Alexandria Engineering Journal (2021) 60, 5077–5093

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

www.elsevier.com/locate/aej
www.sciencedirect.com

The state of renewable energy development in South

Africa: An overview
Olusola M. Akinbami a, Samuel R. Oke b,c,*, Michael O. Bodunrin d

a
Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa
b
Metamaterials for Mechanical, Biomechanical and Multiphysical Applications Research Group, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho
Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
c
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam
d
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa

Received 11 September 2020; revised 28 February 2021; accepted 23 March 2021

KEYWORDS Abstract The rising energy demand has started to overwhelm the existing power generating plants
Solar energy; in South Africa. Also, the conventional electricity generating plants are largely responsible for the
Wind energy; high greenhouse gas emissions recorded in the country. In an attempt to mitigate CO2 emissions and
Electricity generation; provide reliable electricity for its people, South Africa is gradually developing its renewable energy
Biomass; sector. This review chronicles electricity generation in South Africa from inception to date. It exam-
Coal; ines the current state of electricity generation and the development of the biomass, wind and solar
Fossil fuels energy industry in South Africa. Additionally, the growth of renewable energy technologies is dis-
cussed and recommendations are suggested on the steps that can further drive the integration of
renewable energy technologies into the present energy mix of the country.
Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5078
2. Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5078
3. History of electricity generation in South Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5079
4. Overview of the energy sector of South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5080
5. Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5081
5.1. Challenges of biomass development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5083
5.1.1. Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5083
5.1.2. Land use and water scarcity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5083

* Corresponding author at: Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam.
E-mail address: samuel.ranti.oke@tdtu.edu.vn (S.R. Oke).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2021.03.065
1110-0168 Ó 2021 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
5078 O.M. Akinbami et al.

6. Wind energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5084

6.1. Environmental challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5084
6.2. Technical challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5085
7. Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5085
7.1. Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5086
7.2. Concentrating solar power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5087
7.3. Solar water heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5088
7.3.1. Technical challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5088
7.3.2. Competition with other energy sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5088
7.3.3. Financial constraints and publicity issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089
8. Summary and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5089

1. Introduction CO2 mitigation and the development of renewable energy

The socio-economic and infrastructural development of a
developing country can be largely attributed to its electricity
generation, transmission and utilization [1–4]. It is therefore
unsurprising that South Africa being Africa’s largest consumer
of energy is also among the most developed nations on the
African continent [5]. South Africa is located on the southern-
most tip of the African continent, enclaving Lesotho and shar-
ing its borders with Namibia, Zimbabwe and Botswana to the
north while it has a coastline on both the South Atlantic Ocean
and the Indian Ocean to the west and east respectively. The
country is blessed with numerous mineral resources such as
platinum, diamond and gold among others while it also boasts
of a moderate population of about 56 million people [6–9]. Of
such mineral resources found in South Africa is Coal, with
South Africa being the world’s 7th largest producer of coal
according to the latest publication by the International Energy
Agency (IEA) Energy Atlas [10,11]. Coal is the largest energy
fuel source in South Africa with over 85% of the generated
electricity in the country coming from coal [12]. While coal
has successfully helped generate electricity, it has also placed
South Africa among the top 10 greenhouse gas emitters in
the world [13,14]. Efforts however have been made towards
(RE) sources in South Africa. Such developments will be dis-
cussed in this review along with the challenges encountered.
To fully comprehend the development of renewable energy
in South Africa, it is important to discuss the history of elec-
tricity generation in the country. Before discussing the history
of electricity generation in South Africa in section 2, the
authors acknowledge a recent review paper on the status of
renewable energy development in three of Africa’s largest
economies – Nigeria, South Africa and Egypt [15]. It was con-
cluded that South Africa has the best renewable energy plan
amongst the three countries. However, only a succinct infor-
mation is given on the challenges and progress made in South
Africa RE industry. Therefore, this article builds on the previ-
ous review [15] and provide readers with a more detailed infor-
mation on the development of renewable energy sources in
South Africa namely biomass, wind and solar energy for elec-
tricity and heat generation (see Fig. 1).
2. Methodology
The literatures used for this work were sourced from reputable
databases (Springer, Sciencedirect, SCOPUS, Web of Science
and Google Scholar).

Fig. 1 The Energy Mix in South Africa [16] with permission from the International Energy Agency Database.
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
3. History of electricity generation in South Africa
The earliest recorded electricity lightning in South Africa is
believed to be an arc light demonstration by Mr. Charlton
Wollaston at the Castle of Good Hope in Cape town on the
1st of August 1860 which was less than 30 years after Michael
Faraday invented the dynamo [17]. Thereafter, after Thomas
Edison invented the incandescent lamp in 1879, South Africa
installed its first electric arc lights to illuminate the railway ter-
mini in Cape Town around October 1881, this was followed by
the installation of the country’s first electric street lights in the
mining town to Kimberly to help improve mining operations
at night [17,18]. The increased productivity afforded by the
lighting in the Cape mines led to the construction of Johannes-
burg’s first electricity plant in 1889 following the gold’s discov-
ery in Witwatersrand, Johannesburg earlier in 1886 [19].
Municipal electrification started in 1892 in Rondebosch and
this rose steadily in subsequent years across different towns
in South Africa [20]. Then in July 1894, Siemens and Halske
upon receiving a concession from the South African govern-
ment began the supply of electricity to Johannesburg and Pre-
toria, this concession was however relinquished in 1895 to the
nascent Rand Central Electric Works LTD (RCEW) who had
been tasked to oversee the expansion of power supply from
Johannesburg to neighboring goldmines [21]. Tasked with con-
structing a coal-powered plant in the proximity of coal mines
in Brakpan, RCEW using Siemens and Halske’s equipment
completed the project in 1897 thus becoming the first to trans-
mit high voltage electricity to the mines as well as the neigh-
boring towns [22]. A similar development occurred in the
Cape colony where earlier in 1895, Cape Town established
its municipal electricity undertaking called the Graaff Electric
Light Station. In the period between the 1890s and early
1900 s, South Africa experienced a rapid increase in electricity
generation and supply either to power mines machinery or to
provide municipal lighting. Unfortunately, due to the small
size and inefficiencies of the power plants coupled with the
poor connection between the consumers, the electricity costs
were outrageous. Consequently, the idea of a central electricity
undertaking began to develop, this however, did not material-
ize until 1906 when the Victoria Falls Power Company (VFP)
was formed as a result of the dual purchase of RCEW and the
General Electric power. By 1915, VFP had a cumulative
installed capacity of over 160 megawatts (MW) across thermal
power stations with a control center established in Simmerpan
[23]. Realizing the significance of electricity, the Transvaal
colonial government promulgated The Power Act which
allowed the government to expropriate privately-owned
electricity enterprises after 35 years. Following The Power
Act, a South African electrification study led to the enactment
of The electricity Act of 1922 and this act eventually
led to the formation of the Electricity Supply Commission
(ESCOM) in March 1923 [24]. ESCOM written as
‘‘Elektrisiteitsvoorsieningskommissie (EVKOM) in Afrikaans”,
upon activation, assisted in the electrification of the railway
and also established new power stations across South Africa.
The year 1925 saw ESCOM construct the Malieveldspruit
hydro station as a temporary alternative to the Sabie River
Gorge plant which became operational in 1927, the two plants
thereafter became ESCOM’s first set of plants to be erected
[25]. To further satisfy the demand brought by the gold rush,
5079
ESCOM commissioned other plants and by 1929, ESCOM
boasted of electricity sales of about 800 million units [23].
ESCOM later acquired VFP and Kimberley’s central power
station in 1948 and 1950 respectively, to further satisfy electric-
ity demands, the rural electrification department was created in
1951 to supply electricity to rural South African areas [26].
Banking on its previous successes over the decades coupled
with the need for a more unified electricity generation and
transmission system, ESCOM continued to acquire other inde-
pendent plants while commissioning new ones. ESCOM’s
growth continued until early 1983 when South Africa was
affected by drought. The drought among other factors affected
ESCOM’s productivity and eventually electricity, prices began
to rise again, this led the government to form the electricity
council which consisted of about 15 people tasked with over-
seeing ESCOM’s operations [27]. To further improve produc-
tivity, ESCOM was restructured and a revised Electricity Act
was passed in 1987 resulting in an increase in the customer
base while being renamed from ESCOM to ESKOM which
was coined by combining the two acronyms of its previous
name (ESCOM/EVKOM) [27]. ESKOM troubled with unreg-
ulated electricity prices and defaulting customers, led the gov-
ernment to amend the Electricity Act and then replaced the
Electricity council board with a National Electricity Regula-
tor. This amendment helped to partially mitigate ESKOM’s
financial crises however, ESKOM notified the government of
an impending electricity shortage in subsequent years if an
urgent revampment of the power stations is not done. Partially
due to the government’s consideration for ESKOM’s privati-
zation or corporatization compounded, with the government’s
desire for more nation-wide distribution rather than the gener-
ation of electricity, the call for capital expansion was left
untreated. Consequently, ESKOM began to experience steady
electricity shortages in 2007 then the government realizing its
mistake publicly apologized for not heeding ESKOM’s early
warning [28]. In the following years, power outages became
more frequent as a result of rising energy demands. Also, some
of the coal plants are presently more prone to accidents since
they are now approaching the end of their life span therefore
more maintenance is often required thus causing plants to go
off-grid for repairs. For instance, one of the turbine units in
Duhva power station malfunctioned in February 2011 causing
a blast that removed 600 MW of power from the grid further
increasing the plant’s maintenance cost and productivity [29].
Similarly, in October 2018, a fatal accident occurred at unit
5 of the Lethabo power station due to the boiler rupturing.
With a total installed capacity of over 46 GW for a South Afri-
can population of about 56 million and a rising debt of over $2
billion [30], ESKOM is yet to fully fulfill its mandate of supply-
ing uninterrupted and affordable electricity to all South Afri-
cans. While the state-owned electricity utility company
(ESKOM) still need development, it is noteworthy that
ESKOM is still one of the most reliable and efficient power
provider in Africa outperforming Nigeria’s power generating
sub-sector with a total installed capacity of about 10.5 GW
despite Nigeria’s high population [31,32].
4. Overview of the energy sector of South Africa
With a coal-driven energy sector, South Africa is positioned to
have a high level of CO2 emissions due to coal combustion. It
5080
is therefore not unexpected that South Africa is the largest
CO2 emitter in Africa with its emission accounting for over
34% of all CO2 emitted in Africa, it is also the largest green-
house gas emitter in Africa while also being the 14th largest
CO2 emitter in the world [33,34]. As a result of the environ-
mental impact of the conventional means of electricity genera-
tion in South Africa, efforts have been made to diversify the
energy sources in the country. South Africa’s Department of
energy released the latest state of renewable energy data in
the country. The data from the document reveal the solar
PV, wind, biomass and concentrated solar power (CSP) RE
technologies present in all the South African provinces as seen
in Fig. 2. From the histogram, the Northern Cape region
ranked highest among all the provinces in terms of RE (solar
PV, CSP, wind and Biomass) deployment in South Africa clo-
sely followed by the Eastern Cape Province then Western
Cape. Like most other countries, South Africa understands
the need for renewable energy (RE) sources to complement
or serve as an alternative to its fossil fuel-based energy sector.
Therefore, some actions have been taken to diversify the coun-
try’s energy mix. In a bid to migrate towards RE sources,
South Africa released a white paper in 2003 detailing how
the country will generate 10 TWh of electricity from RE
sources (biomass, wind, solar and small-scale hydro). This pol-
icy document serves as the basis for RE technologies develop-
ment in South Africa. Thereafter, in May 2011, an integrated
resource plan was promulgated and this set another target of
adding 17,800 MW of RE to the energy mix by 2030. To fur-
ther entice private investment into the country’s energy transi-
tion, a Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer’s
Programme (REIPPP) was set up in 2011. The REIPPP was
an ambitious initiative for RE generation in South Africa
and it has 3 main themes that are centered around the reduc-
tion of CO2 emissions; improvement in generating capacity
and finally, an avenue for economic development [35]. The ini-
tiative has since been successful with the diversification of
energy generation to over 60 power producers and has led to
the steady increase in the RE capacity in South Africa as seen
Fig. 2 South Africa’s electricity generation in TWh by different technologies.
O.M. Akinbami et al.
in Fig. 3. However, according to the latest publication issued
by South Africa’s Department of Statistics, coal energy
accounts for over 85% of all electricity generated in 2016
and this is followed by nuclear and natural gas-derived energy
[36]. ESKOM is presently South Africa’s largest power entity
generating about 96% of all South Africa’s electricity while
the municipalities and independent power producers make
up the rest [37]. A map detailing all the locations and types
of power plants managed by ESKOM are shown in Fig. 4.
ESKOM’s generating plant mix consists of 14 coal-fired power
stations which are mostly clustered in Mpumalanga province
largely due to coal accessibility while Africa’s only nuclear
power plant, operated by ESKOM is located in the Western
Cape region. The nation’s owned entity also runs some
hydro-powered electricity plants alongside few gas-fired sta-
tions. Asides from the ESKOM’s power plants, other power
plants managed by municipalities and independent power pro-
ducers exist as shown in Table 1. Due to the unavailability of
updated list, the power stations listed in Table 1 is not
exhaustive.
Renewable energy sources as an alternative energy source
in South Africa can seriously reduce the over-reliance on coal
which is a finite and environmentally unfriendly resource. Fur-
thermore, the development of the renewable energy sector in
the country has the potential of creating more job opportuni-
ties thus improving the South African economy. Due to the
geographical location and human population of South Africa,
several renewable energy sources have significant potential in
the country and this section will discuss the biomass, wind
and solar energy potential in South Africa. However, before
discussing each of the RE sources, it is imperative to compare
the different technologies in terms of cost and life span. From
the data obtained from the International Renewable Energy
Agency (IRENA) and the National Renewable Energy Labo-
ratory (NREL), biomass and solar PV have the lowest leve-
lized cost of electricity (LCOE) while the CSP technology
had the highest. The LCOE of the different technologies along
with their life span is summarized in Table 2.
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
Fig. 3 Total renewable energy capacity in South Africa.
5. Biomass energy
Biomass energy is a renewable source of energy in the form of
solid, liquid and gas where such energy is derived from organic
material either directly or indirectly [41]. Biomass energy pro-
vides energy for over 2 billion people globally, and this type of
energy is particularly predominant in poor and rural areas of
the African continents where modern energy-generating tech-
niques have not been adopted or areas unconnected to the
national electricity grid [42]. While biomass energy represents
an appreciable amount of the total energy used in Africa, the
majority of this energy is for non-commercial purposes where
it is used for cooking and heating through the burning of
woods and tree branches or by burning charcoal and animal
waste [43].
Due to the non-commercial and rural utilization of bioen-
ergy, the amount of biomass energy being consumed is
unknown however, for the commercial utilization of biomass
energy, an exact value is determinable. The South African
Renewable Energy Data and Information Service showed that
over 100 GWh of energy was generated by biomass power in
2016 while no values were recorded since then [44]. One of
the earliest attempts to utilize the biomass energy potential
in South Africa was the Howick wood pellet plant in
KwaZulu-Natal which was inaugurated in 2006 and supplied
wood pellets to Europe [45]. The plant planned to construct
a 5 MW biomass electricity station to cater to its energy
demands while selling the surplus to ESKOM. However, due
to power purchase disagreement coupled with the inability to
optimize the economy of scale, the plan was never actualized
[45]. With over 42 million hectares of woodlands and other
plantations that supply over 1 million tons of wood biomass,
the biomass energy potential of South Africa is appreciable
which is sadly underutilized [45].
The conversion of biomass to usable energy (electricity) and
heat can occur through many processes with combustion, gasi-
fication, and pyrolysis been the most common of such pro-
cesses. Biomass combustion is a form of thermal conversion
which involves the burning of biomass in an oxygenated envi-
ronment to generate heat and/or electricity. One of the classic
applications of biomass combustion is the domestic heating of
5081
wood for household cooking and space heating. Modern tech-
nology has however allowed for large-scale combustion of bio-
mass to produce electricity with different plant configurations
specially built for such purpose. Co-firing also termed co-
combustion is one of such modern technologies and it involves
the burning of biomass with another fuel to produce electricity
[46]. This technology is particularly useful in South Africa due
to its coal-based energy system. In the co-combustion process,
coal and biomass are co-combusted in a coal plant that has
been partially retrofitted to allow for biomass utilization. This
process is a relatively developed technology which is been used
in some countries especially in Europe, unfortunately, South
Africa is yet to utilize this technology. This process has some
advantages such as:
& The co-combustion process is a cost-effective method of
generating electricity since existing coal plants just need to
be modified to accommodate biomass combustion hence
the starting capital and investment costs are low [47].
Because existing coal infrastructure would be used, fresh
construction of distribution stations would not be required.
Also, the use of existing plants for biomass energy produc-
tion would mean, existing transmission and distribution
networks can be used for electricity transmission, thus sav-
ing costs for conducting material installation.
& Since biomass fuel has a lower sulphur and nitrogen content
when compared to coal, it also has a low CO2 emission level
hence utilizing biomass simultaneously with coal can help
offset the greenhouse gas emissions from coal plants and
also mitigate CO2 emissions [48–50]. Therefore, co-firing
is an effective way of reducing environmental pollution
since wood, agricultural and household wastes that would
have otherwise been disposed of at dumpsites can now be
used to generate electricity. Averagely, between 0.3 and
1.12 kg/capita/day of waste is generated by individuals from
low to high income homes in South Africa where only
about 69% of South African households use a formal waste
management service while others use private or illegal
dumping sites [51].
5082 O.M. Akinbami et al.

Fig. 4 Eskom generating plant mix [40].

of the biomass and the coal into the furnace where the biomass
Table 1 List of municipal and independent power producers can be pulverized separately or alongside the coal before com-
in South Africa [38]. bustion [52]. This method is widely used due to its simplicity
Power plant name Location Installed Operator and cost-effectiveness. The concept of indirect co-firing is cen-
Capacity tered around the conversion of the biomass into fuel gas
(MW) through the use of a biomass gasifier, where the gas can then
Pretoria West Gauteng 180 City of be burnt alongside the base fuel (gasified coal or natural gas)
power station Tshwane in the furnace [46]. While this technology is less common than
Rooiwal power Gauteng 300 City of the direct co-firing technique it offers the ability to utilize bio-
station Tshwane mass materials that are difficult to pulverize in the direct firing
Newcastle KwaZulu 18 IPSA group system. It also allows for the utilization of different base fuels.
cogeneration plant Natal Lastly, parallel co-firing simply involves the processing, feed-
Avon peaking Kwa Zulu 670 International
ing and burning activities of the biomass been done in a sepa-
power Natal power
Dedisa peaking Eastern 335 International
rate, dedicated burner [53]. The process requires the
power Cape power installation of a separate biomass-based boiler for the produc-
Steenbras power Western 180 City of tion of steam for electricity generation. The major advantage
station Cape Capetown of this technology is that it allows for a high amount of bio-
Sol Plaatje Power Free State 3 Bethlehem mass combustion, it also affords the opportunity to effectively
station Hydro tune the biomass percentage during co-firing. Torrefied bio-
mass is useful as minute substitutes for coal because such bio-
mass has been processed to have higher utilization efficiency
[54].
Wu et al., [55] studied the properties of torrefied microalgae
Table 2 Cost and lifespan comparison between the different as possible solid fuels for co-combustion. The study showed
renewable energy technologies [39]. that raising the torrefaction operating temperature simultane-
ously increased the ash content and the higher heating value
Cost ($/kWh) Life span (years)
(HHV) of the microalgae. As a result, the torrefied sample
Biomass 0.066 20–30 was ideal for co-combustion in existing coal-powered plants.
Offshore wind 0.115 20
Similarly, Mamvura et al., [54] studied the effect of varying
Solar PV 0.068 25–40
parameters on two abundant biomass sources (marula seeds
Concentrating solar power 0.182 30
and blue gumwood) in South Africa. The study showed that
the torrefaction process enhanced the heating value of these
samples, with the HHV of the marula seeds exceeding that
Presently, 3 co-firing technologies (direct, indirect and par- of bituminous coal. This indicates that the co-firing of the mar-
allel) have been adopted by coal power plants worldwide. The ula seeds with coal would greatly enhance the energy output of
direct co-firing technology allows for the simultaneous feeding the coal plants. Over 54 million tons of waste is generated
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
annually in South Africa, 38% of which is recycled while about
62% is dumped in landfills. For South Africa to attain its
target of reducing CO2 emissions by 42% in 2025, co-
combustion of coal with biomass must be effectively utilized
[56,57]. Pahla et al. [57] studied the possibility of utilizing land-
fill food waste for biomass co-firing. In the study, biochar with
an optimum HHV was generated from the food waste. The
thermochemical properties of the torrefied food waste were
similar to that of bituminous coal thus indicating the potential
of substituting coal with food waste for energy production.
Biomass energy is not only limited to the conventional
burning of waste, but it also extends to the generation of pro-
cessed liquid biofuels for energy generation and as transporta-
tion fuels. Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass where
bioethanol and biodiesel are the common examples and the
United States is the largest producer with over 46% of the
world’s total production while South Africa only accounts
for about 0.3 percent [58]. The integration of biofuels into
South Africa’s energy sector will not only help diversify the
fuel source for electricity generation, but it will also provide
an alternative to the persistent reliance on crude oil importa-
tion for transportation. According to the latest energy balance
publication by the South Africa’s Department of Energy, over
98% of crude oil used in 2016 was imported while over 17,000
Kilotonne of Oil Equivalent (ktoe) was imported in 2017. With
South Africa’s limited oil reserves, continuous dependence on
crude oil import need to be curtailed hence alternative fuel for
transportation must be quickly developed. Biofuel utilization
in South Africa began in the 1920s when ethanol obtained
from sugar cane was mixed with petrol, this blending was how-
ever halted between the 1970s and 1990s as a result of cheaper
alternatives by importing crude oil [59]. Consequently, the
Fischer-Tropsch process of producing petroleum was devel-
oped. Presently, efforts are being made to revitalize biofuel
generation in South Africa, but such efforts are still at their
infancy. Ideally, there are 3 different types of biofuels which
are the first; second and third-generation biofuels [60,61].
The first-generation biofuels are produced from food crops
that contain sugars and vegetable oils where standard process-
ing techniques are used for such biofuel production. Biodiesel
is one of the examples of first-generation biofuels and can be
produced through transesterification. The second-generation
biofuels use non-food crop materials such as bagasse, straw
and other lignocellulosic materials to generate biofuels where
the biofuels are produced in a truly carbon–neutral approach
[62]. The third-generation biofuel involves the use of algae bio-
mass, research is still ongoing to improve the processes
involved in biofuel production. However, a new category of
biomass is emerging and is gaining recognition as the fourth
generation of biomass. This generation of biomass is sourced
from genetically modified algae designed to increase biofuel
production using novel approaches. A detailed review of the
generations of biofuels can be found here [63–65].
South Africa is Africa’s largest sugarcane producer with a
production capacity of over 18 million tons annually [66],
where sugarcane leaves and bagasse account for over 21% of
the entire biomass [67]. However, this sugarcane residue reach-
ing over 1 metric ton is often set ablaze on-field while about 2.5
metric tons of other generated bagasse are also inefficiently
combusted in the country, this underutilized biomass has the
5083
potential to generate about 1 metric ton of bioethanol or over
400 MW of electricity if processed efficiently [66,68]. Aside
from sugarcane, South Africa is also among the major produc-
ers of corn in the world with annual production exceeding 12
million metric tons where the Free state and Mpumalanga pro-
vinces are the largest contributors [69]. Corncobs which are
agricultural residues from corn are among the country’s largest
agricultural waste with over 5 million metric tons generated
annually [70]. The corncob’s energy profile is similar to the
low-grade South African coal with the added advantage of
having a lower content of nitrogen and sulphur when com-
pared to coal [70,71]. Therefore, corncob is a potential substi-
tute for coal or can be co-fired in coal plants for power
generation. While a majority of the derived corncobs have
been used for cooking and heating in rural areas, the industrial
utilization of this agricultural waste for energy generation in
South Africa is yet to be fully maximized. Other studies on
energy generation from agricultural produce and wastes can
be found here [72–74]. To further investigate the bioenergy
potential in the country, the Department of Science and Tech-
nology (DST) funded the Bioenergy Atlas for South Africa.
This resource is aimed at supporting the bioenergy develop-
ment in the country. Summarily, the bioenergy atlas revealed
that the potential of biomass as an energy source in South
Africa is limited due to restrictions caused by cultivable land,
rainfall and food security challenges. However, the bioenergy
atlas also revealed that despite the aforementioned constraints,
the use of all accessible domestic organic wastes coupled with
the development of communal digesters in rural areas will con-
tribute about 1600 megawatt electric (MWe) capacity. Many
countries have adopted policies to stimulate the production
of biofuels. South Africa has also adopted one of such policies
which is the Biofuel Industrial Strategy (BIS) which is a policy
designed to promote the use of biofuels while creating jobs in
rural areas. The overall development of bioenergy in South
Africa is affected by some challenges. These challenges are
briefly highlighted in Section 5.1.
5.1. Challenges of biomass development
5.1.1. Policies
The delay in the implementation of the BIS due to government
inaction coupled with the setting of a modest 2% for biofuel
integration into the energy mix is among the challenges facing
the development of South Africa’s biofuel industry. Also,
working committees or task force to monitor and drive the
industry to the set targets are often absent. Subsidies and other
governmental supports are seriously unavailable to stimulate
the growth of this renewable energy resource.
5.1.2. Land use and water scarcity
The generation of biofuels especially first-generation biofuels
hurts food security [75]. The recent drive towards biofuel uti-
lization has led to competition between food availability and
biofuel production where it was estimated that the crops used
for biofuel production in 2013 could sufficiently feed 280 mil-
lion people [76]. Due to the water scarcity issues in South
Africa, diverting this limited resource for growing fresh crops
for biofuel production can further intensify drought or affect
5084
food crop production. Since the growth of biofuel has been
blamed for the rising cost of food [75], even though this theory
has been challenged recently, major investors and policymak-
ers still need much convincing about the possible impact of
biofuel production on food availability. The conversion or dis-
possession of indigenous lands for large-scale biofuel
production is most likely to be met with strong opposition
from landowners in the rural areas who solely depend on their
farmlands for their livelihood.
Presently, just over 200 GWh of electricity is generated
annually from biomass combustion in South Africa which is
considerably low when compared to other developing coun-
tries such as Brazil with over 500 TWh of biomass generated
electricity [15,77]. The further development of the biofuel
industry in South Africa will not only help mitigate CO2 emis-
sions but also provide employment, however, challenges espe-
cially those relating to land use must be addressed before
significant progress can be made.
6. Wind energy
The wind has always been an energy source in South Africa for
many decades where early settlers who are majorly farmers
used windmills to pump water for agricultural purposes, this
act was largely responsible for the productivity afforded to
the farmers [78]. The predominance of electricity generation
on the inexpensive and commercially available coal made the
penetration of wind energy into the energy mix of South Africa
a challenge. As at the early 1990s, about 30,000 windmill
installations had been erected throughout the farming and arid
areas of South Africa to provide water for domestic and agri-
cultural purposes while the commercial use of wind energy for
electricity generation was yet to gain any substantial recogni-
tion [79]. To determine the wind energy potential in South
Africa, different wind resource assessments were done. Three
of these assessments however are the most widely accepted.
The first of such wind atlas is the Diab’s wind atlas.
The Diab’s wind atlas is the first attempt at estimating the
wind energy potential in South Africa. The wind atlas was pre-
pared by Diab [80] for the Department of Mineral and Energy
in 1995. The wind atlas was based on meteorological data
sourced from about 170 South African meteorological stations
at varying heights (2–10 m). Based on the findings, the nation’s
wind energy potential was categorized into regions of good,
moderate and low wind potential areas. The coastal areas of
Western and Eastern Cape regions were classified as good
wind energy potential regions since they have an average
annual speed of over 4 m/s at 10 m above the ground level.
Bushmanland, Drakensburg foothills and Kwazulu-Natal
regions are classified as moderate wind energy potential
regions. Finally, the Cape Middleveld and the Bushveld basin
were categorized as low wind potential areas. Diab concluded
that over 7 TWh/year of energy can be potentially generated in
South Africa. The major shortcoming of this wind atlas is the
4 m/s that was used as a benchmark for good wind potential
leading to a general misconception that South Africa’s best
wind energy resource is just over 4 m/s. Subsequently, the
Hagemann’s wind atlas was developed.
This wind energy assessment was done by Kilian Hage-
mann [81]. The wind atlas created in 2008 modeled wind
O.M. Akinbami et al.
speeds throughout the country at heights above 10 m, where
it revealed that the best regions for harnessing wind power
are the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape regions. The
study further showed that with a modest assumption, about
6 GW of wind energy can be potentially harnessed in South
Africa and under optimistic assumptions, this value can be well
over 50 GW [82]
Lastly, due to the discrepancies in the previous wind energy
resource atlas, the South African government through the
South African Wind Energy Project (SAWEP) developed a
detailed Wind Atlas for South Africa (WASA). WASA 1 pro-
ject covered the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape pro-
vinces while WASA 2 which was completed in 2018 covered
the KwaZulu-Natal and Free State provinces. This detailed
wind atlas which can be found elsewhere [83] not only shows
a detailed mean wind speed across South Africa but also the
mean power density of different provinces in South Africa.
This information is particularly useful for investors in citing
large-scale windfarms in South Africa.
In the atmosphere of promoting renewable energy utiliza-
tion in South Africa, ESKOM erected the nation’s first wind
farm (Klipheuwel) on the west coast of South Africa.
ESKOM’s Klipheuwel wind farm was installed in 2002 to serve
as a demonstration windfarm to help study the potential of
wind energy for electricity generation. After the successful
demonstration of the ESKOM’s pioneering windfarm perhaps
coupled with the information made available by the wind
atlases, many windfarms have subsequently been erected with
more under construction (see Table 3).
While the wind energy potential in South Africa is getting
utilized, some challenges still need to be addressed to ensure
the further growth of the industry. These challenges are briefly
discussed in Sections 6.1 and 6.2.
6.1. Environmental challenges
The site-specific nature of wind energy has been faulted for
damaging the ecosystem of the particular site of interest. The
development of wind power has been associated with the death
of birds since the movement of wind turbines generates regions
of low pressure which can be fatal to birds and bats when they
fly close to such rotating turbine blades [100–102]. Baerwald
et al. [103] discovered that about 90% of bird fatalities found
around a wind turbine station showed signs of internal hemor-
rhaging which is characteristic of barotrauma. Barotrauma is
not the only culprit in such cases, there have been cases of
the collision of birds with wind blades causing serious injuries
and even deaths [104]. A study was conducted to determine the
impact of wind energy on birds in South Africa while focusing
on just the first set of wind farms of the REIPPPP [105]. The
study showed that over 250 bird fatalities were recorded in
seven wind farms in the first year of operation with the diurnal
raptors and songbirds being the most killed. Such avian death
is not unique to South Africa. For instance, Loss et al. [106]
estimated the number of bird mortality as a result of collisions
at wind turbine installations in the conterminous United
States. The study approximated that the fatal crash of birds
with wind turbines yearly is between 10,000 and 573,000 with
the death rate rising with the increase in turbine heights. While
the experimental designs and protocols for data collection for
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa 5085

Table 3 List of windfarms in South Africa.

Windfarm name Location Capacity (MW) Year launched References
Loeriesfontein 2 Northern Cape 138 2017 [84]
Darling Western Cape 1.3 2008 [11,85]
Gibson Bay Eastern Cape 111 2017 [86]
Gouda Western Cape 138 2015 [87]
Waainek Eastern Cape 24 2016 [88]
De Aar 1 Maanhaarberg Northern Cape 96 2013 [89]
Kouga Eastern Cape 80 2015 [88]
De Aar 2 North wind Northern Cape 139 2013 [90]
Nobelsfontaine Northern Cape 78.3 2014 [91]
Nojoli Eastern Cape 88 2016 [92]
Sere Western Cape 100 2014 [91]
Noblesfontein Northern Cape 73.8 2014 [88]
Grassridge Eastern Cape 60 2016 [86]
Van Stadens Eastern Cape 27 2014 [91]
Amakhala Emoyeni Eastern Cape 139 2016 [93]
Khobab Northern Cape 140 2017 [88]
Coega Eastern Cape 43.2 2010 [94]
Noupoort Northern Cape 80.5 2016 [95]
Cookhouse Eastern Cape 138.6 2014 [96]
Jeffreys Bay Eastern Cape 138 2014 [88]
Dorper Eastern Cape 100 2015 [96]
Glassridge Eastern Cape 61.5 2016 [91]
Hopefield Western Cape 66.6 2014 [97]
Metrowind Eastern Cape 27 2014 [98]
Dassiesklip Western Cape 26.19 2014 [99]
Chaba Eastern Cape 21 2015 [86]

bird mortality at wind facilities may differ, a consensus is that
such deaths should not be dismissed and the impact of wildlife
disruption should be accounted for during the planning stages
for wind farm construction. Globally, environmentalists are
more concerned about the habitat loss associated with the
establishment of wind energy facilities. In addition to the fre-
quently reported avian deaths at wind turbines, the avoidance
of turbines directly relates to their habitat losses [107,108].
Furthermore, the noise generated by the wind turbines can
cause serious displeasure to people in the immediate surround-
ings [109,110]. The noise which can either be mechanical or
aerodynamic has been reported to affect students who have
classes in the windfarm area also, cases of sleep deprivation
caused by wind noise have also been reported with some peo-
ple having to abandon their homes completely [111,112]. Wind
turbine syndrome also known as the windfarm syndrome is
described as the range of adverse human health effects attrib-
uted to the closeness of windfarms, where symptoms may
include vestibular and hearing issues [111,113]. Such destruc-
tion of ecosystems is not limited to onshore wind farms but
it also extends to the offshore wind farms. Due to the limited
level of research on the impact of wind farms on the South
African ecosystem, an in-depth study in this area is therefore
required to assist policy makers in making informed decisions
towards the development of wind energy in South Africa.
6.2. Technical challenges
Another issue facing large scale utilization of wind energy is
the location of the windfarms. Since most windfarms have to
be cited in specific locations, such sites are often in remote
areas thus making the connection to the grid a challenge. In
the absence of reliable grid infrastructure, most of the power
generated will be lost. To combat this, expensive transmission
lines usually have to be installed from windfarms to cities
which also contributes to the installation costs of the wind-
farm. Even in the presence of reliable grid infrastructure, the
dependency of wind energy on wind speed might lead to other
potential technical issues like voltage fluctuations. The fluctu-
ations in wind speed directly alter the power output of wind
energy systems, this alteration can be costly as they result in
excess or low supply of electricity which eventually upset the
electricity grid [114]. The paucity of studies on the technical
feasibility of large-scale integration of wind energy into the
South African grid system limits the overall development of
wind energy systems as decision makers and investors have
insufficient information to precisely ascertain the scale of wind
power that is technically feasible in the country. While there is
no gainsaying that the large-scale utilization of wind energy
would be beneficial for South Africa, the technical and envi-
ronmental challenges must however be overcome before
proper growth in the industry can be experienced.
7. Solar energy
It is general knowledge that Africa is blessed with abundant
solar energy resources and South Africa is not an exemption.
A South African solar map (Fig. 5) shows the solar energy
resource potential in the country. According to the Global
Solar Atlas developed by the World Bank Group in associa-
tion with Solargis, the total solar energy potential in South
Africa is enormous, albeit the irradiation differs across differ-
5086
Fig. 5 South Africa’s solar resource map obtained from Solargis [115].
ent regions. The Direct Normal Irradiation (DNI) map in
Fig. 5 shows the amount of solar radiation received per unit
area at different regions in South Africa. This information is
particularly useful for developers and investors of solar energy
technologies. The highest DNI observed in South Africa is in
the Northern Cape region with the DNI peaking at over
3200 kWh/m2 while the KwaZulu-Natal region has a modest
annual DNI of over 1400 kWh/m2. For the past few years,
there have been different applications of solar energy either
directly or indirectly. This section will discuss the applications
of solar energy in South Africa under 3 topics namely, photo-
voltaics, concentrating solar power and solar cooking.
7.1. Photovoltaics
Solar photovoltaics, unlike CSP technology, directly converts
solar radiation to electrical energy through the principle of
the photoelectric effect [116]. The photoelectric effect is the
process whereby an electron is emitted from a material when
light of appropriate wavelength is incident upon the surface
of the material and such materials are called semiconductors
[117,118]. Hence, solar cells or photovoltaic cells are devices
that convert energy of the sun directly into usable electricity.
Alexandre Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect in
1939 through an experiment involving an electrode immersed
in an electrolyte that was exposed to light [119,120]. This dis-
covery facilitated the development of the first solid solar cell
by Charles Fritts in 1883 who constructed a selenium-based
O.M. Akinbami et al.
photovoltaic device with a modest efficiency of less than 1%
[121,122]. Thereafter, research continued into solar cells but
peaked in the 1950s when solar cells were deployed for space
applications with the Vanguard satellite launched in 1958 run-
ning on silicon solar cells and also the Telstar communications
satellite also being powered by solar cells [123–125]. The suc-
cess of solar cells in space application encouraged its use for
terrestrial applications, this growth in solar cell utilization
was intensified due to the petroleum energy crisis of the 1970s.
Generally, solar cells can be categorized into 3 different
generations which are: the first, second and third generation
solar cells. The first generation solar cells are based on crys-
talline silicon wafers, although, they are very efficient and
are also the most commercially available solar cell, their cost
of production is high largely due to the cost of processing sil-
icon [126–129]. As a result, research was focused on reducing
their costs and this prompted the development of the second-
generation solar cells. The second-generation solar cells are
called the thin-film solar cells because they use layers of semi-
conducting materials that are about 1 µm (µm) thick unlike the
previous generation whose thickness is about 350 µm
[130,131]. The second-generation solar cells are based on
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride and copper indium gal-
lium di-selenide [132,133]. Although the second-generation
solar cells have relatively lower manufacturing cost compared
to the previous generation, they are however not as efficient as
the crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells [134–136]. The third-
generation solar cell is the newest category and it includes
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa 5087

the dye sensitized and the emerging perovskite solar cells rors to concentrate solar radiation on a specific area that con-
(PSC). Although they have encouraging efficiencies, their sta- tains a working fluid. This fluid (thermal oil or pressurized
bility and life cycle is not so impressive [137–139]. The electri- water) is heated by the solar incident radiation to produce
cal energy generated as an output from a photovoltaic device is steam which powers a steam turbine and consequently, elec-
estimated with the following equation. tricity is generated. Presently, there are four different CSP
E ¼ A  r  H  PR ð1Þ technologies and they are the parabolic trough, linear Frensel
reflector system, the power tower and the Stirling dish systems.
where E is the energy in (kWhr), A is the solar panel area (m2), Presently, South Africa uses the parabolic tough and power
r is the solar panel yield, H is the yearly mean solar radiation system. To understand why these two types of CSP technolo-
on tilted panels (excluding shading) (Wm2) while PR is the gies are adopted in the country, a brief overview of the four
performance ratio [140]. As seen from Fig. 5, the solar energy technologies is discussed.
resource in South Africa is enormous with the country receiv- The parabolic trough system is based on a one-axis tracking
ing over 20 GWh/m2 of solar radiation annually [141]. Most system whereby parabolic mirrors aligned in a north–south
areas in South Africa enjoys over 6 h of sunshine daily with axis or east–west axis track the DNI of the sun’s energy and
an average solar radiation level which exceeds 4.5 kWh/m2 then reflect the radiation on a central receiver system which
daily. The solar PV industry in South Africa has been growing contains pressurized water, molten salt or thermal oil [143].
steadily and was ranked 9th globally in 2014 with a total The generated heat is used to produce steam which then pow-
installed capacity of over 2.5 GW in 2019 [142]. Some of the ers a steam engine to generate electricity, thereafter, the used
country’s Solar PV projects are listed in Table 4. steam is condensed to water and recirculated back into the sys-
Asides the large scale solar PV projects, the rooftop solar tem. The working temperature of the heat transfer fluid is usu-
PV market has continued to proliferate in some South African ally in the range of 400–500 °C depending on the working fluid
provinces especially in Western Cape and Gauteng and this is where the newly developed nitrate salts have been able to reach
largely due to the increased affordability of this technology. 600 °C while the metal liquids having the potential to reach
The latest available report published by the South Africa’s 900 °C [144–146]. The history of this technology can be dated
Department of Energy (DoE) showed that the total installed back to the late 1800s when a Swedish engineer constructed a
capacity of rooftop solar PV increased from 1107 in 2010 to CSP system using a parabolic reflector to generate steam which
about 300 MWp in 2017. was consequently used to drive a small 373 W engine, he then
built several other systems albeit with air as the working fluid
7.2. Concentrating solar power [147,148]. But it was in 1913 in Egypt that the world’s first
parabolic trough system was constructed which also used
The concentrating solar power (CSP) industry in South Africa steam-derived electricity to power water pumps for agricul-
has been developing steadily in the past few years where before tural purposes [149]. While this system is generally efficient,
2009, no CSP plants were in existence in the country, now, six the cost of installing the parabolic troughs is usually high
of such plants exists with a combined total installed capacity of [150]. However, the parabolic trough system is the most
over 500 MW while other plants are still in development [84]. matured of all the concentrating solar power technologies with
The concentrating solar power is a technology in which energy over 4 GW installed capacity worldwide [151]. The Linear
is generated from solar power systems by using lenses or mir- Frensel Reflector System (LFRS) is similar to the parabolic
trough system however, long parallel rows of flat mirrors are
used instead of the parabolic troughs. These mirrors reflect
Table 4 List of Solar PV installations in South Africa. the incident radiation onto an elevated fixed receiver mounted
at the focal point [152]. The system uses the Frensel lenses
Name Location Capacity (MW)
which are characterized by a large aperture per unit area thus
Adams Solar PV 2 Northern Cape 82.5 making them useful for rooftop installations [153]. The advan-
Aggeneys Solar Northern Cape 40 tage of the LFRS system is that since flat mirrors are used,
Aries Solar Northern Cape 97 their simple design is less capital intensive and is easier to
Bokomaso North West 68
maintain when compared to the parabolic trough system.
Boshoff Free State 60
De Aar Northern Cape 50
Unfortunately, the system is prone to shading therefore, a
De Wildt North West 50 large area of land is required so mirrors can be properly spaced
Dreunberg Eastern Cape 75 out. The system also does not reach very high temperatures as
Droogfontein 2 Northern Cape 75 compared to the parabolic trough system hence they are
Dyason’s Klip Northern Cape 75 believed to be slightly less efficient. The power tower system
Greefspan Northern Cape 10 uses heliostats that track the sun’s movement and focuses the
Noblesfontein Northern Cape 73.8 solar radiation onto a central receiver mounted on a tower
Grassridge Eastern Cape 60 to produce heat. This generated heat is then absorbed by the
Herbert Eastern Cape 19.9 heat exchanger to produce steam which can then be used for
Jasper Northern Cape 96
electricity generation. Since the mirrors (heliostats) used in this
Kalkbult Northern Cape 72.5
Kathu Northern Cape 75
system effectively track sunlight at 2 axes, more solar radiation
Lesedi Northern Cape 64 can be received hence more sunshine is utilized translating to
Letsatsi Free State 64 high efficiency. Lastly, the Stirling dish technology, is a
Linde Northern Cape 36.8 parabolically dish-shaped concentrator that reflects the sun’s
Zeerust North West 75 radiation onto a centrally located receiver placed at the dish’s
focal point. It is a two-axis tracking system and the generated
5088
heat can be above 900 °C where helium or hydrogen is used as
the heat fluid [143]. The sterling dish technology is ideal
because it can be deployed independently in areas not con-
nected to the electricity grid or regions of uneven jagged ter-
rain it however has the disadvantage of not being able to be
integrated with thermal storage systems [154]
South Africa, with an intention of generating over 1.7 GW
of renewable energy by 2030 has incorporated the CSP tech-
nology into its energy mix. The inclusion of CSP technology
is largely due to the enormous solar energy potential present
in the country. Presently, few CSP projects exist in the country
as shown in Table 5. While some CSP projects exist in the
country, the full potential of CSP technology is not been max-
imized. Fluri et al., [155] studied the potential of concentrating
solar power in all provinces in South Africa. The study consid-
ered factors such as sunshine levels, proximity to existing
transmission lines, local terrain and the ecosystem of the pro-
posed sites. The Northern Cape region was selected as the
most ideal region for the large-scale deployment of CSP tech-
nologies while the Eastern Cape and the Free state regions
were identified as potential regions albeit to a minimum
degree. The overall estimated generation capacity potential
of South Africa was put at about 500 GW especially if the
solar resource in the Northern Cape can be effectively utilized.
7.3. Solar water heating
This is one of the most common applications of solar energy
due to its various benefits ranging from cost-effectiveness to
its simplicity and efficiency. South Africa is a high energy
demand country with an estimated annual consumption of
over 122 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE) where over
40% of its energy requirement is for heating [157]. Therefore,
the installation of solar water heaters (SWH) is particularly
required to reduce the dependency on coal and help offset elec-
tricity bills associated with water heating. A solar water heater
is a device usually installed where sunlight is available and it is
made up of an insulating box with a black interior, the insulat-
ing box is often covered with glass to help prevent heat loss by
convection and radiation [158,159]. The insulating box which
acts as the solar collector consists of pipes usually copper pipes
organized as coils within the insulating box. The open end of
the inlet pipe is connected to the bottom of the storage tank
so cold water flows into the pipes in the insulating box, the
water gets heated due to the sun’s heat trapped in the box,
upon heating, the hot water which is now lighter compared
to the cold water flows to the outlet end of the pipe which is
connected to the other end of the storage tank. Water circula-
tion continues in such a manner to provide hot water for var-
Table 5 List of installed CSP technologies in South Africa
[156].
Project name CSP type Capacity (MW)
Bokpoort CSP Parabolic trough 50
Kathu Solar Park Parabolic trough 100
Kaxu Solar 1 Parabolic trough 100
Khi Solar 1 Power tower 50
Xina CSP Parabolic trough 100
Ilanga CSP Parabolic trough 100
O.M. Akinbami et al.
ious applications. Solar water heaters are of two types namely,
passive and active solar heating systems. The passive heating
system has no moving parts for the transfer of heat from the
solar collector to the storage tank while the active system
has some moving parts such as fans or pumps which help facil-
itate the conversion or circulation of heat [158]. Depending on
whether or not a heat exchanger is needed, the solar water
heating system can be divided into 2 types namely; the direct
and indirect system. In the direct system, the household water
is heated and pumped into the tank before utilization at
homes. In the indirect system, a heat exchanger fluid such as
antifreeze is circulated throughout the solar collector to influ-
ence the transfer of heat from the collector to the household
water [160–162]. To fully maximize its solar energy potential,
the South African government through the Ministry of Energy
announced a bold target of installing 1 million solar water hea-
ters over 5 years, this initiative which elapsed in 2014 moti-
vated the installation of over 410,000 solar water heaters in
South Africa. This initiative also accelerated the growth of
the country’s solar water industry where barely 20 solar water
suppliers existed in 1997, this expanded to over 400 in 2011 just
when the directive was gaining momentum. After the unsuc-
cessful attempt to meet the 1 million SWH installation target,
the Department of Energy took over the initiative and subse-
quent data about the level of installations or suppliers lists
have become unavailable. The SWH large-scale installation
initiative was really useful in low-income households that are
not connected to the electricity grid as the SWH system
allowed them access to clean and inexpensive hot water. Sadly,
the progress of massive installation of the solar water system
has been stunted over the last few years due to some reasons
which are briefly discussed in subsequent sections.
7.3.1. Technical challenges
After the large-scale deployment of the SWH, some technical
dysfunctionalities which include leaking were observed in the
geysers. This poor product quality has been attributed majorly
to the inadequate training of the installers coupled with the cli-
matic conditions in the country [163]. With virtually non-
existent prior training on SWH maintenance in South Africa,
it is not surprising that the heaters are easily prone to damages.
The dysfunctionalities observed in the SWH were further aided
by the lack of proper quality control measures to checkmate
such defectiveness in the local and imported SWH [163]. The
technical challenges of SWH are particularly worrisome in
industrial and commercial settings where experts are required
to navigate through the challenges that will be experienced
during large-scale planning, installation and maintenance of
the SWH systems. The lack of experience and technological
know-how in such situations is potentially disastrous to the
SWH industry.
7.3.2. Competition with other energy sources
Another factor affecting the growth of SWH in South Africa is
the low cost of coal-based energy generation. Joubert et al.,
[157] compared the levelized cost of heat from different energy
sources in South Africa and found out that coal-derived heat is
significantly more affordable than all other energy sources
analyzed. The SWH industry is a relatively new industry when
compared to the coal industry in South Africa hence, the coal
industry is more developed and organized compared to the
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
SWH industry. As a result, the solar thermal industry is in
unfavorable competition with the well-established coal
industry.
7.3.3. Financial constraints and publicity issues
The high investment costs of SWHs coupled with the low levels
of income in the rural areas of South Africa have made the
large-scale deployment of SWHs in the country a daunting
task. On the one hand, the ST systems offer a relatively high
investment cost but a lower maintenance cost, on the other
hand, the fossil fuel-based heaters present a lower initial invest-
ment cost but a higher running cost to consumers. The impli-
cation of this is that investors without significant cash flow will
be discouraged to invest in SWH business. ESKOM’s subsidy
initiative which subsidized SWHs allowed for exponential
growth of the industry prior to its discontinuation in 2015, this
discontinuation has led to a slow growth in the industry [164]
which would have otherwise been prevented if more subsidies
or similar initiatives were developed. Although the SWH
industry in South Africa is growing albeit slowly, more can
be done by the government to provide incentives to investors
and customers so the full potential of the industry can be
reached.
8. Summary and recommendations
South Africa is endowed with enormous biomass, wind and
solar energy potential however, its primary fuel source is coal
which is cheap but deleterious to the environment. The over-
reliance on coal is also stressing the existing coal power sta-
tions therefore the development of renewable energy sources
is of utmost importance in the country. While DNI, wind
speed and amount of biomass generated annually are sufficient
to make solar, wind and biomass energies feasible in the coun-
try, there are however some challenges to renewable energy
development in the country. Such challenges include; technical,
financial, policy and environmental challenges. Going forward,
some recommendations are presented to help mitigate these
challenges and consequently improve the integration of renew-
able energy into the South African energy mix. Such recom-
mendations include:
& An efficient waste management scheme should be provided
especially in rural areas or previously unserved areas, so
more household wastes and agricultural residues can be effi-
ciently collected and utilized. Presently, over 30% of all
generated wastes in the country are either dumped in pri-
vate dumpsites or inefficiently combusted in rural areas
[51]. Such wastes are potentially useful for biomass energy
production especially through co-firing with coal in the
existing coal power plants.
& A favorable ambience for investors should be provided.
This can be in the form of subsidies, loans and even policies
designed to stimulate the growth of the RE industry. The
introduction of policies should also be followed by the exe-
cution of such policies. Some existing policies have failed to
address the issues they were designed for largely because
there is no implementation of such policies. Awareness
should also be created about the benefits of renewable
5089
energy to the society, especially in rural areas. Township
meetings and demonstrations can be organized to show
the different types of renewable energy technologies that
can be adopted in rural communities. This would help pre-
pare a positive mindset towards RE technologies adoption
in such regions and would potentially reduce the conflicts
relating to land use between investors and landowners.
Tedious bureaucracy should also be curbed to give interna-
tional investors a favourable atmosphere for investing.
& Further utilization of the solar energy resource in the coun-
try. Presently, the major applications of solar energy in
South Africa are in solar photovoltaics, solar CSP and solar
water heating. However, there are other possible applica-
tions of solar radiation which are relatively underutilized
but can be beneficial to South Africa. One of such is solar
cooking. Solar cooking is the process of using a device (so-
lar cooker) which harnesses sunlight to bake, warm, cook
and fry food materials. With the South African residential
sector consuming over 23% of annually generated electric-
ity [165], the utilization of such technology would seriously
help reduce the overdependence on coal which will conse-
quently lead to CO2 mitigation. Solar driers, solar green-
houses and even solar chimneys are interesting
technologies that can be integrated into the renewable
energy sector.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
References
[1] M.M. Bah, M. Azam, Investigating the relationship between
electricity consumption and economic growth: Evidence from
South Africa, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 80 (2017) 531–537,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.251.
[2] Long-term economic impacts of energy development scenarios,
The role of domestic electricity generation, Appl. Energy 253
(2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113527 113527.
[3] R. Samu, F.V. Bekun, M. Fahrioglu, Electricity consumption
and economic growth nexus in Zimbabwe revisited: fresh
evidence from Maki cointegration, Int. J. Green Energy 16
(2019) 540–550.
[4] C.L. Azimoh, P. Klintenberg, F. Wallin, B. Karlsson, C.
Mbohwa, Electricity for development: Mini-grid solution for
rural electrification in South Africa, Energy Convers. Manage.
110 (2016) 268–277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2015.12.015.
[5] N.S. Ouedraogo, Africa energy future: Alternative scenarios
and their implications for sustainable development strategies,
Energy Policy 106 (2017) 457–471, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enpol.2017.03.021.
[6] J. Erasmus, W. Malherbe, S. Zimmermann, A. Lorenz, M.
Nachev, V. Wepener, B. Sures, N. Smit, Metal accumulation in
riverine macroinvertebrates from a platinum mining region,
Sci. Total Environ. 703 (2020) 134738.
[7] C. Almécija, A. Cobelo-Garcı́a, V. Wepener, R. Prego,
Platinum group elements in stream sediments of mining
zones: The Hex River (Bushveld Igneous Complex, South
5090
Africa), J. Afr. Earth Sc. 129 (2017) 934–943, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2017.02.002.
[8] D. Phillips, J.W. Harris, M.C.J. de Wit, E.L. Matchan,
Provenance history of detrital diamond deposits, West Coast
of Namaqualand, South Africa, Miner Petrol. 112 (2018) 259–
273, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00710-018-0568-9.
[9] B. Verbrugge, S. Geenen, The gold commodity frontier: A fresh
perspective on change and diversity in the global gold mining
economy, Extract. Ind. Soc. 6 (2019) 413–423.
[10] International Energy Agency, Energy Atlas, http://energyatlas.
iea.org/tellmap/2020991907 (accessed June 10, 2020).
[11] S. Jain, P. Jain, The rise of renewable energy implementation in
South Africa, Energy Procedia 143 (2017) 721–726.
[12] Understanding Electricity, http://www.eskom.co.za/
AboutElectricity/ElectricityTechnologies/Pages/
Understanding_Electricity.aspx (accessed June 10, 2020).
[13] F.V. Bekun, F. Emir, S.A. Sarkodie, Another look at the
relationship between energy consumption, carbon dioxide
emissions, and economic growth in South Africa, Sci. Total
Environ. 655 (2019) 759–765, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
scitotenv.2018.11.271.
[14] G. Cohen, J.T. Jalles, P. Loungani, R. Marto, The long-run
decoupling of emissions and output: Evidence from the largest
emitters, Energy Policy 118 (2018) 58–68, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.enpol.2018.03.028.
[15] A.K. Aliyu, B. Modu, C.W. Tan, A review of renewable energy
development in Africa: A focus in South Africa, Egypt and
Nigeria, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81 (2018) 2502–2518,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.06.055.
[16] Data & Statistics, IEA, https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics
(accessed March 30, 2020).
[17] Electricity in South Africa - Early Years, http://www.eskom.co.
za/sites/heritage/Pages/early-years.aspx#firstpublic (accessed
May 19, 2020).
[18] S. Lunderstedt, today in kimberley’s history 2 September,
Kimberley City Info (2019). https://www.kimberley.org.za/2-
september-today-in-kimberleys-history/ (accessed May 19,
2020).
[19] P. Harrison, T. Zack, The power of mining: the fall of gold and
rise of Johannesburg, J. Contemp. Afr. Stud. 30 (2012) 551–570.
[20] E.O. AFRICA, Developing Nations: Africa, Latin America,
and Island Nations, Agile Energy Systems: Global Distributed
On-Site and Central Grid Power. (2017) 93.
[21] Departure to South Africa – First Siemens branch in South
Africa, Siemens.Com Global Website, https://new.
siemens.com/global/en/company/about/history/news/
departure-to-south-africa.html (accessed May 19, 2020).
[22] Gold Rush in South Africa – Siemens brings electricity to cities
and mines, Siemens.Com Global Website, https://new.
siemens.com/global/en/company/about/history/news/gold-
rush-in-south-africa.html (accessed May 19, 2020).
[23] ESCOM 1923 - 1929 - The Years of Establishment -
‘‘Electrifying our beloved country,” http://www.eskom.co.za/
sites/heritage/Pages/1923.aspx (accessed May 19, 2020).
[24] CAPE TOWN’S ELECTRICITY SUPPLY 1870-c.1930,
Royal Society of South Africa. (2015). http://www.
royalsocietysa.org.za/?page_id=1735 (accessed May 19, 2020).
[25] G. Moore, Review of laws governing electricity provision, Rule
of Law Project. (2019). https://ruleoflaw.org.za/2019/06/13/
review-of-laws-governing-electricity-provision/ (accessed May
19, 2020).
[26] R. Boers, Feature of the month. Escom’s older power stations:
Demolition or an extended life?, Civil Engineering= Siviele
Ingenieurswese 1985 (1985) 517–528
[27] ESCOM/ESKOM 1980 - 1989 - The years of expansion and
change - ‘‘Electricity for all,” (n.d.). http://www.eskom.co.za/
sites/heritage/Pages/1980.aspx (accessed May 20, 2020).
O.M. Akinbami et al.
[28] J. Molepo, Blackout: The Eskom Crisis, James-Brent Styan, J.
Public Administ. 53 (2018) 795–798.
[29] Power plant blast threatens supply, The Mail & Guardian.
(2011). https://mg.co.za/article/2011-03-18-power-plant-blast-
threatens-supply/ (accessed June 27, 2020).
[30] Cosatu has a plan to save Eskom, The Mail & Guardian.
(2020). https://mg.co.za/article/2020-01-30-cosatu-has-a-plan-
to-save-eskom/ (accessed June 27, 2020).
[31] A. Eberhard, M. Shkaratan, Powering Africa: Meeting the
financing and reform challenges, Energy Policy 42 (2012) 9–18,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.10.033.
[32] Generation, (n.d.). https://nerc.gov.ng/index.php/home/nesi/
403-generation (accessed April 12, 2020).
[33] M. Salahuddin, J. Gow, Md.I. Ali, Md.R. Hossain, K.S. Al-
Azami, D. Akbar, A. Gedikli, Urbanization-globalization-CO2
emissions nexus revisited: empirical evidence from South
Africa, Heliyon 5 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
heliyon.2019.e01974 e01974.
[34] A. Ndoricimpa, Analysis of asymmetries in the nexus among
energy use, pollution emissions and real output in South
Africa, Energy 125 (2017) 543–551, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2017.02.065.
[35] D.R. Walwyn, A.C. Brent, Renewable energy gathers steam in
South Africa, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 (2015) 390–401.
[36] S.S. Africa, Publication | Statistics South Africa, (n.d.). http://
www.statssa.gov.za/?page_id=1854 (accessed May 22, 2020).
[37] A. Kenny, F. Cronje, A. Jeffery, L. Moloi, T. Dimant, J. Kane-
Berman, M. Matsokotere, S. Zwane, The rise and fall of
Eskom—and how to fix it now, Policy Bull. 2 (2015) 1–22.
[38] List of power stations in South Africa, Wikipedia. (2020).
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_power_
stations_in_South_Africa&oldid=946995588 (accessed June
28, 2020).
[39] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) useful life,
Useful life, (n.d.). https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/tech-
footprint.html (accessed February 19, 2021).
[40] Facts & Figures http://www.eskom.co.za/AboutElectricity/
FactsFigures/Pages/Facts_Figures.aspx (accessed June 14,
2020).
[41] M.A. Sanderson, P. Adler, N.P. Martin, Biomass, energy, and
industrial uses of forages, Forages: Sci. Grassland Agric. 2
(2020) 789–799.
[42] O.W. Johnson, V. Gerber, C. Muhoza, Gender, culture and
energy transitions in rural Africa, Energy Res. Social Sci. 49
(2019) 169–179.
[43] I.K. Maji, C. Sulaiman, A.S. Abdul-Rahim, Renewable energy
consumption and economic growth nexus: A fresh evidence
from West Africa, Energy Rep. 5 (2019) 384–392, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.egyr.2019.03.005.
[44] Production and Operating Capacity – The Renewable Energy
Data and Information Service. http://redis.energy.gov.za/
power-production/ (accessed June 16, 2020).
[45] B. Petrie, D. Macqueen, South African biomass energy: little
heeded but much needed, IIED Briefing Paper-International
Institute for Environment and Development. (2013).
[46] M.V. Gil, F. Rubiera, Coal and biomass cofiring:
Fundamentals and future trends, in: New Trends in Coal
Conversion, Elsevier, 2019, pp. 117–140.
[47] S.G. Sahu, N. Chakraborty, P. Sarkar, Coal–biomass co-
combustion: An overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 39
(2014) 575–586, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.106.
[48] M.J. Prins, K.J. Ptasinski, F.J. Janssen, From coal to biomass
gasification: Comparison of thermodynamic efficiency, Energy
32 (2007) 1248–1259.
[49] E. Hughes, Biomass cofiring: economics, policy and
opportunities, Biomass Bioenergy 19 (2000) 457–465, https://
doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(00)00057-X.
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
[50] X. Ren, R. Sun, X. Meng, N. Vorobiev, M. Schiemann, Y.A.
Levendis, Carbon, sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions from
combustion of pulverized raw and torrefied biomass, Fuel 188
(2017) 310–323, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2016.10.017.
[51] C. Rodseth, P. Notten, H. von Blottnitz, A revised approach
for estimating informally disposed domestic waste in rural
versus urban South Africa and implications for waste
management, S. Afr. J. Sci. 116 (2020) 1–6, https://doi.org/
10.17159/sajs.2020/5635.
[52] S. Kalisz, M. Pronobis, D. Baxter, Co-firing of biomass waste-
derived syngas in coal power boiler, Energy 33 (2008) 1770–
1778, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2008.08.001.
[53] A.H. Truong, P. Patrizio, S. Leduc, F. Kraxner, M. Ha-
Duong, Reducing emissions of the fast growing Vietnamese
coal sector: The chances offered by biomass co-firing, J.
Cleaner Prod. 215 (2019) 1301–1311, https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.jclepro.2019.01.065.
[54] T.A. Mamvura, G. Pahla, E. Muzenda, Torrefaction of waste
biomass for application in energy production in South Africa,
S. Afr. J. Chem. Eng. 25 (2018) 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sajce.2017.11.003.
[55] K.-T. Wu, C.-J. Tsai, C.-S. Chen, H.-W. Chen, The
characteristics of torrefied microalgae, Appl. Energy 100
(2012) 52–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.03.002.
[56] K. Isaac, S.O. Bada, The co-combustion performance and
reaction kinetics of refuse derived fuels with South African high
ash coal, Heliyon. 6 (2020) e03309.
[57] G. Pahla, F. Ntuli, E. Muzenda, Torrefaction of landfill food
waste for possible application in biomass co-firing, Waste
Manage. 71 (2018) 512–520, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wasman.2017.10.035.
[58] International - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),
https://www.eia.gov/international/data/country/ZAF/biofuels/
biofuels-production (accessed May 27, 2020).
[59] R. Blanchard, D.M. Richardson, P.J. O’Farrell, G.P. Von
Maltitz, Biofuels and biodiversity in South Africa, S. Afr. J.
Sci. 107 (2011) 19–26.
[60] H. Chowdhury, B. Loganathan, Third-generation biofuels
from microalgae: a review, Curr. Opin. Green Sustainable
Chem. 20 (2019) 39–44.
[61] M. Mubarak, A. Shaija, T.V. Suchithra, A review on the
extraction of lipid from microalgae for biodiesel production,
Algal Res. 7 (2015) 117–123, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
algal.2014.10.008.
[62] R.J. Patinvoh, M.J. Taherzadeh, Fermentation processes for
second-generation biofuels, in: Second and Third Generation
of Feedstocks, Elsevier, 2019, pp. 241–272.
[63] B. Abdullah, S.A.F.S. Muhammad, Z. Shokravi, S. Ismail, K.
A. Kassim, A.N. Mahmood, M.M.A. Aziz, Fourth generation
biofuel: A review on risks and mitigation strategies, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 107 (2019) 37–50.
[64] H.A. Alalwan, A.H. Alminshid, H.A. Aljaafari, Promising
evolution of biofuel generations. Subject review, Renew.
Energy Focus 28 (2019) 127–139.
[65] I.Z. Boboescu, F. Chemarin, J.-B. Beigbeder, B.R. de
Vasconcelos, R. Munirathinam, T. Ghislain, J.-M. Lavoie,
Making next-generation biofuels and biocommodities a
feasible reality, Curr. Opin. Green Sustainable Chem. 20
(2019) 25–32.
[66] M. Mandegari, A.M. Petersen, Y. Benjamin, J.F. Görgens,
Sugarcane Biofuel Production in South Africa, Guatemala, the
Philippines, Argentina, Vietnam, Cuba, and Sri Lanka, in:
Sugarcane Biofuels, Springer, 2019, pp. 319–346.
[67] Techno-economic comparison of ethanol and electricity
coproduction schemes from sugarcane residues at existing
sugar mills in Southern Africa | SpringerLink, (n.d.). https://
link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1754-6834-7-105 (accessed
June 12, 2020).
5091
[68] Economic analysis of bioethanol and electricity production
from sugarcane in South Africa - Petersen - 2018 - Biofuels,
Bioproducts and Biorefining - Wiley Online Library, https://
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bbb.1833 (accessed
June 12, 2020).
[69] S. Wettstein, D. Scharfy, H. von Blottnitz, C. Berli, M. Stucki,
Mitigating environmental impacts from agriculture in emerging
economies: a case study of solar powered irrigation in the
South African maize production, in (2016).
[70] S. Danje, Fast pyrolysis of corn residues for energy production,
(2011).
[71] L.M. Mohlala, M.O. Bodunrin, A.A. Awosusi, M.O.
Daramola, N.P. Cele, P.A. Olubambi, Beneficiation of
corncob and sugarcane bagasse for energy generation and
materials development in Nigeria and South Africa: A short
overview, Alex. Eng. J. 55 (2016) 3025–3036, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.aej.2016.05.014.
[72] K. Mugodo, P. Magama, K. Dhavu, Biogas production
potential from agricultural and agro-processing waste in
South Africa, Waste Biomass Valoriz. 8 (2017) 2383–2392.
[73] D. Surroop, Z.M. Bundhoo, P. Raghoo, Waste to energy
through biogas to improve energy security and to transform
Africa’s energy landscape, Curr. Opin. Green Sustainable
Chem. 18 (2019) 79–83.
[74] B. Batidzirai, M. Valk, B. Wicke, M. Junginger, V. Daioglou,
W. Euler, A. Faaij, Current and future technical, economic and
environmental feasibility of maize and wheat residues supply
for biomass energy application: Illustrated for South Africa,
Biomass Bioenergy 92 (2016) 106–129.
[75] Y. Subramaniam, T.A. Masron, N.H.N. Azman, The impact of
biofuels on food security, Int. Econ. 160 (2019) 72–83, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2019.10.003.
[76] M.C. Rulli, D. Bellomi, A. Cazzoli, G. De Carolis, P.
D’Odorico, The water-land-food nexus of first-generation
biofuels, Sci. Rep. 6 (2016) 22521, https://doi.org/10.1038/
srep22521.
[77] I.Z. Pereira, I.F.S. dos Santos, R.M. Barros, H.L. de Castro e
Silva, G.L. Tiago Filho, A.P. Moni e Silva, Vinasse biogas
energy and economic analysis in the state of São Paulo, Brazil,
J. Clean. Prod. 260 (2020) 121018. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2020.121018.
[78] H.A. van der Linde, Wind energy in South Africa, Renew.
Energy 9 (1996) 880–883, https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-1481
(96)88420-5.
[79] J. Asamoah, Greening Electricity Generation in South Africa
Through Wind Energy, Elsevier, 2003, pp. 1349–1352.
[80] R.D. Diab, Wind atlas of South Africa, Department of Mineral
and Energy Affairs, 1995.
[81] K. Hagemann, Mesoscale wind atlas of South Africa, (2008).
[82] S. Szewczuk, F. Prinsloo, Wind Atlas for South Africa
(WASA): Project overview and current status, (2010).
[83] Wind Atlas for South Africa (WASA) SANEDI, http://www.
wasaproject.info/ (accessed June 1, 2020).
[84] Energy Project Database, (n.d.). https://www.energy.org.
za/data-and-tools/project-database (accessed June 14, 2020).
[85] B. Msimanga, A.B. Sebitosi, South Africa’s non-policy
driven options for renewable energy development, Renew.
Energy 69 (2014) 420–427, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
renene.2014.03.041.
[86] Chaba Wind Farm | South African Wind Energy Association,
https://sawea.org.za/chaba-wind-farm/ (accessed June 1, 2020).
[87] https://www.acciona-energia.com/areas-of-activity/wind-
power/major-projects/gouda-wind-farm/, https://www.
acciona-energia.com/areas-of-activity/wind-power/major-
projects/gouda-wind-farm/ (accessed June 1, 2020).
[88] South African Wind Farms | South African Wind Energy
Association, https://sawea.org.za/wind-map/wind-ipp-table/
(accessed June 2, 2020).
5092
[89] D. Boord, ESTABLISHMENT OF 56MW GROENE
KLOOF WIND ENERGY FACILITY NEAR MAMRE,
WESTERN CAPE PROVINCE, (2020).
[90] Longyuan Mulilo De Aar 2 North Wind Energy Facility, (n.
d.). https://www.energy.org.za/data-and-tools/project-
database/longyuan-mulilo-de-aar-2-north-wind-energy-facility
(accessed May 29, 2020).
[91] B.G. Pollet, I. Staffell, K.-A. Adamson, Current energy
landscape in the Republic of South Africa, Int. J. Hydrogen
Energy 40 (2015) 16685–16701, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
ijhydene.2015.09.141.
[92] Nojoli Wind Farm, Azari Group. (n.d.). https://
azarigroup.com/project/nojoli-wind-farm/ (accessed June 2,
2020).
[93] S. Sunderasan, Amakhala wind: Turbulence in the detail?, in:
Cleaner-Energy Investments, Springer, 2015, pp. 37–51.
[94] Full article: Assessment of bat and avian mortality at a pilot
wind turbine at Coega, Port Elizabeth, Eastern Cape, South
Africa, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/
03014223.2012.741068 (accessed May 29, 2020).
[95] Overview | Noupoort Wind Farm | Sustainable Wind Energy
https://noupoortwind.co.za/noupoort-wind-farm/overview/
(accessed June 2, 2020).
[96] L. Baker, The evolving role of finance in South Africa’s
renewable energy sector, Geoforum 64 (2015) 146–156.
[97] K. Swartz, Addressing community energy challenges with
utility-scale renewables: A case study of Hopefield Wind Farm,
(2019).
[98] MetroWind Van Stadens Wind Farm, https://www.energy.org.
za/data-and-tools/project-database/metrowind-van-stadens-
wind-farm (accessed June 2, 2020).
[99] S. Szewczuk, Review of the Strategic Wind Energy Activities in
South Africa, IEEE, 2012, pp. 1–8.
[100] R.M. Barclay, E. Baerwald, J. Gruver, Variation in bat and
bird fatalities at wind energy facilities: assessing the effects of
rotor size and tower height, Can. J. Zool. 85 (2007) 381–387.
[101] J.W. Horn, E.B. Arnett, T.H. Kunz, Behavioral responses of
bats to operating wind turbines, J. Wildl. Manag. 72 (2008)
123–132.
[102] E.F. Baerwald, J. Edworthy, M. Holder, R.M. Barclay, A
large-scale mitigation experiment to reduce bat fatalities at
wind energy facilities, J. Wildl. Manag. 73 (2009) 1077–1081.
[103] E.F. Baerwald, G.H. D’Amours, B.J. Klug, R.M.R. Barclay,
Barotrauma is a significant cause of bat fatalities at wind
turbines, Curr. Biol. 18 (2008) R695–R696, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.029.
[104] R.G. Osborn, K.F. Higgins, R.E. Usgaard, C.D. Dieter, R.D.
Neiger, Bird Mortality Associated with Wind Turbines at the
Buffalo Ridge Wind Resource Area, Minnesota, Amid. 143
(2000) 41–52, https://doi.org/10.1674/0003-0031(2000)143
[0041:BMAWWT]2.0.CO;2.
[105] S. Ralston Paton, J. Smallie, A. Pearson, R. Ramalho, Wind
energy’s impacts on birds in South Africa: A preliminary
review of the results of operational monitoring at the first wind
farms of the Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer
Procurement Programme in South Africa, BirdLife S. Afr.
Occasional Rep. Ser. (2017).
[106] S.R. Loss, T. Will, P.P. Marra, Estimates of bird collision
mortality at wind facilities in the contiguous United States,
Biol. Conserv. 168 (2013) 201–209, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
biocon.2013.10.007.
[107] A.T. Marques, C.D. Santos, F. Hanssen, A.-R. Muñoz, A.
Onrubia, M. Wikelski, F. Moreira, J.M. Palmeirim, J.P. Silva,
Wind turbines cause functional habitat loss for migratory
soaring birds, J. Anim. Ecol. 89 (2020) 93–103, https://doi.org/
10.1111/1365-2656.12961.
[108] J. Zimmerling, A. Pomeroy, M. d’Entremont, C. Francis,
Canadian Estimate of Bird Mortality Due to Collisions and
O.M. Akinbami et al.
Direct Habitat Loss Associated with Wind Turbine
Developments, Avian Conserv. Ecol. 8 (2013), https://doi.
org/10.5751/ACE-00609-080210.
[109] S. Lee, K. Kim, W. Choi, S. Lee, Annoyance caused by
amplitude modulation of wind turbine noise, Noise Control
Eng. J. 59 (2011) 38–46.
[110] A. Bockstael, L. Dekoninck, A. Can, D. Oldoni, B. De
Coensel, D. Botteldooren, Reduction of wind turbine noise
annoyance: an operational approach, Acta Acustica United
with Acustica 98 (2012) 392–401.
[111] N. Pierpont, Wind Turbine Syndrome: A Report on a Natural
Experiment, K-Selected Books Santa Fe, NM, 2009.
[112] M.A. Nissenbaum, J.J. Aramini, C.D. Hanning, Effects of
industrial wind turbine noise on sleep and health, Noise Health
14 (2012) 237.
[113] R.V. Harrison, On the biological plausibility of Wind Turbine
Syndrome, Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 25 (2015) 463–468,
https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2014.963034.
[114] B. Shejal, S. Jamge, Wind power stabilization to achieve proper
grid connection using power convertor & DSP Controller, in:
American Institute of Physics, 2010, pp. 147–150.
[115] Solar resource maps and GIS data for 180+ countries |
Solargis, (n.d.). https://solargis.com/maps-and-gis-
data/download/south-africa (accessed June 14, 2020).
[116] L. Hernández-Callejo, S. Gallardo-Saavedra, V. Alonso-
Gómez, A review of photovoltaic systems: Design, operation
and maintenance, Sol. Energy 188 (2019) 426–440, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.solener.2019.06.017.
[117] G.P. Smestad, Conversion of heat and light simultaneously
using a vacuum photodiode and the thermionic and
photoelectric effects, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 82 (2004)
227–240.
[118] P.V. Kamat, Quantum dot solar cells. Semiconductor
nanocrystals as light harvesters, J. Phys. Chem. C. 112 (2008)
18737–18753. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp806791s.
[119] J. Yan, M. Uddin, T. Dickens, O. Okoli, Carbon
nanotubes (CNTs) enrich the solar cells, Sol. Energy 96
(2013) 239–252.
[120] K.E. Jasim, Dye sensitized solar cells-working principles,
challenges and opportunities, Sol. Cells-Dye-Sensitiz. Devices

8 (2011) 172A210.
[121] T.K. Todorov, S. Singh, D.M. Bishop, O. Gunawan, Y.S. Lee,
T.S. Gershon, K.W. Brew, P.D. Antunez, R. Haight, Ultrathin
high band gap solar cells with improved efficiencies from the
world’s oldest photovoltaic material, Nat. Commun. 8 (2017)
1–8.
[122] J. Chandrasekaran, D. Nithyaprakash, K.B. Ajjan, S.
Maruthamuthu, D. Manoharan, S. Kumar, Hybrid solar cell
based on blending of organic and inorganic materials—An
overview, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15 (2011) 1228–1238,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.09.017.
[123] L.M. Fraas, History of Solar Cell Development, in: L.M.
Fraas (Ed.), Low-Cost Solar Electric Power, Springer
International Publishing, Cham, 2014, pp. 1–12, https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-319-07530-3_1.
[124] R.L. Easton, M.J. Votaw, Vanguard I IGY Satellite (1958
Beta), Rev. Sci. Instrum. 30 (1959) 70–75. https://doi.org/10.
1063/1.1716492.
[125] T. Buck, G. Wheatley, J. Rodgers, Silicon pn junction
radiation detectors for the TelstarÒ satellite, IEEE Trans.
Nucl. Sci. 11 (1964) 294–301.
[126] M. Green, Recent developments in photovoltaics, Sol. Energy
76 (2004) 3–8.
[127] M.A. Green, Crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells, Adv. Mater.
13 (2001) 1019–1022.
[128] M.A. Green, Silicon photovoltaic modules: a brief history of
the first 50 years, Prog. Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 13 (2005) 447–
455.
The state of renewable energy development in South Africa
[129] M. Raugei, P. Frankl, Life cycle impacts and costs of
photovoltaic systems: current state of the art and future
outlooks, Energy 34 (2009) 392–399.
[130] K.L. Chopra, P.D. Paulson, V. Dutta, Thin-film solar cells: an
overview, Prog. Photovoltaics Res. Appl. 12 (2004) 69–92,
https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.541.
[131] A review: comparison of silicon solar cells and thin film solar
cells (accessed April 17, 2020).
[132] M. Imamzai, M. Aghaei, Y. Hanum Md Thayoob, M.
Forouzanfar, A review on comparison between traditional
silicon solar cells and thin-film CdTe solar cells, in: 2012, pp. 1–
5.
[133] A. Bosio, A. Romeo, D. Menossi, S. Mazzamuto, N. Romeo,
The second-generation of CdTe and CuInGaSe2 thin film PV
modules, Cryst. Res. Technol. 46 (2011) 857–864.
[134] S. Sharma, K.K. Jain, A. Sharma, Solar cells: in research and
applications—a review, Mater. Sci. Appl. 06 (2015) 1145.
https://doi.org/10.4236/msa.2015.612113.
[135] K. Zweibel, J. Mason, V. Fthenakis, A solar grand plan, Sci.
Am. 298 (2008) 64–73.
[136] V. Fthenakis, Sustainability of photovoltaics: The case for
thin-film solar cells, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 13 (2009)
2746–2750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.05.001.
[137] T.V. Arjunan, T.S. Senthil, Review: Dye sensitised solar cells,
Mater. Technol. 28 (2013) 9–14, https://doi.org/10.1179/
1753555712Y.0000000040.
[138] G. Conibeer, Third-generation photovoltaics, Mater. Today 10
(2007) 42–50.
[139] M. Grätzel, Recent advances in sensitized mesoscopic solar
cells, Acc. Chem. Res. 42 (2009) 1788–1798, https://doi.org/
10.1021/ar900141y.
[140] S.A. Shezan, Optimization and assessment of an off-grid
photovoltaic–diesel–battery hybrid sustainable energy system
for remote residential applications, Environ. Prog. Sustainable
Energy 38 (2019), https://doi.org/10.1002/ep.13340 e13340.
[141] D.D. Mahlobo, T. Ndarana, S. Grab, F. Engelbrecht,
Integrated climatology and trends in the subtropical Hadley
cell, sunshine duration and cloud cover over South Africa, Int.
J. Climatol. 39 (2019) 1805–1821, https://doi.org/10.1002/
joc.5917.
[142] G. Contributor, Op-ed: The future of solar energy in the South
Africa context, ESI-Africa.Com. (2020). https://www.esi-
africa.com/industry-sectors/renewable-energy/op-ed-the-
future-of-solar-energy-in-the-south-africa-context/ (accessed
February 17, 2021).
[143] D.A. Baharoon, H.A. Rahman, W.Z.W. Omar, S.O. Fadhl,
Historical development of concentrating solar power
technologies to generate clean electricity efficiently – A
review, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 (2015) 996–1027,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.008.
[144] N. Lorenzin, A. Abanades, A review on the application of
liquid metals as heat transfer fluid in Concentrated Solar Power
technologies, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 41 (2016) 6990–6995.
[145] E. Bellos, C. Tzivanidis, K.A. Antonopoulos, A detailed
working fluid investigation for solar parabolic trough
collectors, Appl. Therm. Eng. 114 (2017) 374–386, https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.11.201.
[146] V.V. Wadekar, Ionic liquids as heat transfer fluids–an
assessment using industrial exchanger geometries, Appl.
Therm. Eng. 111 (2017) 1581–1587.
[147] A. Fernández-Garcı́a, E. Zarza, L. Valenzuela, M. Pérez,
Parabolic-trough solar collectors and their applications,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 14 (2010) 1695–1721, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.03.012.
5093
[148] J. Pytilinski, Solar energy installations for pumping irrigation
water, Sol. Energy 21 (1978) 255–262.
[149] M. Mohamed, A. El-Sayed, K. Megalla, H. Elattar, Modeling
and performance study of a parabolic trough solar power plant
using molten salt storage tank in Egypt: effects of plant site
location, Energy Syst. 10 (2019) 1043–1070.
[150] R. Abbas, J. Muñoz-Antón, M. Valdés, J.M. Martı́nez-Val,
High concentration linear Fresnel reflectors, Energy Convers.
Manage. 72 (2013) 60–68, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2013.01.039.
[151] C.S. Turchi, J. Stekli, P. Bueno, Concentrating solar power, in:
Fundamentals and Applications of Supercritical Carbon
Dioxide (SCO₂) Based Power Cycles, Elsevier, 2017, pp. 269–
292.
[152] R. Grena, P. Tarquini, Solar linear Fresnel collector using
molten nitrates as heat transfer fluid, Energy 36 (2011) 1048–
1056, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2010.12.003.
[153] A. Häberle, 19 - Concentrating solar technologies for industrial
process heat and cooling, in: K. Lovegrove, W. Stein (Eds.),
Concentrating Solar Power Technology, Woodhead
Publishing, 2012, pp. 602–619. https://doi.org/10.1533/
9780857096173.3.602.
[154] P.D. Sonawane, V.K.B. Raja, An overview of concentrated
solar energy and its applications, Int. J. Ambient Energy 39
(2018) 898–903, https://doi.org/10.1080/
01430750.2017.1345009.
[155] T.P. Fluri, The potential of concentrating solar power in South
Africa, Energy Policy 37 (2009) 5075–5080, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.enpol.2009.07.017.
[156] M. Rycroft, E.E. Publishers, Power from the sun: An overview
of CSP in South Africa, EE Publishers. (2018). https://www.ee.
co.za/article/power-from-the-sun-an-overview-of-csp-in-south-
africa.html (accessed June 12, 2020).
[157] E.C. Joubert, S. Hess, J.L. Van Niekerk, Large-scale solar
water heating in South Africa: Status, barriers and
recommendations, Renew. Energy 97 (2016) 809–822, https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.06.029.
[158] A. Jamar, Z.A.A. Majid, W.H. Azmi, M. Norhafana, A.A.
Razak, A review of water heating system for solar energy
applications, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 76 (2016) 178–
187, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.05.028.
[159] H. Runqing, S. Peijun, W. Zhongying, An overview of the
development of solar water heater industry in China, Energy
Policy 51 (2012) 46–51.
[160] Z. Wang, W. Yang, F. Qiu, X. Zhang, X. Zhao, Solar water
heating: From theory, application, marketing and research,
Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 41 (2015) 68–84.
[161] Y.S. Too, G. Morrison, M. Behnia, Performance of solar water
heaters with narrow mantle heat exchangers, Sol. Energy 83
(2009) 350–362.
[162] Z. Wang, Z. Huang, S. Zheng, X. Zhao, Solar water heaters, in:
A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems, Elsevier,
2018, pp. 111–125.
[163] J.S. Thobejane, D.M. Masekameni, P.C. Rathebe, S.L.
Mgwambani, The effectiveness of Solar Water Heating
Geysers in South Africa: A Review, in: IEEE, 2019, pp. 59–62.
[164] P.A.F. Ferrer, Average economic performance of solar water
heaters for low density dwellings across South Africa, Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 76 (2017) 507–515.
[165] J.A. Bohlmann, R. Inglesi-Lotz, Analysing the South African
residential sector’s energy profile, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
96 (2018) 240–252, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.07.052.