XBOE4103 Occupational Ergonomics - Caug16 (Bookmark)

Faculty of Science and Technology
XBOE4103
Occupational Ergonomics
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

XBOE4103
OCCUPATIONAL
ERGONOMICS
T. Hari Krishnan

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Norlia T. Goolamally
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: T. Hari Krishnan

Cyberjaya University College of Medical Sciences
Moderators: Dr Yusof Omar
Safial Eqbal Zakaria

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2015

Second Edition, August 2016 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), August 2016, XBOE4103
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide ixăxiv
Topic 1 Introduction to Ergonomics 1

1.1 History of Ergonomics 1
1.1.1 Ergonomics Framework 2
1.1.2 Domain of Ergonomics 4
1.2 Anthropometric Data 5
1.2.1 Anthropometric Measurement 5
1.2.2 Statistical Measures 5
1.2.3 Anthropometric Measurement Techniques 6
1.2.4 Anthropometric Tables 9
1.2.5 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design 22
Summary 25
Key Terms 26
References 26
Topic 2 The Human Body 27

2.1 Basic Anatomy 28
2.1.1 Human Body System 28
2.1.2 Musculoskeletal Disorders 33
2.2 Posture and Movement 35
2.3 Fatigue 38
2.4 Body Strength and Load Handling 40
2.5 Back Injury 42
2.6 Ergonomics Considerations at the Design Stage 44
2.6.1 Tool Design 44
2.6.2 Task Design 45
Summary 45
Key Terms 46
References 46

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 The Human Mind 47

3.1 Our Eyes 47
3.2 Our Ears 49
3.2.1 Effects of Noise 52
3.2.2 Control Measures for Noise 53
3.3 Our Skin 54
3.4 Human Thermoregulation 55
3.4.1 Hot Environment 56
3.4.2 Cold Environment 58
Summary 59
Key Terms 60
References 60
Topic 4 Body and Mind Working Together 61

4.1 The Brain-Nerve Network 62
4.2 Tiredness, Boredom and Alertness at Work 66
4.3 Suitable Postures at Work 68
4.4 Ergonomics Risk Factors 70
Summary 74
Key Terms 75
References 75
Topic 5 Human Factors and Cognitive Ergonomics 76

5.1 Stress at Work 77
5.2 Mental Workload 78
5.3 Physical Workload 80
5.4 Underload and Overload 81
5.5 Display and Control 82
5.5.1 Universal Design 82
5.5.2 Human Error and Safety 85
5.5.3 Design Techniques for Error Reduction:
Standardisation, Stereotypes, Redundancy, Feedback 86
Summary 89
Key Terms 89
References 90

TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 6 Human Engineering 91

6.1 Designing the Home for Mother and Child 91
6.1.1 Pregnant Women 92
6.1.2 Children 93
6.2 Designing for Impaired and Elderly People 97
6.3 Access Areas, Walkways, Steps and Stairs 98
6.3.1 Access Areas 98
6.3.2 Walkways 99
6.3.3 Steps and Stairs 101
6.4 Kitchens 102
6.5 Bedrooms and Bathrooms 103
6.5.1 Bedroom 104
6.5.2 Bathroom 105
6.6 Ergonomics Design of Offices 106
6.6.1 Modern Work Environment 106
6.6.2 Layout of Workspaces 108
6.6.3 Office Design: Acoustics 110
6.6.4 Office Design: Ventilation 110
6.6.5 Office Design: Lighting 111
6.6.6 Office Design: Workstation Arrangement 111
6.6.7 Controls for Computer-related Stresses 113
Summary 114
Key Terms 115
References 115
Topic 7 Organising and Managing Work 116

7.1 Getting Along with Others 117
7.2 Motivation and Behaviour 118
7.3 The Organisation and You 123
7.4 Design for Motivation and Performance 124
7.5 Working Hours 126
7.6 Circadian Body Rhythm 128
7.7 Ergonomics Programmes and Standards 130
7.7.1 Ergonomics Programmes: Hazard Identification,
Evaluation and Control Implementation 130
7.7.2 Ergonomic Hazard Identification 130
7.7.3 Ergonomic Hazard Evaluation 131
7.7.4 Ergonomics Control Implementation 133
7.7.5 ISO Ergonomics Standard 135
7.7.6 Other Ergonomics Standards and Guidelines 144

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Summary 146
Key Terms 147
References 147

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
XBOE4103 Occupational Ergonomics is one of the courses offered by the Faculty
of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This is a core course for all learners undertaking the Bachelor of Occupational
Health and Safety Management with Honours programme.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the
right course material, and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.

x  COURSE GUIDE
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Apply ergonomics principles for the creation of a safer, healthier, more

efficient and more effective workplace;
2. Identify the causes of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) and the strategies to

address them;
3. Determine the perceptual, mental and physical capabilities of individuals

and the interactions of individuals with their jobs in various work sectors;
4. Demonstrate analytical skills in identifying workplace risk factors that can

affect human performance with regard to ergonomics; and
5. Develop improvement plans and recommend sound workplace ergonomics

improvement programmes through collective and team approaches.

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into seven topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as
follows:
Topic 1 gives an overview of ergonomics, introduces ergonomic principles and

offers examples of applying ergonomics to solve problems in the work
environment. Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary science, which not only touches
on organisational and industrial issues but also on activities in our daily lives.
This topic also discusses anthropometric measurement.
Topic 2 provides an overview of how the human body works and discusses the
importance of human body systems, muscular effort (difference between static
and dynamic work), work-related musculoskeletal disorders, the occurrence of
fatigue, load handling in workplace, back injury problems among employees and
ergonomic considerations during the design stage of tool and task design to
optimise worker performance.
Topic 3 discusses the structure of the eye, ears and skin and their respective
functions. This topic also highlights visual and noise problems. The topic
explains health disorders caused by working in extreme temperatures (cold and
heat) and some practical solutions for these problems.
Topic 4 explains the brain-nerve network, tiredness, boredom and alertness at

work, neutral working postures, job satisfaction and ergonomic risk factors.
Topic 5 describes briefly the cognitive aspects that can influence worker
performance. It also explains stress among employees and relates some
physiological and psychological problems. Physical and mental workload among
employees, underload and overload at the workplace, some principles of
displays and controls, human error and safety are also discussed.
Topic 6 discusses the requirements and best practices in designing places such as
home and kitchen, with a focus on designing for special people such as the
elderly and people with limited abilities. The topic also explains the office design
for optimal productivity of office workers.
Topic 7 discusses how humans interface with their work environment,

particularly with regard to organisational structure and culture, which can affect
human behaviour and safety climates at their workplace. This topic also
discusses human motivation and behaviour, organisational structure, policies,
procedures and culture as well as some ergonomics programmes and standards.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bridger, R. S. (2003). Introduction to ergonomics (2nd ed.). London, England:
Taylor and Francis.
Helander, M. (2006). A guide to human factors and ergonomics (2nd ed.).

London, England: Taylor & Francis.
Kroemer, K. H. E., & Grandjean, E. (1997). Fitting the task to the human (5th ed.).
Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2001). Psychology and work today: An

introduction to industrial and organizational psychology. New Jersey, NJ:
Prentice Halls.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

Topic  Introduction
1 to Ergonomics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define the term „ergonomics‰;
2. List the benefits of ergonomics implementation at the workplace;
3. Describe the domains of ergonomics;
4. Explain what is meant by anthropometric measurements; and
5. Discuss the use of anthropometric data in design.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic provides an overview of ergonomics and introduces ergonomics
principles as well as offers examples of applying ergonomics to solve problems in
the work environment. Ergonomics is a multidisciplinary science, which touches
not only on organisational and industrial issues but also on activities in our daily
lives. Also, this topic discusses anthropometric measurements.
1.1 HISTORY OF ERGONOMICS

The term „ergonomics‰ was first coined in the year 1857 by a Polish Scholar,
Wojciech Jastrzbowski (1799ă1882). The book was reprinted in an English
translation in 1997, with the title An Outline of Ergonomics, or the Science of
Work Based upon the Truths Drawn from the Science of Nature. The word
ergonomics has its roots in the Greek word, „ergon‰, which means „to work or
accomplish‰ and „nomos‰, which means „law or custom‰.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS
Before Jastrzbowski, an Italian physician, Bernardino Ramazinni (1633ă1714)

published a book entitled De Morbis Artificum (Diseases of Workers). He
documented the association between occupations and musculoskeletal injuries.
He documented diseases related to 52 occupations. In the book, he also reported
that metal mining workers had respiratory disorders such as asthma and
tuberculosis due to fine particles exposure and described the effects of awkward
or poor posture on workersÊ bodies.
Another Polish scientist, Józefa Joteyko, discussed occupational fatigue and

principles in scientific management of labour in The Science of Labour and Its
Organisation, which was published in 1919.
A simple definition of ergonomics is that it is a science on how to fit the task and
working environment to the worker, using a scientific approach or „fit the task to
the man‰. A complex definition of ergonomics has been suggested by the
International Ergonomics Association (2000) as follows:
Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a system
and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design
in order to optimise human well-being and overall system performance.
Ergonomists contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products,

environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs,
abilities and limitations of people.
1.1.1 Ergonomics Framework

The ergonomics framework is based on the human-centred principle, where all
other elements are adjusted or fitted to the human, based on the capability and
capacity of the human. Grey et al. (1987) lists six elements, with the human as the
centre of the framework (see Figure 1.1). Other elements such as task, tools or
workstation, environment, work organisation and company culture are adjusted
to suit the human.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS  3
Figure 1.1: Ergonomics framework

Source: Grey et al. (1987)
The benefits of ergonomics implementation are as follows:
(a) Enhances efficiency and productivity of work;

(b) Increases product and human working quality;
(c) Leads to a higher level of safety for workers;
(d) Leads to a higher level of health for workers;
(e) Creates a higher level of comfort for workers;
(f) Reduces stress and fatigue;
(g) Reduces illness or musculoskeletal disorders;
(h) Reduces human errors;
(i) Prevents accidents; and
(j) Reduces medical costs.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss in a group the ergonomics framework and how each element
can be adjusted to cater to humans.
1.1.2 Domain of Ergonomics

The International Ergonomics Association has divided ergonomics into three
main domains as follows:
(a) Physical Ergonomics

Concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and
biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
Relevant topics: working postures, materials handling, repetitive

movements, work-related musculoskeletal disorders, workplace layout,
safety and health.
(b) Cognitive Ergonomics

Concerned with mental processes such as perception, memory, reasoning
and motor response as they affect interactions among humans and other
elements of a system.
Relevant topics: mental workload, decision making, skilled performance,

human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as
these may relate to human-system design.
(c) Organisational Ergonomics

Concerned with the optimisation of sociotechnical systems, including their
organisational structures, policies and processes.
Relevant topics: communication, crew resource management, work design,

design of working time, teamwork, participatory design, community
ergonomics, cooperative work, new work paradigms, virtual organisations
and quality management.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
What are the domains of ergonomics? Describe each domain in the

online forum.

1.2 ANTHROPOMETRIC DATA

Anthropometry is concerned with the proportion and size of the human body.
Anthropometric data is used in ergonomics to specify physical dimensions of
workspace, equipment, tools and furniture with the primary intention to fit the
task to human.
1.2.1 Anthropometric Measurement

The word „anthropometry‰ is derived from Greek, where „anthropos‰ means
man and „metron‰ means measure. Anthropometric data is widely used in the
ergonomic field to specify the physical dimensions of workspaces, equipment,
clothing and furniture to ensure that physical mismatches between the
dimensions of equipment and products and the corresponding user dimensions
are avoided.
1.2.2 Statistical Measures

Gender and genetics play important roles in the size of the human body. On
average, men are 12cm taller than women and larger in most other body
measures as well. Genetic differences vary across individuals living in different
countries. For example, the average male height in the US is 167cm while in
Vietnam, it is 152cm. A car designed for the US population would fit only 10 per
cent of Vietnamese, unless of course, the differences can be compensated for by
using an adjustable seat.
A study done in the UK shows that the average male manager is three to four
centimetres taller than the average male blue-collar worker. This is because taller
people are often promoted to managerial level, as they are perceived to be a little
more intelligent, and that they may come from a higher socioeconomic class, they
might have a higher education level and also they consume higher levels of
animal protein.
Anthropometric data is usually presented in percentile measure. The most

common percentile measures are 5th, 50th and 95th, and percentile measures are
usually normally distributed (refer to Table 1.1). A normal distribution is
characterised by its mean value (M) and its standard deviation (SD). As long as
we know both values, it is very easy to do a calculation of percentile value.
For example, the 95th percentile equals the mean value plus 1.65 SD and the
5th percentile equals the mean minus 1.65 SD (see Figure 1.2).

Table 1.1: Explanation of Percentile Measures
Percentile Description
5th 5 per cent of the population are smaller
50th Average value
95th 95 per cent of the population are smaller
Figure 1.2: Standard deviations of normal distribution
1.2.3 Anthropometric Measurement Techniques

A correct measurement technique is crucial to provide reliable data which can be
used and applied to design an optimal workplace. Measurement techniques have
been improved in line with the advancement of technology which can provide
reliable and accurate measurement with very minimal time.
(a) Measurement Techniques

There are various tools used for anthropometric measurement. Traditional
measurement tools include anthropometers (see Figure 1.3), sliding
callipers (see Figure 1.4), spreading callipers (see Figure 1.5), stadiometer,
sitting-height tables, tape measures and simple scales (weight scales).
Recently, due to technological advancements, modern measurement
tools are also being used for anthropometric measurements. Modern
measurement tools include three-dimensional body scanning (see Figure
1.6) and three-dimensional cameras.

Figure 1.3: Anthropometer

Source: http://www.holtain.com
Figure 1.4: Sliding callipers

Source: http://www.sandoxcientifica.com/
Figure 1.5: Spreading callipers

Source: http://www.antropolog-instrument.ru/

Figure 1.6: Three-dimensional body scanner

Source: https://www.vitronic.com/industrial-and-logistics-automation.html
(b) Type of Anthropometric Data

Anthropometric data can be divided into two types:
(i) Static Measures

Passive measures of human body dimensions. These measures are
used to determine size and spacing requirements of the workspace.
Examples: weight, height and popliteal height.
(ii) Dynamic Measures

Measure the dynamic properties of the human body. These measures
are used to match dynamic characteristics of control to users.
Examples: human body strength and endurance.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
1. Define ergon, nomos and ergonomics.
2. Define the word „anthropometric‰.
3. Discuss the contribution of Bernardino Ramazinni to ergonomics.
4. List the factors affecting anthropometric data.
5. Explain the types of anthropometric data.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of traditional and modern

anthropometric measurement techniques.
1.2.4 Anthropometric Tables

The anthropometry tables presented below provide anthropometric reference
data for the Malaysian population aged between 18 and 24 years old. The data
was derived from measurement of 300 students (150 male students and
150 female students). The data has been divided into male and female for each
major Malaysian ethnicity (Malay, Chinese and Indian).
The organisation of anthropometric data is as follows:
(a) Table 1.2: Anthropometric data for Malay male;
(b) Table 1.3: Anthropometric data for Malay female;
(c) Table 1.4: Anthropometric data for Chinese male;
(d) Table 1.5: Anthropometric data for Chinese female;
(e) Table 1.6: Anthropometric data for Indian male; and
(f) Table 1.7: Anthropometric data for Indian female.

Table 1.2: Anthropometric Data for Malay Male, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Male (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
Mean SD SEM Min 5th 50th 95th Max
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 72.57 16.27 2.30 22.43 46.00 54.00 68.15 102.45 105.00
2 Stature 178.57 2.96 4.42 1.66 174.40 174.56 177.75 184.75 186.80
3 Eye height 166.44 3.46 0.49 2.08 161.90 162.33 165.05 174.72 175.30
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 148.10 4.04 0.57 2.73 142.20 142.50 147.50 156.75 157.30
(standing)
5 Elbow height 112.49 3.76 0.53 3.34 106.10 106.70 111.60 119.59 120.10
(standing)
6 Fist height 75.64 5.88 0.83 7.77 52.80 59.18 76.45 81.99 82.50
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 212.70 5.84 0.83 2.75 200.10 203.66 213.05 223.07 224.50
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 45.79 3.47 0.49 7.59 40.10 40.50 45.90 52.58 54.50
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 47.14 3.71 0.52 7.87 40.50 41.82 47.40 54.05 56.40
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 14.88 1.76 0.25 11.86 10.20 12.31 14.85 18.79 19.00
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 18.91 3.42 0.48 18.07 12.40 13.95 18.55 25.65 27.70
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 32.62 3.40 0.48 10.43 24.90 24.96 32.45 38.10 40.30
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 88.73 3.32 0.47 3.74 76.40 81.84 88.75 93.44 94.80
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 76.63 3.40 0.48 4.43 66.60 69.12 76.65 81.83 85.20
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 45.79 3.47 0.49 7.59 40.10 40.50 45.90 52.58 54.50
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 20.59 3.16 0.45 15.34 14.50 15.20 21.05 26.54 29.00
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 35.33 2.42 0.34 6.86 24.00 32.56 35.55 38.84 41.90
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 77.54 3.33 0.47 4.29 70.60 71.83 77.60 83.35 84.50
reach (sitting)
19 Buttock popliteal 52.39 2.07 0.29 3.95 49.10 49.16 52.40 55.45 57.30
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 63.38 3.02 0.43 4.76 52.10 56.78 63.35 67.34 67.50
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 115.00 2.68 0.38 2.33 107.00 111.40 115.30 121.00 121.80
length (sitting)
22 Popliteal height 41.18 1.25 0.18 3.04 39.30 39.56 40.90 43.81 44.40
(sitting)
23 Hand length 19.98 1.33 0.19 6.67 17.60 18.13 19.70 24.00 24.80
24 Hand breadth 7.07 0.48 0.07 6.74 5.80 6.40 7.10 8.05 8.70
25 Hand thickness 2.93 0.31 0.04 10.50 2.30 2.50 3.00 3.50 3.50
26 Thumb breadth 2.07 0.10 0.01 4.63 1.80 1.96 2.10 2.30 2.30
27 Forefinger tip 1.62 0.13 0.02 8.10 1.40 1.40 1.60 1.90 1.90
breadth
28 Foot length 27.12 1.04 0.15 3.84 25.00 25.37 27.05 28.69 29.70
29 Foot breadth 9.92 0.68 0.10 6.85 7.90 8.90 9.85 10.98 11.50
30 Head length 18.22 1.20 0.17 6.56 12.50 17.10 18.20 19.55 22.30
31 Head breadth 15.28 1.13 0.16 7.00 13.20 13.36 15.30 18.85 18.90
32 Head height 24.41 1.52 0.21 6.21 19.50 21.03 24.50 26.65 27.40
33 Circumference 56.28 1.79 0.25 3.18 52.70 53.06 56.60 59.00 59.40
ameasured in centimetres
Source: Karmegam, et al. (2011)

Table 1.3: Anthropometric Data for Malay Female, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Female (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 57.97 13.66 1.93 23.56 38.00 40.55 57.00 98.00 100.00
2 Stature 153.30 9.54 1.35 6.22 141.50 141.61 147.35 167.64 170.10
3 Eye height 140.86 8.35 1.18 5.93 130.20 131.17 137.45 155.70 156.10
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 125.40 8.03 1.14 6.41 112.50 113.85 123.50 138.74 139.00
(standing)
5 Elbow height 96.04 5.82 0.82 6.06 76.90 87.20 95.35 104.50 105.30
(standing)
6 Fist height 65.02 6.79 0.96 10.45 50.20 53.05 64.65 75.50 85.60
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 180.84 10.58 1.50 8.85 160.00 160.16 179.50 196.60 197.20
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 37.84 2.76 0.39 7.29 31.80 33.21 37.40 42.45 42.80
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 42.49 4.07 0.58 9.58 34.10 36.51 42.20 53.57 54.10
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 14.76 2.55 0.36 17.26 9.70 10.46 15.25 19.05 19.60
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 18.58 2.99 0.42 16.09 13.40 14.46 18.45 24.47 26.10
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 33.00 4.84 0.68 14.69 13.50 26.51 31.95 41.14 41.00
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 77.19 5.15 0.73 6.68 65.30 65.36 76.55 84.94 85.80
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 66.76 5.76 0.81 8.62 52.40 52.61 66.45 74.74 75.00
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 37.84 2.76 0.39 7.29 31.80 33.21 37.40 42.45 42.80
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 18.88 3.22 0.45 17.03 13.60 14.36 17.70 25.50 28.80
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 36.05 5.13 0.73 14.24 25.10 27.51 34.55 43.50 45.50
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 66.41 4.92 0.70 7.41 54.30 58.57 66.40 71.35 87.10
reach (sitting)
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 56.66 4.34 0.61 7.65 46.60 47.16 56.75 63.84 66.40
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 99.98 4.96 0.70 4.96 91.40 93.61 98.45 109.19 109.40
length (sitting)
(sitting)
23 Hand length 16.95 1.19 0.17 7.00 15.10 15.36 17.00 19.03 20.30
24 Hand breadth 6.45 0.79 0.11 12.28 4.60 5.02 6.50 7.95 8.10
25 Hand thickness 2.40 0.28 0.04 11.60 1.80 1.86 2.40 2.80 3.00
26 Thumb breadth 1.76 0.12 0.02 6.82 1.50 1.56 1.70 1.90 2.00
27 Forefinger tip 1.58 0.15 0.02 9.49 1.30 1.30 1.60 1.80 3.10
breadth
28 Foot length 22.47 1.54 0.22 6.84 18.80 20.11 22.45 25.00 26.30
29 Foot breadth 8.48 1.17 0.17 13.75 7.00 7.00 8.30 11.29 11.40
30 Head length 17.57 1.15 0.16 22.42 14.50 15.50 17.50 19.85 21.20
31 Head breadth 15.06 1.55 0.22 10.00 12.40 12.50 14.60 18.46 18.70
32 Head height 22.29 1.35 0.19 6.04 20.20 20.30 22.00 24.55 25.30
33 Circumference 54.94 2.64 0.37 4.81 49.50 49.87 55.10 59.79 60.10

Table 1.4: Anthropometric Data for Chinese Male, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Male (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 64.17 14.70 2.08 22.91 42.00 47.10 61.00 100.00 113.00
2 Stature 169.38 5.91 0.84 3.49 158.40 159.97 169.60 179.52 182.40
3 Eye height 158.10 6.61 0.94 4.18 142.30 148.19 159.50 168.25 170.40
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 140.23 5.79 0.82 4.13 130.40 131.26 140.40 150.69 156.60
(standing)
5 Elbow height 107.16 3.94 0.56 3.68 98.40 101.00 106.90 113.81 121.40
(standing)
6 Fist height 72.92 2.99 0.42 4.10 65.10 67.72 73.15 79.41 81.60
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 201.33 9.15 1.29 4.55 183.50 184.66 201.85 216.80 217.80
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 43.07 2.93 0.41 6.80 37.50 38.93 42.40 49.64 50.30
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 44.68 4.08 0.58 9.14 37.50 39.00 44.30 52.82 57.30
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 14.94 1.82 0.26 12.15 9.80 11.26 14.76 18.07 19.50
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 18.14 2.95 0.42 16.28 11.70 13.37 18.00 23.90 28.10
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 30.79 2.84 0.40 9.21 21.40 24.94 30.60 35.74 38.40
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 85.54 3.41 0.48 3.99 79.30 80.01 85.35 91.52 93.50
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 73.71 3.56 0.50 4.83 65.90 68.07 73.55 79.90 80.00
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 57.17 2.97 0.42 5.20 51.60 52.66 56.65 62.50 64.40
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 20.07 3.11 0.44 15.50 14.30 15.09 19.60 25.45 27.40
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 33.10 2.37 0.33 7.15 23.50 30.37 33.20 37.07 38.40
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 74.07 5.27 0.75 7.12 62.50 64.17 74.65 84.85 85.30
reach (sitting)
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 60.38 3.70 0.52 6.13 49.20 53.90 61.40 67.45 68.30
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 109.68 4.87 0.69 4.44 101.10 101.91 110.10 118.99 120.40
length (sitting)
(sitting)
23 Hand length 18.22 1.33 0.19 7.31 13.50 15.91 18.45 20.29 20.80
24 Hand breadth 6.90 0.58 0.08 8.44 5.30 6.02 6.80 8.09 8.40
25 Hand thickness 2.95 0.33 0.05 11.03 2.30 2.36 3.00 3.45 3.70
26 Thumb breadth 2.07 0.17 0.02 8.31 1.80 1.80 2.10 2.30 2.90
27 Forefinger tip 1.55 0.12 0.02 7.75 1.30 1.36 1.50 1.80 1.90
breadth
28 Foot length 25.35 1.70 0.24 6.70 20.40 21.53 25.45 28.30 29.50
29 Foot breadth 9.68 0.66 0.09 6.82 7.70 8.47 9.60 10.91 11.40
30 Head length 18.02 1.05 0.15 5.81 15.40 16.58 18.20 19.08 23.50
31 Head breadth 15.39 0.92 0.13 5.98 13.10 13.50 15.50 16.65 16.90
32 Head height 24.53 1.08 0.15 4.41 21.60 22.46 24.50 26.30 26.50
33 Circumference 55.90 1.48 0.21 2.65 52.40 52.83 56.15 58.30 58.30

Table 1.5: Anthropometric Data for Chinese Female, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Female (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 55.82 12.56 1.92 22.50 40.00 41.08 52.00 86.80 88.00
2 Stature 158.58 5.14 0.78 3.24 150.10 151.48 157.00 170.46 170.70
3 Eye height 147.28 5.02 0.77 3.41 139.50 140.42 146.10 159.56 159.70
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 130.35 5.01 0.76 3.85 120.50 121.42 129.80 140.86 140.90
(standing)
5 Elbow height 100.18 4.18 0.64 4.18 90.00 91.24 100.10 107.74 108.00
(standing)
6 Fist height 67.40 3.45 0.53 5.11 60.00 60.86 67.80 73.98 74.10
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 186.58 7.27 1.11 3.89 163.50 174.14 186.10 198.60 199.40
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 37.38 3.21 0.49 8.59 32.50 33.56 36.10 44.20 44.30
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 40.94 3.70 0.56 9.03 34.40 34.68 40.60 50.24 51.40
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 13.04 2.60 0.40 19.94 8.70 9.64 12.20 18.76 18.90
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 17.43 3.42 0.52 19.59 13.00 13.34 16.30 25.56 25.80
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 31.45 3.62 0.55 11.51 26.60 26.72 30.60 38.48 39.40
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 81.68 3.79 0.58 4.65 72.40 75.56 81.70 89.78 89.80
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 69.89 5.40 0.82 7.72 54.60 55.70 70.20 79.18 79.30
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 54.07 3.48 0.53 6.44 44.40 46.58 54.50 59.20 60.10
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 21.36 3.58 0.55 16.77 12.50 14.24 22.60 25.54 25.60
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 33.63 4.28 0.65 12.74 28.80 28.92 32.40 41.76 43.30
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 66.26 3.61 0.55 5.44 59.90 60.44 66.20 73.16 73.20
reach (sitting)
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 55.11 3.82 0.58 6.93 38.90 49.60 54.90 59.72 63.40
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 99.83 5.17 0.79 5.18 89.50 90.24 99.70 105.50 108.50
length (sitting)
(sitting)
23 Hand length 17.17 1.13 0.17 6.60 14.40 14.68 17.00 19.40 19.50
24 Hand breadth 6.90 0.79 0.12 11.50 5.20 5.40 7.10 8.30 8.40
25 Hand thickness 2.36 0.26 0.04 11.19 2.10 2.10 2.30 3.00 3.00
26 Thumb breadth 1.77 0.15 0.02 8.73 1.40 1.52 1.80 2.08 2.10
27 Forefinger tip 1.57 0.16 0.02 9.94 1.30 1.30 1.60 1.80 2.00
breadth
28 Foot length 23.14 1.14 0.17 4.93 20.30 20.42 23.30 25.28 25.40
29 Foot breadth 8.65 0.90 0.14 10.37 6.30 7.20 8.80 9.70 10.10
30 Head length 17.71 1.42 0.22 8.02 14.40 15.92 17.50 21.94 23.40
31 Head breadth 14.60 0.96 0.15 6.59 12.60 12.66 14.60 16.46 17.30
32 Head height 22.49 1.36 0.21 6.05 19.40 20.20 22.40 24.78 25.50
33 Circumference 55.01 1.93 0.29 3.50 51.00 51.22 55.10 58.18 60.20

Table 1.6: Anthropometric Data for Indian Male, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Male (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 65.32 15.79 2.23 24.17 41.00 43.10 63.00 93.45 100.00
2 Stature 168.10 7.68 1.09 4.57 157.50 158.14 165.05 182.44 183.60
3 Eye height 156.41 9.57 1.35 6.12 132.10 140.06 153.70 173.19 174.60
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 141.39 7.52 1.06 5.31 132.00 133.39 138.30 157.30 157.40
(standing)
5 Elbow height 106.65 5.51 0.78 5.16 99.50 99.96 105.15 118.75 119.60
(standing)
6 Fist height 72.25 4.88 0.69 6.76 63.70 64.07 72.45 82.59 83.50
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 203.97 10.59 1.50 5.19 190.30 191.26 201.45 225.65 233.50
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 43.26 3.44 0.49 7.95 37.30 37.84 42.30 49.05 54.50
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 46.09 4.32 0.61 9.37 39.20 39.83 45.15 55.27 56.90
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 14.66 2.45 0.35 16.74 9.90 11.25 14.20 19.26 20.00
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 19.10 3.67 0.52 19.21 14.60 14.91 17.85 28.01 29.10
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 31.53 3.27 0.46 10.37 20.10 27.56 31.30 38.18 40.80
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 82.35 4.81 0.68 5.85 71.70 72.19 81.75 91.29 93.40
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 70.53 4.94 0.70 7.00 58.50 60.56 69.95 79.87 80.60
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 54.81 3.93 0.56 7.18 47.60 48.81 54.40 63.03 65.10
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 18.64 3.63 0.51 19.45 11.80 12.99 18.30 26.05 26.20
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 33.69 2.89 0.41 8.57 23.50 28.24 33.50 38.25 38.50
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 74.77 5.75 0.81 7.69 62.40 62.94 74.35 84.99 87.90
reach (sitting)
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 60.89 3.60 0.51 5.92 52.70 55.66 60.35 67.79 68.40
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 111.59 6.13 0.87 5.50 99.20 100.94 110.95 120.91 122.80
length (sitting)
(sitting)
23 Hand length 18.51 1.31 0.19 7.09 14.60 15.91 18.50 20.30 21.20
24 Hand breadth 6.84 0.85 0.12 12.43 4.50 4.71 6.80 8.24 8.50
25 Hand thickness 2.79 0.30 0.04 10.68 2.00 2.10 2.75 3.25 3.40
26 Thumb breadth 1.97 0.21 0.03 10.72 1.60 1.60 1.90 2.30 2.90
27 Forefinger tip 1.54 0.14 0.02 8.99 1.30 1.30 1.50 1.85 1.90
breadth
28 Foot length 25.66 1.76 0.25 6.84 22.70 23.02 25.80 28.55 28.70
29 Foot breadth 9.60 0.81 0.11 8.41 7.90 8.26 9.50 11.39 11.50
30 Head length 18.13 0.80 0.11 4.42 16.20 16.51 18.30 19.39 19.50
31 Head breadth 14.83 0.73 0.10 4.91 13.30 13.46 14.90 16.30 16.50
32 Head height 22.97 1.27 0.18 5.51 19.60 20.75 23.10 24.85 25.20
33 Circumference 54.85 2.79 0.39 5.09 40.00 51.87 55.30 58.29 59.10

Table 1.7: Anthropometric Data for Indian Female, Aged 18ă24 Years Old
Female (n = 50)
Measurementa CV
(%)
1 Weight (kg) 55.59 13.49 1.91 24.27 36.00 38.00 53.00 90.45 93.00
2 Stature 156.83 6.79 0.96 4.33 145.50 146.72 159.40 168.88 169.90
3 Eye height 145.59 6.96 0.98 4.78 130.10 134.38 146.90 157.98 158.90
(standing)
4 Shoulder height 130.11 6.13 0.87 4.72 121.30 122.21 127.55 141.45 145.40
(standing)
5 Elbow height 100.02 5.45 0.77 5.45 87.30 90.12 101.00 109.86 110.40
(standing)
6 Fist height 67.52 3.96 0.56 5.86 60.30 61.84 68.10 74.37 74.70
(standing)
7 Vertical grip 188.37 10.47 1.48 5.56 172.60 177.15 185.35 219.71 220.30
reach (standing)
8 Shoulder 38.01 2.93 0.41 7.72 34.00 34.16 37.45 44.08 45.10
breadth (sitting)
9 Elbow breadth 42.37 4.91 0.69 11.58 35.30 36.26 41.35 52.72 53.30
(sitting)
10 Thigh thickness 12.57 2.06 0.29 16.43 9.10 9.36 12.25 16.68 17.40
(sitting)
11 Abdominal 18.01 3.69 0.52 20.47 13.10 13.30 17.25 28.19 30.50
depth (sitting)
12 Hip breadth 30.95 4.37 0.62 14.13 20.50 22.06 30.20 41.35 42.00
(sitting)
13 Crown buttock 76.72 4.65 0.66 6.06 68.40 68.86 76.50 83.99 89.30
height (sitting)
14 Eye height 66.50 4.75 0.67 7.15 57.40 60.16 65.45 75.00 75.50
(sitting)
15 Shoulder height 51.72 4.89 0.69 9.46 42.50 44.36 51.30 60.25 64.40
(sitting)
16 Elbow height 18.63 2.89 0.41 15.52 12.00 15.59 17.55 22.54 31.00
(sitting)
17 Elbow grip 34.36 4.19 0.59 12.19 28.20 29.09 33.00 43.91 45.50
length (sitting)

18 Forward grip 68.88 5.38 0.76 7.82 57.30 62.11 68.15 77.84 86.30
reach (sitting)
length (sitting)
20 Buttock knee 57.19 3.85 0.55 6.74 51.90 52.27 56.25 64.75 65.30
length (sitting)
21 Buttock heel 103.20 4.58 0.65 4.44 95.80 97.02 102.75 111.95 112.50
length (sitting)
(sitting)
23 Hand length 17.31 1.18 0.17 6.83 15.40 15.91 17.20 19.69 21.10
24 Hand breadth 6.82 0.69 0.10 10.05 5.10 5.36 7.10 7.60 7.60
25 Hand thickness 2.39 0.36 0.05 14.87 1.80 1.96 2.30 3.40 3.40
26 Thumb breadth 1.77 0.25 0.04 14.13 1.40 1.40 1.80 2.20 2.20
27 Forefinger tip 1.48 0.19 0.03 12.62 1.20 1.20 1.50 1.80 1.90
breadth
28 Foot length 23.48 1.47 0.21 6.25 20.20 21.36 23.30 26.04 26.40
29 Foot breadth 8.66 0.80 0.11 9.25 6.30 7.10 8.70 10.25 10.30
30 Head length 18.32 2.04 0.29 11.11 15.20 15.56 17.60 23.00 23.80
31 Head breadth 14.32 0.90 0.13 6.29 12.50 12.88 14.35 16.25 17.30
32 Head height 21.79 1.34 0.19 6.14 19.10 19.46 21.85 24.45 24.50
33 Circumference 54.22 2.03 0.29 3.75 50.10 51.46 54.05 58.19 58.40
ACTIVITY 1.3
Discuss the benefits and applications of anthropometric data.

1.2.5 Use of Anthropometric Data in Design

Anthropometric data is used to improve the design of things and spaces for
people so that they are more comfortable, efficient, easy to use and safer than
previous designs.
Anthropometric data should be reasonably representative of the population that

will use the item. The design features must accommodate a broad spectrum of
people. When items are designed for specific groups, the data used should be
specifically for such groups.
Anthropometric measures are usually expressed as percentiles. The most

common are the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile measures (refer to Table 1.1). The
common procedure is to design for a range of population from the 5th percentile
(small operator) to the 95th percentile (large operator). The greater the design
range, the greater the cost. It is more expensive to design for the 5th to 95th
percentile range than for the 10th to 90th percentile range.
We will explain how anthropometric measures can be translated into workstation

design measures by using the anthropometric design motto:
(a) Let the small person reach; and

(b) Let the large person fit.
The following are the various designs identified:
(a) Design for Extreme Individuals

In designing certain features of our built physical world, we should try to
accommodate all the populations in the sample size. A specific design
dimension or feature is a limiting factor that might restrict use of the facility
for some people. That limiting factor can dictate either a „maximum‰ or
„minimum‰ value of the population variable or characteristic.
(i) Design for Maximum Population

Designing for the maximum population value is the appropriate
strategy if the given maximum value of the design feature should
accommodate all the people. Some examples of design for maximum
population are heights of doorways (see Figure 1.7), sizes of escape
hatches and the strength of supporting devices (see Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.7: Height of doorway
Figure 1.8: Strength of supporting device

(ii) Design for Minimum Population

Designing for the minimum population value is the appropriate
strategy if the given minimum value of the design feature should
accommodate all the people. Some examples of design for minimum
population are the distance of a control button from the operator
(see Figure 1.9) and the force required to operate the control (see
Figure 1.10).
Figure 1.9: Control button for the operator
Figure 1.10: Force required to operate the control
(b) Design for Adjustable Range

Certain features and equipment of facilities can be designed so they can be
adjusted to the individuals who use them. These individuals referred to
comprise the 5th percentile female to the 95th percentile male of the
relevant population characteristic of a normal distribution curve. It is

especially relevant if there are technical problems in trying to accommodate

very extreme cases. Although an adjustable range is the preferred design
method, of course, it is not always possible. Using a range from the 5th
percentile female to the 95th percentile male will result in accommodating
95 per cent of a 50/50 male or female population, and not 90 per cent,
because of the overlap between male and female body dimensions.
(c) Design for the Average

First and foremost, there is no „average‰ person in the world. People either
fall within the maximum population or the minimum population.
Designers do not have to deal with the complexity of anthropometric data.
A thorough analysis of the situation may prove that an average value is
acceptable. Designing for the average should only be done after careful
consideration of the situation and never as an easy way out.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
1. Explain the use of anthropometric data in designing item or spaces.
2. Discuss the effects of insufficient anthropometric data in a

population.
3. Discuss the effects of using data from another population as a basis

for design in Malaysia.
 Ergonomics is a science on how to fit the task and working environment to

the worker, using a scientific approach.
 Anthropometric data specifies the physical dimensions of workspaces,

equipment, clothing and furniture.
 Traditional and modern measurement tools are being used for

anthropometric measurements.
 Anthropometric data can be divided into two types which are static measures
and dynamic measures.
 Anthropometric measures are usually expressed as percentiles and the most

common are the 5th, 50th and 95th percentile measures.

Anthropometer Ergonomics framework

Anthropometric table Normal distribution
Anthropometrics Organisational ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics Physical ergonomics
Dynamic measures Static measures
Ergonomics Statistical measures
Grey, S. M., Norris, B. J., & Wilson, J. R. (1987). Ergonomics in the electronics
retail environment. Slough, UK: ICL (UK) Ltd.
Karmegam, K., Sapuan, S. M., Ismail, M. Y., Ismail, N., Shamsul Bahri, M. T.,
Shuib, S.,⁄ Hanapi, M. J. (2011). Anthropometric study among adults of
different ethnicity in Malaysia. International Journal of the Physical
Sciences, 6(4), 777ă788.

Topic  The Human
2 Body
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the essential parts of the human body and related
musculoskeletal disorders;
2. Explain human muscular effort (dynamic and static efforts);
3. Differentiate between isometric, concentric and eccentric contractions;
4. Discuss the occurrence of fatigue and best practices in load handling;
5. Explain the problem of back injury; and
6. Discuss the ergonomic considerations during the design of tool and
task.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview of how the human body works and the
importance of human body systems, muscular effort (difference between static
and dynamic efforts), work-related musculoskeletal disorders, the occurrence of
fatigue, load handling in the workplace, back injury problems among employees
and ergonomic considerations during tool and task design to optimise workersÊ
performances.

28  TOPIC 2 THE HUMAN BODY
2.1 BASIC ANATOMY

The human body is a complex system consisting of:
(a) Framework (skeleton);

(b) Moving parts (bones, joints, muscles, ligaments and tendons);
(c) Energy conversion system (metabolism and physiology);
(d) Movement control system (nervous system); and
(e) Feedback and decision-making system (senses and brain).
From an ergonomics point of view, we need to fully understand the mechanism

of the system, the full capabilities of the system and requirements for optimum
function and usage before we can effectively design work systems, equipment
and interfaces which depend on their capacity.
2.1.1 Human Body System

The human body consists of a few major systems, with each having particular
functions in the body. Table 2.1 shows the systems in the human body and their
associated functions.
Table 2.1: Human Body Systems and Their Functions
Human Body System Functions

Cardiovascular system Blood circulation (heart, arteries and veins)
Digestive system Food processing (mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestines)
Endocrine system Hormone secretion
Urinary system Waste elimination
Immune system Body defense
Muscular system Organ protection and body movement
Nervous system Information collecting, transferring and processing (brain and
nerves)
Reproductive system Sexual reproduction
Respiratory system Intake of oxygen (lungs and the trachea)
Skeletal system Supporting the human body and protection of organs
(ligaments, joints, tendon, bones, skull)
Source: www.cosmolearning.com

TOPIC 2 THE HUMAN BODY  29
For this course, we will only focus on the muscular system, nervous system and
skeletal system.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. What is human anatomy?
2. List all the vital systems in the human body.
(a) Muscular System

The muscular system is the biological system that is controlled by the
nerves and which enables us to move (see Figure 2.1). The main functions
of muscles are to enable body movement, maintain body posture and
generate heat.
Figure 2.1: Muscular system

Source: www.woodgrovesec.moe.edu.sg

(b) Nervous System

The nervous system can be divided into two systems, which are the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous
system is the bodyÊs main control centre and it consists of the brain and the
spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of all the other nerves
and neurons (see Figure 2.2). The peripheral nervous system can be divided
into two subsystems, which are the somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system can be further
divided into the sympathetic division, parasympathetic division and enteric
division.
Figure 2.2: Nervous system

Source: www.infovisual.info
(c) Skeletal System

The human skeleton is made of 206 individual or joined bones. There are
ligaments, tendons, muscles, cartilage and other organs to support the
skeletal system.

The functions of the skeletal system are as follows:
(i) Supports the body;

(ii) Manufactures blood cells (bone marrow); and
(iii) Protects the organs.
Anatomy of the Spine

The spine or vertebral column or spinal column consists of 26 bones in an
adult body (24 separate vertebrae, sacrum and coccyx). Each vertebra is
separated by a disc (gel like substance). These discs bend, stretch, compress
and decompress when we move forward and backward (see Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Disc

Source: www.spineuniverse.com
The upper three regions of the spine consist of the following:
(i) Cervical: Seven vertebrae;

(ii) Thoracic: Twelve vertebrae; and
(iii) Lumbar: Five vertebrae.

Then, there is the sacrum, where five bones are fused together and the
coccyx, where four bones are fused together (see Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4: Spinal column

Source: www.urmc.rochester.edu
ACTIVITY 2.2
1. What is vertebrae?
2. Describe four regions of the spine and its functions.

2.1.2 Musculoskeletal Disorders

Moderate static work might produce localised fatigue in the muscle involved and
could lead to intolerable pain. Moreover, excessive effort or work (could be static
or dynamic) repeated over a period of time could lead to light pain initially and
then to intense aches and pains. This does not only involve muscles, but could
affect joints, tendons, ligaments and other tissues.
Continuous exposure and repeated efforts or movement can lead to damage of

ligaments, tendons and joints. These impairments are usually referred to as
musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). MSDs develop over time; the process evolves
gradually with repeated overuse and lack of recovery. Sudden appearances of
injury such as a torn ligament or a sprain, are not musculoskeletal disorders
associated with repetitive work and are clearly work-related accidents.
Other terms generally used apart from MSDs are cumulative trauma disorders,
repetitive stress disorders, repetitive stress injury (RSI), overuse injuries and
repetitive motion disorder (RMD).
Examples of work-related musculoskeletal disorders are epicondylitis, tendinitis,

tenosynovitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, bursitis thoracic outlet syndrome,
prolapsed invertebra disc (PID) and others.
When a work-related musculoskeletal disorder (WMSD) develops, a worker

experiences the following:
(a) Localised fatigue and discomfort (early indicator);
(b) Swelling, as tissues become irritated;
(c) Pain;
(d) Stiffness and loss of range of motion of muscle and joints; and
(e) Inability to work and function at home.
The phenomenon of MSDs should be treated with great attention because of the
consequences involved. The direct and indirect costs of MSDs are listed below:
(a) Direct cost ă medical expenses, compensation for victim and others; and
(b) Indirect cost ă loss of production, loss of work days, replacement cost and
others.

Besides that, other consequences of MSDs on the victims must be considered.

These include physical and mental suffering, loss of quality of life, temporary
and permanent limitation in work and daily routine activities, financial
problems, relationship problems, difficulties in social life and many more. These
consequences are often overlooked.
As for the Malaysian scenario of MSDs, there has been an increase in reported
cases of MSDs. Figure 2.5 shows the distribution of total number of cases of
MSDs reported to the Social Security Organisation (SOCSO) of Malaysia from
year 1995 to 2012.
Figure 2.5: Distribution of total number of cases of MSDs reported to SOCSO, 1995ă2012
Source: SOCSO Malaysia Annual Report (2012)
Other Individual Factors that Can Cause MSD

Sometimes individual factors can make a great impact on the occurrence of
MSDs. This depends on individual characteristics and may vary from one worker
to another. The following are some of the individual factors which may affect the
occurrence of MSDs:
(a) Height;
(b) Weight (being overweight may increase the risk);
(c) Gender;
(d) Ethnicity (some ethnic groups have stronger upper limbs compare to
others);
(e) Age (older work population may have greater risk);
(f) The bodyÊs ability to deal with the risk factors;

(g) Previous injuries (road accidents, falls and others);
(h) Lifestyle (smoking, diet, exercise and others);
(i) Pre-existing or co-existing musculoskeletal disorders; and
(j) Past exposure to heavy lifting.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Define Musculoskeletal Disorders (MSDs).
2. How can work lead to MSDs?
ACTIVITY 2.3
1. Discuss the prevention of MSDs.
2. What is the scenario of MSDs in developing and developed

countries?
2.2 POSTURE AND MOVEMENT

Posture is often affected by the task or the workplace. Prolonged postures can in
time lead to complaints of the muscles and joints. Various tasks require moving
the whole body, often while exerting a force. Such movements can cause high,
localised mechanical stresses that in time can lead to bodily aches and pains.
Dynamic and Static Efforts

Muscular effort can be divided into two types:
(a) Dynamic Work

This involves changes of muscle length due to the movement of muscles.
Thus, during dynamic efforts, the muscle will act as a pump in the blood
system and increase the blood supply to the muscle (see Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6: Dynamic work

Source: www.ilo.org
(b) Statics Work
This involves contraction of the muscle for long duration of hours.
Normally, this situation occurs when maintaining a particular posture.
During this condition, the blood may not flow through muscles because the
muscle tissue may compress the blood vessels (see Figure 2.7).
Figure 2.7: Static work

Source: www.ilo.org
Normally, muscles require oxygen to work efficiently. If there is insufficient

oxygen, for example, due to prolonged contraction to sustain a static posture, the
muscle will use energy within itself for fuel and form lactic acid. This leads to
rapid muscle fatigue and the normal term used to describe this situation is

anaerobic contraction (absence of oxygen). Aerobic contraction provides an

adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the muscle for it to work efficiently.
Aerobic contractions allow time for muscles to contract and relax to access
optimum oxygen and continue to work.
Development of tension in a muscle is called muscle contraction. Sometimes,

when the muscle contracts it does not always shorten. The contraction of muscle
may be static (no movement) or active (movement). Contraction of muscle can be
divided as follows:
(a) Isometric (Static) Contraction

Tension builds up in the muscle without changing the length of the muscle.
The blood vessels are compressed, thus interrupting the blood flow. An
example of this is when holding an object (see Figure 2.8).
Figure 2.8: Isometric contraction

Source: www.omnilexica.com
(b) Concentric (Active) Contraction

Shortening of the muscle due to the contraction of muscle fibres (see
Figure 2.9).
Figure 2.9: Concentric contraction


(c) Eccentric (Active) Contraction

Due to high external load, the muscle is forced to lengthen (see Figure 2.10).
Figure 2.10: Eccentric contraction

SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. State the three contraction types and explain them.
2. Discuss other human factors which affect MSDs.
ACTIVITY 2.4
1. Give an example of an activity for each contraction type.
2. Discuss in a group the advantages and disadvantages of static and

dynamic work. Also include how both types of work can be
optimised.
2.3 FATIGUE
The term fatigue has been used differently in our daily lives. Bridger (2003) states
that the term is usually used to refer to sleepiness, tiredness and habituation to a
mental task that occurs after prolonged execution, which manifests as a desire to
do something else (mental fatigue).
Kroemer and Grandjean (1997) have classified fatigue into two categories:
(a) Muscular Fatigue

A painful phenomenon which arises in the overstressed muscle and it is
localised there.

(b) General Fatigue

A diffused sensation which is accompanied by feelings of indolence and
disinclination for any type of activity.
Both these types of fatigue arise as a result of different mechanisms, and

therefore, should be discussed separately.
(a) Muscular Fatigue

During muscle activity, there will be chemical processes to supply the
muscle with necessary energy for mechanical effort. In normal conditions,
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) will be created using oxygen to fuel
metabolism and supply the muscle with necessary energy for the activity.
This process is called the aerobic process (with oxygen).
If a sudden burst of energy demand occurs, the body does not have
sufficient time to produce ATP using oxygen. Thus, ATP will be produced
without oxygen and the process is called an anaerobic process (without
oxygen). In this process, lactic acid is produced as a by-product and this
makes the muscles burn with fatigue. Lactic acid will accumulate in the
working muscles and the combination of insufficient energy and a lack of
fuel in the muscles leads to fatigue.
(b) General Fatigue

The main symptoms of general fatigue are a general sensation of weariness
and feeling heavy, drowsy and tired. It also has been found that weariness,
such as thirst, hunger and similar sensations are natureÊs protective
methods.
Other types of fatigue are listed as follows:
(a) Eye fatigue: Due to over-straining using a visual system;
(b) General body fatigue: Due to physical overloading;
(c) Mental fatigue: Due to high mental processes or intellectual work;
(d) Nervous fatigue: Due to overstressing of the psychomotor system and

normally because of repetitive work;
(e) Chronic fatigue: Due to accumulation of long-term effect; and
(f) Circadian fatigue: Due to day and night rhythm and initiating a period of
sleep.

Both these types of fatigue can be measured using the following methods:
(a) Quality and quantity of work performed;

(b) Recording of subjective perception of fatigue;
(c) Electroencephalography (EEG);
(d) Measuring frequency of flicker-infusion of eyes;
(e) Psychomotor test; and
(f) Mental test.
2.4 BODY STRENGTH AND LOAD HANDLING

The body strength of each individual differs and the factors affecting the body
strength include the following (see Figure 2.11):
Figure 2.11: Factors affecting body strength

Other factors (situational factors) which may affect the strength of an individual
are motivation towards work, skills, body motion and body posture.
Data on dynamic anthropometrics (forces such as for pushing, pulling and lifting
loads) have been applied by using various methods to design better manual
handling tasks in industries.
Proper design of manual handling tasks can reduce the risk of musculoskeletal
disorders, especially back injuries. The following are some of the best practices
for load handling:
(a) Assign the job to more than one person and promote a buddy system;
(b) Use lifting aids such as portable cranes, vacuum hoists and others;
(c) Change the job of lifting to pushing and pulling by using a scissors lift
trolley to reduce lifting activities as much as possible;
(d) Design load or boxes with appropriate handles to enable workers to have a
firm grip on the objects;
(e) Reduce the weight of objects;
(f) Balance the contents of containers to avoid sudden shifts in load during a
lift;
(g) Design containers so that they can be held as close as possible to the body;
(h) Rather than lifting and transferring the load to another workstation, push/
pull the load on work surfaces by treating the work surface for ease of
movement;
(i) Lifting zone should be between knuckle height and shoulder height;
(j) Provide excess space around components to cut down on the need for
manual repositioning;
(k) Reduce the frequency of lifting activities;
(l) Promote job rotation between workers; and
(m) Promote appropriate work-rest cycles.

ACTIVITY 2.5
Discuss in a group the method of fatigue measurement in detail.

Explain how the different kinds of measurements are performed.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. Explain the term „muscular fatigue‰ and „general fatigue‰.
2. Describe the mechanism of muscular fatigue.
3. List three other types of fatigue besides muscular fatigue and

general fatigue.
4. List down five best practices for load handling.
2.5 BACK INJURY

Manual handling such as lifting, lowering, pushing, pulling, carrying, holding
and restraining often involves static and dynamic effort. The main problem with
this type of task is not the heavy loading of muscles, but more crucially, injury to
the back especially involving the lumbar intervertebral discs (see Figure 2.12).
Figure 2.12: Herniated disc

Source: www.reitanlawoffice.com

Back injuries can be very painful and reduce a personÊs quality of life. The effects
of back injuries include the following:
(a) High medical cost;

(b) Permanent disabilities;
(c) Effects on relationships;
(d) Pain and discomfort; and
(e) Reduced mobility.
Mechanism of Back Injury

Bending oneÊs back during lifting will cause curvature of the lumbar spine. The
loads exerted on the intervertebral disc are not only heavy, but asymmetrical,
since they apply more pressure on the front edge than on the back (refer to
Figure 2.13). The viscous fluid inside the disc will tend to squeeze towards the
side with the least pressure. Thus, there is increased risk that this fluid will leak
and pressure the spinal cord or other nerves.
Figure 2.13: Disc pressure due to bending

Source: Helander (2006)

SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. List down the consequences due to back injury.
2. Explain the mechanism of back injury.
ACTIVITY 2.6
What are best strategies to reduce back injury in the workplace?
2.6 ERGONOMICS CONSIDERATIONS AT THE

DESIGN STAGE
Ergonomics should be considered at the design stage itself. Proper evaluation
should be made by considering human factors. Engineers, designers and
ergonomists should determine the presence of ergonomic stressors such as
repetition, poor posture and excessive force or load in the task performed and
tools used.
2.6.1 Tool Design

Tools are used by humans to perform tasks. Poor design of tools can lead to
musculoskeletal disorders. Thus, consideration should be given during the
design of tools.
Some of the principles for tool design:
(a) Must serve the purpose of the design;
(b) Must be designed to match the strength and capacity of the user;
(c) Must not require the user to adopt poor posture when operating the tools;
(d) Must not require the user to exert excessive energy when operating the
tools;
(e) The vibration level should be below the permissible level for humans; and
(f) The cost of capital and maintenance should be low.

2.6.2 Task Design

Poor task design will contribute to stress, high rate of absenteeism, injuries,
medical cost, medical leave, low productivity, quality issues and others.
Task design should consider the following:
(a) Accommodate adequate recovery period for the workers;
(b) Alternate heavy tasks with light tasks;
(c) Consider the usage of muscle groups by alternating or rotating the task,
thus different muscle groups will work rather than the same muscles;
(d) Ensure variety in the task performed; and
(e) Ensure the load handled by the workers does not exceed the capacity of the
workers.
 The main functions of muscles are to enable body movement, maintain body
posture and generate heat.
 The nervous system can be divided into two systems, which are the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.
 The functions of the skeletal system are to support the body, manufacture
blood cells (bone marrow) and protect the organs.
 Muscular disorders develop over time and the process evolves gradually
with repeated overuse and lack of recovery.
 Aerobic contractions allow time for muscles to contract and relax to access
optimum oxygen and continue to work.
 The main symptoms of general fatigue are a general sensation of weariness

and feeling heavy, drowsy and tired.

Body strength Muscular system

Concentric contraction Musculoskeletal disorders
Dynamic work Nervous system
Eccentric contraction Skeletal system
Fatigue Static work
Human anatomy Spinal column
Isometric contraction
SOCSO Malaysia Annual Report (2012).

Topic  The Human
3 Mind
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the structure of eyes, ears and skin and their functions;
2. Identify visual and noise problems;
3. Explain how human body maintains its internal thermal balance; and
4. Discuss the control measures for noise and temperature problems in
the workplace.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide an overview on the structure of eyes, ears and skin and
their respective functions. This topic also highlights visual and noise problems.
Furthermore, it explains health disorders resulting from working in extreme
temperatures (cold and heat) and some practical solutions for these problems.
3.1 OUR EYES

The human eye is a tough ball, filled with fluid and located in a bony socket.
Figure 3.1 and Table 3.1 show the structure of the eyes and the associated
functions.

48  TOPIC 3 THE HUMAN MIND
Figure 3.1: Anatomy of the human eye

Source: http://www.eyerisvision.com/
Table 3.1: Eye Structure, Descriptions and Functions
Structure Descriptions and Functions

Cornea Transparent, protective surface of eye. It focuses light.
Iris Controls the amount of light passing through the pupil. It closes up the
pupil in bright light and opens it wide in dim light.
Pupil Regulates the amount of light passing through the eyes.
Lens Focuses light on the retina.
Retina Contains a layer of light sensitive cells.
Optic Transmits visual information in the form of electrical signals from the
nerve retina to the brain.
The eyes receive the light rays which are reflected from an object. The light
passes through the pupil and is focused by the cornea and lens. In the retina, an
upside down object is formed. Cells on the retina can sense colour and light.
These cells transfer the picture into electrical signals which travel along the optic
nerve to the human brain. The brain will see the object as the right side up once
the electrical signals have been decoded.

TOPIC 3 THE HUMAN MIND  49
Visual Problems
Normally, visual problems cannot be detected through documentation review
in a company. Anyhow, the problem cannot be taken lightly. The effects of
inadequate lighting and poor illumination can result in the following problems:
(a) Double vision;

(b) Difficulty seeing or reading documents or digital screens;
(c) Eyestrain;
(d) Eye irritation;
(e) Blurred vision;
(f) Dry burning eyes;
(g) Headaches;
(h) Neck and shoulder pain (due to awkward posture); and
(i) Irritation and fatigue.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Discuss in a group the control measures for visual problems and glare
issues.
3.2 OUR EARS

Sound waves enter the ear and pass along the auditory canal to the eardrum,
causing it to vibrate. The vibration then moves the auditory ossicles (three tiny
bones ă malleus or hammer, the incus or anvil, and the stapes or stirrup). These
tiny bones amplify the sound and transmit it to the basilar membrane, which is
inside the cochlea. The cochlea is a spiral organ that contains many delicate hair
cells for detecting vibrations. The vibrations then turn into electrical signals,
which travel along the auditory nerve to the brain to interpret as sound.
Figure 3.2 shows the anatomy of the human ear.

Figure 3.2: Anatomy of the human ear

Source: http://www.audiologyspecialists.com/
Sounds can be loud or quiet, low pitched or high pitched. Some sounds are
pleasant and some are annoying. Two important characteristics of sound are
amplitude and frequency. Amplitude (A) makes the sound loud or quiet (see
Figure 3.3). Frequency makes the sound high pitched or low pitched and is
measured in hertz (Hz) (see Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.3: Amplitude

Source: http://www.vias.org/

Figure 3.4: Frequency

Source: http://www.howmusicworks.org/
The loudness of sound depends on the amount of energy (intensity) carried by

the sound waves. Intense sound waves, together with large amplitude, create big
vibrations. The degree of loudness is measured in decibels (dB). Human ears can
detect sounds within the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz and are most sensitive to
sounds with a frequency of around 1,000 Hz. Figure 3.5 shows a noise level chart
of human hearing.
Figure 3.5: Noise level chart

Source: http://www.cdc.gov/

(a) A-Weighting
A-Weighting sound follows the frequency sensitivity of the human ear at
low levels. This is the most commonly used weighting scale, as it also
predicts quite well the risk of damage to the ear. Sound level meters set to
the A-weighting scale will filter out much of the low-frequency noise they
measure, similar to the response of the human ear. Noise measurements
made with the A-weighting scale are designated according to dBA, or the
decibel scale.
(b) B-Weighting
B-Weighting follows the frequency sensitivity of the human ear at moderate
levels. It was used in the past to predict the performance of loudspeakers
and stereos, but not with regard to industrial noise.
(c) C-Weighting
C-Weighting follows the frequency sensitivity of the human ear at very
high noise levels. The C-weighting scale is quite flat and therefore includes
much more of the low-frequency range of sounds than the A and B scales.
3.2.1 Effects of Noise

Noise can be unpleasant to humans. Working in a noisy environment can lead
to health effects and disturb communication. Workers may face unheard or
misinterpreted vocal instructions, which could lead to human error and
accidents.
Another health effect due to continuous exposure to noise is hearing loss. This
could happen as a result of exposure to excessive noise at the level of 90 dBA and
higher. Hearing loss can be classified into two types:
(a) Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Hearing loss because of damaged nerves in the inner ear.
(b) Conductive Hearing Loss

Hearing loss due to a broken ear drum or movement of the ossicles bones in
the middle ear.
Besides that, humans may also face emotional disturbances and sensitivity,
tinnitus, psychological disturbance and high blood pressure if exposed to a noisy
environment.

3.2.2 Control Measures for Noise

Noise can be controlled at the source, path or receiver. The following are some of
the recommended control measures for noise reduction:
(a) Using a quieter machine and replacing noisy machines;

(b) Conducting preventive maintenance and lubrication of machines;
(c) Isolating noisy processes or machines from workers and installing them in
sound proof chambers;
(d) Guarding noisy machines by using sound-absorbing materials;
(e) Installing appropriate damping material (rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic)
beneath the vibrating machine since vibration creates a lot of noise;
(f) Rotating workers to decrease their exposure;
(g) Providing training to workers;
(h) Performing exposure monitoring by a competent person to identify the
risky areas;
(i) Performing audiometric tests as stipulated by legislation; and
(j) Providing personal protective equipment (PPE) such as ear muffs, ear
plugs, and ear canal caps with appropriate noise reduction ratings (NRR).
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Differentiate between sound and noise.
2. Discuss how noise can affect the performance of workers. What

actions should be taken in planning for „no noise‰? Post your
answers in the online forum.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Explain the important structures of eyes and ears.
2. Describe A, B and C weighting.
3. List five visual problems resulting from glare.
4. Describe control measures for noise problems in the industry.

3.3 OUR SKIN

The largest human organ is the skin, which spans between 1.4 and 2 square
metres. The primary function of the skin is to protect the tissue underneath
from physical and chemical damage, to help regulate body temperature and to
experience feelings of sensation such as touch, heat and cold. The skin has three
layers: epidermis, dermis and hypodermis (see Figure 3.6). The descriptions of
each layer are as follows:
(a) Epidermis
Outermost layer of skin and gives first protection.
(b) Dermis
Contains tough connective tissue, hair follicles and sweat glands.
(c) Hypodermis
Made of fat and connective tissue.
Figure 3.6: Skin

Source: http://www.webmd.com/

The skin contains the following parts and each part plays a different role as
described below:
(a) Sweat Glands

Help maintain internal body temperature through the process of
perspiration while eliminating waste fluids such as urea and lactate.
(b) Fine Blood Vessels

Help in controlling the temperature, nutrition and waste product removal.
(c) Nerve Endings

Receptors for sensation (heat, cold, pressure, pain and touch).
(d) Sebaceous Glands

Secrete substances called sebum which protect and waterproof hair and
skin from becoming dry, brittle and cracked. It also protects against the
growth of microorganisms.
Certain tasks require the worker to manipulate small objects where tactile
information is essential. PPE such as gloves impact tactile sensation and the
increase of glove thickness reduces tactile sensitivity. When workers wear
multiple glove layers, it increases the gripping force of the load.
3.4 HUMAN THERMOREGULATION

The human body has a wonderful thermoregulatory mechanism for maintaining
an internal thermal balance despite large variations in environmental
temperature. The normal human body temperature is 37.0C and this varies
between 0.5C to 1.0C.
Science and technology have made the design of workplaces safer and more
comfortable for workers. However, the issue of hot and cold work environments
has not been completely resolved.
A hot or cold working environment may cause illness and injuries to exposed
workers. The situation needs to be fully understood if we need to expose workers
to such extreme environments.

3.4.1 Hot Environment

There are many occupations which expose workers to hot environments.
Examples of such occupational environments are shown in Figure 3.7.
Figure 3.7: Hot occupational environments
Such work environments expose workers to high environmental heat loads. Heat
stress can be defined as total internal (metabolic heat, degree of acclimatisation,
body temperature) and external (ambient temperature, radiant heat, air velocity,
humidity, clothing, thermal resistance) heat loads upon the body.
Heat stress may affect the productivity of workers and can lead to heat disorders.
Initially, heat stress can cause discomfort to workers and if it exceeds the human
heat tolerance level, it will lead to adverse health effects.
The most critical health disorders are as follows:
(a) Heat Stroke

A state of sudden collapse of the thermoregulatory system, which happens
when the human body becomes overheated and sweat glands and other
organs cannot function properly. Symptoms of heat stroke include rapid
breathing, not sweating, weak and irregular pulse, dizziness, loss of

consciousness, hyperpyrexia and disturbance of the central nervous system,

which cause collapse and coma.
(b) Heat Exhaustion

A person experiences fatigue (extreme tiredness) as a result of a decrease in
blood pressure and blood volume, which is caused by excessive loss of
body fluids and salts after being exposed to heat for a prolonged period of
time. It may result in vomiting, rapid pulse, unconsciousness, fatigue and
headache. It can lead to heat stroke if proper care is not given.
(c) Heat Cramps

Cramp of muscle (contraction of voluntary muscle) because of depletion of
salt in the body.
(d) Prickly Heat

This appears as red blisters in affected body parts. It happens because
damage to sweat gland ducts can cause inflammation of the glands. This
condition is caused by reduced resistance of skin because of continuous
presence of unevaporated sweat.
Control Measures for Heat Stress

There are many strategies to reduce the effect of heat stress to workers. First, the
heat source should be identified and the environmental factors should be
measured. Implementation of engineering control, administrative control and
personal protective equipment can be used to control the effects of heat stress.
The following are some of the control measures for heat stress:
(a) Installing heat shields between the heat source and workers;
(b) Installing an adequate ventilation system which can reduce air temperature
and increase air movement;
(c) Installing air conditioning to cool the air and reduce humidity;
(d) Providing cool water for workers and encouraging workers to drink
frequently;
(e) Lightly salted, low sugar drinking solution may be recommended for
extremely hot working conditions; and
(f) Providing personal cooling suits if controlling the work environment is

impractical ă ice vests, air ventilated suits and water circulated suits.

3.4.2 Cold Environment

Working in the meat packing industry, working outdoors during the cold season
and working as a snow cleanup crew involves exposure to a cold environment.
Working in a cold environment can affect psychological responses and changes
can be observed in mood and personality if the bodyÊs core temperature drops.
The health effects resulting from working in a cold environment are as follows:
(a) Chilblains
Itchiness and swelling (small blood vessels) on the skin, which affects the
body regions such as the toes, fingers, heels, ears and nose.
(b) Hypothermia
This occurs when the body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing
a dangerously low body temperature. This means that the core body, heart,
nervous system and other organs cannot work normally. Left untreated,
hypothermia can eventually lead to complete failure of your heart and
respiratory system and can even lead to death.
(c) Frostbite
This occurs when skin is exposed to extremely cold temperature for a long
duration of time and commonly happens on the fingers, toes, nose, ears,
cheeks and chin. The blood vessels contract, which cause a reduction of
blood flow and oxygen to the affected body parts, leading to loss of
sensation, numbness and changes of colour.
Control Measures for Cold Stress

The human physiological protection mechanism against cold is shivering and
vasoconstriction. The main defence humans have against cold is to add more
clothing and seek shelter. In cold working environments, workers should:
(a) Wear warm clothing and should protect head, neck, groin area, chest, ears,
nose, hands and feet;
(b) Wear wind-resisting outer layers and preferably clothing with a layer of
wool inside;
(c) Wear a warm hat to protect the head since heat loss through the head
happens very quickly;
(d) Not work in a cold environment alone;

(e) Take high energy foods that provide more calories for the production of
body heat;
(f) Not consume alcohol to avoid dehydration; and
(g) Not work in cold environments if under medication.
Employers should:
(a) Provide a warm escape place for workers; and
(b) Provide drinks for the workers to maintain balanced body fluid.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1. Explain the functions of sweat glands, fine blood vessels, nerve

endings and sebaceous glands in the skin.
2. Describe three health disorders caused by heat stress and cold

stress respectively.
3. Describe five control measures for heat stress and cold stress
respectively.
 Two important characteristics of sound are amplitude and frequency.

Amplitude (A) makes the sound loud or quiet. Frequency makes the sound
high pitched or low pitched and is measured in hertz (Hz).
 Human ears can detect sounds within the range of 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz and are
most sensitive to sound with a frequency of around 1,000 Hz.
 The primary function of the skin is to protect tissues underneath from

physical and chemical damage, to help regulate body temperature and to
have feelings of sensation such as touch, heat and cold.

Chilblains Hypothermia
Conductive hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss
Ears Skin
Eyes Thermoregulation
Frostbite Visual problem
Heat stroke

Taylor and Francis.

Topic  Body and
4 Mind
Working
Together
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the functions of the brain;
2. Describe tiredness, boredom and alertness at work;
3. Explain suitable postures at work that can prevent body fatigue and
repetition-caused injuries; and
4. Discuss common ergonomic risk factors found in the workplace.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the brain-nerve network, tiredness, boredom and alertness
at work, neutral working postures and ergonomic risk factors.

62  TOPIC 4 BODY AND MIND WORKING TOGETHER
4.1 THE BRAIN-NERVE NETWORK

The brainÊs functions are totally remarkable and so far no computer has yet
come close to match the capabilities of the human brain. The human brain is the
control centre for the entire body located in the head. All memories and thoughts
arise from within the brain.
(a) Brain
The brain is the most complex organ and the control centre for the human
body requiring continuous oxygen and blood supply. It is made up of more
than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called
synapses (see Figure 4.1). The central nervous system is a complex and
integrated information-processing and control system, which consists of the
brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves.
Figure 4.1: Synapses

Source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/
The brain performs an incredible number of tasks including the following:
(i) It controls body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and

breathing;
(ii) It accepts information about the world from various senses such as
sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch;
(iii) It handles physical movement when walking, talking, standing or

sitting; and
(iv) It thinks, dreams, reasons and experiences emotions.

TOPIC 4 BODY AND MIND WORKING TOGETHER  63
The brain is made up of many specialised areas that work together (see
Figure 4.2). Table 4.1 describes the different areas of the brain and their
functions.
Figure 4.2: Structure of the Brain

Source: http://www.webmd.com/
Table 4.1: Areas in the Brain, Their Description and Functions
Areas in
Description and Functions
the Brain
Cortex  It is the outermost layer of brain cells.
 Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.
Brain stem  It connects the brain with the spinal cord.

 Its basic functions include breathing and controlling body
posture.
Basal ganglia  A cluster of structures in the centre of the brain.
 They coordinate messages between multiple brain areas.
Cerebellum  It is the base and the back of the brain.
 It is responsible for coordination and balance.

The brain is also divided into several lobes (see Figure 4.2):
(i) The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving, making
judgements and motor functions;
(ii) The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting and body position;
(iii) The temporal lobes are involved in memory and hearing; and
(iv) The occipital lobes contain the brainÊs visual processing system.
(b) Spinal Cord

The spinal cord is the most important structure between the body and the
brain. It is an important link between the brain and the body and from the
body to the brain. The spinal cord is a long, fragile tube-like structure that
begins at the end of the brain stem and continues down almost to the
bottom of the spine (spinal column) (see Figure 4.3). The spinal cord is 40 to
50 centimetres long and one centimetre to one and a half centimetres in
diameter. The spinal cord consists of nerves that carry incoming and
outgoing information between the brain and the body. The vertebrae
protect the spinal cord.
Figure 4.3: Spinal cord

Source: http://www.merckmanuals.com/

Spinal nerves: Emerging from the spinal cord between the vertebrae are 31
pairs of spinal nerves. Each nerve emerges in two short branches (roots):
(i) One at the front (motor or anterior root) of the spinal cord ă carry
commands from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of the body,
particularly to skeletal muscles; and
(ii) One at the back (sensory or posterior root) of the spinal cord ă carries
information to the brain from other parts of the body.
Cauda equina: It resembles a horseÊs tail and it is about three fourths of the
way down of the spine. The cauda equina carries nerve impulses to and
from the legs.
(c) Peripheral Nerves

Peripheral nerves refer to nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system is a communication network that transmits
information between the brain and spinal cord to every other part of the
human body.
Functions of peripheral nerves are as follows:
(i) Sensory nerves ă transmitting sensations, such as cold and pain to

spinal cord and brain;
(ii) Motor nerves ă controlling muscles (carry signals from the brain and
spinal cord to muscle to generate movement); and
(iii) Autonomics nerves ă regulating automatic functions of the body.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
Discuss the general information processing of a brain.

4.2 TIREDNESS, BOREDOM AND ALERTNESS

AT WORK
In everyday life, we feel tired as a result of physical fatigue or psychological
boredom. Kroemer (2008) has defined these terms as follows:
(a) Tiredness
A state in which we feel unable or disinclined to continue a task.
(b) Fatigue
The physiological effect of having spent our energy, or overstrained our
muscles, so our body needs to rest.
(c) Boredom
The psychological or emotional condition in which a lack of events lulls us
into a state of sluggishness.
(d) Vigilance
Watching over of operations or monitoring of equipment and/or processes
(Occupational Hygiene Training Association, 2009).
Tiredness is directly related to fatigue and it is a signal to us that our body needs
rest to recover before proceeding with any new activity.
(a) Diversity versus Monotony

Individuals may have different preferences in types of jobs. Certain
individuals may prefer a diverse job which involves changing tasks that
challenge the mental and physical capabilities. Due to the variety of
demands, the tasks are not boring and become more interesting, which give
individuals a sense of satisfaction when they are able to successfully
complete the tasks.
On the other hand, some individuals prefer monotonous tasks, which are
routine-based and lack variety. They find task predictability appealing and
gain satisfaction from skilful repetition, where they can perform the task
while thinking and conversing. Generally, performance and job satisfaction
are best when the job is not overly simple or overly complex.

(b) Vigilance
Some work environments require continuous monitoring of processes or
equipment and the task in many workplaces is carried out over multiple
shifts.
While performing a vigilance task, the worker detects signals over the
period of his shift and the signals are irregular and unpredictable.
Examples of vigilance tasks are monitoring of flight radar, checking for
faults in manufacturing processes, monitoring of luggage at the airport
during scanning and others. Alertness decreases over time. Research has
demonstrated that this vigilance level declines sharply during the first
30 minutes of the task and this decline is known as vigilance decrement.
During the observations, frequency of signals influences the number of
reported signals. If there are too few signals, the observer becomes bored
and pays less attention while if there are too many signals, the observer
becomes overwhelmed and may no longer be able to follow and to report
them all.
Performance of humans depends on many factors. Human performance

decreases due to the following factors:
(i) With time;

(ii) When there is great variation in the intervals between signals;
(iii) Due to fatigue and mental stress; and
(iv) In certain environmental conditions such as heat, noise or vibration.
(c) Monotonous Jobs

Industrial managers during the 1920s divided work processes into a small
number of identical tasks, which were highly repetitive. This approach is
often traced to Frederick Taylor. After a certain time, the operators became
highly skilled and could perform the tasks at high speed. However, this
approach could lead to boredom and musculoskeletal injuries.
(d) Satisfaction at Work

Job satisfaction refers to the positive and negative feelings and attitude
employees have about a job. The approach most frequently used to measure
job satisfaction is through questionnaires. Two popular questionnaires for
job satisfaction are the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) and the Minnesota
Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ). These questionnaires have high construct
validity.

Work preferences differ across individuals, but everyone wants to feel

successful in their respective job through having control over the task
performed. Having control over work provides feelings of empowerment
and importance whereas lack of control could lead to work deterioration
and social stressors.
At the managerial or higher levels (conceptual), the individual has control

over the general design, work organisation and administrative policies. As
for the instrumental control or task level (details), the individual has control
over the workplace arrangement, tools and procedures. Communication
between workers and management can create a highly productive and
stimulating social environment. Improvement in working performance can
be traced through recognition, awards, rewards and incentives to workers.
Personal characteristics linked to job satisfaction are age, gender, cognitive
ability, job experience, use of skills, job congruence, organisational justice,
personality, job control and occupational level.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of diverse and

monotonous work.
2. Describe methods of increasing job satisfaction.
3. Explain the consequences of a lack of job satisfaction among

workers.
4. Explain the root causes of lack of job satisfaction among workers.
4.3 SUITABLE POSTURES AT WORK

Ergonomically neutral postures refer to body postures when the muscles are
relaxed and joints are naturally aligned. Once the neutral posture is adopted
while working, the stress and strain on muscles, joints, ligaments, tendons and
skeletal system can be reduced, hence it can promote comfortable working
postures. Basically, humans adopt two types of working postures: sitting or
standing.

(a) Neutral Sitting Posture

The principles of neutral sitting postures for computer operation are as
follows:
(i) Forearms ă straight and parallel to the floor;
(ii) Hands and wrists ă straight and should not bend up, down or to the
side;
(iii) Shoulders ă relaxed and not elevated, raised or abducted;
(iv) Elbows ă bent approximately 90 degrees, close to the body and

supported on an arm rest;
(v) Feet ă must be fully supported on the floor and should not hang;
(vi) Back ă fully supported on back rest or lumbar support. Should not
lead forward and without support; and
(vii) Popliteal ă should have clearance to promote blood circulation in the

leg and there should not be any compression to the popliteal by the
seat pan.
Figure 4.4 illustrates the neutral sitting posture:
Figure 4.4: Neutral sitting posture

(b) Neutral Standing Posture

As for the neutral standing posture, the body must be straight and elbows
can be bent approximately 90 degrees and close to the body. Bending,
twisting and over reaching are considered as poor postures (see Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: Neutral standing posture
ACTIVITY 4.1
Discuss in a group the advantages and disadvantages of standing and
sitting while working.
4.4 ERGONOMICS RISK FACTORS

The main reason for occurrence of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) is due to
exposure to ergonomics risk factors. The exposure to more than one risk factor
usually leads to musculoskeletal injuries to workers. Duration of exposure plays
significant role for the injuries.
(a) Repetition
Performing a task or a series of repeated identical motions over and over
again with little variation could cause overuse of muscle groups and
tendons in the same way which could lead to muscle fatigue. With job
variation which involves different muscle groups, muscle groups have
periods of rest and this may reduce the rate of injury. Common examples of

repetition are excessive clicking of the mouse, typing, stapling, keyboard

operation, packing, palletising, depalletising, toll operating and others.
(b) Force
Force is the mechanical or physical effort to perform a task, for example,
performing manual handling activities such as pushing or pulling the
trolley, palletising, manipulating loads (see Figure 4.6), holding an object
without any support and others. Excessive force means higher mechanical
load to the muscles, ligaments, tendons and joints. Exerting high forces can
cause fatigue and physical damage to the body, where the effects may be
acute or chronic. The more force required to perform a particular task or the
longer the force must be applied, the greater the risk of MSDs occurring.
Figure 4.6: Manual handling task
(c) Posture
Posture is the position of a part of the body or the arrangement of the limbs.
Awkward posture or poor posture refers to positions of the body that
deviate significantly from the neutral position while performing tasks (see
Figure 4.7). Examples such as overreaching, bending and twisting will
increase the strain to muscles, tendons and increase the force and muscular
efforts.

Figure 4.7: Awkward posture
(d) Contact Stress

Contact stress is caused by any sharp or hard object putting localised
pressure on a part of the body (see Figure 4.8). Contact stress will irritate
local tissues and interfere with circulation and nerve function.
Figure 4.8: Contact stress
(e) Static Work

Static posture occurs when one position is held for a prolonged period of
time. The muscles will become fatigued from a lack of blood flow during a
static posture. This fatigue can lead to discomfort and even injury.

(f) Production Pressure

Production pressure will lead to occupational stress. Once a person is
exposed to stress, it will directly affect his emotions. Once a personÊs
emotional state is not balanced, it will reduce the personÊs awareness of
work process and affect the production, quality, safety and others. Besides
that, stress aggravates musculoskeletal disorders.
(g) Environment
Environmental elements which can affect humans are as follows:
(i) Vibration
Vibration can be categorised as whole-body vibration and hand-arm
vibration.
Exposure to hand-arm vibration can occur while using power tools

and is a cause of significant ill health. Vibration from power tools
can place stress on the tissues of the fingers, hand and arms. Tools
that are not properly maintained or are inappropriate for the task may
increase the amount of hand-arm vibration. These exposures may
result in fatigue, pain, numbness, tingling, increased sensitivity to
cold and decreased sensitivity to touch in the fingers, hands and arms
(hand-arm vibration syndrome).
Whole-body vibration (WBV) is transmitted through the seat or feet of

employees who drive mobile machines, or other work vehicles, over
rough and uneven surfaces as a main part of their job. Whole-body
vibration from driving puts stress on the spinal tissues and can
contribute to lower back pain and fatigue.
(ii) Extreme Temperature

Environmental conditions such as extreme heat or cold can place
stress on tissues. Extreme cold constricts blood vessels and reduces
sensitivity and coordination of body parts. Excessive heat can result in
increased fatigue and heat stress.
(iii) Noise
Annoying noises can make workers stressed and could affect their
performance in terms of quality, productivity and safety.

(iv) Lighting
The conditions of indoor lighting are based on the task that is being
performed. One of the best resources for indoor lighting is ISO 8995-
1:2002 Lighting of work places ă Part 1: Indoor. Poor lighting can
cause eye strain and can sometimes lead to awkward posture.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
1. Draw the correct sitting posture and explain why that is the
correct way to sit.
2. Explain how awkward posture can lead to musculoskeletal

disorders.
3. How does one solve problems related to contact stress?
4. What are the strategies to reduce production pressure?
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. Discuss how to control the effect of vibration on the human body.
2. Discuss three tasks which involve repetition.
3. How does one solve problems related to excessive force?
 The central nervous system is a complex and integrated information-

processing and control system which consists of the brain, spinal cord and
peripheral nerves.
 Tiredness is directly related to fatigue and it is a signal to us that our body

needs rest to recover before proceeding with any new activity.
 Certain individuals may prefer a diverse job which involves changing tasks
that challenge their mental and physical capabilities. On the other hand, some
individuals prefer monotonous tasks, which are routine-based and lack
variety.

 Personal characteristics linked to job satisfaction are age, gender, cognitive

ability, job experience, use of skills, job congruence, organisational justice,
personality, job control and occupational level.
Alertness at work Monotonous job

Boredom Neutral postures
Brain Neutral working posture
Diversity Spinal cord
Ergonomic risk factors Synapses
Fatigue Tiredness
Job satisfaction Vigilance
Kroemer, K. H. E. (2008). Fitting the human: Introduction to ergonomics (6th ed.).

Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis.
Occupational Hygiene Training Association. (2009). Ergonomics essentials.

British Occupational Hygiene Society.

Topic  Human
5 Factors and
Cognitive
Ergonomics
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define the term „stress‰;
2. Describe how stress is related to physiological and psychological
effects;
3. Explain mental and physical workload;
4. Discuss how underload and overload issues affect work performance;
5. Discuss the application of universal design principles in workplace
settings; and
6. Discuss the strategies to prevent human errors in the workplace.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide brief information about cognitive aspects that can
influence worker performance. It also explains stress among employees and
some related physiological and psychological problems. Physical and mental
workload among employees, underload and overload at the workplace, some
principles of displays and controls, human error and safety are also discussed.

TOPIC 5 HUMAN FACTORS AND COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS  77
5.1 STRESS AT WORK

Stress can be defined as physiological and psychological responses to excessive
and usually unpleasant stimulation and to threatening events in the environment.
Stress affects millions of employees, but it operates in more silent and subtle ways.
Stress at the workplace is also costly to employers, as reflected in lower

productivity, reduced motivation and increased errors and accidents. High stress
is related to increases in turnover intentions and counterproductive behaviour,
such as theft, drug and alcohol abuse.
(a) Physiological Effects of Stress

Stress involves physiological and psychological responses to excessive
and usually unpleasant stimulation and to threatening events in the
environment. Dramatic physiological changes occur during stress.
Figure 5.1 shows what happens to the body during stress.
Figure 5.1: Physiological effects of stress

Source: Schultz & Schultz (2001)

78  TOPIC 5 HUMAN FACTORS AND COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS
(b) Psychosomatic Disorders

Most people will not encounter extreme emergency situations on the job.
Few jobs expose workers to threatening events such as those faced by police
officers, fire-fighters or soldiers in combat. If stressors occur frequently in
the workplace, the body remains in a state of high physiological arousal
and alertness for long periods, a condition that can lead to physiological
damage as well as psychosomatic illnesses.
Psychosomatic disorders are not imaginary; they involve specific tissue and
organ damage. Although their origin lies in psychological and emotional
factors, they have a definite physical impact on the body. Furthermore, the
illnesses brought about by stress can serve as new sources of stress. When
physical health declines, resistance is lowered and bodily energy is
reduced. As a result, motivation and job performance are bound to be
affected.
Not all employees are affected by stress in the same way. For example, air traffic
controllers, who have highly stressful jobs, face hour after hour of constant
vigilance, tracking aircraft at various speeds and altitudes converging on or
departing from the same point. Their work is hectic, difficult and demanding and
has the additional burden of making them responsible for thousands of lives
throughout each workday.
5.2 MENTAL WORKLOAD

A stressful situation can become a negative emotional experience, which may be
associated with unpleasant feelings such as anxiety, tension, depression, anger,
fatigue, lack of vigour and confusion.
(a) Type of Occupation

Stress levels differ from one occupation to another. The following jobs have
been ranked as those with the highest stress levels:
(i) Labourers;
(ii) Secretaries,
(iii) Clinical laboratory technicians;
(iv) Nurses;

(v) First line supervisors;

(vi) Restaurant servers;
(vii) Machine operators;
(viii) Farm workers;
(ix) Miners;
(x) Police officers;
(xi) Fire-fighters;
(xii) Computer programmers;
(xiii) Dental technicians;
(xiv) Electricians;
(xv) Plumbers;
(xvi) Social workers;
(xvii) Telephone operators; and
(xviii) City bus drivers.
NIOSH USA ranked college professors as one of the least stressful jobs. In
general, clerical and low management workers experience less stress when
compared to managerial and professional employees. The latter
occupations face more stress because they have more opportunity to make
decisions about their work and more control over working conditions.
(b) Stressors in the Work Environment

Figure 5.2 lists common stressors which could be found in the work
environment.

Figure 5.2: Stressors in the work environment

Source: Kroemer & Grandjean (1997)
5.3 PHYSICAL WORKLOAD

Physical work is usually classified based on energy requirements and expressed
in kcal/h or W (watts). However, factors such as oxygen uptake, heart rate,
pulmonary ventilation rate and sometimes and rectal temperature are used in
workload classification.
Endurance Time Limit is the time duration over which a person is able to sustain
the physical work until he is forced to give up due to fatigue. For light to
moderate levels of work, employees might not reach their endurance time limit.
In such cases, mental fatigue could still be a limiting factor in the ability of the
worker to perform satisfactorily. However, if workers reach their endurance time
limit during the shift, some type of work-rest schedule should be implemented.
In the context of work-rest scheduling, rest represents less demanding activities.

Rest does not mean going to a break area and sitting down to visit with
co-workers. However, a rest break can also involve non-physically demanding
activities such as filling out paperwork, entering data into a computer,
housekeeping, delivering a report to the supervisorÊs office or any other activity
that does not require extensive use of the muscles being used on the physically
demanding task.

5.4 UNDERLOAD AND OVERLOAD

Work overload or overwork is defined as too much work to perform in the time
available or work that is too difficult for the employee to perform. There are two
types of work overload (see Figure 5.3):
Figure 5.3: Overload types

Work underload, which is having work that is too simple or is insufficient to fill
a workerÊs time or to challenge a workerÊs abilities, is also stressful. Work
underload will increase boredom and monotony (also a factor in stress) and to
reduce job satisfaction. Thus, an absence of challenge in the workplace is not
necessarily beneficial. A certain level of job stress can be stimulating, invigorating
and desirable. The goal of employees should be to find the optimum level under
which they can function and remain in good health and to avoid the extremes of
work overload and work underload.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Explain how stress can affect the performance of workers.
2. As a Safety and Health Officer (SHO) at your workplace, discuss

the recommendations that could be implemented to reduce the
stress level among workers.

5.5 DISPLAY AND CONTROL

Work often requires the use of human-machine interaction, where the operator
uses controls to give instruction to the system or machine and the machine uses
displays to provide feedback and information to operators.
Controls and displays must be designed according to the following principles as

listed in EN 894-1: 1997 to ensure accurate and efficient use of the machine.
(a) Suitability for the task ă including function allocation, complexity, grouping,
identification and operational relationship;
(b) Self-descriptiveness ă including information availability;
(c) Controllability ă including redundancy, accessibility and movement space;
(d) Conformity with user expectations ă including compatibility with learning
and practice and with consistency;
(e) Error tolerance ă including error correction, error handling time; and
(f) Suitability for individualisation and learning ă including flexibility.
5.5.1 Universal Design

Ergonomics basically deals with the dimension and movement of people at work.
Anthropometrics is a study of the physical dimension of the human body and
how it is related to built environment. These two elements are very important
because they will influence how the end user interfaces with the interior
environment. Therefore, designing any product or environment involves
consideration of factors such as safety concerns, industry standards, cost,
environmental issues and engineering options.
When developing a product or environment, we need to consider many factors

such as a personÊs age, gender, height, weight and disability. For example a
person can be six feet tall, deaf, male, forty years old and can even be an excellent
reader. So all the factors must be taken into account when designing a product or
environment.
Universal design can be applied to any product or environment. For example, a

service counter in a hospital setting may not be accessible for everyone,
especially those who use wheelchairs or who cannot stand for extended periods.
Thus, by applying universal design, whereby the counters will have multiple
heights, the counter will be very convenient and better for users of all heights.
Users within the average range of height can use the standard height design
while the shorter height can be used by those who are shorter than average, and
users with wheelchairs can use the seated position without much movement
needed to interact with other staff or clients.
It is also important to make a product or environment accessible to people with

disabilities, and this often benefits others. For example, automatic door openers
benefit individuals using walkers and wheelchairs, but also benefit people who
are carrying groceries or holding babies, as well as elderly citizens.
Universal Design in the Workplace

Universal design can be applied in three broad areas:
(a) Application of universal design to the work environment, such as employee

work stations;
(b) Application of universal design to workplace technologies and tools, such

as manufacturing tools and safety equipment; and
(c) Application of universal design to re-conceptualisation of work policies,

interaction and communication to complete work tasks.
Figure 5.4 shows the process of universal design.
Figure 5.4: Process of universal design

Source: Burgstahler (2012)
On the other hand, Figure 5.5 presents seven principles of universal design.
Figure 5.5: Principles of universal design

Source: Burgstahler (2012)
SELF-CHECK 5.2
1. Explain universal design.
2. State the important factors that must be considered when

developing a universal design product.
3. State the eight steps of the universal design process.

5.5.2 Human Error and Safety

Many industrial accidents happen due to human error. Human error occurs
because of many factors such as no proper training, tiredness, lack of knowledge,
etc. Human error should be understood properly, thus appropriate control can be
in place in order to avoid human error which can lead to accidents and injuries.
(a) Human Errors

Human errors of omission and commission are the most common types of
errors that will happen in the workplace environment.
An omission is an error that will occur when an action has not been taken
or when something has been left out. For example: An operator forgetting
to save an updated file on a computer system before starting work on a new
file.
An error of commission is basically performing a correct action at the

wrong time or vice-versa. For example, a worker subtracting a figure of the
product instead of adding the value.
Human error is categorised into two levels:
(i) Errors at the skill-based levels; and

(ii) Errors at the rule and knowledge based levels.
(b) Errors at the Skill-based Levels

Errors at the skill-based level are divided into two categories, which are
slips and lapses. Slips are basically failure to meet the objective of the goal
or task while lapses are failure of memory.
(c) Errors at the Rule and Knowledge-based Levels

Errors at the rule and knowledge-based level include mistakes and
violations. Mistakes are using the wrong rules and regulations or deciding
on an incorrect action. Violations are when a person deliberately or
purposely does something wrong.

ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Discuss what a cognitive error is. Give examples of conditions or

situations in which such errors could happen and describe how to
tackle the issue.
2. List the two levels of cognitive error and explain them. Then,
discuss the situations that could lead to these errors. Post your
answers in the online forum.
5.5.3 Design Techniques for Error Reduction:

Standardisation, Stereotypes, Redundancy,
Feedback
A well-designed system can prevent human error from the beginning. Some of
the designs are prone to less human error. These designs should be utilised to
avoid human error and accidents.
(a) Standardisation
Many controls have become standardised over the years. Some examples of
standardised controls are:
(i) Joysticks for airplanes;

(ii) Manual levers for aircraft throttle;
(iii) Steering wheels for steering;
(iv) Foot pedals for braking and acceleration; and
(v) Lever controls for gear shift.
Figure 5.6 shows two alternative layouts of a telephone keyboard.

Figure 5.6: Alternative layouts of a telephone keyboard
Among these two alternative layouts, the telephone layout was chosen
rather than calculator layout. The main reason why the telephone layout
was chosen was because the users make fewer errors with this layout
compared to the calculator layout. Since the dialling of wrong telephone
numbers is costly, the telephone layout was selected even though the
process will be slower than with the calculator layout.
(b) Stereotypes
Different people have different expectations about what to do with controls.
For example, people from the US will move upwards to turn on a light,
while people from other countries will move in the opposite direction.
Basically, control movement stereotypes are trained expectations and most
people have learned these from a young age. In the US, to turn something
on there is an expectation of an upwards, right hand, forwards or clockwise
control movement. Table 5.1 shows the most common stereotypes.
Table 5.1: Common Stereotypes
Controlled Element Human Control Action

On Up, right, forward, clockwise
Off Down, left, backward
Right Clockwise, right
Raise Up, back
Lower Down, forward
Retract Up, backward, pull
Extend Down, forward, push
Increase Forward, up, right, clockwise

(c) Redundancy
The reliability of a system can be improved through the introduction of
redundancy in the system. Some examples of redundancy in operations are
as follows:
(i) Two or more workers need to agree on certain actions before the
action is executed; and
(ii) Two or more signals should be presented from the machine before a
worker can take action.
(d) Feedback
Feedback is an essential aspect to detect faults in a system. In an industrial
setting, the operatorÊs task is to classify items as „good‰ or „faulty‰
according to pre-established criteria. Executing an action and receiving
feedback are two important variables affecting our ability to carry out
continuous tasks. These are some examples of feedback which every
individual receives in their daily life:
(i) Bank statement;

(ii) Bills; and
(iii) Receipts.
The design of feedback requires careful consideration. Major trends may be

obscured by minor variations if the grain size of the feedback is too small.
Alternatively, the patterning of feedback over time may be just too complex
for the user to extract meaning from it. If the grain size is too big or large,
people may not be able to map the information in the feedback onto specific
behaviours amenable to self-modification.
Thus, there is a trade-off between two extremes. At one extreme, detailed

feedback that can be related to particular behaviours must not cause
information overload. At the other extreme, general feedback may be easily
grasped, but, if too general, cannot be related to specific behaviours.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. Explain four techniques for error reduction.
2. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative overload.

ACTIVITY 5.2
1. Discuss the importance of display and control in the design of a

system.
2. Provide examples of qualitative and quantitative display.
 Stress is physiological and psychological responses to excessive and usually

unpleasant stimulations and to threatening events in the environment.
 The goal of employees should be to find the optimum level under which they
can function and remain in good health and to avoid the extremes of work
overload and work underload.
 An omission is an error that will occur when an action has not been taken or
when something has been left out. On the other hand, an error of commission
is basically performing a correct action at the wrong time or vice-versa.
 Cognitive error should be reduced in the workplace to enhance the quality of

products or output and safety at workplace.
 Strategies such as standardisation, stereotypes, redundancy and feedback

should be in place to reduce error.
 Universal design can be applied to any product or environment to ensure

comfort, safety and convenience for everyone.
Error reduction Standardisation

Feedback Stereotypes
Redundancy Universal design

Burgstahler, S. (2012). Universal design: Process, principles, and applications.

Retrieved from http://www.un.org/disabilities/convention/convention
full.shtml

Prentice Hall.

Topic  Human
6 Engineering
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the design principles for mothers, children, the elderly and
impaired people;
2. Explain the design principles for access areas, walkways, steps, stairs,
bedrooms and bathrooms; and
3. Explain the office design principles for layout, acoustics, ventilation
and lighting.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will discuss the requirements and best practices in designing places
such as the home and kitchen and for special people such as the elderly and
people with limited abilities. The topic also explains office design for optimal
productivity of office workers.
6.1 DESIGNING THE HOME FOR MOTHER

AND CHILD
Design of home for mother and child is very important because it should
consider the safety of the individual and it requires specific requirements.

92  TOPIC 6 HUMAN ENGINEERING
6.1.1 Pregnant Women

Designing for pregnant women should consider the ease of movement of
pregnant women without restraining too much due to movement limitation.
(a) Ergonomic Stairways

The following are descriptions of ergonomic stairways:
(i) Gently Sloping

Stairs in the house should be gently sloping for pregnant women.
Steps should ideally be reduced to just three or four steps before the
landing platform.
(ii) Having Handrails

Handrails are needed to protect users from falling off the edge of the
stairs or landings (secure to grasp).
(iii) Proper Lighting

Good lighting can protect users from falls or slips due to lack of
visibility.
Figure 6.1: Stairways

Source: www.houzz.com

TOPIC 6 HUMAN ENGINEERING  93
(b) Ergonomic Bedrooms

Mattresses and beds for pregnant women should be low, making it easy to
sleep. This ensures that pregnant women will remain in a good posture to
reduce injury and keep them comfortable (see Figure 6.2). Ergonomic
pillows should not cause neck aches and strains. The floor must be rough
and not too slippery to prevent slipping and injuries.
Figure 6.2: Mattress design

Source: www.7zonemattress.com
(c) Ergonomic Kitchens

Ergonomic design for kitchens should minimise uncomfortable positions
and enhance ease of access by applying the most well-organised
arrangement between areas in the space such as appliances, tops, cabinets,
and sinks. Cabinets must be positioned at user-friendly heights and the
kitchen must fit the userÊs needs.
6.1.2 Children
When designing home for children, one should give proper attention to the
safety aspect of the child due to the nature of children being normally curious
with the tendency to move around.
(a) Bathrooms
In order to prevent bathroom injuries to children, the room must be made
inaccessible to children unless accompanied by an adult. This may be in the
form of installing a latch on the door at adult height and preventing the

children from entering the bathroom when people are not around.
Precautions must also be taken to ensure that doors can be unlocked from
the outside, just in case a child locks himself in the bathroom. The following
precautions should also be taken:
(i) Install no-slip strips at the bottom of the bathtub to prevent your
children from slipping when they are inside it; and
(ii) All cabinets in the bathroom must be designed at adult height so that
any material stored inside them are out of the reach of children.
(b) Kitchens
Eliminate the most serious dangers in kitchens by taking the following
precautions:
(i) Install high cabinets that are equipped with locks to prevent children
from reaching dangerous items such as large particle food substances
that are stored inside;
(ii) Apply child safety locks that refasten automatically every time the
cupboard is closed if you need to store items under the sinks; and
(iii) Choose an oven that is well-insulated to protect children from heat if

they accidently touch the oven door. Ensure the oven door remains
closed at all times after use.
(c) Child Safety Features

Some of the safety features that can be installed in the house to prevent
injury to children are as follows:
(i) Safety gates ă Child safety gates are essential for homes with babies
and toddlers (see Figure 6.3). Children like to move around when
they start to crawl. Therefore, certain areas, for example, stairs and
kitchens, should be secured to prevent physical injury to children.

Figure 6.3: Child safety gate

Source: www.chiccheapnursery.com
(ii) Wall strap ă To prevent items such as heavy furniture from falling on
a child (see Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: Wall strap

Source: www.fairview.org

(iii) Anti-finger trapping devices for doors ă To prevent a childÊs finger

from being trapped in the door hinges (see Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.5: Anti-finger trapping devices

Source: www.astroflame.com
(iv) Sharp corner protector ă To cover the sharp edges in the house, such
as the corners of tables (see Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6: Sharp corner protector

Source: www.safetyassured.com
(v) ChildÊs study table ă To promote comfortable and attractive learning

conditions for children (see Figure 6.7).
Figure 6.7: ChildÊs study table

Source: www.sunperrykids.com.my
6.2 DESIGNING FOR IMPAIRED AND ELDERLY

PEOPLE
Impaired people are people who have a physical or mental disability, while
elderly people may have restricted physical movement due to their advanced
age. In order for impaired and elderly people to move, it is necessary for them to
have suitable vehicles which are catered to with suitable platforms, entrances and
exits to ease their movement in and out of places such as shopping complexes,
offices, banks and others.
Therefore, it is recommended that elderly and impaired people use ergonomic

wheelchairs, which are better than normal wheelchairs, as the latter cause many
complications for the users. Figure 6.8 shows the difference between the two
kinds of wheelchairs.
Figure 6.8: Wheelchair

Source: http://www.karmawheelchairs.com.au/

Ergonomic wheelchairs are ultra-light with many design features that facilitate
usersÊ movements, thus enabling them to perform daily activities more
independently. These features include a high quality lightweight edge, foldable
and simple to store and a removable, washable seating pad made from stain
resistant and anti-bacterial material.
(a) The S-shape seating system gives additional stability, better weight
dissemination and reduces the danger of bedsores and spinal injury. The
protected S-shape seating system that accompanies each wheelchair
conveys an ergonomic seating casing that adjusts and flexes to the state of
the userÊs body.
(b) By facilitating their movement, this ergonomic wheelchair serves to lessen

the impacts for the debilitated and elderly individual.
(c) In addition, the wheelchair is designed for easy access into buildings such
as shopping complexes or offices, enabling the user to be more mobile and
independent.
6.3 ACCESS AREAS, WALKWAYS, STEPS AND

STAIRS
Humans always move from one point to another using access areas, walkways,
steps and stairs. Proper engineering design will ensure access areas, walkways,
steps and stairs are suitable for everybody and the chances of injury can be
minimised.
6.3.1 Access Areas

The following are some tips that can be applied when we are creating access for
pedestrians and disabled people.
(a) Accessible areas such as for parking should be planned to be safe and
suitable for both wheelchair users and pedestrians (see Figure 6.9);
(b) Signage is essential to support access and ensure appropriate use;
(c) The accessible area must be properly identified and have a clear path of
travel from the parking area to the entrance, which is accessible;

(d) Lighting should be sufficient for transitions from the outside to the interior
so that it can assist people who have difficulty with their vision;
(e) There should be no obstacles or anything that can be hazardous to users in

the access way; and
(f) A gathering area should be established in a location with natural surveillance

and access control and away from the sight of possible offenders.
Figure 6.9: Wheelchair access

Source: http://www.thestar.com.my
6.3.2 Walkways
Here, we are going to discuss several tips which can be applied when creating
walkways for the public.
(a) Always keep the walkway areas clear of any obstructions because with all
walking aid devices, there is the risk of a fall or injury;
(b) Objects that would obstruct the proper use and manoeuvrability of walkers
must be moved and cleared from the passageway and walkways;
(c) Best practice is to provide walkways with a width of at least 1200mm to

allow a wheelchair to turn and if possible up to 1500mm wide to ensure
that two wheelchairs are able to pass through it (see Figure 6.10);

(d) Safety measures, safety barriers or warnings should be provided if the

walkway is close to a pool or water feature;
(e) Walkway surfaces should be stable, firm and generally positioned on a

constant plane, with a minimum amount of surface warping;
(f) Walkways should have continuous surfaces and not be interrupted by steps
or changes in level greater than 6mm;
(g) Outdoor walkways, ramps and their approach should be designed so that
water will not build up on walking surfaces;
(h) Wherever possible and practicable, the pathway for the visually impaired
should be differentiated from the physically handicapped as the tactile path
for the former could be a problem for the latter;
(i) Provide guard rails at the exposed side of any walking or standing surface;
(j) Walkways also must be separated from any vehicle road to prevent any
possible accidents; and
(k) Carpets that are laid on the floor, stairs or access ramp surfaces should be
steadily attached.
Figure 6.10: Ergonomic walkways

Source: http://www.turbophoto.com/Free-Stock-
Images/Images/Covered%20Walkway.jpg

6.3.3 Steps and Stairs

Tips for creating the ideal steps and stairs for the public are as follows:
(a) Handrails should be provided for all ramps, staircases and steps;
(b) Any light fixtures should not be mounted only at the ceiling of the landings
in order to prevent a personÊs own shadow from being cast on the steps
while travelling downwards;
(c) Stairs exposed to the elements should have extra slip resistance due to
possible exposure to water and ice, which can cause the surface to become
slippery;
(d) Stairs, instead of inclined ladders, shall be used in living quarters;
(e) Stairs shall be provided in lieu of ladders or ramps in accommodations,

offices or to navigation bridges;
(f) The point of view of inclination shall be adequate to provide the riser
height and tread depth that follows with a lowest angle of 38 degrees and
maximum angle of 45 degrees;
(g) No impediments or tripping hazards shall encroach into the climbing

spaces of stairs such as electrical boxes, valves, actuators or piping;
(h) The rise and run must be appropriately planned so the stairs are not overly
strenuous or cause potential hazard;
(i) The stairs design should include level of illumination, colour contrast,
evenly patterned materials, signage and other warning indicators to protect
the safety of the user;
(j) Fences shall be used to avoid access to areas that are under cantilevered or
overhanging staircases; and
(k) Handrails at the stairs should be easy to grip as well as allow for a firm and
comfortable grip because people with vision loss use handrails as their
guides, those with mobility impairment use handrails for leverage to get up
ramps and the semi-ambulatory rely on handrails for stability.

Figure 6.11: Ergonomic stairs

Source: http://www.mountdarraghstairs.com.au/
6.4 KITCHENS
The kitchen is one of the most used rooms in any household. However, many of
us are unaware of the potential hazards that can result from poor ergonomics in
the kitchen. The job of preparing, serving and cleaning up after meals gets done
there. Making sure that the environment fits the user is a critical factor in
ensuring satisfaction with oneÊs kitchen. Ergonomics is important because it
makes work more efficient, faster, more pleasant and with less fatigue by
improving the interface between the human body and the things we need to
interact with to get work done.
The movement abilities of the human body are the fixed parts of the equation.
We are not going to alter the body to fit the environment. So, to make work more
efficient, we have to alter the design to fit human movement. We want to
minimise movement by eliminating unnecessary steps and make the kitchen
usable for all the individuals in a household. Every aspect of kitchen design is
given a new, hard look, from countertop and sink heights to the optimum
placement of the microwave and dishwasher and the best depth of the kitchen
sink. The following are some general considerations and guidelines in designing
an ergonomic kitchen:

(a) Facilitate Workflow at the Most Used Work Area

What is most important here is the workflow of the kitchen, where the
serving area, food preparation area and cleaning area must be clear of any
barriers. This will make the design of the kitchen more flexible and safer for
use.
(b) Storage
Storage areas should be near the point of use, to makes it easier to reach
anything with an ergonomic position. For example, drawers for knives
must be near the wash area because it facilitates taking them out and
putting them away after use.
(c) Movement
In ergonomic kitchen design, we should give consideration to movement.
Awkward or over extending movements can harm the usersÊ health. Users
who perform actions like awkward lifting or overturning are likely to
develop back pain or muscle problems.
(d) Hand Workspaces

Hand workspaces are workspace which should be at elbow height because
it makes it easier to do work like cutting vegetables and other such tasks.
(e) Electric Devices

Electric devices like ovens and refrigerators must not be at bending height.
However, they should be put at a low height to ensure easy access to items,
in order to prevent any injuries.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
Explain the principles of ergonomic kitchen design. Give examples.
6.5 BEDROOMS AND BATHROOMS

Bedrooms and bathrooms are necessary in any home. The proper design will
ensure that the user will have maximum protection in terms of safety and health
while using these rooms.

6.5.1 Bedroom
The following are several tips that can be considered when we are designing an
ergonomic bedroom.
(a) Provide good natural light and ventilation. General lighting in each room,
as well as lighting in closets and task areas, all need to be planned for (see
Figure 6.12);
(b) Use built-in storage and dressers rather than furniture pieces where
possible to keep floor space open for manoeuvrability;
(c) Design the bedroom to support resident choice and independence;
(d) Generally choose curtains over doors for closets, regardless of operation;
(e) Blinds with cords are not recommended because they present a hazard;
(f) Floor covering must be appropriate for needs;
(g) Fibreglass-reinforced plastic wall panelling resists damage;
(h) Keep all egress paths open;
(i) Allow for light suppression and privacy with window coverings;
(j) Beds should be placed in rooms of adequate size to permit access to both
sides of the bed;
(k) Beds and positioners should be evaluated in the context of work needing to
be done and room size;
(l) Provide toe-space for safe lifting posture; and
(m) Tear-away curtain can be used as an alternative window covering.

Figure 6.12: Ergonomic bedroom

Source: http://www.giesendesign.com/
6.5.2 Bathroom
The following are some recommendations in designing an ergonomic bathroom:
(a) Bathrooms should have an appropriate design for consumers with

disabilities to use the facility;
(b) Fittings and structures should be designed with a form suitable for users
with disabilities; for example, doors or entrances and the bathtub should be
of a suitable size according to the userÊs needs;
(c) There should be easy access for users who use a wheelchair or are disabled;
(d) A special tub for handicapped people should be used or created, with a seat
in the tub to facilitate comfort and movement;
(e) All items to be used, such as soap and towels, should be placed within easy
reach of users with disabilities;
(f) The button for the cold and hot water tap should be easy to press and
located close to the user; and
(g) Proper lighting should be installed in the bathroom.

ACTIVITY 6.1
1. Discuss in a group the toilet design for impaired and elderly people
based on requirements set by the local authorities.
2. Explain the challenges in implementing design of private and

public spaces for elderly and impaired people in Malaysia. Post
your answers on the online forum.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Briefly explain the safety features that should be installed in houses

with toddlers.
6.6 ERGONOMICS DESIGN OF OFFICES

Office workers spend almost one third of their time in the office. Decent
ergonomics office design will ensure they work in a comfortable environment
and have high work satisfaction.
6.6.1 Modern Work Environment

Developments in modern business practices have considerably changed the
way we work in the office. The delivery of low-cost, high-quality, customised
products and services to customers who are increasingly demanding is critical to
an organisationÊs success. These changes in business practices are being reflected
in modern office designs. In the past, large areas were filled with rows of clerks
and typists conducting routine, repetitive tasks.
Now the routine tasks, such as text typing and data entry, are now integrated
into more complex, project-based work (see Figure 6.13 and 6.14).

Figure 6.13: Open office layout

Source: http://www.design-milk.com
Figure 6.14: Private office

Source: http://www.knoll.com
Ergonomics is used in the design of furniture to eliminate:
(a) Static or uncomfortable posture;

(b) Repetitive motion;
(c) Poor access or inadequate clearance and excessive reach;
(d) Displays that are difficult to read and understand; and
(e) Controls that are confusing to operate or require too much force.

Design objectives should support humans in achieving the operational objectives

for which they are responsible. There are three goals to consider in human-
centred design (see Figure 6.15).
Figure 6.15: Three goals of human-centred design
ACTIVITY 6.2
Discuss in a group the advantages and disadvantages of open office

layouts and private offices.
6.6.2 Layout of Workspaces

Layout design is very important for each workplace because it will determine the
quality and productivity of employees. The design should be comfortable for the
users and facilitate the work process. Low job satisfaction can be observed among
the employees if ergonomics design of layout of workspaces is neglected.

(a) Workspace Size

The following are a few suggestions for having an optimal workspace size.
(i) Ensure suitable for functions to be performed (including maintenance

tasks);
(ii) Ensure lighting and temperature appropriate for functions to be

performed; and
(iii) Review needs with changing or evolving functions and equipment.
(b) Workspace Arrangement

The suggested workspace arrangements are as follows:
(i) Facilitates appropriate work postures; and
(ii) Adequate space for all equipment.
(c) Design of Layout

Offices exist primarily to allow employees to do their work and thereby
support their organisationÊs goals. Generally speaking, employees may
spend more than 30 per cent of their working hours per year in their offices.
Thus, the design layout of an office plays an important role in increasing
work performance of employees. The criteria which are needed to
designing an ideal office layout are as follows:
(i) Provide a supportive and comfortable environment for mental and

physical well-being;
(ii) Furnish cubicles based on workersÊ job requirements;
(iii) Create visual and acoustic privacy by using enclosure (higher number
of partitions, and larger workstations);
(iv) Provide adjustable furniture; environmental controls and lockable

storage for personal items;
(v) Locate work groups in the same area;
(vi) Provide access to a window and a view; and
(vii) Match alternative office strategies to tasks and employee needs.

(d) Design of Office Workstation

The recommendations for designing office workstations are as follows:
(i) Partition height: Heights between 1.5m and 1.8m are recommended;
(ii) Workstation size: Workstations of 6.3mñor greater are recommended;
(iii) Orientation: The orientation of workstation openings and of workers;
(iv) Office layout: Isolate noise sources; and
(v) Office etiquette: Encourage open-plan office workers to speak more

softly.
6.6.3 Office Design: Acoustics

Absorption properties of the ceiling, the workstation size and the partition height
have the largest effect on acoustic conditions since they are compensating for
walls that would normally block sound travel between neighbours. However, no
single element can control all the noise and the most significant improvement in
office acoustics occur when most of the office elements are well-designed. Hence,
these are a few recommendations to improve office acoustics.
(a) Provide acoustic satisfaction with comfortable background noise and good
speech privacy;
(b) Block sound with absorbent surfaces (especially the ceiling) and high, wide
partitions;
(c) Install a sound masking system; and
(d) Create large workstations with high partitions.
6.6.4 Office Design: Ventilation

In any office, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal conditions are determined
by the buildingÊs ventilation system and by the contents of the office. Poor
conditions can result if contaminants, air delivery and temperature are not
properly managed. Poor IAQ and thermal comfort are among the most common
problems in offices. Poor conditions can be uncomfortable and make it harder to
concentrate and work efficiently. They can also lead to symptoms such as
headaches, sleepiness, or eye, nose and throat pain. The following are a few
suggestions on having good ventilation in an office.

(a) Provide an adequate supply of outdoor air;
(b) Provide some individual control over temperature, air velocity, and/or air
direction;
(c) Clean and maintain the ventilation system and the office space;
(d) Create a comfortable thermal environment; and
(e) Insulate windows and provide perimeter heating or cooling.
6.6.5 Office Design: Lighting

Light reflected off surfaces and objects reveals the world to us. Good interior
lighting reveals what the user needs to see, making details visible but also
facilitating communication, setting the mood and addressing health and safety. It
does so in balance with the architectural characteristics of the space and practical
considerations such as cost, energy consumption, installation, and maintenance.
Here are some ideas to ensure that there is pleasant lighting in an office.
(a) Provide adequate task illumination;
(b) Provide access to daylight;
(c) Ensure uniformity in task surfaces;
(d) Create visual interest and a pleasant atmosphere;
(e) Use fluorescent lamps with good colour rendering;
(f) Provide some individual lighting controls; and
(g) Avoid using glossy surfaces.
6.6.6 Office Design: Workstation Arrangement

The arrangement of the office workstation should adhere to specific principles
(see Figure 6.16).

Figure 6.16: Office workstation
The seating and posture design recommendations for typical office tasks are as
follows:
(a) Seat back adjustability;
(b) Good lumbar support;
(c) Seat height adjustability;
(d) No excess pressure on underside of thighs and backs of knees;
(e) Foot support if needed;
(f) Space for postural change, no obstacles under desk; and
(g) Forearms approximately horizontal.
(h) Minimal extension, flexion or deviation of wrists.
(i) Screen height and angle should allow comfortable head position.

6.6.7 Controls for Computer-related Stresses

Some of the appropriate controls that can be implemented for video display
terminal (VDT) users are as follows:
(a) Take frequent breaks;
(b) Make frequent postural changes;
(c) Do eye exercises;
(d) Perform office stretching;
(e) Ensure appropriate workstation setup;
(f) Use adequate lighting (refer to ISO 8995:2002 Lighting of Indoor Work
Places). The recommended maintained Illuminance for Office Tasks such as
writing, typing, reading and data processing is 500 Lux;
(g) Reduce glare;
(h) Make sure your workstation and chair are at the correct height;
(i) Use a document holder, if you need to frequently refer to documents;
(j) Wear lenses specifically for computers;
(k) Use eye lubricant;
(l) Take 15 to 20 second rest breaks for eyes every 15 minutes. Use this time to
look some other places or objects other than the screen. Viewing blue or
green surfaces or objects is recommended;
(m) Blink more often while working at the computer screen. This helps prevent
dryness of the eyes; and
(n) Increase the font size on your computer screen.

ACTIVITY 6.3
Discuss in a group:
(a) The design that should be implemented for the elderly and
impaired people in a government office;
(b) The criteria for office layout design;
(c) The effect of poor ventilation in an office; and
(d) The control measures to solve poor ventilation problems.
SELF-CHECK 6.3
Explain the design requirements to reduce noise in the office.
 Design objectives should support humans in achieving the operational

objectives for which they are responsible.
 Design for special needs people is very important in helping them to lead a
normal life.
 The number of child injuries at home has increased. Thus, necessary safety
precautions need to be in place to prevent unpleasant events from happening
to children.
 Office workers spend 30 per cent of their working hours per year in their
offices. Thus, the design of an optimal working environment is very important.

Access Office layout

Bedroom Office lighting
Child safety Office ventilation
Elderly person Steps
Impaired person Stairways
Kitchen Walkways
Office acoustics

Taylor and Francis.
Gavriel, S. (2012). Handbook of human factors and ergonomics (4th ed.). Canada:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.


Prentice Hall.
Wesley, E. W. (1992). Human factors design handbook (2nd ed.). New York, NY:
McGraw Hill, Inc.

Topic  Organising
7 and Managing
Work
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain motivation and behaviour theories and their application in an
organisational setting;
2. Explain the relationship between organisation commitment and job
performance;
3. Explain the personal characteristics which contribute to job
satisfaction;
4. Describe the importance of considering human and biological factors
in the arrangement of tasks and working hours; and
5. Discuss the implementation of ergonomics programmes and standards
in an organisation.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic will provide you with a brief overview about how humans interface
with their work environment, particularly with regard to organisational structure
and culture which can affect human behaviour and safety climates at their
workplace. This topic also discusses human motivation and behaviour;
organisational structure, policies, procedures and culture; and also some
ergonomics programmes and standards.

TOPIC 7 ORGANISING AND MANAGING WORK  117
7.1 GETTING ALONG WITH OTHERS

Each workplace is unique in itself because of the variation of people working in
the organisation. Such variation involves different ethnicities, backgrounds,
socio-demographic characteristics, beliefs, religions and others. Getting along in
such an environment is challenging and proper strategies need to be employed.
(a) Self-managing Work Teams

Self-managing work teams allow employees to manage, control and
monitor all facets of their work, from recruiting, hiring and training new
employees to deciding when to take rest breaks. Self-managing work teams
require a level of maturity and responsibility. Many studies on self-
managing work teams show their positive effects on productivity, quality
of work and turnover as well as job satisfaction.
(b) Socialisation of New Employees

Organisations are constantly undergoing change through the addition of
new employees at all levels of the organisation. New workers may come
from different environments and have different backgrounds, skill-sets and
knowledge which influence their desire to perform their job well.
Socialisation is basically the adjustment process by which new employees
learn their role in the organisational hierarchy, the company values and the
behaviours considered acceptable by their work group. Those who cope
successfully with this adjustment process are generally happier and more
productive employees.
(c) Organisational Culture

Organisational culture may be defined as a general pattern of beliefs,
expectations and values, some conscious and some unconscious, that are
expected to guide the behaviour of members of an organisation. An
organisationÊs culture is influenced by the type of industry it is operating
in. For example, medical industries share cultural characteristics that are
distinct from those of steel manufacturers, insurance companies, education
industries, telecommunication companies, Internet companies, advertising
agencies or movie studios because of different market conditions, different
customer expectations and also different competitive environments.
(d) Teamwork
Teamwork is a process where a group of people work collaboratively to
achieve the common goals of an organisation. Teamwork involves working
confidently within a group, contributing your own ideas effectively, taking
a share of the responsibility, being assertive rather than being passive or
aggressive. In order to have great teamwork, all the members of team

118  TOPIC 7 ORGANISING AND MANAGING WORK
should have clear and logical objectives. On the other hand, the teammates
must create the enthusiasm and take the initiative to make things happen.
Besides that, they should have creative and imaginative ideas and also
delegate tasks to people with the right skills.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Ergonomics is nothing if it is not applied to solve practical

problems. In your point of view, is it necessary to apply ergonomics
at the workplace? Discuss.
2. A worker as well as an employer must take responsibility for

good ergonomics practices to some degree. Discuss. Post your
answer in the online forum.
7.2 MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR

In this subtopic, we are going to learn four main sections under motivation and
behaviour. They are achievement and motivation theory, MaslowÊs hierarchy
theory, two factor theory and job characteristics theory.
(a) Achievement Motivation Theory

This theory basically emphasises the need to accomplish something, to do a
good job and to be the best. People who have a high degree of the need for
achievement derive great satisfaction from working to accomplish some
goal and they are motivated to excel in whatever task they undertake.
These are the three major characteristics of people who have a high need to
achieve:
(i) They favour a work environment in which they are able to assume
responsibility for solving problems;
(ii) They tend to take calculated risks and to set moderate and attainable
goals; and
(iii) They need continuous recognition and feedback about their progress
so that they know how well they are doing.

(b) MaslowÊs Hierarchy Theory

Abraham Maslow developed the Needs Hierarchy theory of motivation,
in which human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance (see
Figure 7.1). This theory suggests that people always seek or want what they
do not yet have. Subsequently, the needs that are already satisfied no
longer provide any motivation for behaviour and new needs must rise to
prominence. Once people are satisfied with lower level of needs, only then
will they focus on fulfilling higher level needs.
Figure 7.1: MaslowÊs hierarchy of needs

Source: 21st Century Tech
(i) Physiological Needs

The basic human needs including food, air, water and sleep and the
drive for sex and activity.
(ii) Safety and Security

The need for physical shelter and for psychological security and
stability.

(iii) Belonging and Love Needs

The social need for love, affection, friendship and affiliation that
involves interaction with and acceptance by other people.
(iv) Self-esteem Needs

The need for self-esteem and for esteem, admiration and respect from
other people.
(v) Self-actualisation Needs

The need for self-fulfilment for achieving our full potential and
realising our capabilities.
(c) Motivator ă Hygiene (Two Factor) Theory

This theory, which was proposed by Frederick Herzberg, deals with both
motivation and job satisfaction. According to Herzberg, there are two sets
of needs: the motivator needs, which produce job satisfaction and the
hygiene needs, which produce job dissatisfaction. Employees need higher
motivator needs in order to perform better. There are some conditions
which motivate employees to work hard, which are levels of responsibility,
achievement, recognition, advancement, career development and growth.
Job dissatisfaction is produced by the hygiene needs (the lower needs). The
word hygiene is related to the promotion and maintenance of health. This
includes work environment, workplace settings, company policy,
supervision, interpersonal relations, working conditions, salary and
benefits. When the hygiene needs are not satisfied, there is low job
satisfaction. Hygiene needs are very much similar to MaslowÊs theory,
which are physiological, safety and security as well as love and belonging.
Both Maslow and Herzberg emphasise that lower needs must be satisfied
before an employee can be motivated by higher needs, which can increase
the productivity of a company or business.
Herzberg also came up with the concept of job enrichment. Job enrichment
is basically an effort to expand the scope of the job to give employees a
greater role in planning, performing and evaluating their work, thus
providing the chance to satisfy their motivator needs. Herzberg suggests
the following ways to promote job enrichment:
(i) Remove some management control over the employees and increase
their accountability and responsibility for their work; in a way
increase employeesÊ autonomy, authority, freedom and flexibility;

(ii) Create complete or natural work units where possible. For example,
allow the employees to produce whole units instead of one
component of that unit. This policy increases the likelihood that
employees will regard their work as meaningful within the total
organisational process;
(iii) Provide regular and continuous feedback on productivity and job

performance directly to employees instead of through their
supervisor. For example, if the employee is doing a good job and
successfully runs an event, the management should give positive
feedback to the employee directly instead of through his supervisor;
and
(iv) Encourage employees to take new and challenging tasks or roles

and become experts in a particular task or operation. This means
expanding the level of knowledge and skills needed to perform the
job.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Explain MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs theory.
2. Briefly describe the ways to nurture job enrichment.
(d) Job Characteristics Theory

The presence of certain job characteristics causes employees to experience a
positive emotional state when they perform their job well. This condition
will motivate them to continue to perform better, on the expectation that
good performance will lead to good feelings. The strength of an employeeÊs
motivation to perform well depends on the strength of their need to grow
and develop. If the employees want to learn more and would like to have
continuous career growth; they will put more effort into completing the
tasks the assigned. Besides, it also leads to good performance, thus
increasing the productivity of the company.
The Job Characteristics Theory states that specific job characteristics lead to
psychological conditions that lead, in turn, to higher motivation,
performance and satisfaction ă if employees have a high growth need to
begin with.

The core job characteristics are identified as follows:
(a) Skill variety ă which means workers use various skills and abilities on the
job. The more challenging a job, the more meaningful it will be;
(b) Task identity ă the unity of the job ă that is, whether it involves doing a
whole unit of work or completing a product instead of making only part of
a product on an assembly line;
(c) Task significance ă the importance of a job to the lives and well-being of co-
workers or consumers. For example, the job of an aircraft mechanic affects
the lives of more people in a more significant way than does the job of
postal clerk;
(d) Autonomy ă the amount of independence employees have in scheduling

and organising their work; and
(e) Feedback ă the amount of information employees receive about the

effectiveness and quality of their job performance.
There are five ways to redesign job characteristics for better work performance
(see Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2: Redesign job characteristics to maximise work performance

SELF-CHECK 7.2
List three core job characteristics.

7.3 THE ORGANISATION AND YOU

Personal characteristics related to job involvement include age, growth needs,
social factors and belief in the traditional work ethic.
(a) Age ă Older people are usually more involved in their jobs perhaps because
they have more responsibility and challenges, and more opportunity to
satisfy their growth needs. Older workers are also more likely to believe in
the value of hard work. Conversely, younger workers typically work in
entry-level positions, and hold less stimulating and challenging jobs;
(b) Growth needs ă Job characteristics most relevant to job involvement are
stimulation, autonomy, variety, task identity, feedback and participation;
(c) Social factors ă Employees who work in groups or teams report stronger job
involvement than those who work alone; and
(d) Belief in the traditional work ethics ă The employees work among the
group of people to achieve the common goal. They have strong emphasis
on hard work and are willing to spend more time and energy to reach the
goal of success.
Organisation commitment has the following components (see Figure 7.3):
Figure 7.3: Organisation commitment

Source: Schultz &Schultz (2001)

There are a few types of commitment to an organisation, as shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Types of commitment

SELF-CHECK 7.3
List the types of commitment to an organisation.
7.4 DESIGN FOR MOTIVATION AND

PERFORMANCE
In order to have higher motivation and performance at the workplace, the
employee must have job satisfaction. Job satisfaction is the employeesÊ positive
and negative feelings and attitudes about their job.
Several factors lead to job satisfaction such as the opportunity to make a

contribution to society, good pay, adventure and excitement, autonomy on the
job, respect from peers and job security.
Personal factors also can influence job satisfaction such as age, health, length of
job experience, emotional stability, social status, leisure activities, family and
other social relationships. Table 7.1 lists the ten most and least satisfying jobs in
general.

Table 7.1: Satisfying and Non-satisfying Jobs
10 Most Satisfying Jobs 10 Least Satisfying Jobs

Clergy Labour job
Firefighter Clothing salesperson
Physical Therapist Hand packer
Author Food preparer
Special Education Teacher Roofer
Teacher Cashier
Educational Administrator Furniture or home furnishings salesperson
Painter Bartender
Psychologist Freight or materials handler
Power Plant Engineer Food server
Personal Characteristics and Job Satisfaction

We will discuss personal characteristics and job satisfaction in detail as follows:
(a) Age ă Job satisfaction increases with age, the lowest job satisfaction is
reported by the youngest workers.
(b) Gender ă Comparisons of job satisfaction between women and men are
inconsistent and contradictory. It may not be the gender, as such, that
relates to job satisfaction as much as the group factors. For example, women
are typically paid less than men for the same work and their opportunities
for promotion are fewer.
(c) Cognitive ability ă For many jobs, there is a range of intelligence associated
with high performance and satisfaction. People who are too intelligent for
their work may find insufficient challenges, which leads to boredom and
dissatisfaction. People whose jobs are not sufficiently challenging for their
level of intelligence report greater dissatisfaction with their work.
(d) Job experience ă Job satisfaction appears to increase after a number of years
of experience and to improve steadily thereafter. The relationship between
job satisfaction and length of work experience is parallel with the
relationship to age.

(e) Organisational justice ă This refers to how fairly employees perceive

themselves to be treated by the company. When employees believe they are
being treated unfairly, their job performance, job satisfaction and
organisational commitment are likely to decline.
ACTIVITY 7.2
In groups of three, explain three personal characteristics which affect

job satisfaction.
7.5 WORKING HOURS

According to the Malaysian Employment Act, 1955, normal working hours
should not be more than eight hours in a day and also not more than 48 hours in
a week. Emergency work is allowed only in case of accidents, actual or
threatened.
(a) Overtime
This refers to work done in excess of the „normal hours of work‰. However,
it does not include work done on rest days and public holidays. Overtime
1
on normal working days should be compensated at a rate of 1 times the
2
normal hourly rate of pay. There are limits for overtime, such as the
following:
(i) 104 hours per month;
(ii) Not more than 12 hours of work (including normal hours in a day);
(iii) Overtime on rest days shall be two times the hourly rate of pay; and
(iv) Overtime on public holidays shall be three times the hourly rate of
pay for work done in excess of normal hours of work.
(b) Annual Leave

An employee is entitled to annual leave only after 12 months of continuous
service as follows:
(i) Less than two years of service ă eight days for each year;
(ii) Two years or more but less than five years ă 12 days for each year;

(iii) More than five years ă 16 days for each year;
(iv) The paid annual leave does not include public holidays; and
(v) An employee must take his annual leave not later than 12 months
after the end of every 12 months of continuous service. If he fails to do
so, his annual leave will be forfeited.
(c) Medical Leave

An employee is entitled to paid sick leave only under the following
circumstances:
(i) He has obtained a certificate from a registered medical practitioner

duly appointed by his employer.
(ii) He has obtained a certificate from a dental surgeon.
(iii) If no such medical practitioner is appointed, or the services of such a

practitioner are not obtainable within a reasonable time or distance,
then other registered medical practitioners or government medical
officers will be accepted.
(iv) He has informed or has attempted to inform the employer of his sick
leave within 48 hours of the commencement of the sickness.
The number of days of paid sick leave which an employee is entitled to in

each calendar year is as follows:
(i) Less than two years ă 14 days;
(ii) Two years but less than five years ă 18 days; and
(iii) Five years or more ă 22 days.
If hospitalisation is necessary, the amount of paid sick leave can be extended by

up to 60 days per calendar year. If there is a company appointed doctor or panel
of doctors, the employee should seek medical treatment from these doctors.

7.6 CIRCADIAN BODY RHYTHM

The various bodily functions of both humans and animals fluctuate in a 24-hour
cycle, called the circadian body rhythm. Figure 7.5 shows circadian bodily
functions.
Figure 7.5: Circadian bodily functions

Source: Kroemer & Grandjean (1997)
Effect of Circadian Rhythms

During the daytime, all organs and functions are ready for action. At night, most
of these are dampened and the organism is occupied with recuperation and
renewal of its energy reserves.

(a) Normal Sleep

The following is a description of normal sleep.
(i) An adult requires between six and eight hours of sleep per night; and
(ii) The length of sleep is mainly a matter of age; a new-born needs 15 to

17 hours of sleep daily during its first six months, whereas many
ageing people sleep less.
(b) Night Work and Sleep

Night work and sleep are discussed as follows:
(i) A study conducted in Norway shows that shift workers had

significantly more digestive ailments and nervous disorders.
(ii) Below are the possible health impacts of night and shift work:
 Disturbance of sleeping habits;
 Disturbance of eating habits;
 Gastro-intestinal disorders;
 Neuro-psychic functions; and
 Cardiovascular functions.
(c) Occupational Sickness among Night Workers

Symptoms of occupational sickness among night workers are as follows:
(i) Chronic fatigue;
(ii) Weariness, even after a period of sleep;
(iii) Mental irritability;
(iv) Moods of depression; and
(v) General loss of vitality and disinclination to work.
ACTIVITY 7.3
Discuss in a group the consequences if an employee does night work or

shift work for a long period of about 10 to 15 years.

7.7 ERGONOMICS PROGRAMMES AND

STANDARDS
The implementation of ergonomics needs proper programmes and established
standards. Sound programmes and standards implementation will ensure the
maximum benefits to the employees and employers.
7.7.1 Ergonomics Programmes: Hazard Identification,

Evaluation and Control Implementation
Before discussing the subject in detail, there are a few key terms that need to be
understood. The definition of hazard and risk based on the Department of
Occupational Safety and Health (2008) as follows:
(a) Hazard
A source or a situation with a potential for harm in terms of human injury
or ill health, damage to property, damage to the environment or a
combination of these; and
(b) Risk
A combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event
within a specified period or in specified circumstances and the severity of
injury or damage to the health of people, property, environment or any
combination of these caused by the event.
An example of an ergonomic hazard would be lifting 30kg of raw material. An

ergonomics programme should start with the identification of ergonomic
hazards within a workplace.
7.7.2 Ergonomic Hazard Identification

The first step in controlling ergonomic risk is the identification of ergonomic
hazards. We need to identify the ergonomic hazards and which tasks are affected
by these risks.
There are a few strategies for ergonomic risk identification and the following list
details some sources of information which could be used (refer to Table 7.2):

Table 7.2: Sources of Information
Sources of Information
Records Consultation Observation
 Statistics of MSD  Formal surveys or  Direct viewing
questionnaires inspections
 Injury reports
 OHS minutes  Tool box talks  Audits
 First aid records  OHS reps  Walk-through surveys
 Workers compensation  Meetings  Workplace inspection

records
 Informal chats
 Accident and near miss
records
 Reports by employees
7.7.3 Ergonomic Hazard Evaluation

Once the ergonomic risk has been identified, the risk should be evaluated or
assessed to determine the level of risk and to prioritise the control implementation
of the most risky task, followed by other risky tasks.
Risk assessment should assess the following issues:
(a) Posture condition (postures to perform the task);
(b) Force exerted (weight of the load, force exerted for pushing and pulling
activities);
(c) Repetition (frequency of the task);
(d) Individual factors (age, gender, previous injury, capacity and others); and
(e) Work organisation (current control, rest break and other).
Ergonomic hazard evaluation will indicate the tasks which require the
implementation of ergonomic control measures and the implementation is best
done in consultation with the workers who perform the task.

Ergonomic hazard evaluation is vital when:
(a) A task activity has caused MSD to workers; and

(b) A new work process is introduced.
There are some methods available to evaluate ergonomic risk. These are
described in the following sections.
(a) Physiological Method

The following are examples of physiological method:
(i) Heart rate monitoring; and

(ii) Borgs rating of perceived exertion scale (RPE).
The effort expended by workers can be measured by assessing their cardio

respiratory system, for example, through measurement of heart rate and
oxygen intake. The heart rate can be measured directly using telemetry.
Alternatively, physiological effort can be measured by asking the workers
how hard they think they are working using Borgs rating of perceived
exertion scale.
(b) Psychophysical Methods

Snook tables or Liberty Mutual Manual Handling Tables are techniques to
assess the acceptable load (lift/lower and carry) or force (push/pull) for
some types of material handling where other job factors (frequency and
distance) are held constant.
(c) Combination Approach

Examples of combination approach are as follows:
(i) NIOSH Recommended Weight Limit (RWL);

(ii) Moore-Garg Strain Index; and
(iii) ACGIH TLV for Hand Activity Level.
The combination approach is based on the biomechanical, physiological

and psychological criteria.

(d) Epidemiological Methods

A simple epidemiological method that is frequently used to collect
information on body discomfort, pain and aches (musculoskeletal
disorders) is the Nordic questionnaire. This is a standardised questionnaire
that is used with other information about work characteristics.
(e) Postural Methods

These are the examples of postural methods:
(i) Ovako Working posture Assessment System (OWAS);

(ii) Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA);
(iii) Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA); and
(iv) Workplace Ergonomics Risk Assessment (WERA).
(f) Biomechanical Methods

The following are examples of biomechanical methods:
(i) 3D Static Strength Prediction Programme; and

(ii) Lumbar Motion Monitor.
7.7.4 Ergonomics Control Implementation

Once the ergonomic risk has been identified and evaluated, appropriate controls
should be implemented to manage the risk. It is important to choose the most
appropriate control based on the level of ergonomic risk. A hierarchy of controls
is listed below:
(a) Elimination
Elimination of hazard (for example: no lifting activities).
(b) Substitution
(i) Reduction of load; and
(ii) Use mechanical aids or equipment.
(c) Isolation
Isolate people with back pain or elderly workers from doing manual
handling tasks.

(d) Engineering Control

Reduction through design.
(e) Administrative Control

Establishment of policy, working procedure, signage, training, provision of
task breaks, job rotation and back strengthening programme.
(f) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Provision of appropriate PPE based on the task (for example: power grip
gloves, anti-vibration gloves).
The selection of control should be from top (elimination) to bottom (PPE) and
PPE should be the last option.
Once an appropriate control measure has been implemented, it is equally

important to evaluate the effectiveness of the control in reducing the risk. The
control should be evaluated based on the following criteria:
(a) Effectiveness in reducing the risk;

(b) Long-term implication to the organisation and workers; and
(c) Cost-benefit ratio of the implementation.
SELF-CHECK 7.4
Define hazard and risk.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. Explain the challenges encountered during a walk-through survey.
2. List the strategies to promote employee participation in ergonomic

hazard identification.

7.7.5 ISO Ergonomics Standard

A standard is defined as:
Documented agreement containing technical specification or other precise

criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of
characteristics, to ensure that materials, products, processes, and services are
fit for the purpose served by those making reference to the standard.
(ISO, 2004)
The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) is the primary body

responsible for standardisation globally. ISO and the European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN) are the main organisations involved when considering
standards related to human factors and ergonomics.
The technical committee, ISO TC 159 is responsible for developing ergonomics

standards. The committee comprises four subcommittees, which are:
(a) ISO/TC 159/SC 1 General ergonomics principles;
(b) ISO/TC 159/SC 3 Anthropometry and biomechanics;
(c) ISO/TC 159/SC 4 Ergonomics of human-system interaction; and
(d) ISO/TC 159/SC 5 Ergonomics of the physical environment.
There are also ergonomics standards that have been developed by other ISO and
CEN committees and further details can be obtained from the ISO website.
Standards generally provide basic descriptions, performance standards, solution
standards, measurement standards and assessment standards. The ISO
Ergonomics Standards are as follows:

ISO/TC 159/SC 1 General Ergonomics Principles
(i) ISO 6385:2004 Ergonomic principles in the design of work systems
(ii) ISO 10075:1991 Ergonomic principles related to mental workload ă

General terms and definitions
(iii) ISO 10075-2:1996 Ergonomic principles related to mental workload ă Part

2: Design principles
(iv) ISO 10075-3:2004 Ergonomic principles related to mental workload ă Part

3: Principles and requirements concerning methods for measuring and
assessing mental workload
(v) ISO 26800:2011 Ergonomics ă General approach, principles and concepts
ISO/TC 159/SC 3 Anthropometry and Biomechanics
(i) ISO 7250-1:2008 Basic human body measurements for technological

design ă Part 1: Body measurement definitions and landmarks
(ii) ISO/TR 7250-2:2010 Basic human body measurements for technological

design ă Part 2: Statistical summaries of body measurements from
national populations
(iii) ISO 11226:2000 Ergonomics ă Evaluation of static working postures
(iv) ISO 11228-1:2003 Ergonomics ă Manual handling ă Part 1: Lifting and

carrying
(v) ISO 11228-2:2007 Ergonomics ă Manual handling ă Part 2: Pushing and

pulling
(vi) ISO 11228-3:2007 Ergonomics ă Manual handling ă Part 3: Handling of

low loads at high frequency
(vii) ISO/TR 12295:2014 Ergonomics ă Application document for International

Standards on manual handling (ISO 11228-1, ISO 11228-2 and ISO 11228-
3) and evaluation of static working postures (ISO 11226) 60.60 13.180

(viii) ISO/TR 12296:2012 Ergonomics ă Manual handling of people in the

healthcare sector
(ix) ISO 14738:2002 Safety of machinery ă Anthropometric requirements for

the design of workstations at machinery
(x) ISO 15534-1:2000 Ergonomic design for the safety of machinery ă Part
1: Principles for determining the dimensions required for openings for
whole-body access into machinery
(xi) ISO 15534-2:2000 Ergonomic design for the safety of machinery ă Part
2: Principles for determining the dimensions required for access
openings
(xii) ISO 15534-3:2000 Ergonomic design for the safety of machinery ă Part
3: Anthropometric data
(xiii) ISO 15535:2012 General requirements for establishing anthropometric

database
(xiv) ISO 15536-1:2005 Ergonomics ă Computer manikins and body

templates ă Part 1: General requirements
(xv) ISO 15536-2:2007 Ergonomics ă Computer manikins and body

templates ă Part 2: Verification of functions and validation of
dimensions for computer manikin systems
(xvi) ISO 15537:2004 Principles for selecting and using test persons for
testing anthropometric aspects of industrial products and designs
(xvii) ISO/TS 20646:2014 Ergonomics guidelines for the optimisation of

musculoskeletal workload
(xviii) ISO 20685:2010 3-D scanning methodologies for internationally

compatible anthropometric databases

ISO/TC 159/SC 4 Ergonomics of Human-system Interaction
(i) ISO 1503:2008 Spatial orientation and direction of movement ă

Ergonomic requirements
(ii) ISO 9241-1:1997 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 1: General introduction
(iii) ISO 9241-2:1992 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 2: Guidance on task requirements
(iv) ISO 9241-5:1998 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 5: Workstation layout and postural
requirements
(v) ISO 9241-6:1999 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 6: Guidance on the work environment
(vi) ISO 9241-11:1998 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 11: Guidance on usability
(vii) ISO 9241-12:1998 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 12: Presentation of information
(viii) ISO 9241-13:1998 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 13: User guidance
(ix) ISO 9241-14:1997 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 14: Menu dialogues
(x) ISO 9241-15:1997 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 15: Command dialogues
(xi) ISO 9241-16:1999 Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual
display terminals (VDTs) ă Part 16: Direct manipulation dialogues
(xii) ISO 9241-20:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 20:

Accessibility guidelines for information/communication technology
(ICT) equipment and services
(xiii) ISO/TR 9241-100:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 100: Introduction to standards related to software ergonomics

(xiv) ISO 9241-110:2006 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 110:

Dialogue principles
(xv) ISO 9241-129:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 129:

Guidance on software individualisation
(xvi) ISO 9241-143:2012 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 143:

Forms
(xvii) ISO 9241-151:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 151:

Guidance on World Wide Web user interfaces
(xviii) ISO 9241-154:2013 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 154:

Interactive voice response (IVR) applications
(xix) ISO 9241-171:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 171:

Guidance on software accessibility
(xx) ISO 9241-210:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 210:

Human-centred design for interactive systems
(xxi) ISO 9241-300:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 300:

Introduction to electronic visual display requirements
(xxii) ISO 9241-302:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 302:

Terminology for electronic visual displays
(xxiii) ISO 9241-303:2011 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 303:

Requirements for electronic visual displays
(xxiv) ISO 9241-304:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 304:

User performance test methods for electronic visual displays
(xxv) ISO 9241-305:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 305:

Optical laboratory test methods for electronic visual displays
(xxvi) ISO 9241-306:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 306:

Field assessment methods for electronic visual displays
(xxvii) ISO 9241-307:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă Part 307:

Analysis and compliance test methods for electronic visual displays

(xxviii) ISO/TR 9241-308:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 308: Surface-conduction electron-emitter displays (SED)
(xxix) ISO/TR 9241-309:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 309: Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays
(xxx) ISO/TR 9241-310:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 310: Visibility, aesthetics and ergonomics of pixel defects
(xxxi) ISO/TR 9241-331:2012 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 331: Optical characteristics of autostereoscopic displays
(xxxii) ISO 9241-400:2007 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 400: Principles and requirements for physical input devices
(xxxiii) ISO 9241-410:2008 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 410: Design criteria for physical input devices
(xxxiv) ISO/TS 9241-411:2012 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 411: Evaluation methods for the design of physical input devices
(xxxv) ISO 9241-420:2011 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 420: Selection of physical input devices
(xxxvi) ISO 9241-910:2011 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 910: Framework for tactile and haptic interaction
(xxxvii) ISO 9241-920:2009 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Part 920: Guidance on tactile and haptic interactions
(xxxviii) ISO 9355-1:1999 Ergonomic requirements for the design of displays

and control actuators ă Part 1: Human interactions with displays and
control actuators
(xxxix) ISO 9355-2:1999 Ergonomic requirements for the design of displays

and control actuators ă Part 2: Displays
(xl) ISO 9355-3:2006 Ergonomic requirements for the design of displays

and control actuators ă Part 3: Control actuators
(xli) ISO 11064-1:2000 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 1:

Principles for the design of control centres

(xlii) ISO 11064-2:2000 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 2:

Principles for the arrangement of control suites
(xliii) ISO 11064-3:1999 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 3: Control

room layout
(xliv) ISO 11064-4:2013 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 4: Layout

and dimensions of workstations
(xlv) ISO 11064-5:2008 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 5: Displays

and controls
(xlvi) ISO 11064-6:2005 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 6:

Environmental requirements for control centres
(xlvii) ISO 11064-7:2006 Ergonomic design of control centres ă Part 7:

Principles for the evaluation of control centres
(xlviii) ISO 14915-1:2002 Software ergonomics for multimedia user interfaces ă

Part 1: Design principles and framework
(xlix) ISO 14915-2:2003 Software ergonomics for multimedia user interfaces ă

Part 2: Multimedia navigation and control
(l) ISO 14915-3:2002 Software ergonomics for multimedia user interfaces ă

Part 3: Media selection and combination
(li) ISO/TR 16982:2002 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Usability methods supporting human-centred design
(lii) ISO/TS 18152:2010 Ergonomics of human-system interaction ă

Specification for the process assessment of human-system issues
(liii) ISO/TR 18529:2000 Ergonomics ă Ergonomics of human-system

interaction ă Human-centred lifecycle process descriptions
(liv) ISO 20282-1:2006 Ease of operation of everyday products ă Part 1:

Design requirements for context of use and user characteristics
(lv) ISO/TS 20282-2:2013 Usability of consumer products and products for

public use ă Part 2: Summative test method
(lvi) ISO 24503:2011 Ergonomics ă Accessible design ă Tactile dots and bars
on consumer products

ISO/TC 159/SC 5 Ergonomics of the Physical Environment
(i) ISO 7243:1989 Hot environments ă Estimation of the heat stress on

working man, based on the WBGT-index (wet bulb globe temperature)
(ii) ISO 7726:1998 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Instruments for

measuring physical quantities
(iii) ISO 7730:2005 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Analytical

determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of
the PMV and PPD indices and local thermal comfort criteria
(iv) ISO 7731:2003 Ergonomics ă Danger signals for public and work areas ă
Auditory danger signals
(v) ISO 7933:2004 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Analytical

determination and interpretation of heat stress using calculation of the
predicted heat strain
(vi) ISO 8996:2004 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Determination

of metabolic rate
(vii) ISO 9886:2004 Ergonomics ă Evaluation of thermal strain by

physiological measurements
(viii) ISO 9920:2007 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Estimation of

thermal insulation and water vapour resistance of a clothing ensemble
(ix) ISO 9921:2003 Ergonomics ă Assessment of speech communication
(x) ISO 10551:1995 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Assessment of

the influence of the thermal environment using subjective judgement
scales
(xi) ISO 11079:2007 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Determination

and interpretation of cold stress when using required clothing insulation
(IREQ) and local cooling effects
(xii) ISO 11399:1995 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Principles and

application of relevant International Standards

(xiii) ISO 11428:1996 Ergonomics ă Visual danger signals ă General

requirements, design and testing
(xiv) ISO 11429:1996 Ergonomics ă System of auditory and visual danger

and information signals
(xv) ISO 12894:2001 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Medical

supervision of individuals exposed to extreme hot or cold
environments
(xvi) ISO 13731:2001 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Vocabulary

and symbols
(xvii) ISO 13732-1:2006 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Methods

for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces ă Part
1: Hot surfaces
(xviii) ISO/TS 13732-2:2001 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă

Methods for the assessment of human responses to contact with
surfaces ă Part 2: Human contact with surfaces at moderate
temperature
(xix) ISO 13732-3:2005 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Methods

for the assessment of human responses to contact with surfaces ă
Part 3: Cold surfaces
(xx) ISO/TS 14415:2005 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă

Application of International Standards to people with special
requirements
(xxi) ISO/TS 14505-1:2007 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă

Evaluation of thermal environments in vehicles ă Part 1: Principles and
methods for assessment of thermal stress
(xxii) ISO 14505-2:2006 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Evaluation

of thermal environments in vehicles ă Part 2: Determination of
equivalent temperature
(xxiii) ISO 14505-3:2006 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Evaluation

of thermal environments in vehicles ă Part 3: Evaluation of thermal
comfort using human subjects

(xxiv) ISO 15265:2004 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Risk

assessment strategy for the prevention of stress or discomfort in
thermal working conditions
(xxv) ISO 15743:2008 Ergonomics of the thermal environment ă Cold

workplaces ă Risk assessment and management
(xxvi) ISO/TR 19358:2002 Ergonomics ă Construction and application of tests

for speech technology
(xxvii) ISO 24500:2010 Ergonomics ă Accessible design ă Auditory signals for

consumer products
(xxviii) ISO 24501:2010 Ergonomics ă Accessible design ă Sound pressure

levels of auditory signals for consumer products
(xxix) ISO 24502:2010 Ergonomics ă Accessible design ă Specification of age-

related luminance contrast for coloured light
(xxx) ISO 28802:2012 Ergonomics of the physical environment ă Assessment

of environments by means of an environmental survey involving
physical measurements of the environment and subjective responses
of people
(xxxi) ISO 28803:2012 Ergonomics of the physical environment ă Application

of International Standards to people with special requirements
7.7.6 Other Ergonomics Standards and Guidelines

Apart from ISO Standards, there are also other ergonomics standards which are
available for the adaptation. Besides standards, guidelines also can be referred
for improvement on ergonomics.
(a) Other Ergonomics Standards

Additionally, there are other ergonomics standards which have been
developed by the following standardisation bodies:
(i) European Committee for Standardisation (CEN, French: Comité

Européen de Normalisation);

(ii) British Standard (BS); and

(iii) American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
(b) Ergonomics Guidelines

There are many guidelines available for ergonomics. Guidelines normally
describe best practices and suggest ways of tackling problems and are not
mandatory. Each nation has their own guidelines to assist employees and
employers in the implementation of safety and health procedures and best
practices in order to reduce injuries and accidents.
The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has developed guidelines for

occupational health and safety management, which are also relevant to
ergonomics.
In Malaysia, the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH)

has developed a few guidelines related to ergonomics. Listed below are the
ergonomics guidelines and copies are freely available on the DOSH website
(http://www.dosh.gov.my/).
(i) Guidelines on Occupational Vibration, 2003;
(ii) Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Seating at Work,

2003;
(iii) Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Working with

Video Display Unit (VDUÊs), 2003; and
(iv) Guidelines on Occupational Safety and Health for Standing at Work,

2002.
There are also other guidelines which have been developed by other nations
worldwide and this information is available on the organisationsÊ websites.
SELF-CHECK 7.5
1. Define standards.
2. Explain the importance of standards.

ACTIVITY 7.4
Explain the challenges faced during the implementation of ergonomics

standards in a particular industry. Suggest the strategies to overcome
these challenges.
 Self-managing work teams allow employees to manage, control and

monitor all facets of their work from recruiting, hiring and training new
employees to deciding when to take rest breaks.
 Organisations are constantly undergoing change through the addition of new

employees at all levels of the organisation.
 The presence of certain job characteristics causes employees to experience a

positive emotional state when they perform their job well.
 When designing a job, the human biological system should be taken into
consideration in order to maximise human performance and reduce any
potential illness.
 An ergonomics programme should be implemented company wide as a

holistic approach to overcome safety, health and ergonomic problems.

3D Static Strength Prediction NIOSH Recommended Weight Limit

Programme (RWL)
ACGIH TLV for Hand Activity Organisational culture
Level
Organisational structure
BorgÊs rating of perceived exertion
scale (RPE) Ovako Working posture Assessment
System (OWAS)
Circadian body rhythm
Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA)
Ergonomics programmes
Rapid Upper Limb Assessment (RULA)
Heart rate monitoring
Snook tables/Liberty Mutual Manual
Job enrichment Handling table
Job satisfaction Standardised Nordic Musculoskeletal
Lumbar motion monitor Teamwork
MaslowÊs hierarchy theory Working hours
Moore-Garg Strain Index Workplace Ergonomics Risk Assessment
(WERA)
Motivation and behaviour
Motivatorăhygiene theory

Taylor & Francis.
Guidelines on occupational safety and health management systems (2008).

Retrieved from http://www.dosh.gov.my/images/dmdocuments/glx/
ve_gl_oshms.pdf


Kroemer, K. H. E., & Grandjean, E. (1997). Fitting the task to the human
(5th ed.). London, England: Taylor & Francis.

introduction to industrial and organisational psychology. New Jersey, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myINSPIRE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi )
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702


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Faculty of Science and Technology

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: T. Hari Krishnan

Moderators: Dr Yusof Omar

Safial Eqbal Zakaria

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2015

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Ergonomics 1

Topic 2 The Human Body 27

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 The Human Mind 47

Topic 4 Body and Mind Working Together 61

Topic 5 Human Factors and Cognitive Ergonomics 76

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 Human Engineering 91

Topic 7 Organising and Managing Work 116

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Apply ergonomics principles for the creation of a safer, healthier, more

2. Identify the causes of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) and the strategies to

3. Determine the perceptual, mental and physical capabilities of individuals

4. Demonstrate analytical skills in identifying workplace risk factors that can

5. Develop improvement plans and recommend sound workplace ergonomics

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 gives an overview of ergonomics, introduces ergonomic principles and

Topic 4 explains the brain-nerve network, tiredness, boredom and alertness at

Topic 7 discusses how humans interface with their work environment,

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Helander, M. (2006). A guide to human factors and ergonomics (2nd ed.).

Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2001). Psychology and work today: An

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1 HISTORY OF ERGONOMICS

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Before Jastrzbowski, an Italian physician, Bernardino Ramazinni (1633ă1714)

Another Polish scientist, Józefa Joteyko, discussed occupational fatigue and

Ergonomists contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products,

1.1.1 Ergonomics Framework

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Figure 1.1: Ergonomics framework

The benefits of ergonomics implementation are as follows:

(a) Enhances efficiency and productivity of work;

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

1.1.2 Domain of Ergonomics

(a) Physical Ergonomics