MODEL SYLLABUS OF NATURAL FARMING

1. INTRODUCTION TO NATURAL FARMING

1.1. History of Agriculture - Origin of Agriculture, Holocene, The Oasis Theory (The
Propinquity Theory or Desiccation Theory), Neolithic Demographic Transition Theory,
Coevolution Theory, Anthropocene.

1.2. Knowledge Based Agriculture - Traditional Agricultural Landscape (Holocene) and

Natural Farming Agroecosystem. Grey System Theory, Evolutionary Ecological Theory,
Ecological Modernization Theory, Typical Farm Theory, Agricultural Change Theory. Theory
of Biotic Regulation of the Environment (BRET), Holistic Knowledge.

1.3. Input Based Agriculture - Conventional Agriculture (Anthropocene) and Organic

Farming. Cartesian Reductionism.

1.4. Harmful Effects of Input Based Agriculture - Deforestation, Habitat Loss, Biodiversity
Loss, Genetic Erosion, Soil Erosion, Land Degradation, Desertification, Depletion of
Underground Water, Eutrophication, Pollinator Decline, Pesticide Residue in Food Chain,
Climate Change, Farmers Distress, Loss of Public Health.

2. NATURAL FARMING AGROECOSYSTEM

Traditional Agricultural Landscape -

Baranaja (Twelve Grains), Chinampas Farming, Shifting Cultivation (Jhum or Swidden),
Three Sisters, Vrikshayurveda, Zabo Cultivation. Characteristics of Traditional Agricultural
Landscape.

Traditional Agricultural Knowledge - Traditional Knowledge, Indigenous Knowledge, Local

Knowledge, General Theory of Agricultural Knowledge Production, Source of Traditional
Agricultural Knowledge. Characteristics of Traditional Agricultural Knowledge. Classification
of Traditional Agricultural Knowledge (Product Innovation, Process Innovation). Globally
Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) (FAO in 2002), World Cultural Heritage
(UNESCO), World Heritage Irrigation Structures (International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID), 2004), Ecological Compensation Policy, Heritage Protection Subsidy Policy,
Governance of Traditional Agricultural Knowledge (TAK) under the Commons Framework,
Traditional Knowledge and the Convention on Biological Diversity,
The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), The United Nations
Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues UNPFII), The World Intellectual Property
Organization (WIPO).

Modernisation of Traditional Agricultural Knowledge

Agroecology, Agroecological Symbiosis, Agroforestry, Analog Forestry, Conservation
Agriculture, Ecological Farming, Fertility Farming, Food Forest, Forest Farming, Forest
Gardening, Korean Natural Farming, Natueco Farming, Natural Farming, No-dig Gardening,
No-till Farming, Permaculture, Probiotic Farming, Regenerative Agriculture, Rewilding,

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Sorjan Farming System, Sustainable Intensification, Syntropic Agriculture, Taungya
Cultivation, Vedic Agriculture (Rishi Kheti), Zero Budget Natural Farming.

2.1. NATURAL CAPITAL (NATURAL RESOURCES)

2.1.1. ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OF NATURAL FARMING AGROECOSYSTEM

Soil - Physical, Chemical, Biological Properties of soil, Classification of Soil on the Basis of
Biological Properties, Soil Health.

Air - Components of Air, Air Quality, Air Quality Index (AQI), Air Quality Composite Index
(AQCI), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Gray Clustering Method, Fuzzy Synthetic
Evaluation (FSE), Dempster–Shafer (D–S) Evidence Theory, Air Pollution.

Water - Quantity and Quality of Water.

BIOGEOPHYSICAL CYCLES

Solar Energy Cycle - Diurnal Cycle, Seasonal Cycle.

Temperature Cycle - Daily Maximum and Minimum Temperature, Seasonal Variation,

Stratification, Vernalisation, Thermoperiodism, Hyponasty, Heat Dissipation, Leaf Energy
Balance, Radiation Exchange, Radiation Climate, Thermal Tolerance, Leaf Area Index,
Temperature Regulation, Climate Adaptation.

Light Cycle - Leaf Movement Hypothesis, Passive Movement Hypothesis, Chloroplast

Movement Hypothesis, Photosystem Modulation, Circadian Rhythm Hypothesis, Metabolic
Dawn Hypothesis, Shade Avoidance Syndrome, Energy Use Efficiency.

Air Cycle - Surface Albedo, Air Momentum and Mixing.

Hydrological Cycle - Evapotranspiration, Atmospheric Water, Precipitation, Bergeron

Findeisen Theory (Collision Coalescence), Halley's Temperature Gradient Theory, Surface
Water, Soil Water, Underground Water.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Carbon Cycle - Atmosphere, Terrestrial Biosphere, Geosphere

Nitrogen Cycle - Atmosphere, Nitrogen Fixation, Assimilation, Ammonification, Nitrification,

Denitrification

Phosphorus Cycle - Mineralization and Immobilization, Adsorption and Desorption,

Weathering, Precipitation and Dissolution

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2.1.2. BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF NATURAL FARMING AGROECOSYSTEM

Microorganism Biodiversity - Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), Plant Growth Promoting

Rhizobacteria (PGPR), Antagonists, Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms, Yeasts, Lactic Acid
Bacteria, Plant Pathogens.

Plant Biodiversity - Trees, Shrubs, Bushes, Hedges, Creepers, Climbers, Herbs, Grasses

Animal Biodiversity - Farm Animals, Aquatic Animals, Earthworms, Pollinators, Insect Pests,
Large Herbivores, Natural Enemies.

Human Community - Indigenous Communities, Farmers and Consumers. Diffusion of

Innovation (DOI), Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB),
Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).

2.2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

2.2.1. PROVISIONING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Provisioning of Food and Animal Feed

Provisioning of Drinking Water
Provisioning of Medicinal Resources
Provisioning of Probiotics
Provisioning of Cut Flower
Provisioning of Raw Materials

2.2.2. REGULATING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Regulating Water Availability in Soil

Regulating Carbon Cycle
Regulating Nitrogen Cycle
Regulating Phosphorus Cycle
Regulating Soil Health
Regulating Plant Health
Regulating Pollination of Crops
Regulating Natural Control of Insect Pests and Plant Pathogens

2.2.3. CULTURAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Recreation and Mental and Physical Health.

Tourism - Agritourism, Ecotourism, Food Tourism.
Aesthetic Appreciation and Inspiration for Culture, Art and Design.
Spiritual Experience and Sense of Place.

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3. NATURAL FARM MANAGEMENT

3.1. AGROECOSYSTEM HEALTH MANAGEMENT

One Health Theory.

3.1.1. No-till
3.1.2. No Off-farm Inputs - e.g., Soil Amendments, Chemical Fertilizers, Micronutrients,
Organic Fertilizers, Compost, Vermicompost, Biofertilizers, Synthetic Growth Regulators,
Chemical Pesticides, Organic Pesticides, Biopesticides, Herbicides, Synthetic Antibiotics,
Light Traps, Pheromone Traps, Yellow Sticky Traps, Polythene Mulch, Fruit Ripeners, Food
Preservatives, Food Colours.
3.1.3. No Irrigation
3.1.4. Water Management, ET Control Theory, Transparent Water Management Theory,
Cooperative Game Theory in Water Resource Management, Systems Theory, Theory of
Change.
3.1.5. Mulching
3.1.6. Cover cropping

3.2. AGROBIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

3.2.1. MICROORGANISM BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

Microorganism Domestication - Fungi (mushroom, yeast), Bacteria (lactic acid bacteria).

Probiotics - Jeevamrit, Beejamrit (ZBNF), Kunapa Jal, Sasyagavya, Bhasmapani, Jaivik

Tika, Agnihotra Bhasma (Vrikshayurveda), Bokashi, Compost tea, Nettle (Probiotic Farming).

Epiphytic Fungi and Bacteria -

Antagonistic Effect against Pathogens. Biosurfactants, Pyocyanin, Antibiotics, Bacteriocins,
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) Synthesis, Siderophores, Competition for Space and
Nutrients.

Plant Diseases - Germ Theory, Social Evolution Theory for Microorganisms, Dispersal,
Foraging, Biofilm Formation, 'Chemical Warfare' and Quorum Sensing, Natural Control,

3.2.2. PLANT BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

Natural Plant Breeding - Theory of Evolution, Crop Evolution, Natural Selection, Uneven
Distribution of Crop Diversity among Geographic Regions, Presence of Wild Relatives,
Centres of Domestication, Vavilov Centres, Plant Domestication, Genetic Cost of
Domestication, Domestication Syndrome, Stages of Domestication, Spontaneous Mutation,
Artificial Selection, Unconscious Selection, Wild Progenitor, Genetic Improvement,
Landraces, Variety Turnover, Seed Exchange, Diffusion, Migration, Metapopulation, Open
Seed System, In-situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources, Decentralized Plant
Breeding, De Novo Domestication, The Law of Homologous Series, Common Heritage,
Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act 2001, The Geographical Indications of
Goods (Registration and Protection) Act 1999.

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Selection of Crop Species and Cultivar - Economic Criteria for Selection - Yield, Quality,
Market Price, Market Size (Market Price x Turnover), Net Profit of the farmer, Off-season or
All-season Production.
Ecological Criteria for Selection - Plant Height, Spacing, Growth Habit, Shade Tolerance,
Adaptability to Low Input Condition, Resistance or Tolerance to Insect Pests and Diseases,
Climate Resilience, Sustainability, PGPR Magnet Crop, Pollinator Magnet Crop, Bird Magnet
Crop, Trap Crop, Biocontrol Crop.

Crop Portfolio Optimization - Modern Portfolio Theory, Portfolio Size, Species Richness,
Biodiversity Index, Ecosystem Succession, Carrying Capacity, Climax Community, Area
Effect on Biodiversity, Edge Effect on Biodiversity, Complementarity Hypothesis, Facilitation
Hypothesis, Theory of Biotic Acceptance.

Use of Natural Seed - Open Pollinated Seed, Seed Dormancy (Innate, Induced, Enforced),
Breaking of Dormancy (Soaking, Stratification, Scarification), Seed Germination, Traditional
Seed Storage and Seed Preservation. Seed Dispersal, Seed Microbiome, Seed Bank
Theory.

Natural Seed Treatment - Beejamrit, Cow Dung Coating, Mud Ball Placement.

Seed Sowing - Seed Broadcasting, Mixed Seed Sowing, Ecosystem Succession, Season of
Sowing, Auspicious Dates of Sowing.

In-situ Grafting - IntraSpecific, Interspecific, Intergeneric Grafting, Micrografting, Lateral

Gene Transfer, Benefits of Topworking, Multi-Grafting for Biodiversity, Early Bearing and
Induced Disease Resistance, Graft Hybridization, Grafting Incompatibility.

Multilayer Polycropping Design - Seven Layer (Food Forest), Five Layer (ZBNF), Three Crop
(Three Sisters), More Than 12 Crops (Baranaja), Up to 254 Crops (Forest Garden).

Fruit Bagging - Eco-friendly Paper Bagging of Fruits, Benefits of Paper Bagging.

Harvesting - Mixed Harvesting, Flying Robotic Drones for Mixed Harvesting, Digital Sorting
and Grading.

Natural Ripening - Climacteric and Non-climacteric Fruit Ripening, Ethylene Response

Factors, Ethylene-Producing Bacteria, Ethylene-Auxin Crosstalk.

3.2.3. ANIMAL BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT

Farm Animal Biodiversity Management - (Cattle, Poultry, Apiculture, Aquaculture)

Animal Domestication, Cross-Species Adoption Hypothesis, Traditional Animal Breeding,
Indigenous Breeds, Mixed Herd, Shifting Fence (Cell Grazing), Natural Feed, Medicinal
Herbs for Animals, Care Theory.

Feral Animal Biodiversity Management - (Earthworms, Pollinators, Insect Pests, Large

Herbivores, Natural Enemies)

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Resistant or Tolerant Plant Variety, Plant Health (Trophobiosis Theory), Biofencing Crop,
Honey Plant, Pollinator Magnet Plants, Bird Magnet Plants, Trap Crop, Catch Crop,
Biocontrol Crop, Natural Control by Predators and Parasitoids, Freshwater Habitat, Food
Source, Wildlife Habitat, Wildlife Pathway.

3.3. MARKETING MANAGEMENT

3.3.1. Direct Marketing - Direct Marketing Channels, Farm Visit, Agritourism, Food tourism,
Ecotourism, Fishing Competitions, Excursion, Training, Workshop, Flower show, Plant
Nursery, Farmers Market, Home Delivery, Farmer Producer Organization (FPO). Agricultural
Location Theory. Marketing Mix (7Ps), SWOT Analysis, Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs,
Segmenting the Market, Consumer Decision-Making Process, Porter’s Five Forces, The
Pareto Principle, The Expectancy Disconfirmation Theory, The Ansoff Matrix.

3.3.2. Digital Marketing - Website, Blog, Digital Platform, Portal, Mobile App, Email
Marketing, Facebook Marketing, Instagram Marketing, Youtube Marketing, Google
Marketing, Online Cashless Payment.

3.3.3. Natural Food Processing - Properties of Foods and Processing Theory, Process
Control, Ambient-Temperature Processing, Raw Material Preparation, Size Reduction,
Mixing and Forming, Separation and Concentration of Food Components, Fermentation and
Enzyme Technology, Irradiation, Processing Using Electric Fields, High Hydrostatic
Pressure, Light or Ultrasound, Processing by Application of Heat, Heat Processing Using
Steam or Water, Blanching, Pasteurisation, Heat Sterilisation, Evaporation and Distillation,
Extrusion, Heat Processing Using Hot Air, Dehydration, Baking and Roasting, Heat
Processing Using Hot Oils, Frying, Heat Processing by Direct and Radiated Energy,
Dielectric, Ohmic and Infrared Heating, Processing by the Removal of Heat, Chilling,
Controlled- or Modified-Atmosphere Storage and Packaging, Freezing, Freeze Drying and
Freeze Concentration, Post-Processing Operations, Coating or Enrobing, Packaging, Filling
and Sealing of Containers, Materials Handling, Storage and Distribution.

3.3.4. Brand Management - The Propinquity Effect, Verbatim Effect, Social Learning Theory,
Keller's Brand Equity Model, The Consumer Culture Theory, The Theory of Planned
Behaviour, The Baader-Meinhof Phenomenon, Theory of Idea Viruses, Personality Theories,
Double Jeopardy Effect, Duplication of Purchase Law.

3.3.5. Export - APEDA, Export Licence, Phytosanitary Compliance. Export-Base Theory,

The Export Land Theory, Classical or Country-Based Trade Theories,
Mercantilism, Absolute Advantage, Comparative Advantage, Heckscher-Ohlin Theory
(Factor Proportions Theory), Leontief Paradox, Modern or Firm-Based Trade Theories,
Country Similarity Theory, Product Life Cycle Theory, Global Strategic Rivalry Theory,
Porter’s National Competitive Advantage Theory.

3.3.6. Theories of Profit - Frictional Theory of Profit, Monopoly Theory of Profit, Innovation
Theory of Profit, Risk and Uncertainty Bearing Theory of Profit, Managerial Efficiency Theory
of Profit.

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4. AGROECOSYSTEM ANALYSIS

4.1. ANALYSIS OF NATURAL CAPITAL

Abiotic Facilitation (Microclimate), Solar Energy, Temperature, Light, Air Health Indicator
Plants, Water Resources (Blue Infrastructure, Freshwater Habitat), Soil Health, Plant Health,
Survey of Biodiversity Informatics, Biological Data Mining, Data Analysis and Synthesis,
Niche Construction Theory, Ecological Niche Modelling, Network Science, Biodiversity
Genomics, Species Richness, Diversity Measurement, Alpha Diversity, Beta Diversity,
Gamma Diversity, Agrobiodiversity Index, Carrying Capacity, Ecological Succession, Climax
Community (Mono-Climax Theory, Poly Climax Theory, Climax-Pattern Theory, Climax as
Vegetation), Biodiversity Effect, Additive Partitioning Method, Optimal Defense Theory,
Coexistence Theory, Area Effect on Biodiversity, Edge Effect on Biodiversity,
Complementarity Effect on Biodiversity, Diversity-Stability Theory, Diversity Function Theory,
Game Theory, Maximum Entropy Theory of Agroecology, Metapopulation Theory, Nash
Equilibrium, The Theory of Biological Equilibrium, Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity and
Biogeography, Systems Theory, Chaos Theory, Keystone Species, Trophic Levels, May's
Stability Theory, Energy Transfer to Higher Trophic Levels, Ecological Efficiency, The Ten
Percent Law, Resource Partitioning, Root Economics Spectrum Hypothesis, Biotic
Feedback, One Health.

4.2. VALUATION OF NATURAL CAPITAL

Renewable and Non-renewable Resources (Plants, Animals, Air, Water, Soil, Minerals).
The System of Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA) of the UN.

4.3. ANALYSIS OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

4.3.1. Provisioning Ecosystem Services

Yield, Quantity, Quality, Ecosystem Service Footprint, Bioeconomic Modelling, Optimal

Harvesting Theory.

4.3.2. Regulating Ecosystem Services

Regulating Water Purification - Carbonaceous Biological Oxygen Demand (CBOD),

Dissolved Oxygen. Water Quality Assessment Model based on the Set Pair Analysis Theory
(WQA-SPA).

Regulating Hydrological Cycle - Hydrological Cycle, Ascent of Sap, Cohesion-Tension

Theory, Evapotranspiration, Cloud Seeding, Air Mass Theory, Bioprecipitation Hypothesis,
Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds (BVOC), Biotic Pump Theory, Rainwater Availability,
Rainwater Interception, Atmospheric Water Harvesting, Dew Transport, Moisture Harvesting
Index (MHI), Soil Water Regime, Water Holding Capacity of Soil, Water Retention Curve,
Hydraulic Conductivity, Transmission Time, Infiltration Rate, Groundwater Recharge, Water
Use Efficiency, Catchment Area, Watershed Theory, Freshwater Habitat, Flood Protection.

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Regulating Carbon Cycle - Carbon Cycle, Photosynthesis, Net Primary Productivity (NPP),
Decomposition of Organic Matter, C:N Ratio, Mineralization, Carbon Sequestration, Carbon
Transport, Carbon Assimilation, Respiration, Combustion, Estimation of Carbon Stock and
Flow.

Regulating Nitrogen Cycle - Nitrogen Cycle, Nitrogen Fixation by Lightning, Biological

Nitrogen Fixation, Free-Living Heterotrophs, Associative Bacteria, Symbiotic Bacteria,
Legume Nodule Forming Bacteria, Direct Nitrogen Supply by Earthworms, Blue Green Algae
and Azolla, Nitrogen Fixation in Termite-Fungus-Bacteria Symbiosis, Nitrification,
Ammonification, Denitrification, Leaching, Frank's Organic Nitrogen Theory, Optimization
Theory and Coordination Theory of Leaf Nitrogen Distribution in a Canopy, Biomass-Driven
Competition Hypothesis, Niche Dimension Hypothesis, Nitrogen Detriment Hypothesis.

Regulating Phosphorus Cycle - Phosphorus Cycle, Geological Cycle, Biological Cycle,

Biological Phosphate Solubilization, Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria, Decomposition of
Organic Phosphate, Phytic Acid, Eutrophication, Remediation of Phosphorus Pollution,
Export of Phosphorus (Harvesting of crop).

Regulating Soil Health - Soil Health Parameters, Physical Parameters (Soil Minerals, Soil
Water, Soil Air, Soil Organic Matter, Soil Structure, Soil Aggregates), Chemical Parameters
(pH, Cation Exchange Capacity, nitrogen, phosphorus), Biological Parameters (Organic
Matter, Microorganisms, Earthworms), Biological Indicators of Soil Health (Microorganism-
Mushroom Biodiversity, Plant-Green Leaf Colour, Leaf Area Index, Animal- Native
Earthworm Biodiversity), Soil Health Index, Detritivores, Decomposition of Organic Matter,
Mineralization, Soil Mixing and Aggregation, Chelation, Biofilm Formation, Soil Formation
(Pedogenesis), The Humus Theory, Root Carbon, Bioremediation of Soil, Phytoremediation
of Soil.

Regulating Plant Health - Plant Health Parameters, Measurement of Plant Health, Leaf Area
Index, Thermography, Fluorescence, Leaf Reflectance, Transmission and Absorption,
Chlorophyll Density (Colourimetry), Photosynthesis Efficiency, Leaf Chlorophyll Content
(Extraction) and Mineral Content in Plants, Plant Health Index, Fungal Loop Hypothesis,
Fungal Symbiosis, Game Theory, AMF, PGPR, Phytohormones, Biotic and Abiotic Stress
Tolerance, Defence Priming, Antibiosis.

Regulating Pollination of Crops - Pollinator Dependency, Survey of Native Pollinator

Biodiversity, Foraging Behaviour, Residence, Tripping Rate, Optimal Foraging Theory,
Central Place Foraging Theory, Network Theory, Game Theory, Chaos Theory, Keen
Selection Theory, Keenship Theory, Theory of Altruism, Mutualism, The Magnet Hypothesis,
Keystone Species, Pollination Efficiency, Coevolution Theory, Pollinator Decline, Pollinator
Sanctuary, Pollinator Pathway.

Regulating Natural Control of Insect Pests and Plant Pathogens - Biotic Interactions -
Predation, Parasitism, Competition, Mutualism, Pathogenesis, Antagonism, Allelopathy.
Trophic Levels, Food Web, Food Pyramid, Predation, Parasitism, Competition, Niche Theory,
Predator–Prey Theory, Range-Limit Theory (RLT), The Biotic Resistance Hypothesis, Plant
Defense Theory, Trophobiosis Theory, Evolutionary Game Theory, Population Dynamics,
Logistic Equation, Correlative Model, Mechanistic Model, General Predictive Model, The

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Dilution Effect, The Physical Barrier Effect, Disruptive Crop Hypothesis, The Habitat Effect,
Lotka-Volterra Model, Coevolution Theory, Optimal Foraging Theory.

4.3.3. Cultural Ecosystem Services

Stakeholder Theory.

4.4. VALUATION OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

4.4.1. Provisioning Ecosystem Services

Cost of Production, Productivity, Yield, Land Equivalent Ratio, Area and Time Equivalent
Ratio, Resource Use Efficiency, Carbon Dynamics, Selling Price, Other Income, Gross Total
Income, Taxes, Provisions, Net Profit of the Farmer.

4.4.2. Regulating Ecosystem Services

Replacement Cost, Avoided Health Cost, Cost of Retention of Soil, Yield Analysis.

4.4.3. Cultural Ecosystem Services

Shadow Pricing, Hedonic Pricing, Travel Cost/Time Method, Production Function

Approaches, Willingness to Pay/Accept, Benefit/Value Transfer, Choice Experiments,
Scaling Methods, Ranking Methods, Time-Use Methods, Photograph Analysis, Quantitative
Modelling, Geographical Information System (GIS) Based Approaches, Bayesian Belief
Networks, Narrative and Artistic Methods, Sceneries Creation, Anthropological Methods,
Deliberative Approaches, Participatory GIS Quantitative Data, Participatory Modelling,
Expert Opinion, Multiple or Combined Approaches, Multicriteria Decision Analysis,
Integrated Assessment Modelling.

Reference: Principles of Natural Farming by Dr. Bikash Ranjan Ray, Amazon.com.