Luke Kinsella KIN20004553

STUDENT: Luke Kinsella

ID NO: KIN20004553
COURSE: Ground Investigation
COURSEWORK TITLE: Ground Investigation Assignment
LECTURER: Stuart Smith

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Scenario……………………………………………………………...……….…..…..Pg 03

2.0 Introduction………………….………………………………………...…..…….……Pg 04

3.0 Soil Investigation.….………………………………………………...…………...…..Pg 05

3.1 Possible Soil Types…...………………………...……………...……..........…Pg 05

4.0 Soil Testing…………………………………………………………..….………...….Pg 07

4.1 Test Procedures – Insitu Testing…………………………….....…….……….Pg 09
4.2 Test Procedures – Laboratory Testing……………………….…….…………Pg 11
4.3 Test Costs…………………………………………………………..………...Pg 14

5.0 Risks………………………………………………………………………..…...……Pg 16
5.1 Risk of Potential Ground Types…………………………………..…….……Pg 17
5.2 Design & Construction Consequences……………...…………..……………Pg 18

6.0 Conclusion & Recommendations……...………………………………………..…....Pg 20

7.0 References……………………………………………….…...……………….………Pg 21

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1.0 SCENARIO
A major new road scheme is being proposed. A preliminary study has revealed that there are
pockets of clay and peat as well as firm rocky ground along the route. You are a highway
consultant instructed by a local authority to advise on which tests are needed for the likely
ground conditions associated with this scheme. You are aware that the value of soils testing is
not always fully appreciated by decision makers looking to cut costs. You will need to point out
the risks of failing to identify any ground problems before contracts are let and the works start
on site.

Explain the most likely soil types that you expect to encounter and the most appropriate soils
analysis tests that would be used for these.

Examine the use of these tests and the cost implications of these.

Evaluate the risks associated with each of the ground types that you expect to encounter and the
possible consequences for the design and construction of the road

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2.0 INTRODUCTION
This report was produced following preliminary soil investigation tests carried out on the
proposed route of a major new road scheme. The route was identified prior to this report and the
potential ground conditions will be the focus of the discussion and recommendations outlined for
further investigation.

The scope of this report is to:

• Gather and review all geotechnical and environmental data relating to the proposed site
location.
• Evaluate the ground conditions and make recommendations for further analysis and
testing.
• Outline the risks and constraints associated with the construction of the roadway.
• Present the gathered information and data so to support further site investigations.
• In addition to the data and recommendations provided in this report, general comments
on the proposed future geotechnical feasibility stages are provided in the conclusion.

The recommendations made in this report are limited to the available information and records
reviewed at the time of study.

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3.0 SOIL INVESTIGATION

The greatest technical and financial risks associated with civil engineering projects lies in the
ground – there is no other element of a structure about which less is known. Soil is a natural
material and there is only limited ability to avoid poor ground. Almost all civil engineering
projects transfer loads to the ground and consequently the nature of the ground is important when
assessing how the structure will behave (P. Quigley, 2015).
A site investigation is essential to mitigate risk during design and construction, and to produce a
cost-efficient road scheme.

The primary objectives of site investigation and this report are as follows:
• To assess the suitability of the site and environs for the proposed works including
implications of previous use or contamination.
• To enable an adequate and economic design to be prepared, including the design of
temporary works.
• To plan the best method of construction; to foresee and provide against difficulties and
delays that may arise during construction due to ground and other local conditions.
• To determine changes that may arise in the ground and environmental conditions, either
naturally or as a result of the works, and the effect of such changes on the works, on
adjacent works, and on the environment in general.
• Where alternatives exist, to advise on the relative suitability of different sites, or different
parts of the same site.

The size and type of project will influence the scope of the investigation; however, all projects,
irrespective of size, should have some form of site investigation. Due to the nature of our project
and the preliminary findings available previous to this report, a detailed site investigation should
be considered.

A site investigation should proceed in stages as follows:

• Desk study and site reconnaissance.
• Detailed investigation for design including ground investigation, topographic and
hydrographic surveying and any special studies.
• Insitu testing, this may involve SPT, and shear vane. Large projects may also have CPT
and pressuremeter tests.
• Laboratory testing, classification, strength, permeability, deformation, compaction and
chemical testing.
• Reporting.
o Factual report.
o Interpretative report.

3.1 Possible Soil Types

As stated above; a previous study has revealed pockets of clay and peat as well as firm rocky
ground along the route. These preliminary findings span across all three basic soil types:
• Coarse soils: sands, gravels, cobbles, and boulders (firm rocky ground).

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• Fine soils: clays.

• Organic soils: peats.

From these initial findings we can assume the following soil properties along our proposed route:

• Hard rocky ground:

o Soil with individual grains clearly visible, produced by the mechanical breakdown
of rocks into smaller particles.
o Allow water to freely flow through them.
o Strength is governed by the friction properties of the soil.

• Clay:
o Possibly glacial till also known as boulder clay.
o Typically, boulders are very occasional. Few clay minerals, mainly rock flour of
silt size particles.
o Can be dense, weight density up to 2.47Mg/m3 for very stiff/hard lodgment tills.
o Dense lodgment tills can be very stiff, particularly at low strain, compared with
clay.
o Relatively high angle of friction for a ‘clay’,  = 350.
o Little degradation in effective stress strength parameters at large strain (residual).
o Can behave as a fine cohesive or coarse cohesionless soil depending on its fine
contents.
o Low plasticity index can be difficult to work in wet weather, particularly with low
fines.

• Peat:
o Natural mixture of graded granular soil, clay, and organic matter formed at the
earths surface after years of decomposition of organic remains.
o Highly compressible material.
o Very limited ability to carry loads. Structures located in areas of peat need to be
supported on piled foundations taken to a suitable strong stratum below.
o Possible to build over peat if it is consolidated and drained for a considerable
period prior to construction.

All soil properties detailed above are typical parameters associated with each potential soil type.
Confirmation will be required via additional investigation and sampling.

The exact location of these pockets is also unknown – further investigation is required in order to
identify problem areas and mitigate risk.

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4.0 SOIL TESTING

Ground investigation methods can be divided into:
• Excavations and boreholes.
o Investigation of soil strata.
o Retrieval of samples.
• Field testing.
o Measurement of soil properties insitu.

When performing testing; Eurocode 7 provides guidance on the recommended depth of

investigation. Due to the nature of our project and the previously identified pockets of clay and
peat; greater investigation depths should be selected due to such unfavourable geological
conditions. Weak or compressible strata (Peat and clay pockets) below strata of higher bearing
capacity (firm rocky ground), are presumed.

Figure 4.1, Figure 4.2, and Figure 4.3 below detail required depths for various situations. Our
proposed road scheme will span over a variety of geographical conditions and will require
differing characteristics to suit.
• To account for deviations in road vertical road alignments and mitigate the risk of
flooding; embankments and cuttings will be constructed. Testing in areas below the
proposed location of such features will need to adhere to recommendations detailed in
Figure 4.1.
• Linear structures such as road sections should adhere to the recommendations detailed in
Figure 4.2.
• Piling may also be required in areas of poor ground. Testing below areas subject to
piling will need to adhere to the recommendations detailed in Figure 4.3 below.

Figure 4.1: Sampling depth for Embankments and Cuttings (Eurocode 7)

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Figure 4.2: Sampling depth for Linear Structures (Eurocode 7)

Figure 4.3: Sampling depth for Piling (Eurocode 7)

Additional to depth recommendations; Eurocode 7 provides some suggested frequency of

explorations – refer to Table 4.4 below.

Table 4.4: Suggested intensity of ground investigation points (EuroCode 7)

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The investigation points are assumed to be boreholes or CPTs. CPTs are almost exclusively used
on infrastructure projects in the UK as the mobilisation cost of the rig is often deemed
prohibitive for building projects (P. Quigley, 2015).

As referenced above in Table 4.4; recommended spacing can range from 20 to 200m. Due to the
presence of problematic conditions already identified in a previous investigation, testing should
be carried out in a more conservative spacing – reasoning for this will be discussed later in the
report.

4.1 Test Procedures – Insitu Testing

Appropriate field tests should be selected, considering the information and parameters that are
required for the geotechnical design.
BS 5930:2015 Section 7, details descriptions and appropriateness of testing methods – this is
expressed below in Table 4.5.
Although the new road may be proposed through untouched green field sites; utilities should be
identified before any intrusive work commences.

Table 4.5: The applicability and usefulness of in-situ tests (BS5930/EN 1997)

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Upon review of Table 4.5 above; the following techniques have been deemed appropriate along
the proposed road route. This is primarily based on the soil conditions received from a previous
site investigation and the applicability and usefulness of each in-situ test.

• Dynamic Probing:
o A sectional rod with a cone fitted at the base of a slightly greater diameter
than the rod. It is driven into the ground by a constant mass that is allowed to
fall on the rod.
o Interpolation of data between boreholes using site specific correlations with
known ground property data might be possible.

• Electrical Cone Penetration Test (CPT or CPTu):

o The basic principle of the electrical CPT is that a cylindrical probe, fitted to
the lower end of a string of hollow rods, is pushed into the ground at a slow
uniform rate by a static thrust.
o CPTs should not be carried out in isolation except where extensive experience
of the site or similar materials is available.

• Standard Penetration Test:

o A thick-walled sample tube, the outside diameter of which is 50 mm.
▪ Driven into the ground at the bottom of the borehole by blows from a
standard weight falling through a standard distance.
o The blow count (N value, number of blows to drive the sampler 300mm) gives
an indication of soil strength, relative density and other parameters which can
be inferred; these are, at best, approximate.
▪ Should be carried out in accordance with BS EN ISO 22476-3.
o Corrections need to be applied to the measured N value:
▪ Energy of the hammer
▪ The length of the bars (depth that test is made)
▪ Effective overburden pressure in sands
▪ Corrections listed in EN 22476-3
o There is no general agreement on the use of the SPT results in clayey soil. In
principle, it should be restricted to a qualitative evaluation of the soil profile
or to a qualitative estimate of the strength properties of the soil.
o The SPT results may sometimes be used in a quantitative way in clayey soil
under well-known local conditions, when directly correlated to other
appropriate tests.

• Field Vane Test:

o Vane testing in the field usually takes the form of either the “field vane” or
“hand vane” for use in fine grained soils.
▪ A cruciform vane on the end of a solid rod which is forced into the soil
and then rotated at a constant rate of between 6°/min and 12°/min.
o Test method covered in EN 22476-9.
o The determined undrained shear strength must be corrected for plasticity of
clay

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▪ Design strength < measured strength

▪ EN 22476-9

4.2 Test Procedures – Laboratory Testing

The sampling categories and the number of samples to be taken shall be based on:
• the aim of the ground investigation.
• the geology of the site.
• the complexity of the geotechnical structure.

For identification and classification of the ground, at least one borehole or trial pit with sampling
shall be available. Samples shall be obtained from every separate ground layer influencing the
behaviour of the structure.

Table 4.6 below details test classifications for differing soil types.

Table 4.6: Classification Test (EN 1997-2).

Table 4.7 below details the geotechnical parameters that can be determined for each soil type via
the use of designated testing types.

Table 4.8 specifies the minimum number of samples to be tested in one soil stratum.

Table 4.9, Table 4.10, and Table 4.11 details the minimum number of samples to be tested in one
soil stratum for triaxial compression, direct shear, and incremental oedometer testing. These
testing methods are recommended following the results of the previous ground investigation
study and correlating these with recommendation from EN 1997.

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Table 4.7: Determination of geotechnical parameters (EN 1997-2).

Table 4.8: Suggested minimum number of samples to be tested in one soil stratum (EN 1997 -2).

Table 4.9: Triaxial compression tests. Recommended minimum number of tests for one soil
stratum (EN 1997-2).

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Table 4.10: Direct shear tests. Recommended minimum number of tests for one soil stratum (EN
1997-2).

Table 4.11: Incremental oedometer test. Recommended minimum number of tests for one soil
stratum (EN 1997-2).

• Triaxial Compression Test:

o Triaxial tests are widely used in geotechnical engineering.
o The sample is a cylinder of soil tested inside a larger glass cylinder filled with
water under pressure. The specimen is enclosed in a thin rubber membrane to
seal it off from the water.
o Specimens are axially loaded to failure while a confining pressure is constantly
applied. As a result, the behavior of geomaterials is investigated in a three-
dimensional stress state.

• Direct Shear Test (Shear Box Test):

o The Direct Shear Test is an experimental procedure conducted in geotechnical
engineering practice which aims to determine the shear strength of soil
materials.
o A prepared sample is placed in a shear box and a variety of different forces
are applied to make the sample shear horizontally.
o Shear strength is defined as the maximum resistance that a material can
withstand when subjected to shearing.
o Generally considered one of the most common and simple tests to derive the
strength of a soil and can be performed on undisturbed or remoulded samples.

• Incremental Oedometer Test (Consolidation Test):

o Soil Consolidation refers to the process in which the volume of a saturated
(partially or fully) soil decreases due to an applied stress.
o When a load is applied in a low permeability soil, it is initially carried by the
water that exists in the porous of a saturated soil resulting in a rapid increase
of pore water pressure. This excess pore water pressure is dissipated as water

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drains away from the soil’s voids and the pressure is transferred to the soil
skeleton which is gradually compressed, resulting in settlements. The
consolidation procedure lasts until the excess pore water pressure is
dissipated.
o The increment of applied stress that causes consolidation may be due to either
natural loads (e.g. sedimentation processes), or human-made loads (e.g. the
construction of a road or an embankment above a soil mass) or even the
decrease of the ground water table.
o The testing procedure to quantify the critical soil properties associated with
soil consolidation is the Oedometer Test and is one of the most commonly
conducted, and important, laboratory tests in geotechnical engineering.
o Test aims at measuring the vertical displacement of a cylindrical, saturated
soil sample subjected to a vertical load while it is radially constrained.
o It is possible to estimate the number of weeks or months that it will take for
settlement to be complete.

4.3 Test Costs

Many Stakeholders will worry about the cost when the time comes to tendering for a ground
investigation. A bid too high will be overlooked, whereas a bid too low means margins are
squeezed. As stated above; the biggest unknown for a project is in the ground.
The matter of risk must be considered, and the simple fact that a more in-depth investigation
means the lower the risk. This level of risk can have a direct impact on the success of a project.
The ground investigation doesn’t add any direct revenue for the project, but poorly designed
investigations are often the cause of things going wrong later (Tim Chapman, 2011).

As shown in Figure 4.4 below; data suggests that there is a trend to increase the spacing of
investigation points as the size of the project increases and a similar trend appears to be emerging
for construction cost (P. Quigley, 2015).

Figure 4.4: Comparison between construction cost & the no. of boreholes (P. Quigley, 2015).

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The overall cost off the proposed road scheme has not been disclosed; nevertheless, Figure 4.4
gives an indication of the frequency of testing compared to the overall construction cost. This
should be regarded as a minimum, and this report recommends taking the upper range suggested
by EC7. The benefits of a thorough site investigation cannot be understated. One of the main
reasons can be justified below in Figure 4.5. Charts outline the impact of site investigation
expenditure on highway contract over-runs due to ground conditions in the UK.

Figure 4.5: Site investigation in Construction: Effective site investigation. (ICE)

Figure 4.5 above is a clear indicator that a higher frequency in SI, typically yields a lower
adjusted construction cost.

Further details are required about the construction project to access costs definitively.

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5.0 RISKS
Ground investigations are an essential part of the design process to evaluate risk and deliver
successful outcomes. A successful outcome can be achieved by design or, less reliably, a series
of coinciding fortuitous events.

Figure 5.1: Cost of Risk/Effort v Increasing Effort of SI (Ash & Russel, 1974)

Insufficient information about the ground conditions can result in significant problems. About 80
to 85% of all European building failures and damages relate to problems in the ground (Brandl,
2004). The impact of these delays can be very significant. The cost of remedial measures
including maintaining and committing extra resources to complete the project, loss in revenue,
and professional fees for legal and engineering experts required to resolve disputes typically
dwarf the ground investigation costs. As ground related risk is so significant it would seem
reasonable that better ground investigation and design should reduce this risk (P. Quigley, 2015).

The ability to mitigate risk is greatest at the start of a project and decreases rapidly as the project
progresses. Figure 5.2 below details many possible effects of unforeseen ground conditions on
construction.

Fig 5.2: Site investigation in Construction: Effective site investigation (ICE)

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5.1 Risk of Potential Ground Types

Considering the information available from the previous investigation, pockets of peat create the
greatest risk. The main issue relating to primary consolidation and secondary compression.
Figure 5.3 below details secondary compression with time.
• Primary consolidation
o Settlements arising from dissipation of excess pore pressures
• Secondary compression
o Settlement due to volumetric strains

Figure 5.3: Primary Consolidation & Secondary Compression.

Figure 5.4 below shows peat being in the ‘extremely high’ classification when it comes to
seconday compression, and clay types being in the ‘very high’ to ‘high’ classification.
Considering initial results found pockets of both; seconday compression is highly likely.

Figure 5.4: Secondary Compression.

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In such sedimentary soils, the most significant process is secondary compression

• Reduction in void ratio at constant effective stress.
• Greater with soils of high liquid limits and high organic contents.

Figure 5.5: Compression Timeline.

As referenced above in Figure 5.5, compression can take a significant amount of time.
Considering our proposed route is constructed over areas subject to secondary compression, this
will lead to increased maintenance and remedial costs.
The main issue with rehabilitation of roads over peat is that the situation is ever changing. The
foundation is poor and prone to further settlement, and maintenance over time will typically built
up a significant volume of material under the road surface. Excavation at the extremities of the
road, even drainage, can also cause stability issues.

5.2 Construction Consequences

The main consequence of constructing a road over poor ground is with respect to temporary
works. Many of the techniques needed to successfully complete a road scheme will require
temporary works to facilitate the construction. The proposed new road will no doubt require
features such as retaining walls, reinforced soil walls and slopes, gabion and crib walls.
The temporary works are required to aid the construction of such items.

Temporary works need to receive the same attention in design. Temporary works can also be
significant and more difficult to design than the permanent works. Because of this, they can also
add significant cost to the project and create a risk of delay.

Temporary works can take many forms:

• Temporary platforms to support construction plant.
• Temporary retaining walls to provide space for construction of the permanent retaining
wall.
• May also be full structures in their own right.

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The advantages and disadvantages of any temporary works solutions are, in many cases, the
same as the permanent solution. To truly access the construction consequences; additional site
investigation is required about the geographical and geological characteristics along the proposed
route.

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6.0 CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

Deficiencies in ground investigation can result in conservative or inappropriate design
assumptions, additional costs arising from problems encountered on site, additional costs
incurred through delays in completion, and possibly highly expensive remedial action at a later
date.

If appropriate risk management techniques are adopted, then the geological hazards can be
greatly reduced.

The industry has also innovated considerably to suit problematic ground conditions such as the
ones identified on our proposed route, developing improved use of geophysics, a greater
understanding of sampling disturbance in soft soils and high-quality drilling methods and coring
in stiff glacial till. The more sophisticated techniques and the appointment of geotechnical
specialists carry a price premium but better ground investigation results in better design which in
turn leads to greater cost certainty.

Along with the site investigation measures detailed above; it is recommended that a detailed desk
study be undertaken to also mitigate risk and identify any unforeseen issues. This desk study
should explore available geographical data to identify features such as historical mining sites,
ancient burial grounds, areas of archaeological and religious interest, and hidden caves, rivers,
etc. Historical geology maps can also be obtained showing varying areas of bedrock and soil
strata.

All information should be compiled to form a better understanding of the area and reduce any
risk due to unforeseen circumstances below ground.

The possibility of re-alignment of the road should be considered to deviate from any areas of
poor ground.

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7.0 REFERENCES
Brandl, H. 2004. The Civil and Geotechnical Engineer in Society: Ethical and Philosophical
Thoughts, Challenges and Recommendations, The Deep Foundations Institute, Hawthorne, New
Jersey, USA.
Davitt, S 1996. Maintenance Techniques for Bog Roads, National Roads Authority, Galway,
Ireland.
IEI, 2003. Project cost and estimation and control, an Institution of Engineers of Ireland
submission to the Minister for the Environment and Local Government.
IS EN 1997-1 2005. Eurocode 7 - Geotechnical design – Part 1 General rules, NSAI.
IS EN 1997-2 2007. Eurocode 7 – Geotechnical Investigation and Testing, NSAI.
Quigley, P, 2015. Some trends from recent ground investigation contracts in Ireland, ICE
Publishing.

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