Energy and Power

Conservation of energy: energy is not created or destroyed but is only transformed from one
form into another. —> ΔEsystem + ΔEsurroundings = 0

ΔEsystem = W + Q + other transfers, where W = work, Q = heat transfer

The work done by a force is the product of the force in the direction of the displacement times
the distance travelled. The unit of work is the joule (1 J = 1 N m).

The work done by a force is the area under the graph that shows the variation of the magnitude
of the force with distance travelled.

Kinetic energy derivation:

F
a=
m
F
v2 = u2 + 2 s
m
1 1
Fs = mv − mu 2
2
2 2
1
Ek = mv 2
2
Wnet = ΔEk
1
translational kinetic energy (KE): K E mv 2 =
2
1 1
work-energy principle: Wnet = ΔK E = mv22 − mv12 The net work done on an
2 2
object is equal to the change in the object’s kinetic energy.

gravitational potential energy: mgh

The work done by gravity is independent of the path followed and depends only on the vertical
distance separating the initial and final positions. So gravity is a conservative force. The elastic
force of a spring is also a conservative force.

Many forces, such as friction and a push or pull exerted by a person, are nonconservative
forces since any work they do depends on the path.

Conservative Forces Nonconservative Forces

gravitational friction

elastic air resistance

electric tension in cord

motor or rocket propulsion



 push or pull by a person

If no work is done on the system from outside, then W = 0. When Q + W = 0, the system is
called isolated and in that case ∆E = 0. The total energy of the system does not change.We
have conservation of the total energy of the system.

What does the total energy E consist of? It includes chemical energy, internal energy (due to
the translational, rotational energy and vibrational energy of the molecules of the substance),
nuclear energy, kinetic energy, elastic potential energy, gravitational potential energy and any
other form of potential energy such as electrical potential energy.

Total mechanical energy of the system:

1 1
E= mv 2 + mgh + k x 2
2 2
When a quantity of work ΔW is performed within a time interval Δt the power developed is
given by the ratio:
ΔW
P= . Its unit is joule per second and this is given the name watt (W): 1W = 1Js −1.
Δt
ΔW
P=
Δt
Δx where v is the instantaneous speed of the body.
=F
Δt
= Fv
usef ul power out
ef f icienc y =
act u al power in
Momentum

p = mv
Momentum is a vector and has the direction of the velocity. Its unit is kgm s −1 or the equivalent
Ns.
Δp
In terms of momentum, Newton’s second law is Fnet = . The average net force on a system
Δt
is equal to the rate of change of the momentum of the system.

Impulse:
Δp
Fnet =
Δt
Δp = Fnet Δt <—— impulse
The impulse is also equal to the change in momentum. Notice that impulse is a vector whose
direction is the same as that of the force (or the change in momentum).

conservation of momentum: When the net force on a system is zero the momentum does not
change, i.e. it stays the same.We say it is conserved.

 Using momentum, we can obtain a useful additional formula for kinetic energy:

1 m 2v 2 p2
Ek = mv 2 = ⟹ Ek =
2 2m 2m
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is also conserved. As a result, the relative speed (v′A − v′B)
of the two objects after the collision has the same magnitude (but opposite direction) as before
the collision.

Collisions in which kinetic energy is not conserved are called inelastic collisions. Some of the
initial kinetic energy is transformed into other types of energy, such as thermal or potential
energy, so the total kinetic energy after the collision is less than the total kinetic energy before
the collision. The inverse can also happen when potential energy (such as chemical or nuclear)
is released, in which case the total kinetic energy after the interaction can be greater than the
initial kinetic energy. Explosions are examples of this type.

If two objects stick together as a result of a collision, the collision is completely inelastic.

The point that moves in the same path that a particle would move if subjected to the same net
force is called the centre of mass. The general motion of an extended object (or system of
objects) can be considered as the sum of the translational motion of the CM, plus rotational,
vibrational, or other types of motion about the CM.

An object’s centre of gravity is that point at which the force of gravity can be considered to act.
The force of gravity actually acts on all the different parts or particles of an object, but for
purposes of determining the translational motion of an object as a whole, we can assume that
the entire weight of the object (which is the sum of the weights of all its parts) acts at the CG.

Simple Harmonic Motion

Period (T): the time taken to complete one full oscillation

Amplitude: the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position
Frequency (f): the number of full oscillations per second

The main characteristics of SHM:

• the period and amplitude are constant
• the period is independent of the amplitude
• the displacement, velocity and acceleration are sine or cosine functions of time

Hooke’s Law: F= k x, where k is string constant, and x is displacement.

1
area = k x × x
2
The work done by the force extending the spring goes into elastic potential energy stored in the
1
spring.The elastic potential energy of a spring whose extension is x is Eel = 2kx2.

Any oscillating system for which Hooke’s Law applies is a simple harmonic oscillator (SHO).

Energy: E = Ep + EK in the absence of other forces, this total energy is

3



 conserved, and so E = constant.

1
PE = k x 2
2
The simple pendulum: restoring force: F = − mgsinθ
Torque and Rotational Motion

One radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc whose length is equal to the radius.

2π r
v= where v is linear velocity and T is the time taken to complete one full revolution.
T
2π
ω= = 2π f
T
Δθ
Instantaneous angular velocity: ω = lim
Δt→0 Δt
Δω
Instantaneous angular acceleration: α = lim
Δt→0 Δt
Δl Δθ
Linear velocity: v= =r ∵ Δl = rΔθ
Δt Δt
Δθ
v = rω ∵ ω =
Δt
The velocity vector is tangent to the circle. In a short time Δt the
body travels a distance vΔt along the circle. The angle swept in that
same time is Δθ. The distance travelled is an arc of the circle, and
from trigonometry we know that the length of the arc of a circle
radius r is given by rΔθ.

The total linear acceleration of a point in the rotating object is the

vector sum of two components:

a ⃗ = a tan
⃗ + a R⃗
If the angular velocity of a rotating object changes, the object as a
whole— and each point in it—has an angular acceleration. Each
point also has a linear acceleration whose direction is tangent to that
point’s circular path. We use Eq. 8–4 (v = rw) to see that the angular
acceleration a is related to the tangential linear acceleration atan of a point in the rotating object
by

Δv Δω
atan = =r = rα
Δt Δt

 centripetal acceleration:

v2 (rω)2 v2 4π 2r
aR = = = ω 2r = = 2 = 4π 2r f 2
r r r T
Δv = vQ − vp , where P and Q are two points on the arc of the circle. If the angle Δθ is
very small, then the distance Δv is approximately an arc of a circle of radius v and subtending
an angle Δθ (in radians). Hence Δv = vΔθ.
Therefore, a body moving along a circle of radius r with speed v experiences centripetal
acceleration that has magnitude given by
Δv Δθ v2
aR = =v = vω =
Δt Δt r

Kinematic equations:
ω = ω0 + αt
1
θ = ω0t + αt 2
2
ω 2 = ω02 + 2αθ
ω + ω0
ω=
2
Centripetal force:
mv 2
F= = m ω 2r
r
α∝r angular acceleration is proportional to the lever arm, or moment arm of the force.
α∝τ angular acceleration is proportional to the product of the force times the lever
arm, or the moment of the force about the axis, or the torque.
α∝F This is the rotational analog of Newton’s second law for linear motion.

τ = rF⊥ = rFsinθ Note that θ is the angle between the directions of F ⃗ and r (radial line
from the axis to the point where F ⃗ acts).

F = ma
= mrα ∵ atan = rα

τ = rF = r (mrα) = mr 2α

Assuming a particle is located at a distance r from its rotational axis. Then, mr 2 represents the
rotational inertia of the particle and is called its moment of inertia.

mr 2 = m1r12 + m 2r22 + . . .
∑
I=
Moment of inertia: Newton’s Second Law for Rotation
∑
τ = Iα
This is a special case when the moment of inertia is constant.

 1
mv 2
∑2
KE =
1 2 2
∑2
= mr ω
Rotational KE:
1
mr 2)ω 2
∑
= (
2
1
= Iω 2
2
An object that rotates while its centre of mass (CM) undergoes translational motion will have
both translational and rotational kinetic energy. If the rotation axis is fixed, then
1 2 1
KE = MvCM + ICM ω 2
2 2
W = FΔl
Work done by torque: = FrΔθ ∵ Δθ = Δl /r
= τΔθ ∵ τ = rF
Power: P = W/Δt = τΔθ /Δt = τω

Angular Momentum: L = Iω, for a symmetrical object rotating about a fixed axis through the
CM, where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity about the axis of rotation.

ΔL
∑
τ=
Δt
Iω − Iω0
=
Δt
Δω
=I
Δt
= Iα
Law of conservation of angular momentum: The total angular momentum of a rotating object
remains constant if the net torque acting on it is zero.

Right-hand rule: When the fingers of the right hand are curled around the rotation axis and point
in the direction of the rotation, then the thumb points in the direction of ω .⃗

Circular Motion and Gravitation

We might not expect a collection of protons and neutrons to come together spontaneously, since
protons are all positively charged and thus exert repulsive electric forces on each other. Since
stable nuclei do stay together, another force must be acting. This new force has to be stronger
than the electric force in order to hold the nucleus together, and is called the strong nuclear
force.

 Weak nuclear force: a fundamental force of nature that underlies some forms of radioactivity,
governs the decay of unstable subatomic particles such as mesons, and initiates the nuclear
fusion reaction that fuels the sun.s

Newton’s law of gravitation:

M1M2
F=G
r2
The gravitational field strength at a certain point is the gravitational force per unit mass
experienced by a small point mass m placed at that point.

Mm
F=G
r2
Coulomb’s Law looks a lot like the law of gravitation:

Q1Q2
F=k
r2
Both are inverse square laws. Both also have a proportionality to a property of each object—
mass for gravity, electric charge for electricity. And both act over a distance (that is, there is no
need for contact). A major difference between the two laws is that gravity is always an attractive
force, whereas the electric force can be either attractive or repulsive. Electric charge comes in
two types, positive and negative; gravitational mass is only positive.

Inertial mass and gravitational mass of an object are identical in value, but differ in how they are
measured. Inertial mass is measured by measuring an object's resistance to changes in
velocity; while gravitational mass describes the force on an object in a gravitational field.

Orbital motion:
mv 2 GMm
=
r r2
GM
v=
r
2π r 4π 2 GM 2 4π 2r 3
But v = so = ⟹ T =
T T2 r GM

Examples:
- conical pendulums
- pendulums
- mass-spring systems
- Applications of Newton’s Second Law including friction in uniform and accelerated conditions,
both at angled and horizontal and vertical surfaces