO 2 by Renin II
● Arteries- vessels that carries blood from the Stimulation by sympathetic nervous system
heart
● Veins- vessels that returns blood to the heart REVIEWER:
• Coronary arteries G.C.E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM
= carries blood to from the heart, but they DYSRHYTHMIA
carry the blood to the heart muscle. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE HEART
• Cardiac vein- takes the blood from the heart muscle • SYSTOLE: contractions of the heart muscle
back to the heart for recirculation. • Atrial systole and ventricular systole
• DIASTOLE: Relaxation of the heart chambers
CORONARY ARTERIES • Atrial and Ventricula diastole
• Supplies the capillaries of the myocardium with blood _____
• Right coronary artery
– Right atrium & ventricle • Electrical functioning:
– Inferior portion of the left • SA Node or pacemaker
ventricle • AV node
– Posterior septal wall • Atrioventricular bundle of his
– SA & AV nodes • Right and left bundle branches
– Left coronary arteries • PURKINJE FIBERS
– Left anterior descending ECG:
– Anterior wall of left ventricle • P WAVE: deflection wave that represent atrial
– Anterior ventricular septum depolarization
– Apex of the left ventricle • PQ interval: Time between the beginning of atrial
– Circumflex artery depolarization and the beginning
– Left atrium of Ventricular depolarization
– Lateral & posterior surfaces of the left • QRS complex: Represent ventricular
ventricle Depolarization.
DEFINITION OF TERMS • ST Segment:
• Systole • T WAVE: ventricular repolarization
– Contraction of the chambers of the heart. • Note: Atrial repolarization is masked by a large
• Diastole QRS complex.
– Relaxation of the chambers of the heart. NORMAL HEART RYTHM
Baroreceptors = detect changes in blood Cardiovascular System
pressure Normal Electrocardiogram
Rising pressure stretches receptors Electrical System of the Heart
vagus nerve→ parasympathetic system Dysrythmias
Increased temperature >> increases heart rate The AV Node
Ions and heart rate: Sinus Node: Primary Pacemaker of the Heart
excess potassium decreases it
excess calcium increases it ILLUSTRATION:
Blood pressure
Blood flow is generally equal to cardiac output Blood vessels
Blood flow affected by pressure and resistance Arteries and arterioles - carry blood away
Blood pressure: the force that is exerted by blood from heart
against blood vessel walls Capillaries - site of exchange
Resistance depends on: Venules, veins - return blood to heart
A. size of blood vessel ILLUSTRATION
B. thickness (viscosity) of blood
Blood pressure is highest in large arteries Endothelium- prevents platelet aggregation
will rise and fall as heart pumps secretes substances that control diameter
* * highest with ventricular systole of blood vessel. (INTIMA)
lowest with ventricular diastole Tunica media- smooth muscle and connective
Pulse pressure is the difference between tissue. Innervated by sympathetic nerves
the two (systolic and diastolic) (vasoconstriction)
Resistance is highest in capillaries (Missing in smallest arteries)
ILLUSTRATION : Tunica externa - connective tissue; is vascularized
Control of blood pressure:
Regulation of cardiac output ● Three layers (tunics)
contraction strength ● Tunic intima
heart rate ● Endothelium
venous return ● Tunic media
skeletal muscles ● Smooth muscle
 ● Controlled by sympathetic nervous ureters and nerves.
system ▪ Adrenal glands: located superiorly.
● Tunic externa Note for: renal pelvis
Cortex
● Mostly fibrous connective tissue
hilum
ILLUSTRATION : Medulla
Capillaries most permeable (and more permeable in major and minor calyx
some parts than others) Renal pyramid
Blood flow can vary to different parts of the body ▪ Two regions
▪ Cortex: outer
ILLUSTRATION: ▪ Medulla: inner
▪ Lobes of the kidney
▪ Pyramid and cortical tissue surrounding it
● Capillary beds consist of two types of vessels ▪ 5-11 per kidney
● Vascular shunt – directly connects an arteriole to a venule ▪ Renal pelvis = Expanded, funnel shaped,
● True capillaries – exchange vessels - superior part of ureter
● Oxygen and nutrients cross to cells ***Calyces Collect urine from papilla of Pyramids
● Carbon dioxide and metabolic waste products cross into Minor calyces >>> major calyses >>> pelvis
blood The Arteries
Aorta
● Blood is forced through arteries and arterioles
Right and left renal arteries
vessel walls are too thick for blood components to pass through Segmental arteries (5)
● In capillaries, oxygen and nutrients move out Lobar arteries
by diffusion; CO2 in (via lipid membrane, Interlobar arteries
channels, etc.) Arcuate arteries (at the junction of medulla and cortex)
NOTES: Cortical arteries
Glomerular arterioles
● Walls of arteries are the thickest
● Lumens of veins are larger Uriniferous tubule is the main structural and
● Skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart functional unit
● Walls of capillaries are only one cell layer thick to allow for Two major parts
exchanges between blood and tissue 1. NEPHRON - urine-forming
2. A collecting duct which concentrates urine by removing
Returning blood to the heart water from it
Uriniferous tubule =anatomical unit for forming urine.
● Venules are continuous with capillaries; take
▪ Nephron
in some returned fluid (rest is retained by ▪ Renal corpuscle (in cortex)
tissues or returned to blood via lymphatic – Glomerulus (tuft of capillaries)
system) – Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
● Veins have thinner walls;less muscle; but can ▪ Tubular section (process the filtrate)
hold much more blood – Proximal convoluted tubule
● Many veins in limbs have valves to prevent – Loop of Henle
– Distal convoluted tubule
backflow
▪ Collecting duct
● (Varicose veins arise when pressure on valves 3 main mechanism:
is prolonged) Filtration
a. Fluid is squeezed out of the glomerular capillary bed
++++ Circulatory system allows for adjustments to Exercise, Resorption
digestion and other necessary functions. b. Most nutrients, water ad essential ions are returned
to the blood of the peritubular capillaries
Blood (arterial) pressure is affected by heart action,
Secretion
blood volume, peripheral, resistance, and blood c. Moves additional undesirable molecules into tubule
viscosity. from blood of peritubular capillaries
Inability to regulate blood pressure can contribute to Nephron
disease. ▪ Renal corpuscle: only in cortex
▪ Tuft of capillaries called glomerulus
URINARY SYSTEM ▪ Surrounded by cup-shaped, hollow glomerular
▪ Paired kidneys (Bowman’s) capsule
▪ A ureter for each kidney Proximal convoluted tubule
▪ Urinary bladder ▪ Confined to renal cortex
▪ Urethra ▪ Resorption of water, ions and solutes
Main Functions of Urinary System Loop of Henle
▪ For Filtration ▪ Descending limb
▪ Toxins ▪ Thin segment
▪ Metabolic wastes ▪ Thick ascending limb
▪ Excretion of nitrogenous wastes from blood Distal convoluted tubule
▪ Urea, Uric acid, Creatinine ▪ Confined to the renal cortex
▪ Regulate the balance of water and electrolytes, acids and ▪ Simple cuboidal epithelium
bases ▪ Selective secretion and resorption of ions
▪ BP regulation Collecting Duct
▪ Production of Erythropoitin ▪ Each receives urine from several nephrons
▪ Run straight through cortex into the deep medulla
LOCATION: retroperitoneal,Superior lumbar region of posterior ▪ At papilla of pyramid* ducts join to form larger papillary
abdominal wall ducts
SHAPE: ▪ Empty into minor calices
convex: lateral surface ▪ Role: conserve body fluids
concave: Medial surface ▪ COLLECTING TUBULE: Role is to conserve body fluids
Hilum: Point of entry of blood vessels, ADH (ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE:
 - Secreted by posterior pituitary gland = for circulation round the body.
- For water reabsorption in the collecting ducts and – nutrients from digestion move from GI tract to the
distal tubules resulting to decrease in the total
volume of urine. circulatory system
GFR Excretion/ Elimination:
▪ = Glomerular filtration rate, an Digested Food substance are excreted by the bowel as feces
important clinical measure of renal
Chyme – liquid form of food
function.
▪ About 20% of renal plasma flow is filtered each minute Stomach – produces hydrochloric acid
(125 ml/min) (HCl)
Vasa recta = acts with the loop of Henle to Liver – secretes bile
concentrate the urine.
NERVE SUPPLY – maintains tone and stimulates movements
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
▪ Regulation of blood pressure Submucosal Plexus (Inner)
▪ Cells secreting renin (a vasoconstrictor) Parasympathetic (Vagus) – increase motor activity;
▪ Macula densa – chemoreceptors which secrete renin relaxation of sphincters
Renin-angiotensin mechanm:
Causes aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortex: Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine
SODIUM Is increased, water follows thereby increasing the fluid and Gall bladder, Large Intestine
increases the blood pressure. Sympathetic – by lumbar and thoracic nerves
- all parts of GI
The Ureters
▪ Slender tubes from renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. (25 cm - decreases movements,
(10 “) long - inhibits secretions &
▪ - carry urine to the bladder - constricts sphincter
▪ retroperitoneal in location.
Blood Supply
▪ Enter posterolateral corners of bladder
Ureters - transporting urine Artery: from aorta and branches
Made up of Transitional epithelium Vein: gastric, splenic – portal vein of liver
Urinary Bladder BUCCAL CAVITY
▪ Collapsible muscular sac, Stores and expels urine
▪ holds about 500 ml, Urine exits via the urethra Lips
▪ Trigone is inside area between ureters and urethra: prone Tongue a voluntary muscular structure which
to infection occupies the floor of the mouth
▪ Epithelium: transitional
Speech, Taste, Mastication, Deglutition
▪ detrusor muscle = a thick muscular muscle that squeeze
urine out. Hard & Soft Palate (Roof of the mouth)
The Urethra Uvula – end of the soft palate
= Drains urine out of the bladder and body 32 Permanent teeth
▪ Male: about 20 cm (8”) long
Glands: send saliva into the mouth. :
▪ Female: 3-4 cm (1.5”) long
▪ Urethral sphincters contains salivary amylase for digestion of starch to maltose)
▪ Internal: involuntary sphincter of smooth muscle Parotid, Submandibular, Sublingual
▪ External: skeletal muscle inhibits urination pH of saliva:
voluntarily until proper time (levator anni muscle
5.8 – 7.4
also helps voluntary constriction)
▪ Micturition 1.5 liters of saliva isproduced per day
▪ Voiding, Urinating, Emptying the bladder
Effect of PARASYMPATHETIC: VOIDING Functions of Saliva:
SYMPATHETIC: INHIBITS URINATION
Chemical digestion of polysaccharides
-breakdown of polysaccharides to disaccharides by
GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM salivary amylase
LECTURE Lubrication of food
PARTS OF THE GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Cleansing and lubricating
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine Non-specific defense: Lysozyme, Immunoglobins and clotting
Large Intestine, Rectum, Liver, Pancreas factors combat invading microbes and sense of taste
Saliva contains Ptyalin
Purpose: SWALLOWING
Digestion of food Phases:
Elimination of Waste Products Oral Preparatory Phase
Alimentary tract, some accessory organs and a variety of Oral Phase
digestive processes Pharyngeal Phase
Ingestion: Esophageal Phase
= taking food into the alimentary tract. Esophagus
Propulsion: Propels food and fluids from pharynx to the stomach
= movements the contents along the Functions:
alimentary tract. Formation of bolus
Digestion: Deglutition or swallowing
Mechanical breakdown of food by mastication (chewing)
Foods are broken down into simpler forms peristalsis; a process whereby the bolus from the mouth
Absorption: moves to the stomach through the pharynx and esophagus
sphincter; a constriction at the entrance of = an endocrine gland that secretes insulin and glucagon,
the esophagus to the stomach hormones that keep blood glucose within normal limits.
- the sphincter must relax in order for food to enter the LIVER
stomach. Largest organ
The sphincter prevents food from backing up into the Right upper quadrant
esophagus. 1,500 ml of blood flow/minute.
STOMACH Function:
Function: stores vitamins & minerals
Food reservoir Protective, and Detoxification
Regions: Removes ammonia
1. Fundus Stores & release glycogen
2. Body Secretes bile
3. Antrum Bile
cardiac sphincter - The sphincter that guards the opening of -It is secreted by liver and it is stored in the gall
esophagus into stomach. bladder
pyloric sphincter – The sphincter that guards -Bile has a pH of 8 and about 500 – 1000 ml is secreted daily
the other end of the stomach opening Bile consists of
into the duodenum - Water, Mineral salts, Mucus
contraction of stomach muscle mix food with digestive Bile salts, Bile pigments mainly bilirubin
juices HCL, pepsin and peptides
food will be converted into chyme (2 – 6 hours after) Functions of bile:
- peristalsis movement takes the Liquefied bolus to the Bile salts: Sodium taurocholate Sodium glycocholate
duodenum emulsify the fat in SI
Functions of the stomach give the fat globules a larger area
1. Iron absorption in the intestines fats LIPASE converts fatty acids and glycerol
2. Regulates passage of the contents into the duodenum bile salts: help in absorption of fatty acids and
3. hydrochloric acid; Non-specific defense against microbes fat soluble vitamins (Vitamin K) into the
4. Production of intrinsic factor for the absorption of vitamin blood bile pigment
B12 in the intestine stercobin urobilinogen
5.Absoption of water, alcohol and lipid Soluble drug. FECES URINE
6.Temporary storage allowing time for digestive enzymes GALL BLADDER
(gastric juice) and pepsins to act pear-shaped muscular
7.Chemical digestion of proteins to polypeptides by pepsin stores bile until it is sent to the duodenum.
8.Mechanical breakdown Bile enters the duodenum via the common bile duct.
Gallstones are crystals of cholesterol.
Functions of Gastric juice
1.Water SMALL INTESTINE
Liquefies food swallowed Longest part of digestive tract (16-19 feet or 5-6 cm)
2.Hydrochloric acid Function:
Acidifies the food and stops Mixing & Peristalsis
the action of salivary amylase Digestion
Kills ingested microbes. Absorption
3. pepsinogen- for digestion of proteins From the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the ileocaecal
Intrinsic factor -for the absorption of vitamin - B12 valve of the large intestine
Mucus - Prevents mechanical injury to stomach walls Most of the absorption of food takes place
Lubrication of the bolus villi – finger like projection in the walls of small Intestine
PANCREAS where nutrient molecules are absorbed into the
Fish shaped gland cardiovascular and lymphatic systems.
Extends from C-loop of the doudenum to the spleen microvilli - increases the surface area available for
Functions: absorption.
Exocrine – Acinar cells Lacteal - The small lymphatic capillary in a villus
digestion of carbohydrates, fats & proteins Functions of the small intestine
Endocrine – Islet of Langerhans 1. Protection against microbes
- Alpha cells & Beta cells 2.Secretion of hormones: secretin/cholecystokinin
= produces pancreatic juice 3.Completion of chemical digestion
Contents: 4.Absorption of nutrients through the villi
1. amylase >>Carbohydrate 5.Secretion of intestinal juice
2. trypsin >> Protein
3.lipase >> FATS The 3 main parts of the Small Intestine
4.sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3 1.duodenum (The first 25 cm)
to neutralize acid in chyme.
 -receives bile from the gallbladder receives seminal vesicle
pancreatic juice through the hepato-pancreatic duct prostate gland
containing : bulbourethral gland
lipase: for digestion of fat to glycerol and fatty acids
trypsin: for digestion of protein to peptides Prostate gland:
NaHCO3: that is basic and neutralizes acid chyme surrounds and opens into the urethra where it leaves the
bladder.
2.Jejunum- is the middle section of the small intestine Produces slightly alkaline fluid that activates the sperm and
prevents them from sticking together
3.Ileum- is the terminal section and is 3 meters long Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in men.

LARGE INTESTINE Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s gland):

5-6 feet ; neutralizes acidity of urine WHEN THE SEMEN PASSES THRU
For: absorption, movement THE URETHRA
Elimination and Absorption of water & electrolytes Secretion- a thick, clear alkaline mucous
-begins at caecum and terminate in the rectum and anal Location- paired glands that lie beneath the prostate
canal.
-It is about 1.5 m long and it consists of Ejaculation
Caecum propels sperm from the epididymis to the vas deferens >>>
Ascending colon ejaculatory duct >>>> URETHRA
Transverse colon about 2 – 5 mL of semen; each milliliter containing about 50 –
Descending colon 130 million sperm.
Sigmoid colon
Rectum Bulbourethral fluid also carries some
Anal canal
The appendix is an extension of the cecum. Some Other Effects of Testosterone
Indigestible material is stored in the rectum until the anus 1. muscle and bone growth
allows defecation. 2. Facial and pubic hair growth
3. thickening of vocal cords
ANATOMY OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 4. growth of pharyngeal cartilage
5. hair follicle effects
Reproductive Anatomy of the Human Male.
6. stimulates sebaceous glands
External:
7. Increased BMR
- Glans penis
- scrotum
Vasectomy
- Prepuce(foreskin)
Internal:
Female Reproductive System
- gonads
Internal reproductive:
- accessory sex glands and ducts.
-
Vagina
penis = spongy erectile tissue.
Cervix
composed of three layers
Fallopian tube (uterian tube/oviducts)
During sexual arousal the erectile tissue fills with blood from
Fimbrae
arteries causing ERECTION
Ovary
Uterus
Testes
Endometrium
Paired oval glands measuring 2 in. By 1in.
Myometrium
Surrounded by dense white capsule
Perimetrium
Septa form 200 - 300 compartments called lobules
Each is filled with 2 or 3 seminiferous tubules where sperm
Oogenesis
are formed
Ovary- contains 400,000 oocytes; release about 500 in a
lifetime
Testes are the male gonads.(inside Scrotum)
Ovary- The follicles mature every 28 days(FSH influence)
seminiferous tubules- form sperm
Leydig cells (interstitial cells)- produce hormones : androgens
Primary follicle produces estrogens
(ex. Testosterone, ABP).
And primary oocyte completes its 1st division produces
2ndary oocyte and polar body
Semen
Seminal fluid is thick, yellowish, and alkaline.
The Uterine Cycle
It contains mucus, fructose, a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic
Some Other Effects of Estrogen
acid, and prostaglandins.
Accessory glands:
1.breast development ⚪ Types Of Glands:
2. bone growth A. Exocrine glands :
3. external genitalia growth (+) ducts >>> body cavities or body SURFACE
4. fat deposition
5. Increase protein anabolism B. ENDOCRINE GLANDS
6. Facilitate calcium uptake (-) Glands >>>> to the blood stream
Endocrine System
7. Feminizes brain
-glands and glandular tissues that secrete
8. Promotes hydration of skin
,store,and produce the hormones
9. Decrease blood cholesterol
Feedbacks :
Positive feedback
Menopause: cessation of ovarian and menstrual cycles. Negative feedback
Usually occurs between ages 46 and 54. nervous System control
Due to ovaries decreased responsiveness to gonadotropins. Rhythms
Menopause affects: ___________
changes in sexual desire Hormones
triggers mood swings Classification
causes debilitating hot flashes 1. Steroid (hydrocortisone) estrogen
may lead to bone and heart problems cortisol & testosterone
short-term memory loss 2. Peptide or protein (insulin)
insomnia vasopressin, GH, ACTH,
3. Amine (Epinephrine)
Mammary glands.
Are present in both males and females. Classification:
Water soluble : all hormones Except :
Are not a component of the reproductive system.
Steroid hormones
Contain epithelial tissue that secrete milk.
Thyroid homones
Milk drains into a series of ducts opening at the nipple.
Hypothalamus - collection of specialized cells
located in the brain
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY = primary link between the nervous
system and the endocrine system
TOPIC: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM = produces chemicals that either stimulate or
suppress hormone secretions of the pituitary gland to
G. CYDE E. REBADULLA OD.,MD.,RN.,RM.MAP. maintain balance.

⚪ Pituitary gland = master gland

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ⚪ Hypothalamus =
⚪ Hypothalamus ⚪ secrete many hormones
⚪ Pineal Releasing Hormones
⚪ Pituitary Prolactin R.H.
(hypophysis) GnRH
⚪ Thyroid Somatotropin R.H.
⚪ Parathyroid Thyroid R.H.
(posterior) Corticotropin R. H.
⚪ Thymus INHIBITORY HORMONES
⚪ Adrenals Somatostatin
(suprenals) Prolactin Inhibiting hormones
⚪ Islets of langerhans ( IN PANCREAS) PITUATARY GLAND (Hypophysis)
⚪ Ovaries - small size ( Pea size)
⚪ Testis -lacated in the sella turcica

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Pituatary gland

Ductlless glands HORMONES Anterior Posterior
NEUROLOGIC SYSTEM Adenohypophysis NeuroHypophysis
EFFECTS( Various Organs) Major part of the gland
REGULATION & COORDINATION of ALL
BODY PARTS Pituitary Gland (hypophysis
Hormones ⚪ Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
⚪ Subtances secreted by the endocrine glands. ⚪ (regulated by hypothalamus)
⚪ Help to regulate organ function in connect with Hormones:
the nervous system. Growth hormones (somatotropin)
-glands and glandular tissues that Growth of bones and muscles
secrete ,store,and produce the hormones Increase child: gigantism
Glands > hormones >Blood > target tissue. Increase adult: acromegally
( OrGANS) Decrease : dwarfism
Prolactin: mammotropic, lactotropic, secretions at night.
luteotropic hormone.
: stimulate milk production b. Serotonin:
Increase: galactorrhea - regulates intestinal movements and affects appetite,
Decrease: absence of milk mood, sleep, anger, and metabolism.
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
Increse: cushing’s disease 0/0 POSTERIOR PITUATARY
Decrease: addison’s disease 0/0 ADH (VASOPRESSIN)
TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) OXYTOSIN – ejection of milk , Contraction of
Stimulate the thyroid gland smooth muscles
Increase secondary hyperthyroidism Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
Decrease secondary hyperthyroidism ⚪ Stores and release hormone synthesized in the
Gonadotropins hypothalamus.
FSH: follicle stimulating hormone Oxytocin: stimulate uterine and mammary gland
Ovaries: follicular development contractions.
Secret estrogen ADH (antidiuretic hormone) Or Vasopressin.
Stimulate testes: seminiferous tubules:
spermatogenesis Increase SIADH (Syndrome of inappropriate anti
__________ diuretic hormone)
LH (Luteinizing hormone) ⚪ Excessive relention of water.
Stimulates ovaries ⚪ Hypertension; Edema; Weight gain
Form corpus luteum ⚪ dilutional hyponatremia
⚪ Initiale ovulation Decrease diabetis insipidus.
⚪ Produce progesterone Polyuria, dehydration, constipation.
⚪ Production of testosterone (testes) Decrease SG
CLYDE REBADULLA test: water deprivation
LH: test. (4-8 hours)
⚪ Increase preccocious puberty _______________
⚪ Decrease hypo Thyroid Gland
Male Female ⚪ Located at or below the cricoid's cartilage in the
No body hair No body hair neck or anterior to the trachea
Small phallus/testicles (-) Breast ⚪ Consist of 2 vascular bones
Decrease libido (-) Ovulation ⚪ It 3 hormones
Impotence (-) Menstruation ⚪ T3 and T4 –control body metabolism and
Aspermia Infertility influence physical and mental
MSH (melanocute stimulating hormone) growth, nervous
appearance “eternal tan” system activity, protein,fat,
Decrease albinism (hypopigmentation) carbohydrates metabolism and regulates
reproduction
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone ⚪ Calcitonin- lowers serum calcium levels, and
- (MSH): regulates skin pigmentation and promotes the inhibits bone resorption
deposit of melanin in the skin after exposure to sunlight ⚪ Functions :
- For production,storage and release of the
⚪ Anterior thyroid hormones.
TSH- Thyroid gland – Thyroid hormone T4 – Thyroxine, most abundant
ACTH- Adenocorticotropic hormone T3 – most potent
adrenal cortex > corticosteroid IODINE : necessary for the synthesis of
FSH- Secretion of Estrogen the thyroid hormone
Development of Ova CALCITONIN : Inhibits calcium resorption from
Development of sperm bones increase renal
LH Ovulation in Female excretion of calcium and Phosphorus
Secretions of Sex hormones (M&F) Lower the serum calcium levels
Growth Hormone : Growth Controls metabolism
Prolactin : Size and Height = Produces; Thyroxin ( T4)
Prolactin : Lactogenic hormone ; Triiodothyronine ( T3)
breast development THYROCALCITONIN = Decrease calcium level
PARATHYROID H. = Increases calcium level
Pineal gland - pine-cone-shaped and
measures about 1 cm in diameter. THYROID GLAND
⚪ Butterfly shape gland located in the neck and
A. Melatonin: behind the trachea.
communicates information about environmental lighting Three (3) hormones.
to various parts of the body. 1. T3 (triidothyronine)
effect on sleep/awake cycles and other biological events Cellular metabolism and growth; converted from
connecte to them, such as a lower production of gastric T4
2. T4 (thyrotine) Adrenal MEDULLA:
For body heat production and catobolism. Epinephrine
3. Thyrocalcitonin Norepinephrine
Regulates serum calcium levels Adrenal CORTEX
;thyrocalertonin; deposit calcium in the bones; Cortisol ( Glucocorticoid)
decreases calcium levels. Androgen
If:T3 & T4 levels are… Aldosterone
Increase hyperthyrodism CORTISOL:
Decrease hypothyridism Glucose and Protein
RAIU (radioactive iodine uptake) Important during stress and emergency
Increase hyperthyroidism Decrease Inflammatory Response
Decrease hypothyroidism Increase Production of RBC and Platelets
FNB (for malignant cells)
BMR (base metabolic rate) Corticosterone: like cortisol, it is a steroid; influences
O2 consumption at lowest activity potassium and sodium metabolism
20%: normal of euthyroid
Thyroid disorders Hyposecretion results in Addison’s disease;
⚪ Euthyroid- normal function and hypersecretion results in Cushing’s disease
secretions ALDOSTERONE :
⚪ Hyperthyroidism- overactivity of the = Retention of water and sodium
thyroid gland = Elevates BP.
⚪ Hypothyroidism- underactivity of If NA Decrease = K & Aldosterone
the thyroid gland increases
CLYDE REBADULLA If NA Increase = K & Aldosterone Decreases
PARATHYROID GLAND
= Regulates the serum CALCIUM level in ANDROGEN :
the Body = Muscular Development
= Controls the rate of bone metabolism = Linear size > Body, Hair Growth
Dec. Calcium = Parathyroidhormone = Increase in Sebaceous gland
Increases secretion
Inc. Calcium = ParaThyroid Hormone
Decreases Dopamine
⚪ VITAMIN D = increases absorption of Calcium (ADRENAL MEDULLA)
⚪ CALCITONIN = By Thyroid Gland - is used to treat shock. It dilates the arteries, elevates
= Decreases the Blood Calcium systolic blood pressure, increases cardiac output, and
level increases urinary output.

Parathyroid gland Epinephrine (adrenalin)

Usually surrounds the posterior thyroid
Produces parathyroid hormone. Raises blood calcium
levels by increasing calcium resorption from kidney and
bones in response to low blood levels of calcium.
Adrenal Glands or Suprarenal glands
Adrenal Cortex
Glucocorticoids For: Gluconeogenisis
Minerolocostiscoids : Aldosterone
(Responsible for the retention of Na
and excretion of K.)
Adrenal Medula
Medula ; Epineprine and norepineprine
(Flight and flight response)
PANCREAS
= Endocrine and Exocrine glands
Endocrine : Insulin and Glucagon
= islets of Langerhans are small clusters of cells
located in the pancreas.
Alpha cells- (Glucagon)breakdown of glycogen to
glucose. This elevates the blood sugar.
Beta (Insulin). Decreases the sugar
Delta cells- suppress the release of glucagon and
insulin.
ADRENAL GLANDS
- elevates systolic blood pressure
- increases heart rate and cardiac output
-speeds up the release of glucose from the liver
- dilates the bronchial tubes and relaxes airways
dilates the pupils to see more clearly.
counteract an allergic reaction.
OVARIES
estrogen
progesterone.
-prepare the uterus for pregnancy
-promote the development of mammary glands,
- play a role in sex drive
develop secondary sex characteristics in the female.
essential for the growth, development, and maintenance
of female sex organs.
Testes
Testosterone- male sex hormone .
Essential for normal growth and development of the
male sex organs.
Responsible for the erection of the penis
PLACENTA
Has endocrine functions during the pregnancy
Produces HCG, estrogen, and progesterone

Thymus gland
- a ductless gland with two lobes
part of the lymphatic system
Thymosin- production of T cells for the immune system.

STOMACH
Gastrin- stimulates the production of gastric acid for
digestion

Duodenum and jejunum

Secretin- stimulates pancreatic juice, bile, and
intestinal secretion.

ILLUSTRATION:

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
PREPARED BY G.C.E. REBADULAA
OD.,MD.,RN.,RM.MAP.

END OF THE REVIEW

__________________________________________________
REVIEWER:

GIOVANNI CLYDE E. REBADULLA OD.MD.RN.RM.MAP.PGCPE

Doctor of Medicine (Physician)
De La Salle Health Sciences
Doctor of Optometry (Optometrist)
Centro Escolar University
Registered Nurse (R.N,)
Saint Dominic Savio College
Registered Midwife (R.M)
Masters of Arts in Psychology (MAP)
Southville International School and Colleges
Post Graduate in Professional Education (PGCPE)
University of Chester, United Kingdom.
SISFU-Southville International School Affiliated
with Foreign Universities.