WHAT IS SPECIAL EDUCATION?

Special Education is the design and delivery of teaching and learning strategies for individuals with disabilities
or learning difficulties that may or may not be enrolled in regular schools. Students who need special education
may include students who have hearing impairment or are deaf, students who have vision impairment or are
blind, students with physical disabilities, students with learning difficulties, students with behavior disorders or
emotional disturbance and students with speech and language difficulties. Some students have a number of
disabilities and learning difficulties.
The 21st century teachers must be equipped with strategies and techniques in dealing with this kind of
learners. It is important that all teachers in the country develop useful and effective special educational skills so
that they can ensure that all students will in their classes will learner efficiently and effectively.

FOUNDATIONS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION

Special Education – an educational program/service designed to meet the children with special needs who
cannot profit from general or regular education because of disabilities or exceptional abilities.

Elements of Special Education

1. Philosophy of Inclusion – this include the shared value, universal design for learning
accessible communication.
2. Individualization of Programs – children with special needs must enjoy adaptable
program.
3. Supportive School Community - there is a need to have positive learning environment
for children at all times.
4. Multi-tiered Support System – this includes team based and data driven processes to
support framework for academic, behavioral and socio-emotional to develop support
network around their students.
5. Family and Community Partnership - family and community partnerships are very
important to build a strong learning environment and to develop support networks
around their students.
6. Cutting Edge Technologies and Practices – it refers to technological devices,
techniques or achievements that employs the most current and high-level IT
developments.
7. Flexibility and Autonomy – the needs of the learners are the top-most priority of the
schools.
8. Staff Development – the staff must undergo rigorous professional development training
to ensure that general and special education teacher and other personnel were ready to
meet the needs of all students.
9. Constant Refinement and Improvement of Programs – the schools must set goals
for the ongoing and improvement for sustainable special education programs.

Different Terms in Special Education

 Adapted Physical Education (APE): Specially designed physical education program, using
accommodations designed to fit the needs of students who require developmental or corrective
instruction in PE.
 Accommodations: Changes that allow a person with a disability to participate fully in an activity.
Examples include, extended time, different test format, and alterations to a classroom.
 ADD/ADHD: Attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder are medical conditions
characterized by a child's inability to focus, while possessing impulsivity, fidgeting and inattention.
 Acquisition Deficit: It refers to the absence of knowledge for executing a particular skill that has never
been mastered.
 Adaptive behavior the ability of an individual to demonstrate appropriate personal independence,
social responsibility and environmental awareness for his/ her chronological needs.
 Adaptations changes in educational environment that allow learners with disabilities to participate in
inclusive environments by compensating for learners weaknesses
 Alternative Assessment: Designed for learners with disabilities to participate in inclusive
environments by compensating testing and reporting system.
 Applied Behavior Analysis: Application of learning principles derived from operant conditioning used
to increase or decrease specific behaviors, considerable research supporting its use with individuals
with autism.
 Assessment or Evaluation: Term used to describe the testing and diagnostic processes leading up to
the development of an appropriate IEP for a student with special education needs.
 Asperger’s Syndrome: A type of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) that involves delays in the
development of basic skills, including socializing, coordination and the ability to communicate.
 Autism Spectrum Disorder: A brain development disorder characterized having impairment in social
interaction, communication and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Signs usually begin before a child
is 3 years old.
 Cerebral Palsy: A series of motor problems and physical disorders related to brain injury. CP causes
uncontrollable reflex movements and muscle tightness and may cause problems in balance and depth
perception.
 Cognitive skills are the core skills your brain uses to think, read, learn, remember, reason, and pay
attention.
 Disability: Physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities.
 Emotional Disturbance (SED): Term used to describe a diagnosable mental, behavioral or emotional
disorder that lasts for a significant duration that meets the criteria within the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders.
 Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): Special education and related services are provided at
public expense, without charge to the parents.
 Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA): A problem solving process for addressing inappropriate
behavior.
 Hearing Impairment: Full or partial decrease in the ability to detect or understand sounds.
 Home/Hospital Instruction: Students with verified medical conditions, which prevent them from
attending school, may receive services on a temporary basis in the home or hospital with a physician’s
referral.
 Inclusion: Term used to describe services that place students with disabilities in general education
classrooms with appropriate support services. Student may receive instruction from both a general
education teacher and a special education teacher.
 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA 2004): The original legislation was written in 1975
guaranteeing students with disabilities a free and appropriate public education and the right to be
educated with their peers. Congress has reauthorized this federal law. The most recent revision
occurred in 2004.
 Individualized Education Plan (IEP): Special education term outlined by IDEA to define the written
document that states the disabled child's goals, objectives and services for students receiving
special education.
 Individualized Education Program Team: Term used to describe the committee ofparents, teachers,
administrators and school personnel that provides services to the student. The committee may also
include medical professional and other relevant parties. The team reviews assessment results,
determines goals and objectives and program placement for the child needing services.
 Individualized Transition Plan (ITP): This plan starts at age 14 and addresses areas of post-school
activities, post-secondary education, employment, community experiences and daily living skills.
 Informal Assessment: Measuring student performance through classroom observations, interviewing
or teacher made tests that have not been utilized with large group of people.
 Interventions: Different methods, techniques and procedures used by teachers and other experts to
help learners who are struggling with a skill or lesson success in the classroom.
 Least Restrictive Environment (LRE): The placement of a special needs student in a manner
promoting the maximum possible interaction with the general school population. Placement options are
 offered on a continuum including regular classroom with no support services, regular classroom with
support services, designated instruction services, special day classes and private special education
programs.
 Mainstreaming: Term used to describe the integration of children with special needs into regular
classrooms for part of the school day. The remainder of the day is in a special education classroom.
 Manifestation Determination: Within 10 school days of any decision to change the placement of a
child with a disability because of violation of school code, the IEP team must review all relevant
information in the student’s file to determine if the conduct in question was caused by the child’s
disability or if the conduct was a direct result of the school district’s failure to implement the child’s IEP.
 Mediation is conflict resolution process that can be used to resolved special education issues.
 Modifications: Changes to curriculum assessment that significantly the expectation of the
 Multiple Disabilities: An IEP term used to define a combination of disabilities that causes severe
educational needs that require multiple special education programs such as mental retardation with
blindness.
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): OCD is an anxiety disorder that presents itself as recurrent,
persistent obsessions or compulsions. Obsessions are intrusive ideas, thoughts or images while
compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts that the child feels they must perform.
 Occupational Therapists: Provide consultation and support to staff to improve a student’s educational
performance related to fine motor, gross motor and sensory integration development.
 Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD): A child who defies authority by disobeying, talking back,
arguing or being hostile in a way that is excessive compared to other children and this pattern
continues for more than six months may be determined to have ODD. ODD often occurs with other
behavioral problems such as ADHD, learning disabilities and anxiety disorders.
 Orthopedic Impairment: Term used to define impairments caused by congenital anomaly,
impairments by diseases and impairments by other causes.
 Parent Consent: Special education term used by IDEA that states you have been fully informed in your
native language or other mode of communication of all the information about the action for which you
are giving consent and that you understand and agree in writing to that action.
 Physical Therapists: Provide consultation and support to staff to improve a student’s educational
performance related to functional gross motor development.
 Resource Specialists: Provide instructional planning and support and direct services to students who
needs an IEP and are assigned to general education classrooms for the majority of their school day.
 Specific Learning Disability: Special education term used to define a disorder in one or more of the
basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language spoken or written that may
manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical
equations.
 Speech and Language Impairments: Communication disorders such as stuttering, impaired
articulation, language impairment or voice impairment.
 Speech and Language Specialists: Assesses students for possible delayed speech and language
skills and provides direct services in the area of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and
pragmatics. They are also available regarding hearing impairments and amplification.
 Traumatic Brain Injury: An acquired injury to the brain caused by an external physical force resulting
in total or partial functional disability or psychosocial impairment. Applies to open or closed head
injuries.
 Transition IEP: IDEA mandates that at age 16, the IEP must include a statement about transition
including goals for post-secondary activities and the services needed to achieve these goals. This is
referred to an Individual Transition Plan or (ITP).
 Visual Impairment: Impairment in vision that even with correction adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.
 Vision Specialists: Provide consultation and support to staff and direct instructional support to
students with visual impairments. They provide functional vision assessments and curriculum
modifications including Braille, large type and aural media.
 Inclusive Education
In 2013, countries in Europe and Asia agreed to work together to include all children to quality learning.
Definition:
Inclusive Education is where schools work to include each and every child in learning. Inclusive
schools celebrate difference, respond to individual needs and encourage learning.
Importance:
Education is a fundamental right for every child, and it’s a smart investment. It means more
productive societies, less unemployed, and higher economic growth. Also, Inclusive schools help create
cohesive societies. Invest including all children in quality learning.

Philippine Bases of Special Education

Scope:
This policies and guidelines shall be implemented to all schools, centers and classes (private and public)
established under the educational system of the Philippines for the education of the learners with special
needs.

Philosophy:
The state shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education regardless of sex, age, creed,
socio-economic status, physical and mental condition, social or ethnic origin, political and other affiliation. The
state shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access of education as well as the enjoyment of the
benefits of education by all citizens (BP Blg. 232). 
Goal:
The ultimate goal of special education shall be the integration or mainstreaming of learners with special needs
into the regular school system and eventually into the community.
Objective:
Provide equal opportunities for all learners with special needs to acquire the knowledge, skills and values
necessary for them to adapt to a changing world;

Responsible People
 Parents/guardians/siblings/friends/neighbors
 Regular and SPED teachers
 Guidance counselors and school administrators
 Health and social workers 
 Law enforcement officers

 Articles 356 and 259 of Commonwealth Act No. 3203

o “The right of every child to live in the atmosphere conducive to the his physical, moral and
intellectual development” and the concomitant duty of the government is “to promote the full
growth of the faculties of every child”
 RA No. 3562: An Act to Promote the Education of the Blind in the Philippines
o Provided for the formal training of special education teachers of blind children at the Philippine
Normal College, the rehabilitation of the Philippine National School for Blind (PNSB) and the
establishment of the Philippine Printing House of the Blind.

 RA No. 5250: “An Act Establishing a Ten-Year Teacher Training Program for Teachers of Special
and Exceptional Children”
o Provided for the formal training of teachers for deaf, hard-of-hearing, speech, handicapped,
socially and emotionally disturbed, mentally retarded and mentally gifted and youth at the
Philippine Normal College and University of the Philippines

 Section 8, Article XV of the 1973 Constitution of the Philippines

o “A complete adequate and integrated system of education relevant to the goals of national
development”

 Articles 3 and 74 of the PD No. 603 of 1975

o “The emotionally disturbed or socially maladjusted child shall be treated with sympathy and
understanding and shall be given the education and care required by his particular condition”
o “Thus, where needs warrant, there shall be at least special classes in every province, and if
possible, special schools for the physically handicapped, the mentally retarded, the emotionally
disturbed and the mentally gifted. The private sector shall be given all the inducement and
encouragement”

 Presidential Decree No. 1509 0f 1978

o Created the National Commission Concerning Disabled Persons (NCCDP)

 Education Act of 1982 or BP Bilang 232

o The state shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education regardless of
sex, age, creed, socio-economic status, physical and mental condition, social or ethnic origin,
political and other affiliation. The state shall therefore promote and maintain equality of access
of education as well as the enjoyment of the benefits of education by all citizens

 Section 24 of BP 232: “SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES”

o “The state further recognizes its responsibility to provide, within the context of the formal
education system services to meet special needs of certain cliente. These specific types shall
be guided by the basic policies of state embodied on General Provisions of this act which
include the education of persons who are physically, mentally, emotionally, socially, culturally
different from the so-called “normal” individuals that they require modification of school
practices/services to develop to their maximum capacity ”

 BP Bilang 344: “An Act to Enhance the Mobility of Disabled Persons.”

o Required cars, buildings, institutions, establishments and public utilities to install facilities and
other devices for persons with disabilities

 Article XIV, Sections 1 and 2 of the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines

o “The state shall protect and promote the right of all citizens to quality education at all levels and
shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible to all ”
o “The state shall provide adult citizens the disabled and out-of-school youth with trainings in
civics, vocational efficiency and other skills”

 RA No. 7277: Magna Carta for Persons with Disabilities

o An act providing for the Rehabilitation, Self-Development and Self-Reliance of Disabled Person
and their Integration into the Mainstream of the Society and for other purposes. 
  RA No. 9442
o An act amending RA No. 7277, otherwise known as the Magna Carta for Persons with Disability
as amended, and for other purposes granting additional privileges and incentives and
probations on verbal, non-verbal ridicule and vilification against persons with disability. 

The Development of Special and Inclusive Education

1. Era of Extermination
a. Disability is a punishment of the gods.
b. Deaf, blind and illness have a little survival rate.
c. Plato and Aristotle call for infanticide.
d. Disability is impurity.
e. A disabled person cannot approach sacred places.
f. In the New Testament, disability is less a fault or not an evil sign. Helping them is an ocassion
for winning ones salvation.
2. Era of Ridicule
a. Used as servants or fools.
b. Ridiculed for deformities and behavior.
c. Dwarves were used as clowns.
3. Era of Asylum
a. They are cared in isolation.
b. No education at first, but with humane treatment.
c. Belief: Once disabled, always disabled.

Early Beginning of Special Education

 Without education, No humanity.
 Pedro Ponce de Leon – first documented experience about education of deaf children.
 Abbe Charles-Michel de I’Epee – created “Institut pour sounds” institute for deaf.
 Louis Braille – invented “Braille Script”.

Pioneers in Special Education

 Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard – known for his work on intellectual disability “Victor of Aveylon”.
 Edward Seguin – focused on teaching students with intellectual disability.
 Maria Montessori – Montessori approached in education.
 Ovide Decroly – worked with handicap children.

Developments in the Last Century (1900’s)

 Much has changed in how disability was viewed.
 Compulsory education leads to inclusive education.
 After WWII, Special Education was created.

From Special Education to Inclusive Education

 No longer excluded and segregated.
Treatment of Individuals in the Golden Times
 The approach to people with disabilities has been less than desirable; there is a long history of abuse,
discrimination and lack of compassion and understanding.
 Under the polytheistic society in the ancient times, disability was believed to be an indication of how the
gods lashes out the people who disobeyed them.

A BRIEF TIMELINE OF THE TREATMENT OF PEOPLE WITH DISABILITIES

 Greek Empire
o Were obsessed with human perfection. They believed beauty and intelligence were
intertwined.
 Roman Empire
o Romans considered the disabled inferior.
o Disabled = Monstrum
o In many cases it was up to the father if a disabled child was to live or die. The disabled
child was often taken and left naked in the woods.
 Fall of Roman
o This was time of increased sympathy and pity towards the disabled.
o This period of compassion would soon be replaced by fear.
 Middle Ages
o Those born with disabilities became outcasts and homeless beggars.
o Institutions developed more to hide the disabled than to treat, and conditions were less
than humane.
 Renaissance (approx. 1400’s thru 1600’s)
o There was a change in the treatment of the disabled with the introduction of medical
care and institutionalization.
o Many of the disabled were cared for by monks and religious organizations.
 1700’s
o In the 18th century, having a disability was a death sentence in some instances. Those
who weren’t able to work were often left destitute and without other options aside from
begging.
 1800's
o Social and moral changes during this time brought training schools for the disabled
bringing some relief to families of the disabled.
 Twentieth Century (1900’s)
o Many families who had a child with a disability kept them hidden or they were sent to an
institution and they were often forgotten.

 In 1935, Dr. Alexis Carrel, published the book 'Man the Unknown', suggesting the removal of the
mentally ill by small euthanasia institutions equipped with the suitable gases.
 In 1939, amid World War Two, Hitler ordered a wide spread 'mercy killing' of the sick and
disabled.
 Many suffered abuse and neglect, substantial health and safety conditions, deprivation of rights,
forms of electroshock therapy, painful restraints, negligent seclusion and experimental
treatments and procedures.
 In the 1940's and 1950's, one of the first rights-based organizations was set up due to a wide
range of injuries and disabilities which were a result of World War Two. Research into
disabilities provided people with information about the correct types of treatment for different
patients.
 In 1975 the UN Declaration on the Rights of Disabled People was passed.
 1996 the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Discrimination Act, the Disability Services Act,
the Disability Discrimination Act was established.
 In 1996, Nation Disability Advisory Council was established.
CHILD FIND, ASSESSMENT AND PLACEMENT
If one has observed or took notice in their neighborhood that there are children that seemed to need special
help and support especially in terms of observable developmental delays, this must be referred right away to
government authorities who can bring them to the right people in the local schools.
The term Child Find is a legal requirement that schools find all children who have disabilities and who have
may be entitled to special education services. Child find system under senate Bill no. 1414, “Inclusive
Education for Children and Youth with special Need Act” referred to the process of locating and coming up with
a list of Children and Youth with Special Needs or CYSNs through the child development teachers/workers
who are under the local government units (LGUs). Under this bill, it will be help identify through a child find
system CYNs ages three (3) to twenty-four (24) and infants and toddlers under the age of three (3) in
compliance with Republic Act No.10410 otherwise known as the Early Years Act of 2013. This Act under
section 2 declared that policy of the state to promote the rights of children to survival, development and special
protection with full recognition of the nature of childhood and as well as the need to provide developmentally
appropriate experiences to address their needs; and to support parents in their roles as primary caregivers and
as their children’s first teachers.

The State hereby recognizes the age from zero (0) to eight (8) years as the first crucial stage of educational
development of which the age from zero (0) to four (4) years shall be the responsibility of the Early
Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) Council.
Therefore, the responsibility to help develop children in the formative years between ages five (5) to eight (8)
years shall be Department Education.
The National Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) System in the Philippines is Mandated to
pursue the following objective:
1. To achieve improved infant and child survival rates by ensuring that adequate health and nutrition
programs are accessible to young children and their parents, from the prenatal period throughout the early
childhood years;
2. To enhance the physical-motor, socio-emotional, cognitive, language, psychological and spiritual
development of young children;
3. To facilitate a smooth transition from care and education provided at home to community or school-
based setting and to kindergarten;
4. To ensure that young children are adequately prepared for the formal learning system that begins at
kindergarten;
5. To establish an efficient system for early identification, prevention, referral and intervention for the
wide range of children with special needs from age (0) to four (4) years;
6. To upgrade and update the capabilities of service providers and their supervisors to comply with
quality standards for various ECCD programs;
7. To reinforce the role of parents and other caregivers as the primary caregivers and educators of their
children especially from age zero (0) to four (4) years;
8. To enhance and sustain the efforts of communities to promote ECCD programs and ensure that
special support is provided for poor, disadvantaged and linguistic minority communities;
9. To improve the quality standards of public and private ECCD programs through, but not limited to, a
registration and credential system for ECCD service provides and facilities;
10. To ensure that the education of persons, and in particular children, who are blind, deaf or deaf-
blind, are conduct in the most appropriate languages, modes and means of communication for the individual,
and in environments which maximize academic and social development; and
 11. To employ teachers including teachers with disabilities, who are qualified in sign language and/or
braille and to train professionals and staff who work at all levels of education.
Although there have been a lot of a challenges that were encountered like inadequate special education
services throughout the country, limited facilities, materials and equipment of systematic and scientific early
identification and screening procedure, insufficiency of early intervention program, and lack of coordination
among government agencies in the provision of programs and services it these concerns were gradually
addressed which slowly generate positive result.

The Department of Education, on the other hand, under DepED order (DO 72), s. 2009, inclusive as Strategy
for increasing participation Rate of Children has a comprehensive inclusive program for children with special
needs with the following components:
1. Child Find. This is locating where these children are through the family mapping survey, advocacy
campaigns and networking with local health workers. The children with special needs who are not in school
shall be listed. These children shall be visited by Special Education (SPED) teachers and parents should be
convinced to enroll their children in SPED Centers or schools nearest their home.
2. Assessment. This is the continuous process of identifying the strengths and weaknesses of the child
through the use of formal and informal tools for proper regular schools in the assessments process.
3. Program Options. Regular schools with or without trained SPED teachers shall be provided
educational services to children with special needs. These schools shall access educational services from
SPED Centers or SPED trained teachers. The first program option that shall be organized for these children is
a self-contained class for children with similar disabilities which can be mono-grade or multi-grade handled by
a trained SPED teacher. The second option is inclusion or placement of the child with disabilities in general
education or regular class where he or she learns with his or her peers under a regular teacher and/or SPED
trained teacher who addresses the child’s needs.
4. Curriculum Modifications. This shall be implemented in the forms of adaptation and
accommodations to foster optimum learning based on individual’s needs and potentials. Modification in
classroom instructions and activities is a process that involves new ways of thinking and developing teaching-
learning practices.
It also involves changes in any of the steps in the teaching-learning process. Curriculum modifications
shall include service delivery options like cooperative or team teaching, consulting teacher program and others.
The provision of support services from professionals and specialists, parents, volunteers, and peers or buddies
to the children with special needs is an important feature in the inclusion program.
5. Parental involvement. This plays a vital role in preparing the children academic, moral and spiritual
development. Parents shall involve themselves in observing children’s performance, volunteering to work in the
classroom as teacher aide and providing support to other parents.

In a new article in 2017, it revealed a total of 648 schools that have been allowed by the Department of
Education to offer the Special Education program that provides the necessary educational interventions for
students with certain exceptionalities. The Special Education program provides a holistic approach in catering
to the needs of learners with various exceptionalities. This ensures that learners with exceptionalities will have
access to quality education by providing their individual and unique learning needs.

WHAT IS ASSESSMENT AND HOW WOULD IT BE CONDUCTED IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

The next step after the Child Find is the Assessment. An assessment in special education according to the
National Association of Special Education Teachers (NASET) is the process used to determine a child’s
specific learning strengths and needs, and to determine whether or not a child is eligible for special education
services. It is a process that involves collecting information. A process that involves the systematic collection
and intervention decisions and, when appropriate, classification and placement decisions.

The development of these skills should include a good working knowledge of the following components of the
assessment process in order to determine the presence of a suspected disability:
1. Collection: The process of tracing and gathering information from the many sources of background
information on a child such as school records, observation, parent intakes, and teacher reports
2. Analysis: The processing and understanding of patterns in a child’s educational, social,
development, environmental, medical, and emotional history
3. Evaluation: The evaluation of a child’s academic, intellectual, psychological, emotional, perceptual,
language, cognitive and medical development in order to determine areas of strength and weakness
4. Determination: The determination of the presence of a suspected disability and the knowledge of
the criteria that constitute each category
5. Recommendation: The recommendations concerning educational placement and program that
need to be made to the school, teachers, and parents

Moreover, assessment in educational settings services five primary purposes:

1. Screening and identification: To screen children and identify those who may be experiencing delay
or learning problems
2. Eligibility and diagnosis: to determine whether a child has a disability and is eligible for special
education services, and to the specific nature of the student’s problems or disability
3. IEP development and placement: to provide detailed information so that an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) may be developed and appropriate decisions may be made about the child>s
educational placement
4. Instructional planning: to develop and plan instruction appropriate to child’s special needs
5. Evaluation: to evaluate student progress

Different SPED Centers both public and private have their own policies and guidelines in assessing the needs
of children with exceptionalities. Others have patterned their processes from other countries like the United
States, for example, children with special needs can be identified under the IDEA law or individuals with
Disabilities Education Act which requires each state to implement early identification policies to locate and refer
children who may have a disability.
They are governed under the six principles of IDEA, namely:
1. Zero reject: a rule against excluding any student.
2. Nondiscriminatory evaluation: a rule requiring schools to evaluate students fairly to determine if they
have a disability and, if so what kind how extensive.
3. Appropriate education: a rule requiring schools to provide individually tailored education for each
student based on evaluation and augmented by related services and supplementary aids and services.
4. Least restrictive environment: a rule requiring schools to educate students with disabilities with
students without disabilities to maximum extent appropriate for the students with disabilities.
5. Procedural due process: a rule providing safeguards for students against school’s action, including a
right to sue in court.
Parental and student participation: a rule requiring schools to collaborate with parents and adolescent students
in designing and carrying out special education programs. Determine whether a student has a disability and
then decide the nature of the special education and related services the student needs, educators typically
follow a four-step process: screening, pre-referral, referral, and nondiscriminatory evaluation. The first three
steps are not required by IDEA but are put into place by educators as a matter of good practice of state or local
policy.
1. Screening means administering tests to all students to identify which students seem to need further testing
to determine whether they qualify for special education.
2. Pre-referral is providing immediate and necessary help to teachers who are experiencing challenges in
teaching students and thereby prevent the need for a referral a full nondiscriminatory evaluation, and possible
placement in special education.
3. Referral is submitting a formal written request for a student to receive a full nondiscriminatory evaluation.
4. Nondiscriminatory means adhering to the safeguard of the full evaluation.
The effect of the zero- reject rule in the United States is to guarantee all students with a disability access to
school. Once In school, they are entitled to a nondiscriminatory evaluation. Their nondiscriminatory evaluation
has two purposes, the first is to determine whether a student has a disability. If the child does not have a
disability, then he or she may not receive special education under their IDEA law. The second purpose to
specify education and related services the student will receive.

In the Philippines, we also have our own guidelines in screening the students under the Principles and
Guidelines for Special Education. It is stipulated under article 3: Identification, Screening, Assessment, and
Evaluation of children.
Section 1: Identification, screening, assessment, and evaluation of children with special needs shall be
conducted by the school and the community utilizing appropriate assessment instruments;
1. Identification and assessment of every child shall be conducted as early as possible.
2. The team approach shall be used in the identified and assessment procedures.
The team shall be composed of persons with working knowledge and understanding of children with special
needs, such as the following:
a. Parents/guardians/extended families, neighbors, and friends
b. Regular teachers
c. Special education teachers
d. guidance counsellors
e. School administrators
f. Health workers
g. Social workers
h. Psychologists
i. Speech and physical therapists
j. Probation officers

3. Aspects to be covered in the identification, screening, assessment, and education of children with special
needs shall cover the following aspects:
 a. Physical
b. Height and weight
c. Physical deformities
d. Gross and fine motor coordination
e. Hearing
f. Visual function
g. Oral hygiene and dental development
h. Psycho-social
i. Family history
j. Personality
k. Behavior
l. Educational
m. Learning disabilities
n. Language and speech
o. Medical
4. Appropriate assessment instruments shall be developed or adopted in order to identify handicapping
conditions as early as possible.
5. Identification and assessment of children with special need shall be a continuing process.
6. The synthesis of identification and diagnostic information shall be the basis for the appropriate educational
placement of the child with special needs.

WHAT IS THE PLACEMENT?

Right and assessments have been undertaken is to decide the child’s placement. The following placements
are commonly offered in the Philippine special education programs.

1. Self-contained/Special Class
The term “self-contained classroom” refers to a classroom, where a special education teacher is
responsible for the instruction of all academic subjects. The classroom is typically separated from general
education classrooms but within a neighborhood school.

2. Itinerant Teaching
Itinerant teachers travel to provide services to students with disabilities. Instead of functioning as
traditional classroom teachers, itinerants visit children on their caseloads in a variety of settings including
homes, early childhood centers, schools, community-based programs, and hospitals.

3. Resources Room
 A resource room program where the child with disabilities shall be pulledout from the general education
or regular class and shall report to a SPED teacher who provides small group/one-on-one instruction and/or
appropriate interventions for these children.

4. Pull-out
Pull-Out - A kind of program where the child enrolled in the regular class.

5. Integration/Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming has been used to refer to the selective placement of special education students in one
or more "regular" education classes.

6. Inclusion
The term inclusion captures, in one word, an all-embracing societal ideology. Regarding individuals with
disabilities and special education, inclusion secures opportunities for students with disabilities to learn
alongside their non- disabled peers in general education classrooms.

ADAPTATIONS, ACCOMMODATIONS, AND MODIFICATION

 Adaptations, accommodations, and modifications may seem like interchangeable terms, but when it comes
to inclusion they carry significantly different meanings.  Adaptations mean “changes permissible n educational
environments which allow the student equal opportunity to obtain access, result, benefits, and levels of
achievement.”  These are changes in the curricular content or conceptual difficulty or changes in instructional
objectives and methods. Accommodations on the other hand are changes which do not significantly change
the content or conceptual difficulty of the curriculum.  Modifications are change made in instruction or
assessment to make it possible for a student with disability to respond more normally. They’re need in
classwork, homework, assessment and interactions. 

Instruction accommodation most often include changes in time, input, output, participation, and level   of
support. The critical feature of accommodation is that the content of instruction is not change and   objective
stays the same. Instructional adaptions by contrast, make the objective for students with disability different
from those of their peers. For example, a teacher might allow a student with learning disabilities to use note or
an open book for an activity in which other students are not permitted t do so.
Table 1. Some examples of accommodation for assessment according to Hallahan and Kauffman
from Yell, M.L. Shriner, J.G. (1997).
Flexible time Flexible Setting  Alternative   Alternative  
Presentation   Response Format
Format

Alternating lengths  of test Test alone in test  carrel or Braille or large Pointing to 
sections separate  room print  edition response

More frequent  breaks Test at home (with  Signing of  Using template for 
accountability) directions responding
 Extended testing  session Test in room with special Taped directions  Using a computer
over  several days lighting

Test in room with  special Highlighted   Allow answers in 

lighting Keyword test book

PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

How can we establish parent involvement?  

Getting to know the parents is very important. Parents of children with disabilities undergo an average amount
of stress because of their daily responsibilities related to child care. Receiving social support could be very
helpful for them to cope with daily challenges they face in raising a child with disability. That’s why it is so
important to develop family-professional relationships wherein they collaborate with each other, capitalizing on
each other’s judgments and expertise in order to increase benefits for students, families and professionals. 

According to Senate S. No. 2020, introduced by the late Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago under
Section 18. Parent, Sibling and Caregiver Education. There shall be a formal training and counseling
program for parents, siblings, and caregivers for them to acquire a working knowledge of special needs,
gain an \ understanding of the psychology of children with special skills on how each parent, sibling or
caregiver could maximize his or her services for the optimum  development of the potentials of the child. 

Table 2. The following are helpful suggestions for teachers to involve families in class and school
activities according to Hallahan and Kauffman citing from O’Shea, D.J. and Rilley, J.E. (2001). 

1. Empathize with students and family members to understand what they may be experiencing and
act according to their needs instead of personal needs. 
2. Value individual families, cultures and their uniqueness instead of trying to categorize and
stereotype families. 
3. Take time each morning to speak with students. Communicate regularly with family members. 
4. Allow options when communicating with families. Use a variety of contacts, including phone, face-
to-face, notebook or home visits.  Determine the school professional with whom the family members
may feel most comfortable with. 
5. Communicate with both households when there is a joint custody arrangement. Don’t assume that
the information from school is reaching both parents. 
6. Be considerate of home arrangement facts when assigning homework.  There might be no one at
home to help with projects or difficult assignments that would need adult supervision. 
7. Plan alternative conference times in addition to school hour conferences.  Think of convenience for
the families instead of teachers only. Hold conferences frequently. 
8. Make every conference meaningful and productive. Include the students in some conferences.
Begin and end every conference, conversation, meeting, with positive facts or work sample. 
9. Invite families into the classroom as much as possible. Value any and all contributions or
suggestions family members make. Use lessons to incorporate family customs, rituals, and
traditions. 
10. Value the diversity of all students and their family compositions. Even though a family
composition might seem unstructured or confusing, there are lessons and any contribution they can
make to the class. Set up programs that benefits all students and all types of household.
NETWORKING WITH LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL SPECIAL EDUCATION ORGANIZATIONS 

According to Simeona T. Ebol, Senior Education Program Specialist from the Department of
Education there is a need to strengthen partnership and collaboration in regional and international levels. In
school year 2015- 2016, the  Department of Education provided capability trainings to 345 teachers and 45 
administrators and supervisors involved in delivering quality education to learners  with certain
exceptionalities. Among the partners of DepEd in enhancing the capabilities of teachers handling learners
with exceptionalities and in promoting the SPED advocacy are the Resources for the Blind Inc., Autism
Society of the Philippines, Leonard Cheshire Disability Philippines Foundation, Inc. (LCDPFI, and Attention
Deficit-Hyperactive Disorder Society. Moreover, the other partner organizations of DepEd for the SPED
program are the Learning Disabilities Association, Philippine Association for the Intellectually Disabled,
National Association for the Gifted, Philippine Federation for the Rehabilitation of the Disabled, Parents
Advocate for the Visually Impaired Children, and National Council on Disability Affairs. Multiplicity of
partnerships and collaboration with government agencies, educational institutions, civic organizations
and international agencies such as UNESCO, UNICEF, SEAMEO-INNOTECH, Perkins 
School for the Blind, Monbukagakusho Scholarship of Japan, national institute of  special Education (NIAW),
Christoffel Blindenmission international (CBMI),  Resources for the blind, INC. (RBI) have indeed provided
difference in the growth  of special education in the country. One of the conferences made was the 15 th
Asian Conference on Mental Retardation which the Philippines hosted. The Conference has provided a
healthy forum for Filipino and foreign practitioners as well to network and exchanges ideas that would
rebound to the betterment and improvement of educational service children with special needs.

LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES

Learning with exceptionalities – students who are at risk. Those with disabilities, and all children and
adolescents who struggle with learning or behavior. Must also succeed in their academic and self-regulation
development.  Understanding the different dimensions of struggling children and adolescents in the classroom
in an attribution for development of methodology in the classroom, motivation, and positive attitudes toward
learning. Children and adolescents who are recognized as having some form of exceptionalities or special
needs require additional support. Special education program is intended  
for students and young adults as a avenue of fitting education in connection to  their special needs and
pedagogical presumptions. 

Specials Needs Education is concerned with students and young adults with developmental disabilities
that require special management of work, working methods/techniques and specific school for a special
equipment. It could be in the regular schools for main streaming or specific school for special need. It covers:
learners with ADHD (Attention Deficit & Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), emotional & behavioral
disorders, learning disabilities, intellectual & development disabilities, speech and language disorders, autism,
deafness and hearing loss visual impairment, physical & health disabilities, severe & multiple disabilities
including the gifted and talented. 
 ATTENTION DEFICIT AND ATTENTION DEFICIT HYERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

Attention Deficit & Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is developmental neuropsychiatric disorder

that affects the executive system of the brain which make it difficult for young learners and young adults to
have focus in attention and to control offhand behaviors. Young learners and young adults may always be in
trouble and almost restlessly active.

CAUSES OF ADHD 
Like many other illnesses, the following are the factors that may contribute to ADHD such as: 

1. Genes 

2. Cigarette smoking, alcohol use, or drug use during pregnancy 3. Exposure to environmental toxins,
such as high level of lead, at a young age 
4. Low birth weight 

5. Brain injuries 

Students with ADHD show an ongoing pattern of three different types of symptoms: 

1. Difficulty paying attention (inattention) 

2. Being overactive (hyperactivity) 

3. Acting without thinking (impulsivity)

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF ADHD 

These symptoms get in the way of functioning or development. People who have ADHD have
combinations of these symptoms: 

1. Overlook details; make careless mistakes in schoolwork or doing other activities. 

2. Have problems sustaining attention in tasks or play, including conversations, lectures, or lengthy
reading. 
3. Seem to not listen when spoken to directly. 

4. Fail to follow through on instructions, fail to finish schoolwork, chores, or start tasks but quickly lose
focus and easily get distracted 
5. Have problems organizing tasks and activities, such as doing tasks in sequence, keeping materials and
belongings in order, keeping work organized, managing time, and meeting deadline. 
6. Avoid or dislike tasks that require sustained mental effort, such as schoolwork or homework 
7. Lose things necessary for school activities, such as school supplies, pencils books and other personal
belongings.

Signs of hyperactivity and impulsivity may include: 

1. Fidgeting and squirming while seated. 

2. Getting up and moving around in situations when seated is expected, such as in the
classroom or school activities.
 3. Running or dashing around or climbing in situations where it is inappropriate, often
feeling restless. 
4. Being unable to play or engage in hobbies quietly. 
5. Being constantly in motion or “on the go.” Or acting as if “driven by a motor” 
6. Talking nonstop 
7. Blurting out an answer before a question has been completed, finishing other people’s
sentences, or speaking without waiting for a turn in conversation 
8. Having trouble waiting his or her turn 
9. Interrupting or intruding on others, for example in conversation, games, or other school
activities 

EDUCATION AND TRAINING 

Young children and even adults with ADHD need supervision and further care from their parents,
families and teachers to succeed in their daily routine  and reach their full potentials. Professionals, like mental
health experts and educators should help parents of a child with ADHD on their condition and advise how the
whole family can assist. Professionals and every member of the family should help the child to develop new
skills, attitude, and way of socializations. The following are the examples:
1. Parenting skills training teaches parents the skills they need to encourage and reward positive behaviors in
their children. 
2. Stress management techniques can benefit parents of children with ADHD by increasing their ability to deal
with frustration so that they can respond calmly to their child’s behavior. 
3. Support groups can help parents and families connect with others who have similar problems and
concerns. 
4. Adding behavior therapy, counseling, and practical support can help people with ADHD and their families to
better cope with everyday problems. 

SCHOOL-BASED PROGRAM 

In the 1960s, William Cruickshank established an education program for children manifest the characteristic of
a person with ADHD. The program has two categories. The first category is the environmental modification
technique (EMT) wherein we remove irrelevant stimuli as much as possible. The second category is the
structured curriculum which emphasizes the teacher directions. 

ENVIRONMENTAL MODIFICATION TECHNIQUE 

Environmental modifications are preventive, whole-class approach that may decrease chronic
behavioral to access for students who are at risk and allow children with minimal or no problem behavior to
access learning without interruption (Guardino et. al 2020). 

This is the changing of some aspects in the learning environment to fit to the needs of the child: 

1. Arrange the seats in rows or in U-shape facing the teacher rather the round table. 
2. Assign a space for group activities. 
 3. Have the child sit in front of or near the teacher’s desk. 

4. Seat the child away from the door, window and other distractions.

5. Create a quiet area free of distractions for testing-taking and quiet study.

6. Assign a specific cubicle or have the child face a blank wall if necessary.

7. Provide an individual shelf or storage space to help the child organize his things. 

8. Explain and outline the rules, limits and expectations. Post them on the board. 

9. Color-code materials for each subject. 

10.Be consistent with the routines inside the classroom. 

STRUCTURED CIRRICULUM 

The teacher has to make significant adjustments in the rules, procedures, and expectations to shelter
the particular needs of a students with ADHD. If the student cannot pick up in the way the teacher teaches, the
teacher must vary the teaching pedagogies. 

It is perfectly normal for children with ADHD not to be engaged in a curriculum that is not interesting or
challenging. The performance and motivation of a person with ADHD are shaped by three major factors: his
degree of interesting in the activity, the difficulty of the activity, and the duration of the  task. These people will
have significant difficulty with tasks that require organization, planning, inhibition, self-monitoring and
evaluation. 

Avoid the intensity of work sheet, independent work, long-term assignments, extended silent reading,
and multistep task. But instead give active associations of lively activities that will surely motivate and excite
the students. 

The child with ADHD will respond more positively to a curriculum that allows him choices and options.
He will also be more likely to participate actively in tasks when there is a degree of creativity and novelty (Dr.
Edward Hallowell, 2015). 

The following are helpful tips for teacher on how to deal with pupils with ADHD: 

1. Before the lesson 

a. Divide the lesson into meaningful chunks. 

b. Provide a road map for pupils to follow. Introduce the days’ objective and explain the purpose and
the expected outcome of the lesson. c. Give a signal to start the lesson with visual, aural or verbal
cues.
d. List the activities on the board. 

e. Establish an eye contact with the pupils. 

2. Instruction and modelling 

 a. Keep the instruction/s simple. 

b. Demonstrate the concept to the pupils. 

c. Give plenty of examples. 

d. Use vivid visual aids. 

e. Teach note-taking, outlining, and other useful study skills. f. Incorporate the
children’s interest into the lesson plan. 
g. Stand close to an inattentive child and touch him or her on the shoulder as you are teaching. 

3. Guided Practice 

a. Allow the buddy system.  

b. Give activities that allow encourage movements such as competitive games. 

c. Give activities that are stimulating and relevant to the child’s life experiences. 

d. Break up tasks into workable and obtainable steps. 

e. Allow for occasional breaks to let the child relax and reenergize.

f. Correct or reteach if necessary, before giving an independent practice.

4. Independent Practice 
a. Give written and verbal instructions. 

b. Remind the pupils to stay on task.

c. Reduce the number of timed tests. 

d. Give credit for partial works 

e. Give performance-based test. 

f. Lessen the number of assignment and give specific due dates. g. Explain all steps necessary to
complete the assignment and post them on the board. 

h. Provide a model to help the students. Post the model and refer to it often. 

i. Require that children keep a file their completed work.

BEHAVIOR CONTRACT AND POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT 

Another good and helpful strategy for classroom management is the use of a behavior contract and with
incentives for positive work and attitudes.  Through these techniques, the child can see that there is a positive
benefit for behaving properly and for fishing one’s work. 
FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT 

In this strategy, the child is trained to reflect what causes his inappropriate behavior. The child needs to
determine also when the inappropriate behavior usually occurs. Then he will predict the possible
consequences of his undesired behavior.
Teacher can also use this kind of assessment. Same process will be followed but with a little
modification. The teacher will identify first the undesired behavior and what causes it then she will provide and
intervention to replace the undesired behavior. 

CONTINGENCY-BASED SELF-MANAGEMENT 

This approach allows the child to monitor his own behavior. If the child is able to maintain the good
behavior, he will be given a reward based on the appropriate behavior shown. 

SELF-MONITORING 

This is a self-management technique that is a combination of functional behavioral assessment and

contingency-based self-management techniques. The student monitors his disruptive behavior, records it and
analyzes why the behavior occurs and what are the possible consequences of his actions. For the second
part, he evaluates his on-task behavior by giving himself a rate of 1-5. The teacher will also rate his behavior
and the student wisely be given privileges based on the results. 

SELF-CONTROL STRATEGY 

This strategy was drawn from the early works of Glynn, Thomas and she on self-monitoring (1973).
This requires students to stop, think and compare their behavior to a criterion, record the results and receive
reinforcements if their behavior meets the criterion (Garguilo. 2009). 

Boyle and Scanlon (2010) discussed that Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder as a cognitive
disorder intrinsic to the individual. This order includes the difficulty to gain and sustain attention regulating
one’s behavior.
 EMOTIONAL-BEHAVIORAL DISORDER
Emotional-Behavioral Disorder has no exact definition since it is difficult to measure emotion and behavior.
Aside from that, determining what behavior is acceptable and what is not vary across different cultures.
Nevertheless, there are many terms to describe this condition: emotionally disturbed, emotionally conflicted,
socially handicapped, socially impaired are just some to name the few.
Individual Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines emotional-behavioral disorder as a condition
manifesting one or more of the following characteristics in a long period of time and to a marked degree that
adversely affect the ability to learn:
1. An inability to learn that cannot be explained in terms of intellectual, sensory or health factors.
2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers.
3. Inappropriate type of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
4. A general, pervasive mood of unhappiness or diagnosed depression.
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms of fears associated with personal or school problems.

CHARACTERISTICS
 Externalizing Behavior
 Internalizing Behavior
 Aggressiveness
 Temper-tantrums
 Acting out
 Noncompliant behavior
 Inappropriate crying
 Learning difficulties
 Fighting
 Bullying
 Social Withdrawal
 Depression
 Excessive fear or anxiety
 Poor coping skills
 Lack of interest in different activities

TYPES OF BEHAVIOR DISORDER

Disruptive Behavior Disorder
There are two types of disruptive behavior:
 Oppositional Conduct Disorder (OCD) - it is characterized by negative, hostile and
defiant behavior towards authority such as parents and teachers. The other one is the
 Conduct Disorder (CD) - It is more serious than the oppositional conduct disorder
wherein the person is showing aggression, destruction and violation of basic human
rights of other without fear or concern about the result.
1. Oppositional Defiant Disorder. The diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000)
has the following guidelines
a. The behavior persists for six (6) months
b. The behavior causes impairments in social, academic, or occupational functions.
c. The behavior does not occur only during the course of a psychotic or mood disorder.
d. The onset is 17 years old and below.
 e. The symptoms are more interns and serious compared to other children of the same age.
f. Four or more of the signs and symptoms of ODD listed below must be manifested.

Sign and symptoms of Oppositional Defiant Disorder:

a. Often loses temper
b. Often argues with adults
c. Actively defies or refuses to comply with adult requests or rules
d. Deliberately annoys other people
e. Blames other for his or her mistakes or misbehavior
f. Often touchy or easily annoyed by others
g. Often angry and resentful
h. Often spiteful or vindictive
i. Has low frustration tolerance
j. Low sense of confidence

2. Conduct Disorder. The diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) has the
following guidelines:
• The behavior causes impairments in social, academic or occupational functions.
• Onset
• Conductive Disorder, Childhood-Onset Type – 10 years and below
• Conductive Disorder, Adolescent-Onset Type – 10 year and below
• Conduct Disorder, unspecified Onset Type – Age at unknown onset
a. Severity
• Mild – Conduct problem causes minor harm to others
• Moderate – Conduct problem increasing harm to others
• Severe - Conduct problem causes grave harm to others
b. Categories
• Solitary Aggressive Type – Aggressive behavior
• Group type – Act with peers
• Undifferentiated Type – Those not classified in either above types

Three or more of the signs and symptoms of CD listed below must be manifested in the past 12 months with at
least 1 criterion present in the six (6) months.

Signs and Symptoms of Oppositional Conduct Disorder

1. Aggression to people and animals
a. Bullies, threatens or intimidates others
b. Initiates physical fights
c. Uses a weapon that can cause serious physical harm
d. Physically cruel to people animals
 e. Has stolen while confronting a victim like snatching, mugging etc.
f. Forces someone to sexual activity
2. Destruction of Property
a. Deliberately engages in fire setting with the intention of causing serious damage.
b. Deliberately destroys property other than fire setting
c. Impatient and cannot wait for his turn
3. Serious Violation of Rules
a. Stays out at night despite parental prohibitions
b. Has run away from home at least twice or once without returning for a lengthy period
c. Often truant at school

TYPES OF EMOTIONAL DISORDER

1. Personality Disorder
a. Passive - Aggressive Personality Disorder.
It is the power developed by children to gain control over their parents, teachers and other
significant adults by resisting them. This is the opposite of aggression. The child will not shout or throw
tantrums but instead he will pretend that he does not hear or see you. They will ignore you and they will
not answer you when you talk to them. Their aggression can also be expressed through mean faces,
name-calling or blaming others. When the parents or the teacher starts yelling because of annoyance
and frustration, he wins because he knows that he gains control over the situation.
Youngsters develop this kind of behavior when they start to associate anger with punishments or shame in the
situation at home. To avoid such, they will mask their anger or frustration with socially acceptable behavior yet
subtly in an infuriating way. They can get revenge when the adult loses control.
According to Signe Whitson of Psychology Today (2014), Passive Aggressive behavior ranges from different
levels.
1. The first level is temporary compliance. This is common in our everyday lives. It usually goes
unnoticed. The person may appear to comply or follow with requests and needs of others but in reality,
they passively resist it by claiming to forget the responsibility, procrastinating, resisting other person’s
suggestions, complaining, acting sullen, and having unexpressed hostility or anger to other people.
2. The second level is the intentional inefficiency. The person will do the work but he will do it in a sub-
standard way or being inefficient by purpose.
3. The third level is letting the problem escalate. The child will not do anything even though there is a
problem at hand.
4. The fourth level is hidden but conscious revenge. The person plans and acts out deliberately to get
back at someone. For example, throwing the Science experiment of classmate who he feels mistreated
him.
5. The last one is the self-depreciation. The person will resort to self-destruction just to get revenge, for
instance, shaving the head just before the graduation.

b. Antisocial Personality Disorder.

This disorder is characterized by aggressive behavior against siblings, peers, parents, teachers
and another adult. They usually defy those who are older than them. This aggressive behavior may be
exhibited through temper tantrums, bullying, hitting, lying and use of profanity. Drug and alcohol abuse
is often associated with antisocial behavior.
This aggression may also be expressed to objects or properties such as theft, vandalism, destruction of
property and fire setting. These people usually fail to conform to social norms. They show no remorse in
hurting other people. They don’t have consideration and disregard the safety of others.
Antisocial behavior can be recognized in a child as young as for years old. If not given proper intervention, it
may lead to a more chronic behavioral disorder.

2. Anxiety Disorder of Childhood

a. Separation Anxiety Disorder.
Anxiety due to separation from parents and other significant adults is common among children
during the first day of school but if the disturbances continue after 4 weeks indicates that there is a
problem that should be addressed. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM IV,
2000) listed the following signs and symptoms:

Sign and Symptoms of Separation Anxiety Disorder

• Extreme anxiety associated with separation from home or attachment figures
• Excessive worry about losing or possible harm that will lead to separation from a major
attachment figure.
• Refusal to go to school or elsewhere
• Fearful to be alone or home without the major attachment figures. • Refusal to sleep away from
home or to sleep without the major attachment figures.
• Repeated nightmares about separation
• Experience body pain when separation occurs or is anticipated.
•

b. Avoidant disorder of Childhood or adolescence.

It is typical for a shy youngster to be reluctant to get involved into a new situation where there
are people whom he hardly knew. But for some, they will completely withdraw or avoid any social
interaction with unfamiliar peer or adult for peer of being criticized, shamed or ridiculed. The Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM IV, 2000) described the following signs and symptoms
of a person with this kind personality.

Sign and Symptoms of Separation anxiety disorder

• Avoids any activity that involves interpersonal contact for fear of disapproval and rejection
• Unwilling to get involved with people unless he is well liked by them
• Preoccupied with criticized or rejected in front of a crowd
• Has a poor self-image, seeing oneself as ugly, not good enough
• Reluctant to try new things to avoid embarrassment

c. Selective Mutism.
This condition is characterized by refusal of the person to talk for a long period of time even if he
knows how to speak and can understand the language used by the person talking to him. Usually, this
occurs in selective social setting wherein the person feels threatened.
This consistent failure to speak can interfere with his interaction with other people in different social situations.
The avoidance to speak is not due to communication disorder or the lack of knowledge of language. The
person has an actual fear of speaking in social situations. Some never speak and others will just speak to
selected people usually in whisper.

3. Elimination Disorder
a. Encopresis.
According to the Mayo Clinic, encopresis, also called stool holding or soiling, is the repeated
voluntary or involuntary passage of feces into underwater or floor. It appears when a certain student or
a child continues having bowel movements, causing impacted stool to collect in the colon and rectum.
When the child’s colon is full of impacted stool, liquid stool can leak around the impacted stool and out
of the anus, staining the child’s underwear.
This is common among children four (4) years old and above when the child has already learned to use toilet.
This condition is the result of constipation or other emotional stress experienced by the child. For the diagnosis
to take place, the condition must be presented for at least once a month for three consecutive months.

b. Enuresis.
The major symptoms of this disorder is repeated voluntary or involuntary elimination of urine
during the day or night into bed or clothes. This condition is often associated with children who are
heavy sleeper who cannot wake when their bladders are full. It may be the result of early toilet training
wherein the child is forced to use the toilet. In addition, enuresis seems to run in families and is often
associated to behavior or emotional disorders.
This is usually diagnosed at the age of five (5) at which the child is expected to have a bladder control. The
behavior should manifest twice a week for at least three (3) consecutive months.

4. Eating Disorder
a. Anorexia Nervosa.
It is a complex eating disorder characterized by an extremely distorted body image, refusal to
maintain a healthy body weight and an intense fear of getting fat or gaining weight. They resort to
significant reduction of food intake, intensify their exercise routine, using laxatives, diet pills and
enemas. This condition affects men and women of all ages but it is more common among women.

b. Bulimia Nervosa.
This condition is somewhat similar to Anorexia Nervosa wherein the person has an obsessive
preoccupation of gaining weight or being fat. But in this condition, the person has episodes of binge
eating. This is the uncontrolled eating of large quantities of food. Usually the person felt guilty and she
is overwhelmed with feeling of lack of control during her binge eating. As a result, she will resort to self-
induced vomiting.

5. Mood Disorder
Dysthymic Disorder.
 This is the persistent feeling of depression or irritable mood for most of the day for the period of
one year. While feeling depressed, the person may also experience fatigue, low self-esteem, poor
concentration hopelessness, poor appetite or overeating and insomnia or hypersomnia.

LEARNING DISABILITY
 According to The Learning Disabilities Association of America, a learning disability is a neurological
condition that interferes with an individual’s ability to store, process, or produce information.
 Affects the ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or mathematical calculations.
 Does not include learning problems resulted from visual, hearing or motor disabilities; or intellectual
disability, emotional disturbance, environmental cultural, or economic disadvantage
 Not a sign of poor intelligence or laziness. Neurological disorder that causes their brains to process and
interpret information differently.

Types of Learning Disability

 Dyslexia
o (Reading based) life-long challenge. Hinders reading, writing, spelling and sometimes even
speaking; difficulty reading letters or words, reversing letters or numbers, difficulty
understanding what was read.
 Dysgraphia
o (Writing based) affects writing. Lead to problems with spelling, poor handwriting and putting
thoughts on paper. Might have trouble organizing letters, numbers and words on a line or page.
Struggle with writing complete and grammatically correct sentences.
 Dyscalculia
o (Math based) involving math. Trouble recognizing numbers, symbols and understanding basic
math concepts. It affects people differently at different stages of life. Difficulty handling money,
cannot retain patterns when adding, subtracting, multiplying or dividing.
 Expressive Language
o (language-based) hard time expressing thoughts verbally (finding the words when trying to
express yourself), poor reading comprehension, has trouble labeling objects, talking and writing.
 Receptive Language
o Knowing meanings of words or concepts, but difficult to follow conversations.
 Visual Processing Disorder
o (visual-based) cannot receive, process, sequence, recall or express information in an accurate
and timely way. Misreads words, mistakes letters and numbers that look similar in shape.
 Audio Processing Difficulty
o (Auditory based) telling the difference between sounds of letters or words, being able to
remember what was heard, and having inability to filter out background noises. Misspells or
mispronounces similar sounding words.

Causes of Learning Disability

No proven cause of learning disabilities, yet there are “related” causes.
 Heredity-may often run in the family.
  Incidents after birth
 Serious illness, head injuries, poor nutrition, exposure to toxins such as lead can contribute to LD.
 Problems during pregnancy and birth
 Drug, alcohol abuse during pregnancy/ low birth rate/ lack of oxygen/ premature or prolonged labor

Symptoms of Learning Disability

 Problems with math skills
 Difficulty remembering
 Problems paying attention
 Trouble following directions
 Poor coordination
 Difficulty with concepts related to time
 Problems staying organized

May also exhibit one or more of these:

 Impetuous behavior
 Inappropriate responses in school or social situations
 Difficulty staying on task (easily distracted)
 Difficulty finding the right way to say something
 Inconsistent school performance
 Immature way of speaking
 Difficulty listening well
 Problems dealing with new things in life
 Problems understanding words or concepts

Behavioral Characteristics
When students aren’t getting the help and support they need they end up acting out “behaviorally”.

Warning Signs:
 Poor grades
 Physical complaints (headaches, back aches, hand cramps, etc.)
 School absences
 Getting removed from class or sometimes suspended from school
 Complain about assignments or the school itself
 Easily frustrated with assignments
 Gets aggravated easily
 Gets depressed
How it is diagnosed:
1. RTI (response to intervention)
 Monitor student’s progress.
 If a child is identified as having problems, provide them with help on different levels
 Increase educational assistance if the child isn’t showing progress

2. Individual Evaluation
 Identify whether a child has a learning disability
 Determine a child’s eligibility under federal law for special education services
 Help construct an individualized education plan (IEP) that outlines supports for a youngster who
qualifies for special education services
 Establish a benchmark for measuring the child’s educational progress

3. Full Evaluation
 Medical examination (including a neurological exam) to see if there are other possible causes of the
child’s difficulties…including emotional disorders, intellectual and developmental disabilities and brain
diseases
 Explore child’s developmental, social and school performance
 Discuss family history
 Academic achievement testing and psychological assessment

Strategies:
 Direct instruction
 One on one instruction and help
 Break learning into small steps
 Supply regular quality feedback
 Use diagrams, graphics, and picture to help them understand the content/topic
 Model instructional practices you want students to follow
 Provide prompts of strategies for them to use
 Engage students in process type questions

Services:
 Speech-sound letters and combinations of letters, working on words
 Alpha Phonics-for dyslexia; phonological awareness (uses good listening skills and verbalizing
appropriately), reading (codes, decodes, systematically, maintain proper position during reading
activity), spelling (repeat sound and words, unblended, dictates, codes, and proof reads), hand writing
(uses proper position, grip and writing procedures), listening, alphabet dictionary (verbalizes
appropriately and uses proper procedures)
 HOST-one on one assistance; language arts, objective reinforcement, vocabulary development,
literature development
 Special Education Classroom
 Services located at college campuses to accommodate students that have learning disabilities
 Websites that help parents/teachers to help work with students that have disabilities
 INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY
 It is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impairment of mental capacity.
Neurodevelopmental disorder a group of conditions in which the growth and development of the brain is
affected.
 Formerly known as Intellectual Disability (ID) or as Mental Retardation (MR).
Mental retardation: the word retarded was lifted a Latin word ‘retardare’ meaning delay, slow or hinder. This
means the definition of mental retardation as mental delay.
 Impairment refers to a problem with a structure or organ of the body; / loss of function
 Disability is a functional limitation with regard to a particular activity; and
 Handicap refers to a disadvantage in filling a role in life relative to a peer group

Mental Retardation = Idiot (Profound Mental Retardation)

Imbecile (Sever and moderate mental retardation)
Moron (Mild mental retardation)

Mongoloid or Mongolism (a medical term use to describe a person with Down syndrome)
 During the 1960s, the term mental retardation started to acquire a disgraceful and derogatory effect
because this term is being used as an insult.
 At the present, the intellectual disability or mentally challenged are used because it is more respectful
than the term retarded.

Characteristics:
1. Struggle to learn & to adapt with their environment since their mental capacity do not match with their
chronological age.
2. It is hard for them to learn complex and abstract ideas.
3. Children with ID develop slowly than their peers.
4. Learning to sit, crawl, walk, and talk are delayed.
5. They can acquire / capable of new skills but it will take time before they can master it.
6. Learning new information and applying them in a practical and functional manner is also challenging.
Usually manifest at birth and negatively involve in the trajectory of children's/ person's physical, intellectual
and/or emotional development. Most of these circumstances disturbed various body parts or system

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (APA 2000) listed three main diagnostic criteria
for intellectual and developmental disability.
1. Impairment of Intellectual Functioning
 Intellectual functioning is also known as intelligence quotient (IQ).
 This refers to the ability of the person to learn reasons, solve problem and make decisions.
 The intelligence is measure by an IQ test.
 The average IQ is 100 and if the person scores 70 or below then he is considered as intellectually
disabled.
2. Impairment in Adaptive Skills
 Adaptive skills are skills needed by a person to function in his daily life.
Adaptive skills are divided into 3 categories:
 Conceptual skills (reading, writing, counting, time, money & communication skills)
 Social skills / Interpersonal skills (following social customs and obeying laws)
 Practical life skills (self-care, home-living, use of community resources, self-direction,
functional academic skills, leisure, safety and healthy)

Adaptive skills are assessed using standardized test. The score of the individual is compared to the average
score of the general population. There is a problem in adaptive skills if the score is below 97.5% of the
population.

3. The onset is between 0 to 18years of age.

 ID is classified according to the degree of mental retardation & education category.

Classification of Intellectual Disability:

a. Mild mental retardation
- IQ level 50-55 approximately 70
- Acquired academic skills until the last part of elementary years.
- Support oneself totally or partially at an adult level to some degree of economic help
b. Moderate mental retardation
- IQ level 35-40 to 50-55
- Can be trained in self-help skills such as dressing, feeding, toileting, social adjustment at
home & to neighborhood & to some degree of economic usefulness.
c. Severe Mental Retardation
- IQ level 20-25 to 35-40
- Master the basic self-help skills & some communication skills.
d. Profound Mental Retardation
- IQ level is below 20 to 25
- Result in severe limitation in self-care and communication

Signs & Symptoms of IDD

1. Physical features
- Some medical condition such as Down syndrome (Chromosome 21), Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
and Cerebral Palsy shows obvious signs that are noticeable.
- But some with intellectual disability shows perfect and normal physical features.
2. Developmental delay
- Children with IDD experience delay in their development milestones.
- Compare children with other children their own age, they sit, talk, crawl, walk later and they
may have trouble dressing, feeding themselves.
3. Problems in logical and abstract thought