LABORATORY REPORT 3.

1
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY INTRODUCTION: LEARN ABOUT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

I. OBJECTIVES

• Give example of uses of organic compounds

• Identify the carbon valence electrons and the hybridization of their orbitals
• Predict the angles of covalent bonds of carbon atoms in hydrocarbons
• Appy the nomenclature of simple hydrocarbons
• Interpret some of the important representation of hydrocarbons
• Give example of functional groups of organic compounds and their reactions

II. INTRODUCTION

Organic Compound are molecules that contain carbon atoms covalently bonded to
hydrogen atoms (C-H bonds). Many organic compounds are formed from chains of covalently-
linked carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms attached to the chain (a hydrocarbon backbone).
This means that all organic compounds have in common the presence of carbon
atoms and hydrogen atoms. In addition, different organic compounds may contain oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorous, and other elements. Carbon dioxide (CO2) does not have hydrogen;
then, it is not an organic compound. Water (H2O) has no carbon; then, it is not an organic
compound. Sodium chloride has neither carbon nor hydrogen; then, it is not an organic
compound. Generally, gases, and mineral salts (inorganic substances found in soil, or bodies of
water or watercourses) are not organic.

Carbon is a very common “ingredient” of matter because it can combine with itself and
with many other elements. It can form a great diversity of compounds, ranging in size from
just a few atoms to thousands of atoms. There are millions of known carbon compounds, and
carbon is the only element that can form so many different compounds. A carbon atom can
form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms or with the atoms of other elements. Carbon
often forms bonds with hydrogen. Compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are
called hydrocarbons. Carbon is a nonmetal in group 14 of the periodic table. Like other group
14 elements, carbon has four valence electrons. Valence electrons are the electrons in the
outer energy level of an atom that are involved in chemical bonds.

Hybridization was introduced to explain molecular structure when the valence bond
theory failed to correctly predict them. It is experimentally observed that bond angles in
organic compounds are close to 109o, 120o, or 180o. According to Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) theory, electron pairs repel each other and the bonds and lone pairs around
a central atom are generally separated by the largest possible angles. According
to Valence Bond Theory, carbon should form two covalent bonds, resulting in a CH2, because it
has two unpaired electrons in its electronic configuration. However, experiments have shown
that CH2CH2 is highly reactive and cannot exist outside of a reaction. Therefore, this does not
explain how CH4 can exist. To form four bonds the configuration of carbon must
have four unpaired electrons.

The angles between the bonds in organic compounds depend on the hybridization and
therefore the types of bonds formed by each of the carbon atoms. If only single bonds are
present, the angle between each of these is 109.5 degrees. If the double fond is formed, the
angle between the bonds is 120 degrees, and if the triple bond is involved, the angle is 180
degrees. The angles of the bonds have important implication for which product are formed in
chemical reactions involving organic compounds.

The carbons with single bonds forms in different angles than the carbon with double
and triple bonds.

Sigma and pi bonds are types of covalent bonds that differ in the overlapping of atomic
orbitals. Covalent bonds are formed by the overlapping of atomic orbitals. Sigma bonds are a
result of the head-to-head overlapping of atomic orbitals whereas pi bonds are formed by the
lateral overlap of two atomic orbitals. Various bond parameters such as bond length, bond
angle, and bond enthalpy depend on the way the overlapping of atomic orbital takes place. This
overlap occurs in two major ways, giving rise to two primary types of covalent bonds, sigma
and pi bonds.

This type of covalent bond is formed by head-on positive (same phase) overlap of atomic
orbitals along the internuclear axis. Sigma bonds are the strongest covalent bonds, owing to
the direct overlapping of the participating orbitals. The electrons participating in a σ bond are
commonly referred to as σ electrons.
Generally, all single bonds are sigma bonds. They can be formed via the following combinations
of atomic orbitals.
Pi Bonds are generally weaker than sigma bonds, owing to the significantly lower degree
of overlapping. Generally, double bonds consist of one sigma and one pi bond, whereas a typical
triple bond is made up of two π bonds and one σ bond. It is important to note that a combination
of sigma and pi bonds is always stronger than a single sigma bond.
There are two types of compounds which are the saturated and unsaturated compound.
Saturated compound is organic compounds in which carbon atoms are bonded by single bonds.
Unsaturated compound is a compound where carbon atoms have double or triple bonds
The type of hydrocarbon compounds is the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The alkanes,
simple member of the hydrocarbon family that contain only hydrogen and carbon, have single
bonds and saturated hydrocarbons. The alkenes, the series unsaturated hydro-carbons having
one double bond. The alkynes, the series of unsaturated hydro-carbons that contains 1 triple
bonds.
According to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, shorter to IUPAC,
simpler hydrocarbons are named by considering two factors:
First the number of carbons. We use prefix according to the number of carbons in the
molecule.
A central concept in Organic Chemistry is functional Groups.
Mission: Simon need to confirm the pills that his friend gave to him can be trusted. The
researcher needs to use his knowledge to help his friend Simon. Guided by the lab simulation,
perform by implementing the basic chemical tests to verify the functional groups the medicine
contains, and learn some of the ways organic compounds can react.

Assuring Simon that the pills which contains salicylic acid as a cure of toothache that his friend
gave to him is safe. As he is confused why the pills is organic.

In this, the researcher needs to determine what type of compound the pills have and how the
pills called organic.

The intended learnings, is to know the basic organic of chemistry on how this is connected with
carbon an essential element for all life. In this you will understand how organic compounds
can be represented and perform in a simple experiment to identify some functional groups.
III. MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE

DETERMINE THE ORGANIC COMPOUND OF THE SALICYLIC ACID

Materials/Equipment:

First Experiment

• Lab Coat
• Goggles
• Gloves
• Fume Hood 2
• 15 ml Test tubes
• Solutions
• Beakers
• Pipette
• Cerac ammonium nitrate
• Micro Vortex

Procedure:

➢ Wear lab coat, disposable gloves and goggle before you start
➢ Go to fume hood 2, to start the experiment
➢ Add each solution from beakers to a different test tube, use pipette in transferring the
content on each test tubes
➢ Add Cerac ammonium nitrate to all the tubes
➢ Then put the test tubes with combined content into the micro vortex and observe the
result.
➢ Proceed to fume hood 3, to continue the experiment

Second Experiment

• Fume Hood 3
• Sodium Bicarbonate
• Spatula
• Test Tubes

Procedure:

➢ Add sodium bicarbonate to each tube, use the spatula to transfer it.
➢ Observe which of the six tubes have the brisk effervescence meaning it contains a
carboxylic group.
IV. DATA AND RESULT

DETERMINE THE ORGANIC COMPOUND OF THE SALICYLIC ACID

The salicylic acid solution confirm that the pills actually contain the functional groups
of the organic compound

The researcher test for a hydroxy (-OH) group using the ceric ammonium nitrate test.
The addition of ceric ammonium nitrate reagent to an organic compound with an alcohol or
phenol group result in the formulation of a dark red color. Alcohols in chemistry are very
similar to phenols, but here the hydroxy group is not bonded to an aromatic carbon.

Those beakers seem to contain solution of compounds with an alcohol or phenolic

functional group. The ceric ammonium nitrate formed a red or brown color in the experiment.

The researcher will look for signs of a carboxylic acid group the addition of sodium
bicarbonate to a solution containing an acidic compound result in the formation of some brisk
effervescence, as the bicarbonate (HCO3) is converted to water and gaseous CO2.

In the tubes after adding sodium bicarbonate two of the six examine tube shows brisk
effervescence meaning they contain a carboxylic group.

The researcher found out that in Compound A was the salicylic acid. It’s the only
compound that gave positive results in both test, which matches with the presence of phenolic
and carboxylic acid functional groups at the same time.

As the result come up with 100% accuracy. The pills is aspirin. Aspirin is also called
acetylsalicylic acid, and it’s broken down into salicylic acid in human body.

The researcher can confirm to Simon that he doesn’t have to worry, that the pills is safe.
The friend of Simon gave him a very common and effective treatment for simple pain and
inflammatory processes.
V. DISCUSSION

ANALYZING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

There are millions of known carbon compounds, and carbon is the only element that
can form so many different compounds. A carbon atom can form covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms or with the atoms of other elements. Carbon often forms bonds with hydrogen.
Compounds that contain only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

The carbon with single bonds forms different angles than the carbon with double and
triple bonds.

The DNA is present in all living cells. Human body contains 18% of carbon as it the
carbon is the backbone element for life. The study of carbon-hydrogen-based compound is
called organic chemistry.

In the discussion, it shows a methane molecule, one of the simplest organic compounds
in the 3D models.

The carbon atoms have 6 electrons. These electrons have the following orbital
configuration. 1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^2. This means that there are 2 electrons in the inner 1s subshell,
2 electrons in the 2s subshell, and 2 electrons in the 2p subshell.

In the simulation, you will saw the carbon ‘s valence electrons, which are those that are
used in forming bonds.

2 electrons are orbiting in the 2s orbital and 1 electron is orbiting in each of the 2px and
2py orbitals. Carbon normally forms four bonds. But in the discussion examples the 2p electrons
are unpair and available for a chemical bond. In that it can get four unpaired electrons through
excitation of one of the 2s electrons into the un occupied 2pz orbital. Now the carbon, can almost
ready for forming bonds

Carbons bond depend on the type of hybridization that takes place in the electron
orbitals. There are types of hybridization; the simple one is the sp^3 hybridization. In order to
form the four bonds with other atoms, the 2s, 2px, 2py and 2pz mix to form 4 equal orbitals,
called sp^3. This is the process of hybridization. The sp^3 orbitals form the four corners of a
pyramid with triangular sides, a so called regular tetrahedron. The angle formed between the
orbitals is 109.5 degrees. With the sp^3 orbitals, each occupied with a single electron, carbon
can form four equivalent single bonds with hydrogen. These are called the sigma bonds. The
angle between the orbitals will determine the angles between the chemical bonds the carbon
atom will make. In when forming sp^3 orbitals. The angle of the bonds will ne 109.5 degrees.

A carbon atom can also bind to another carbon atom using a sigma bond. The rest of
the sp^3 orbitals can then form more sigma bonds with other compounds. For instance, with
hydrogen to form ethane.
 When carbon forms bonds to four distinct atoms. It has four sp^3 hybrid orbitals that
are organized forming a regular tetrahedron structure. This means that the angle between each
bond is 109.5 degrees.

All organic compounds have in common the presence of carbon atoms and hydrogen
atoms. In addition, different organic compounds may contain oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous,
and other elements. There a lot of carbon-based materials that people used every-day. They are
used as a source of energy in the food people eat and all of the things that people used.

There are two types of compounds which are the saturated and unsaturated compound.
Saturated compound is organic compounds in which carbon atoms are bonded by single bonds.
Unsaturated compound is a compound where carbon atoms have double or triple bonds
The type of hydrocarbon compounds is the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The alkanes,
simple member of the hydrocarbon family that contain only hydrogen and carbon, have single
bonds and saturated hydrocarbons. The alkenes, the series unsaturated hydro-carbons having
one double bond. The alkynes, the series of unsaturated hydro-carbons that contains 1 triple
bonds.
People sometimes don’t write the C for carbon and H for hydrogens attached to these
carbon atoms. These are called skeletal formulas. The carbon atoms are implied at the corners
of the structure. It might look a bit confusing in the beginning, but it is actually really helpful
for quicky identifying the important aspects of the molecule.

DETERMINE THE ORGANIC COMPOUND OF THE SALICYLIC ACID

Salicylic acid is also called 2-hydroxybenzoic. It is a compound obtained from the

bark of the white willow and wintergreen leaves. This is the structural formula of salicylic
acid:

In the picture below you can see three clear functional groups. A hydroxy group, an
aromatic group and carboxyl group. The hydroxy group can be part of different functional
groups. When bonded to aromatic ring as in salicylic acid, the functional groups called phenol.
VI. CONCLUSION

ANALYZING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

A carbon atom can form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms or with the atoms of
other elements. Carbon often forms bonds with hydrogen. Compounds that contain only carbon
and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

The carbon with single bonds forms different angles than the carbon with double and
triple bonds.

The DNA is present in all living cells. Human body contains 18% of carbon as it the
carbon is the backbone element for life. The study of carbon-hydrogen-based compound is
called organic chemistry.

All organic compounds have in common the presence of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms. In
addition, different organic compounds may contain oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, and other
elements. There a lot of carbon-based materials that people used every-day. They are used as a
source of energy in the food people eat and all of the things that people used.

There are two types of compounds which are the saturated and unsaturated compound.
Saturated compound is organic compounds in which carbon atoms are bonded by single bonds.
Unsaturated compound is a compound where carbon atoms have double or triple bonds
The type of hydrocarbon compounds is the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes. The alkanes,
simple member of the hydrocarbon family that contain only hydrogen and carbon, have single
bonds and saturated hydrocarbons. The alkenes, the series unsaturated hydro-carbons having
one double bond. The alkynes, the series of unsaturated hydro-carbons that contains 1 triple
bonds.

DETERMINE THE ORGANIC COMPOUND OF THE SALICYLIC ACID

The researcher test for a hydroxy (-OH) group using the ceric ammonium nitrate test.
The addition of ceric ammonium nitrate reagent to an organic compound with an alcohol or
phenol group result in the formulation of a dark red color. Alcohols in chemistry are very
similar to phenols, but here the hydroxy group is not bonded to an aromatic carbon.

The researcher will look for signs of a carboxylic acid group the addition of sodium
bicarbonate to a solution containing an acidic compound result in the formation of some brisk
effervescence, as the bicarbonate (HCO3) is converted to water and gaseous CO2.

The researcher found out that in Compound A was the salicylic acid. It’s the only compound
that gave positive results in both test, which matches with the presence of phenolic and
carboxylic acid functional groups at the same time.
 As the result come up with 100% accuracy. The pills is aspirin. Aspirin is also called
acetylsalicylic acid, and it’s broken down into salicylic acid in human body.

The researcher can confirm to Simon that he doesn’t have to worry, that the pills is safe.
The friend of Simon gave him a very common and effective treatment for simple pain and
inflammatory processes.

REFERENCES:

• https://med.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anatomy_and_Physiology/Book%3A_Human
_Anatomy_and_Physiology_Preparatory_Course_(Liachovitzky)/03%3A_Molecular_L
evel_Biomolecules_the_Organic_Compounds_Associated_With_Living_Organisms/3.0
1%3A_Organic_Compounds
• https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-physical-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/6.1/primary/lesson/carbon-bonding-ms-ps/
• https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_
(Organic_Chemistry)/Fundamentals/Hybrid_Orbitalsv
• https://byjus.com/chemistry/sigma-and-pi-bond/
• https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-adipic-acid-and-salicylic-
acid/
• https://www.labster.com/simulations/organic-chemistry-introduction/

“I affirm that I have not given or received any unauthorized help on this report and that
this work is my own”

ALOTA, SUNSHINE A
OCTOBER 28, 2021
CE11S19