BONES OF THE

UPPER LIMBS
Clavicle | Collar Bone Ulna
Scapula | Shoulder Blade Carpal Bones | Wrist Bones
Humerus | Arm Bone Metacarpal Bones
Radius Finger Bones | Phalanges
 Clavicle | Collar Bone
• Clavicle:
• It is a modified long bone having two curves.
• Medial 2/3 is convex and lateral 1/3 is concave as seen from
front.
• It has two borders and two surfaces.

• Functions of Clavicle:
Acts as a strut to hold the upper limb laterally away
from the body. It also bears a part of the weight of
upper limb (the remaining is borne by the scapula). By
being laterally away from the body, the functional
efficiency of upper limb increases greatly.
 Clavicle | Collar Bone
• Ossification of clavicle:
• Clavicle is the first bone of the body to start the
process of ossification.
• It shows both intramembranous and
endochondral types of ossification.
• It has 2 primary centers and one secondary
center of ossification.
Muscles and ligaments attached
to clavicle:
Lateral 1/3: Medial 1/3:

• Trapezius muscle, • Sternocleidomastoid

• Deltoid Muscle, muscle,
• Coracoclavicular • Pectoralis major
ligament. muscle,
• Subclavius muscle,
• Costoclavicular
ligament.
Scapula | Shoulder Blade
• It is a flat triangular bone present on
the posterior aspect of thoracic
framework (ribcage) from 2nd to 7th
vertebra.
• Borders:
It has three borders: Vertebral (medial)
border, Superior border, and Axillary
(lateral) border
• Angles:
It has three angles:
• Medial angle
• Lateral angle
• Inferior angle
Glenoid cavity
(fossa):
•The glenoid cavity is slightly
concave from above downwards
and from side to side.
•The cavity is not very deep and
affords attachment to the
glenoid labrum, which helps to
deepen the socket in which the
head of the humerus rests.
Body of scapula:
It has two surfaces:
• Dorsal Surface: Contains the spine of scapula. Divided by the spine
into suraspinous and infraspinous fossae.
• Costal Surface: Forms the subscapular fossa.

Acromion:
• A triangular of oblong shaped process that is the continuation of spine
of scapula
Coracoid Process:
• A hook shaped process that along with acromion protest the shoulder
joint.
Nutrient Foramina:
• Most commonly found in the infraspinous fossa about an inch below
the greater scapula notch.
Ossification of Scapula:
• Ossification begins in the body of the cartilaginous
scapula about the end of the second month of fetal life.
• At birth the head, neck, body, spine, and base of the
coracoid process are well defined; the vertebral margin,
inferior angle, glenoid cavity, acromion, and coracoid
process, are still cartilaginous.
• The centre for the upper and anterior part of the
coracoid appears in the first year, and fusion, along an
oblique line leading from the upper edge of the glenoid
cavity to the conoid tubercle, is complete about the
fifteenth year.
• Up till the age of puberty the acromion remains
cartilaginous.
Humerus | Arm bone
• Humerus is a typical long bone present in the arm
that articulates proximally with the scapula and
distally with the bones of the forearm, namely,
radius and ulna.
• Its proximal end consists of:
• head
• greater tubercle
• lesser tubercle.

• Its body, which is longer than any of the other

bones of the upper limb, is cylindrical proximally
and somewhat flattened distally.
Humerus | Arm bone
• At the distal end,
which is expanded to
form the epicondyles
on either side.
•The humerus has
three main parts:
• The proximal end
• The shaft
• The distal end
 Proximal end of Humerus:
• The proximal end is the thickest and stoutest part of the
bone.
• It consists of head, greater tubercle and lesser tubercle.
• The head forms about one-third of a sphere and is covered
with articular cartilage.
• It is directed proximally, medially, and slightly dorsally,
and rests in the glenoid cavity of the scapula.

• Anatomical neck
• Greater Tubercle
• Bicipital groove
• Lesser tubercle
Shaft of Humerus:
• The body or shaft is cylindrical in its proximal half. Inter-tubercular
groove continues downward and slightly medially on the anterior
potion of the shaft.
• The edges of the groove, which are termed its lips, are confluent
proximally with the greater and lesser tubercles, respectively.
Here they are prominent, and form the crests of the greater and
lesser tubercles. Distally the lips of the intertubercular groove
gradually fade away.

• Deltoid tuberosity
• Posterior Surface
• The epicondyles
Distal end of Humerus:
• The distal end of the humerus is furnished with
two articular surfaces.
• The lateral of these is a rounded eminence,
placed on the anterior surface and distal border,
but not extending on to the posterior surface
called the capitulum.
• It articulates with the proximal surface of the
head of the radius.

• TROCHLEA
• CAPITULUM
Ossification of Humerus:
• At birth the body of the humerus is usually the only part of
the bone ossified.
• The centre of ossification for the body makes its
appearance early in the second month of intra-uterine life.
• Within the first six months after birth a centre usually
appears for the head; this is succeeded by one for the
greater tubercle during the second or third year.
• These soon coalesce; and a third centre for the lesser
tubercle begins to appear about the end of the third year,
or may be delayed till the fourth or fifth year.
• These three centers are all blended by the seventh year,
and form an epiphysis, which ultimately unites with the
body about the age of twenty-five.
Radius
•The forearm contains two bones namely;
radius and ulna.
• Radius is shorter in size and lateral in
position.
•Proximally it articulates with the humerus,
and distally it supports the carpus.
•It consists of a proximal end, a body, and an
expanded distal end.
•The body is narrow proximally, but increases in
all its diameters distally.
•Proximal End of Radius:
•Proximal end of radius consists of head, neck
and tuberosity.
•Body of Radius:
• The body is narrow
proximally and broad
distally. It has a lateral
curve and is wedge-shaped
in cross section. The edge
of the wedge forms the
sharp medial interosseous
border of the bone while its
base corresponds to the
thick and rounded lateral
border over which the
anterior surface becomes
confluent with the posterior
surface.
•Distal end of Radius:
•The distal end, which tends to be turned
slightly forwards, has a somewhat
triangular form. Its distal carpal articular
surface, concave from before backwards,
and slightly so from side to side, is divided
into two facets by a slight antero-
posterior ridge.
Ossification of Radius:
• The center for the body makes its appearance
early in the second month of intra-uterine life.
• A secondary center appears in the cartilage of
the distal extremity about the second or third
year.
• This does not unite with the body until the
twentieth or twenty-fifth years, somewhat
earlier in the female.
• From this the carpal and ulnar articular surfaces
are formed.
Ulna
•Of the two bones of the forearm, the ulna
is the longer one and is placed medially.
• It consists of a large proximal end
supporting the olecranon and the
coronoid processes, a body or shaft
tapering distally, and a small rounded
distal end called the head.
Proximal End of Ulna
•The olecranon process lies in line with the
body. Its dorsal surface is more or less
triangular in form, smooth, subcutaneous and
covered by a bursa.
•The coronoid process is a bracket-like
process, which projects forwards from the
anterior and proximal part of the shaft, and is
fused with the olecranon proximally. Of the
lateral margins of the coronoid process, the
medial is usually the better defined. The
smooth medial surface of the coronoid process
merges with the olecranon dorsally, and with
the medial surface of the body distally.
Body (Shaft) of Ulna:
• The body of ulna is nearly straight, or slightly
curved, stout and thick proximally, gradually
tapering towards its distal extremity. It has
three borders and three surfaces. Surfaces are
anterior, posterior, and medial while the borders
are; interosseous, posterior and anterior.
• The interosseous border is crisp and sharp in
the proximal three-fourths of the body, but
becomes faint and ill-defined in the distal
fourth.
Distal End of the Ulna
• The distal end of the ulna presents a rounded
head, from which, on its medial and posterior
aspect, there projects a cylindrical pointed
process called the styloid process.
• . The dorsal and medial surface of the styloid
process is channeled by a groove which
separates it from the dorsal surface of the head.
Ossification of Ulna:
• The ulna is ossified from one primary and two or
more secondary centers. The center for the body
appears early in the second month of fetal life.
• At birth the body and a considerable part of the
proximal extremity, including the coronoid process,
are ossified, as well as part of the distal extremity.
• The olecranon and the distal surface of the head and
the styloid process are cartilaginous.
• At About ten years of age a secondary centre
appears in the cartilage at the proximal end of the
bone, and forms an epiphysis which unites with the
body at about sixteen.
 Carpal bones | Wrist bones
• Bones of the wrist are First (Proximal) Second (Distal)
Row: row:
called carpal bones.
• They are small Scaphoid Trapezium
bones, 8 in number
that make synovial
Lunate Trapezoid
joints with each other
and thus add to the
mobility of human Triquetral
(Cuneiform)
Capitate
hand.
• The carpal bones are Pisiform Hamate
arranged in two rows.
Carpal bones of Proximal row:
•Scaphoid:
•The scaphoid is the largest and the most
lateral bone of the first row.
•Lunate:
•Named because of its deeply excavated
form, the lunate lies between the scaphoid
on the lateral side and the triquetral on the
medial side.
Carpal bones of Proximal row:
•Triquetral (Cuneiform):
• This bone may be recognized by the small oval or
circular facet for the pisiform on its anterior
surface. The bone is placed obliquely, so that its
surfaces cannot be accurately described as distal,
proximal, etc. It is attached to Lunate on the
lateral side and pisiform of the antero-medial
side.
•Pisiform:
• About the size and shape of a large pea, the
pisiform bone rests on the anterior surface of the
triquetral, with which it articulates by an oval or
circular facet on its dorsal aspect.
 Carpal Bones of Distal row:
•Trapezium:
• The trapezium is the most lateral bone of the distal
row of the carpus. It may be readily recognized by
the oval saddle-shaped facet on its distal surface
for articulation with the metacarpal bone of the
thumb.
•Trapezoid Bone:
• With the exception of the pisiform, the Trapezoid
is the smallest of the carpal bones. Its
rough anterior surface is small and pentagonal in
outline.
Carpal Bones of Distal row:
•Capitate:
•This is the largest of the carpal bones. Its anterior
surface is rough and rounded. The proximal
portion of the bone forms the head, and is
furnished with convex articular facets which fit into
the hollows on the medial surface of the scaphoid
and distal surface of the lunate.
•Hamate:
•The hamate can be readily distinguished by the
hook-like process (hamulus) which projects from
the distal and medial aspect of its anterior surface.
Ossification of Carpal bones:
• At birth the carpus is entirely cartilaginous.
Different bones of the carpus take different length
of time to ossify. The following data shows the
time taken by each bone to ossify:
• Capitate = 11 to 12 months
• Hamate = 12 to 14 months
• Triquetral = 3 years
• Lunate = 5 to 6 years
• Traprzium = 6 years
• Scaphoid = 6 years
• Trapezoid = 6 to 7 years
• Pisiform = 10 to 12 years
Metacarpal bones
•The metacarpal bones form the skeleton
of the palm, articulating proximally with
the carpus, and distally with the digits.
They are five in number, one for each
digit, and lie side by side and slightly
divergent from each other, being
separated by intervals called interosseous
spaces.

• A body or shaft
• A base or carpal end
• A head or phalangeal end
Body (shaft) of Metacarpal
Bones:
•The bodies, which are slightly curved
towards the anterior aspect, are
narrowest towards their middle.
•The dorsal surface of each is marked by
two divergent lines passing distally from
the dorsum of the base to tubercles on
either side of the head.
Base of Metacarpal Bones:
• The bases, all more or less wedge-shaped in form,
articulate with the carpus. They differ in size and
shape according to the joints they form.
• Of the five metacarpal bones, the first, i.e. that of the
thumb is the shortest and stoutest, the second is the
longest, whilst the third, fourth, and fifth display a
gradual reduction in length.
• The medial four bones articulate by their bases with
each other, and are united at their distal ends by
ligaments. They are so arranged as to conform to the
hollow of the palm, being concave from side to side
anteriorly and convex posteriorly.
Head of Metacarpal Bones:
• The head is provided with a surface for
articulation with the proximal phalanx.
• This area curves farther over its anterior aspect
than the posterior.
• It is convex from before backwards and from
side to side and is wider anteriorly than
posteriorly.
• It is notched on its anterior aspect and its edges
form two prominent tubercles, which are
sometimes grooved for the small sesamoid
bones.
Ossification of metacarpal bones:
•The metacarpal bones are developed from
primary and secondary centers; but there is a
remarkable difference between the mode of
growth of the first and the remaining four
metacarpals.
•The body and head of the first metacarpal are
developed from the primary center, and
its base from a secondary center, in the case of the
second, third, fourth, and fifth metacarpals the
bodies and bases are developed from the primary
centers, the heads in these instances being
derived from the secondary centers.
Finger Bones | Phalanges
•The phalanges or finger bones are
fourteen in number:
• three for each finger
• two for the thumb

•They are named numerically in order from

the proximal towards the distal ends of
the fingers i.e. the most proximal is the
first phalanx and the most distal is the
third phalanx.
 The first phalanx (Phalanx Prima):
• The first phalanx is the longest and stoutest of the three. It has a
semi-cylindrical body which is curved slightly forwards.
• The anterior surface is flat and bounded on either side by two
sharp borders to which the fibrous sheath of the flexor tendons
is attached.
• The posterior surface is convex from side to side and is overlain
by the extensor tendons.
• The proximal end, considerably enlarged, has a simple oval
concave surface, which rests on the head of its corresponding
metacarpal bone.
The second phalanx (Phalanx Secunda):

• The second phalanx resembles the first in

general form, but is of smaller size.
• It differs, however, in the form of its proximal
articular surface, which is not a simple oval
concavity, but is an oval area divided into two
small, nearly circular concavities by a central
ridge passing from anterior to posterior edge.
• These concavities articulate with the condylar
surfaces of the proximal phalanx.
The third phalanx (Phalanx Tertia):
• The third or terminal phalanx is the smallest of
the three.
• It is easily recognized by the spatula-shaped
surface on its distal extremity which supports
the nail.
• The articular surface on its proximal end
resembles that on the proximal end of the
second phalanx, but is smaller.
Phalanges of thumb:

•The phalanges of the thumb

resemble in the arrangement of their
parts to the first and third phalanges
of the fingers.
Ossification of Phalanges:
• The phalanges are ossified from primary and
secondary centers.
• The primary center appears as early as the ninth
week of fetal life, and the body and distal ends
are developed from it.
• The secondary center begins to appear at about
the third year and forms the proximal epiphyses
which later unites with the body.
 JOINTS OF THE
UPPER LIMBS
Pectoral Girdle Carpometacarpal joint of
Sternoclavicular Joint Thumb
Acromioclavicular Joint Carpometacarpal Joints
Shoulder Joint Intermetacarpal Joints
Elbow Joint Metacarpophalangeal Joints
Wrist Joint Interphalangeal Joints
 Pectoral girdle
• A limb girdle is defined as the bones that connect a limb to
the axial skeleton. The bones of the pectoral or shoulder
girdle are the clavicle and scapula.
• Only one small joint connects the girdle to the rest of the
skeleton: the sternoclavicular joint, and the two bones are
joined to one another by an even smaller joint, the
acromioclavicular.
• The remaining attachment to the axial skeleton is purely
muscular, and this helps to account for the greater mobility
of the shoulder girdle compared with its lower limb
counterpart, where three bones (ilium, ischium and pubis)
fuse to form the solid hip bone or pelvic girdle.
Sternoclavicular joint
• This is a synovial joint, separated into two cavities by an intervening
fibrocartilage.
• Although synovial, it is atypical since the bony surfaces are covered by
fibrocartilage, not the usual hyaline variety.
• The articular surface on the manubrium sterni is set at an angle of 45°
with the perpendicular, and is markedly concave from above
downwards.
• The articular surface on the sternal end of the clavicle, flattened or
slightly concave, is continued over the inferior surface of the shaft in a
high percentage of cases, for articulation with the first costal cartilage.
• The sternal end of the clavicle projects well above the upper margin of
the manubrial facet so that only about the lower half of the clavicular
articular surface lies opposite the sternal articular facet.
Acromioclavicular joint
•This is a synovial joint between the
overhanging lateral end of the clavicle
and the under-hanging medial border of
the acromion.
•The articulating surfaces are covered (like
those of the sternoclavicular joint) by
fibrocartilage (so it is an atypical synovial
joint).
Shoulder Joint
• The shoulder joint is a synovial joint of the ball
and socket variety.
• There is a 4 to 1 disproportion between the
large round head of the humerus and the small
shallow glenoid cavity.
• The glenoid labrum, a ring of fibrocartilage
attached to the margins of the glenoid cavity,
deepens slightly but effectively the depression
of the glenoid ‘fossa’
Elbow joint
•Elbow joint is a synovial joint of the hinge
variety between the lower end of the
humerus and the upper ends of radius and
ulna.
• It communicates with the proximal
radioulnar joint, in contrast to the wrist,
which does not communicate with the
distal radioulnar joint.
Carpometacarpal Joint of Thumb
• The carpometacarpal joint of the thumb, also
known as trapeziometacarpal joint, plays a vital
role in the normal activity of the thumb.
• It must be appreciated that most of the activity of
human hand depends upon the movements of
thumb and index finger.
• Thus it can be rightfully stated that this joint is vital
for functioning of hand.
Carpometacarpal Joints
•There are five carpometacarpal joints
in each hand.
•The first carpometacarpal joint (Joint
of the Thumb) is a saddle shaped
joint while the remaining four are all
synovial ellipsoid joints.
•The articulation takes place between
the carpus and second to fifth
metacarpal bones.
Intermetacarpal Joints
•Intermetacarpal joints occur between the
bases of second to fifth metacarpal
bones.
•They articulate reciprocally by small
facets, which are covered with cartilage.
•These joints contain a fibrous capsule,
which adds to their stability.
Metacarpophalangeal Joints
•There are five Metacarpophalangeal joints in
each hand, each of which is an ellipsoid joint.
•They joint is formed between the heads of
metacarpal bones and proximal phalanges.
•All of the five metacarpophalangeal joints are
strengthened by fibrous capsule.
Interphalangeal Joints
• Interphalangeal joints are formed between the
phalanges.
• These are uniaxial type of hinge joints where only
possible movement is flexion and extension.
• Each interphalangeal joint has its own fibrous capsule,
which adds to its stability and strength.
 UPPERLIMB
MISCELLANEOUS
Fibrous Flexor Sheaths of Hand
Synovial Flexor Sheaths of Hand
Carpal Tunnel
Flexor Retinaculum of Wrist
Extensor Retinaculum of Wrist
FIBROUS FLEXOR
SYNOVIAL FLEXOR
CARPAL TUNNEL
CARPAL TUNNEL SYNDROME
• In the tightly crowded flexor tunnel the median
nerve can be compressed, especially by long-
continued swelling in the synovial sheaths.
• SYMPTOMS:
• wasting and weakness of the thenar muscles (with loss
of power of opposition of the thumb)
• anaesthesia over three and a half digits on the thumb
side of the hand
• Surgical division of the retinaculum relieves the
pressure and the symptoms.
FLEXOR
RETINACULUM
OF WRIST
EXTENSOR
RETINACULUM
OF WRIST
 BONES OF THE
LOWER LIMBS
Hip Bone Cuneiform Bones
Femur Medial Cuneiform
Tibia | Shinbone Intermediate
Fibula Cuneiform
Talus Lateral Cuneiform
Calcaneus | Heel bone Metatarsals
Navicular Phalanges of Foot
Hip bone
• Hip bone consists of three parts:
• Ilium
• Ischium
• Pubis

• These three bones meet one another at the

acetabulum.
• The two hip bones articulate with the sacrum at the
sacroiliac joint and form the anterolateral walls of
the pelvis.
• They also articulate with each other in front at the
symphysis pubis.
 • The ilium, which is the upper flattened part of
Ilium: the bone, possesses a crest known as the iliac
crest.
• The crest ends in the front at the anterior
superior iliac spine below which lies the anterior
inferior iliac spine.
 Ischium:
• It is L shaped past
of the hip bone and
possesses an upper
thicker part and a
lower thinner part.
• The upper thicker
part is known as
body of ischium
and the lower
thinner part is
known as ramus of
ischium.
 • Pubis consists of three parts: the body,
superior ramus and inferior ramus.
Pubis:
• Bodies of the two pubic bones articulate with
each other and form the symphysis pubis,
which lies in the midline of body.
Acetabulum:
• On the outer surface
of the hip bone is a
deep depression,
called the
acetabulum.
• It articulates with the
head of femur to form
hip joint. Inferiorly,
the margin of
acetabulum is
deficient and is
marked by the
acetabular notch.
Femur
•Femur is the bone of leg that articulates
above with the hip bone to form hip joint
and below with the tibia and patella to
form the knee joint.
•It is the longest bone of human body.
Upper end of femur:
Upper end of the femur has a head, a neck and greater
and lesser trochanters.
• Head: Head forms about two thirds of a sphere and
articulates at the hip joint with the acetabulum of the
hip bone. In the center of the head, there is a small
depression known as fovea capitis.
• Neck: Neck connects the head to the shaft of bone.
• Greater and lesser trochanters: These are large
eminences situated at the junction of the neck and
shaft. The two trochanters are connected on the
anterior side by intertrochanteric line and on the
posterior side by intertrochanteric crest.
 Shaft of femur:
•The shaft of femur is smooth and rounded in
form.
•Posteriorly there is a ridge known as linea aspera
which bear attachment of the intermuscular
septa and many muscles of thigh.
•The shaft becomes broader as it continues
downward and at its very distal end, it forms a
flat, triangular area on the posterior surface.
• This flat triangular area is known as popliteal surface.
Lower end of femur:
•Lower end of femur consists of lateral and
medial condyles, which are separated from
each other posteriorly by the intercondylar
notch.
•. Both of the condyles take part in
formation of knee joint.
•Medial epicondyle bears a prominent
tubercle known as the adductor tubercle.
Tibia | Shinbone

•Tibia is medial bone of the leg, also known as

shinbone or shankbone.
• It is larger and stronger of the two bones of
leg.
•It connects the knee with ankle and is the
major weight bearing force of body.
•Like all other typical long bones, it has two
ends and an intervening shaft. The cross-
section of tibia is triangular in shape.
Proximal end of tibia:
•The proximal end of tibia is expanded and
is a bearing surface for weight of the
body, which is transmitted through femur.
• There are massive medial and lateral
condyles and an intercondylar area
intervening between the condyles.
•There is also a prominent tibial tuberosity.
Condyles:
• There are two condyles of tibia: medial and lateral.
• The condyles overhang the proximal surface of shaft
posteriorly
• . Lateral condyle has a fibular facet for attachment
of fibula.
Tibial Tuberosity:
• a little projection in the area where the anterior
condylar surface merge with each other.
• It is divided into a proximal smooth and a distal
rough region
• To the smooth part of tibial tuberosity attaches the
patellar tendon.
Shaft of tibia:
•As stated above, shaft of tibia is triangular
in cross section.
•Consequently, it consists of three borders
and three surfaces.
Distal end of Tibia:
•Distal end is slightly expanded and has 5
surfaces namely anterior, medial, posterior,
lateral and distal.
• In comparison to the proximal end, the
distal end of tibia is rotated laterally, an
effect known as tibial torsion.
•The lateral surface of distal end contains the
triangular fibular nothch for attachemnt of
fibula.
Medial Malleolus:
•It is a strong pyramidal process
prolonged from the distal end of the
tibia medially.
•It ends proximal to the lateral
malleolus, which is also more
posterior.
•Its main role is to deepen the
articular surface for ankle joint.
Fibula
•Fibula is lateral bone of the leg.
•It is weaker and smaller than tibia (the
medial bone of leg).
• It is not directly involved in transmission
of weight of body.
• It consists of a proximal end, a long shaft
and a distal end forming lateral malleolus.
Proximal end of fibula:

Head: The head of fibula articulates with the fibular

facet present in the lateral condyle of tibia.

Neck: Neck of fibula connects the head with the

shaft. It is important clinically because of its relation
with the common peroneal nerve, which crosses
posterolaterally and can be rolled against it.
Shaft of fibula:

•The shaft is highly variable in form.

•Commonly it consists of three
borders and surfaces, each
associated with a particular group of
muscles.
Distal end of fibula:
Lateral Malleolus:
•It projects distally and posteriorly, with
lateral aspect being subcutaneous.
•It is the distal articular surface of fibula
and takes part in the formation of ankle
joint.
•Correspondingly, it provides attachment
to many ligaments of this joint.
TARSALS of the FOOT
Talus
• forms the link between foot and leg, through the
ankle joint.
• It forms lower part of ankle joint by articulating
with medial and lateral malleoli.
• The second largest tarsal bone.
• Unique because of two important features:
• its blood supply is retrograde
• 70% of it is covered by articular cartilage.

• Although it is more or less irregular in shape but

still it can be subdivided into three parts: head,
neck and body.
Structure of Talus:
• Head: It carries the articular surface for navicular bone.
The plantar surface of head contains three articular
areas, separated by smooth ridges. The most posterior
and largest is known as sustantaculum tali, which rests
on a shelf like projection.
• Neck: Neck is the narrow region between head and
body. It presents many rough surfaces of attachments
of ligaments. It contains a deep sulcus tali, which after
articulation of talus and calcanues, forms a roof to the
sinus tarsi. This sinus is occupied by interosseous
talocalcaneal and cervical ligaments.
Structure of Talus:
• Body: The body is somewhat cuboidal in shape. It
is covered dorsally by a trochlear surface, which
articulates with distal end of tibia. Lateral surface
is triangular, smooth and verticall concave for
articulation with lateral malleolus. The medial
surface is covered by comma shaped facet for
articulation with medial malleolus.
Posterior surface of body of talus is rough and is
marked by a groove for tendon of flexor hallucis
longus. The groove lies between two tubercles,
the lateral of which is larger.
Calcaneus | Heel Bone

•Calcaneus or heel bone is the largest

of tarsal bones.
• It projects posteriorly to form the
prominence of heel, thus acting as a
short lever for muscles of the calf.
STRUCTURE OF CALCANEUS
Superior surface:
• Its superior surface is divisible into three parts. The most
posterior 1/3 is rough and concavo-convex. The middle 1/3 carries
the posterior talar facet

Anterior surface:
• The anterior surface is the smallest of all, and is actually an
obliquely set concavo-convex articular facet for the cuboid bone.
Posterior surface:
• It is divided into three regions: Proximal, Middle and Distal.
• The middle region is the largest and is limited above by a groove
and below by a rough ridge for calcaneal tendon.
• The distal region is the subcutaneous weight-bearing surface.
STRUCTURE OF THE CALCENEUS
Plantar surface:
• It is rought and forms the calcaneal tuberosity proximally. There
are two laterally extending processes, separated by a notch.
Lateral surface:
• It is almost flat and palpable on the lateral aspect of heel.
Distally, it presents the peroneal tubercle.
Medial surface:
• This surface is vertically concave.
• Superiorly, the process bears the middle talar facets and
inferiorly a groove continuous with that on the talar posterior
surface for the tendon of flexor hallucis longus.
Navicular
•Navicular is one of the seven tarsal bones.
•It lies on the medial side of foot and
articulates proximally with the talus and
distally with the three cuneiform bones.
 STRUCTURE OF NAVICULAR
Distal Surface: This surfaces is divided into three
facets for articulation with the cuneiform bones.
The middle facet is the largest one.

Proximal Surface: It is oval and concave and

articulates with the head of talus.

Dorsal Surface: It is rough and convex in form.

 STRUCTURE OF NAVICULAR
Medial Surface: It is also rough in form and
continues into a prominent tuberosity, which is
palpable distal to medial malleolus.

Plantar Surface: It is rough and concave.

Lateral Surface: It is irregular and often bears a

facet for articulation with the cuboid.
Cuboid

•Cuboid bone is one of the seven

tarsal bones of foot.
•It is most lateral in the distal row
and is present between calcaneus
proximally and fourth and fifth
metatarsal bones distally.
STRUCTURES OF CUBOID
Dorsolateral surface: This surface is rough and provide
attachment for a number of ligaments.

Plantar Surface: It is crossed distally by the a groove for

tendon of peroneus longus. The surface of bone behind the
groove is rough, for the attachment of the plantar
calcaneocuboid ligament. Proximally this surface is bouded
by a ridge ending in the tuberosity of cuboid.

Lateral Surface: It is characterized by the presence of a

deep notch, which is formed by the commencement of the
groove for peroneus longus tendon in the plantar surface.
 STRUCTURES OF CUBOID
Medial Surface: This surface is much more extensive than the
rest and is partly non articular. It bears an oval facet for lateral
cuneiform.

Distal Surface: It is divided vertically into a medial

quadrilateral articular area for the fourth metatarsal base and
a lateral triangular area for the base of fifth metatarsal bone.

Proximal Surface: It is triangular and concavo-convex in form

and articulates with the distal calcaneal surface.
Cuneiform Bones
•Cuneiforms are three wedge like bones in the
tarsus.
•They articulate with the navicular proximally
and the bases of first to third metatarsals
distally.
•They are named as:
• Medial
• Intermediate
• Lateral
 Medial Cuneiform articulates proximally with the
navicular and distally with the base of first
metatatrsal bone.

Intermediate Cuneiform articulates proximally with

the navicular and distally with the base of second
metatarsal bone.

Lateral cuneiform articulates proximally with the

navicular and distally with the base of third
metatarsal bone.
The medial cuneiform is the largest while the
intermediate is smallest. In the medial cuneiform
the wedge is reversed, which forms the prime
factor in maintaining the transverse arch of foot.
Metatarsals
• There are five metatarsal bones lying in the distal
foot.
• They connect the tarsus and phalanges and form
important components of the arches of foot.
• Like the metacarpals, they are miniature long
bones.
• Their structure consists of a shaft, a proximal base
and a distal head.
• The shafts are slender and taper distally.
• Their bases articulate with the distal tarsal row and with
each other.
• Their heads articulate with the proximal phalanges.
First Metatarsal
• It is the shortest and
thickest of all and
consists of a strong
shaft with a prismatic
form.
• The base of first
metatarsal bone
articulates with the
medial cuneiform while
its head articulates with
the proximal phalanx of
big toe.
Second Metatarsal
• It is the longest
metatarsal bone.
• Its base bears four
articular facets: one for
each of medial
cuneiform,
intermediate
cuneiform, lateral
cuneifom and base of
third metatarsal.
Third Metatarsal
•It has a flat
triangular base,
which articulates
with lateral
cuneiform, base of
second metatarsal
and base of fourth
metatarsal.
Fourth Metatarsal
•It is smaller than the
third.
• Its base articulates
with cuboid, base of
third metatarsal and
base of fifth
metatarsal.
Fifth Metatarsal
•The characteristic
feature of fifth
metatarsal is the
presence of a
tuberosity on the
lateral side of its
base, which can be
felt midway along
the lateral border of
foot.
Phalanges of Foot
•Phalanges of toes in general resemble
those of fingers of hands.
•There are two phalanges in the big toe
and three in each of the remaining toes.
•Occasionally, the little toe also consists
only of two phalanges.
 JOINTS OF THE
LOWER LIMB
Pubic Symphysis Ankle Joint
Sacroiliac Joint Subtalar Joint
Hip Joint Talocalcaneonavicular
Knee Joint Joint
Superior Tibiofibular Joint Calcaneocuboid Joint
Inferior Tibiofibular Joint Cuneonavicular Joint
Pubic Symphysis
• a secondary
cartilaginous joint
between the two
pubic bones in the
midline of body.
• It is located anterior
to the urinary bladder
and superior to the
external genitalia.
 Sacroiliac Joint
• A synovial joint
between sacrum and
ilium of the pelvis.
• The articulating
surfaces are kept
together by strong
ligaments.
• The sacrum supports
the vertebral column
and is in turn supported
by an ilium on each
side.
 Hip Joint
• known as acetabulofemoral
joint (occurs between
acetabulum and femur).
• It is a synovial ball and
socket joint that occurs
between head of femur and
acetabulum of hip bone. Its
primary function is to make
the legs mobile without
weakening the ability to
support the weight of
human body in both static
and dynamic postures
Knee Joint
• the largest and most
complicated joint of human
body.
• consists of three bones and
two joints. The bones are
Femur, Tibia and Patella
while the joints are
tibiofemoral and
patellofemoral joints.
• The tibiofemoral joint is a
complex hinge joint
between tibia and femur.
• The patellofemoral joint
between femur and patella
is a gliding synovial joint.
Superior Tibiofibular Joint
•The two bones of leg, tibia and
fibula are articulated with each
other at two places.
•One is near the knee joint
forming the superior tibiofibular
joint. The other is near the ankle
joint forming the inferior
tibiofibular joint.
•The superior tibiofibular joint is
a synovial, plane, gliding joint.
Inferior Tibiofibular Joint
•The inferior tibiofibular
joint is fibrous joint.
•It is the only joint in
appendicular skeleton
which is not synovial.
•Unlike the superior
tibiofibular joint, it does
not contain any capsule.
Ankle Joint
• also known as talocrural
joint, consists of a deep
socket formed by the lower
ends of the tibia and fibula,
into which the upper part of
the body of talus fits.
• It is approximately a
uniaxial hinge joint, where
movements are possible
through only one axis.
Subtalar Joint
•also known as
talocalcaneal joint
•the posterior joint
between the talus and
the calcaneum.
• It is a plane synovial
joint that allows
movements of
inversion and eversion
of foot.
Talocalcaneonavicular Joint
•the anterior joint between talus and calcaneum.
•It also involves the navicular bone.
•This joint is a compound, multiaxial synovial
articulation.
Calcaneocuboid Joint
•Calcaneocuboid joint lies at the same level as
the Talocalcaneonavicular joint and, together,
they represent the transverse tarsal joint.
• It is a saddle shaped, biaxial joint with concavo-
convex articular surfaces.
Cuneonavicular Joint

•the articulation
between the navicular
bone and the three
cuneiform bones.
• It is a synovial joint of
the gliding variety.
•Often it is described as
a compound joint.
 LOWER LIMB
MISCELLANEOUS
Bony Pelvis
Ligaments and Foramina of Gluteal
Region
Sciatic Foramina
Obturator membrane
Bony Pelvis
• Pelvis is the region of the trunk that lies below
the abdomen.
• Bony pelvis is the bowl shaped bony structure
that forms the skeleton of this region of body.
• Its major functions include transmitting the
weight of the body from vertebral column to
the lower limbs, and protecting and housing the
terminal parts of the gastrointestinal tract,
urinary system and reproductive system.
Ligaments of gluteal region:
These ligaments stabilize the sacrum and prevent its
rotation at the sacroiliac joint by the weight of
vertebral column.
• Sacrotuberous ligament: It connects the back of the
sacrum to the ischial tuberosity. It is attached to
lower part of the sacrum and ischial tuberosity and
converts the lesser sciatic notch of hip bone into
lesser sciatic foramen.
• Sacrospinous ligament: It connects the back of
sacrum to the spine of ischium. It is attached to the
lower part of sacrum and ischial spine and converts
the greater sciatic notch of the hip bone into greater
sciatic foramen.
Foramina of gluteal region:
• Greater sciatic foramen: It is formed by the greater sciatic
notch of hip bone and sacrospinous ligament. Sacrotuberous
ligament also plays some role in formation of this foramen. The
greater sciatic foramen provides an exit from the pelvis into the
gluteal region and structures that come from pelvis into the leg
pass through this foramen.
• Lesser sciatic foramen: It is formed by the lesser sciatic notch
of hip bone and the sacrotuberous ligament. Sacrospinous
ligament also plays some role in formation of this foramen. In
contrast to the greater sciatic foramen, it provides and
entrance into the pelvis from the gluteal region, so the
structures that go to the pelvis from gluteal region pass
through it. In this way, its presence enables blood vessels
BONES OF THE
THORAX
Sternum | Chest Bone
Xiphoid Process
Ribs and Costal Cartilages
Sternum | Chest bone
• Anatomy of sternum:
• Manubrium sterni: The uppermost part
• Body (shaft): The middle part
• Xiphoid process: The lowest part

• Ossification of sternum:
Ossification occurs by a total of 6 centers. One is for
manubrium, four for body and one for xiphoid
process.
• Sternal angle:
It is the angle formed between the manubrium and
body of sternum. The vertex of this angle lies at the
manubriosternal joint.
Manubrium:
• It is the upper-most part of the sternum that
articulates with:
• The right and left clavicles
• First costal cartilages of both sides
• Upper part of the second costal cartilage of both sides

• It is quadrangular in form and lies at the level of

third and fourth thoracic vertebrae of the spinal
cord.
• The superior border of manubrium is thick,
actually the thickest part of the bone and forms
the jugular notch.
Body of sternum:
• It is longer, narrower and thinner as compared
to the manubrium sterni, with which it
articulates superiorly at the manubriosternal
joint, which is of fibrocartilaginous type.
• At the lower border, it articulates with the
xiphoid process at the xiphisternal joint.
• The body of sternum is of flat contours and
contains notches on each side for articulation
with the costal cartilages.
• There are a total of 12 costal cartilages but only
first 7 articulate with the sternum directly.
Xiphoid process:
•It is the smallest and lowest part of the
bone and is actually a thin plate of hyaline
cartilage.
•It may become ossified at its proximal end
in the adult life but it is purely
cartilaginous in children and teenagers.
• It is not attached to ribs or costal
cartilages.
Sternal Angle:
• It is also known as Angle of Louis
• is formed by the articulation of the body of
sternum with the manubrium sterni.
• is present in the form of ridge at the site of the
manubriosternal joint and lies opposite the
intervertebral disc between third and fourth
thoracic vertebrae.
• The sterna angle lies adjacent to the second
intercostals space fairly consistently and for this
reason, it is used as a guide to count the ribs
and intercostals spaces.
RIBS
• There are 12 pairs of ribs, all of which are attached
posteriorly to the respective thoracic vertebrae.
• The upper 7 pairs are attached to the sternum
directly through their costal cartilages.
• Ribs 8 through 10 are attached indirectly to the
sternum through the seventh costal cartilage. Their
costal cartilages are also attached with each other
at different points.
• The 11th and 12th rib do not attach anteriorly to
anything and just end in the muscles of body wall.
They are, for this reason, called floating ribs.
ATYPICAL RIB
Costal Cartilages:

•They are bars of hyaline cartilage

that connect the ribs with the
sternum.
• Ribs eight through ten are known as
false ribs because their costal
cartilages do not articulate with the
sternum directly.
Costal Cartilages:
•The costal cartilages make a significant
contribution to the elasticity and mobility
of the rigid thoracic wall and permit vital
movement of respiration without which
the process of exchange of gases in the
lungs would have impaired.
• In old age, as a result of superficial
calcification, the costal cartilages lose
their elasticity and become somewhat
ossified.
 JOINTS OF THE
THORACIC CAGE
Manubriosternal Joint
Xiphisternal Joint
Joints of heads of ribs:

•First rib and the last three ribs have a

single synovial joint with the
corresponding vertebrae while the
remaining ribs have two synovial joints:
one with the corresponding vertebra and
one with the immediate above.
•These joints are formed by the heads of
the ribs with the body of vertebrae.
Joints of tubercles of ribs:
•The tubercle of each rib articulates with
the transverse process of the
corresponding vertebra through a
synovial joint.
• The tubercles are absent on the eleventh
and twelfth ribs and therefore no such
joints occur for these ribs.
 Joints of the sternum:

Manubriosternal joint: It is a fibrocartilaginous joint between

the manubrium sterni and the body of sternum. A small
amount of angular movement is possible at this joint. This
movement occurs during respiration.

Xiphisternal joint: It is also a fibrocartilaginous joint and occurs

between the xiphoid process and body of sternum. The
capability of occurring movements may be present but there is
no significance of movements at this joint. The xiphoid process
fuses with the body of sternum during middle ages.
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Sacrum
Coccyx
Sacrum
• Sacrum is a large triangular bone that forms the
lower part of vertebral column.
• It is composed of five sacral vertebrae, which
are all fused together to form this triangular
wedge shaped bone with forward concavity. The
upper border or the base of the wedge
articulates with fifth lumbar vertebra.
• The lower border or apex of the wedge
articulates with the coccyx. Laterally, the
sacrum articulates with the two iliac bones to
form sacroiliac joints.
 Coccyx
•Also known as tailbone
•Coccyx is the final segment of the
vertebral column
•. It comprises of four small vertebrae that
are fused together to form a single small
triangular bone.
•Coccyx is attached to the sacrum by the
sacrococcygeal symphysis, which is a
fibrocartilaginous joint.
• It permits only limited movement
 Function of coccyx:
•It is believed that the coccyx is remnant
of vestigial tail.
•But it is not useless in the body.
•It provides attachment to various
important muscles, ligaments and
tendons.
•Additionally, it is also a component of
the weight bearing structure during
sitting position.