A.

Identification of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research has been tailored over time to the specifics of particular disciplines
or fields of study; however, when researching identity and education, there are general
methodological methods that are shared across disciplines. Identity is a complex term that we
define broadly as self-understandings, particularly those with strong emotional resonances,
and that are often marked by socially constructed raced, gendered, classed, and sexual
identity “labels” such as “smart boy,” “pretty girl,” or “at-risk student” (Holland, 1998 ).
A search for quantitative studies will often turn up related or associated studies that use
qualitative methods. However, depending entirely on this method is doubtful since the
experiments were discovered by accident rather than in a formal systematic manner (Higgins
JPT, 2008 ). A very broad approach can be used, in which the search technique consists
solely of subject and topic words, with no specific study types of interest defined. While both
quantitative and qualitative studies can be listed, this approach is likely to produce a large
number of documents. This method is regularly used at the (EPPI-Centre, 2008 ) when
conducting related systematic analyses of qualitative and quantitative data. A search for
quantitative studies will often turn up related or associated studies that use qualitative
methods. However, depending entirely on this method is doubtful since the experiments were
discovered by accident rather than in a formal systematic manner (Higgins JPT, Green S,
2018). A very broad approach can be used, in which the search technique consists solely of
subject and topic words, with no specific study type(s) of interest defined. While both
quantitative and qualitative studies can be listed, this approach is likely to produce a large
number of documents. This method is regularly used at the EPPI-Centre when conducting
related systematic analyses of qualitative and quantitative data.
1. Using bibliographic databases
The methods and tools for identifying qualitative studies, particularly from electronic
databases, are much less developed than those for identifying quantitative studies,
particularly RCTs (Dixon-Woods M, 2001). There are currently no records of qualitative
research, and existing RCT registers do not document whether qualitative data was also
collected. Qualitative research can be given a descriptive or imaginative title, making
retrieval difficult using standard search techniques. Database abstracts, when used, are often
unstructured and may have variable content, complicating their recognition even further.
According to Evans D, many studies lack an abstract; for example, a review for qualitative
studies on breastfeeding support showed that 23% of the records screened did not have an
abstract (2002). This means that many complete papers would need to be retrieved in order to
 make inclusion decisions, as in a study of tuberculosis care adherence in which over 600 full
text documents were screened. (Dixon-Woods M B. S., 2006). When searching electronic
databases, bear in mind that there is still some confusion regarding how consistently the word
"qualitative analysis" is used (Grant MJ, 2004). Indexing qualitative papers is commonly
regarded as less reliable than indexing quantitative reports, both in terms of whether
appropriate index terms are available and whether they have been correctly applied (Shaw
RL, 2004 ). Just 4% of records were actually applicable in a comparison of three strategies
across six databases – using thesaurus words, free-text terms, and broad-based terms – and all
three strategies had to be used in conjunction to avoid losing potentially relevant records.
2. Other sources
Given the shortcomings found in study indexing and study filters currently available,
additional techniques such as Internet searching, personal communication with researchers,
handsearching, and reference checking are crucial.
3. Sampling methods
According to Booth A, there is currently no agreement about whether searches for
qualitative studies should be as detailed in their coverage as searches for quantitative studies,
but they should be as systematic, explicit, and reproducible as possible (2001). When the
number of available studies is simply too large to work through, researchers can choose to
restrict the number of included studies. Purposive and/or theoretical sampling are options in
which papers are chosen for inclusion based on specific criteria such as rich description or
conceptual clarification. In addition, random sampling can be used. Purposive sampling is
used in reviews of caring and access to health care. The search technique and, if applicable,
sampling methods must be clearly recorded. It is critical to outline the steps taken and to
address the possible implications of any limitations. There are proposed guidelines for
reporting literature searches open, which are a valuable resource.
C. Research Question in Qualitative Research
In order to begin a qualitative study, the researcher must identify a research topic and
then compose the research questions. A study cannot begin without established research
questions. In qualitative research, the research questions differ greatly from a research topic.
Creswell (2005) explains that the research topic is a broad area in which “a central
phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in qualitative research” (p. 45). The
research questions “narrow the purpose statement to specific questions that researchers seek
to answer” (p. 117). Once a draft of the research questions has been written, the researcher
should examine the questions to identify some common characteristics. Bradley (2001)
purports that good research questions “are stated clearly, are researchable, and involve some
concept related to either theory or an applied context” (p. 574). This process of evaluating the
research questions should consume a considerable amount of time and effort. Farber (2006)
adds that a researcher must be truly interested and passionate about what is to be studied.
With this intense passion and desire to fill a knowledge gap, a researcher will be more likely
to follow through the research process and reach established research goals.
The research questions are not the same questions that are presented during the
process of interviewing participants within the study. Burck (2005) agrees with the fact that
research questions are the most important facet within the qualitative study. The research
questions should be open-ended, to allow the researcher to generate hypotheses from
analyzing the collected data. These hypothesis-generating questions are one of the
distinguishing factors between qualitative research and quantitative research. With qualitative
studies, hypotheses are formed based on the research data. With qualitative studies, research
questions are developed to confirm or void pre-conceived hypotheses, relationships, or
correlations. Ohman (2005) further declares that qualitative questions are open-ended and
allows “informants to tell their story” (p. 275). Also, a researcher must develop skills that
allow him/her to gain trust with the participant being interviewed. In this manner, responses
that are not always positive will be given to provide a clearer picture and provide more details
to the participant’s story. Farber (2006) agrees with this notion and adds that qualitative
research questions are open-ended to allow the researcher to keep an open mind. These
questions guide the research study, but at the same time, these questions allow for
subquestions to pave the way for new and emerging questions and hypotheses.
Bradley (2001) explains that “developing good research ideas is both a science and an
art” (p. 569). Many beginning researchers are graduate students who have had little on no
experience in the areas of research methodology. In order to gain experience and knowledge
in these areas, a novice researcher should draw upon one of two knowledge bases. The
researcher should base his/her knowledge from a theoretical lens or an ethical lens approach.
As the beginning researcher decides upon which approach to utilize in the research process,
educational instructors should encourage the beginning researcher to develop research
questions that would expand the range and knowledge base that the beginning researcher
possesses. In order to expand upon this knowledge base, Bradley (2001) suggests writing
grant proposals to expose students to the process of approaching research questions and
pursuing those questions.
 Frankel and Devers (2000) support the authors above in professing that the main
aspect in developing a qualitative study lies within composing good research questions.
These two authors realize that many researchers have little experience in composing research
questions, due to discovering new theoretical knowledge. In order to expand upon this
knowledge, novice researchers can learn to write good research questions by drafting an
exploratory research question, and then conducting a number of studies to clarify and define
key terms. In this manner, more specific, narrow questions can evolve and provide a clear
direction for the study. Law (2004) adds that a novice qualitative researcher may even
conduct a literature review of the initial research questions or conduct a small study on the
research questions, in order to determine whether or not the research questions are clear and
researchable.
Quality questions are critical to provide accurate research and findings in qualitative
research. Choosing the appropriate research questions drives both the method and findings of
research. Utilizing complex research questions can help to clarify theoretical frameworks and
determine the direction the research will take. In order to form a complex research question,
identify an overarching question and the basis of the inquiry. Kline (2008) suggested
presenting the central research questions to identify what the researcher is wanting to
accomplish by performing the research. Stating research questions outright can also assist
novice researchers in guiding their research design. Refer to Figure 1 for an illustration of the
question development process.
Figure 1. The process of Forming Research Questions in Qualitative research
OVERACHING QUESTION:
WHY

DRIVING QUESTIONS:
WHO/WHAT/WHERE/WHEN

THEORETICAL OR CONTEXTUAL
FRAMEWORK

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
 QUESTIONS & FRAMEWORK
Once the overarching questions have been established, driving questions should be
added to serve as clarifiers of the purpose of the research (Morgan, 2008). The focus of the
questions allows the emergence of the theoretical context to become clearer to the researcher.
Determining the population and purpose of the research establishes the framework for
thequestioning to become specific in its inquiry. Thus, establishing the relationship between
the questions and the framework.
Once the research questions have been developed, the researcher must organize the
introduction accordingly. Regardless of whether the questions are directly stated in the
research article, the background to the problem, problem statement, and purpose of the
research shouldbe organized in a manner that explains the direction the research has chosen
and keeps the research study narrowly focused.
The final implication for qualitative researchers is to utilize strategies to minimize
researcher bias, beginning with the development of research questions. There are three main
sections during research in which bias can occur: before conducting the study, while
conducting a study, and after conducting a study (Cook, 2014). When dealing with social
change, a researcher must examine bias from as early as the thought that leads to the research
question. Ioannidis (2008) outlined several questions to ask when identifying subtle pre-study
bias or hidden research agendas. These include asking questions such as, “Are both benefits
and harms appropriately considered?” and “Are there any obvious or possible conflicts of
interest (not only financial)?” (p. 164).
Conclusion
The development of effective research questions in ethnographic studies is necessary to
determine the correct method of research, the direction, and lens through which to view the
results of the research and to minimize researcher bias. Using emergent design to develop
questions by eliminating questions that do not move the research in the direction the research
wishes to explore, helps to clarify the most effective method of research. Specifying the
process in the introduction section of the research results allows the transparency necessary
for the reader to see the process used for question development. The use of a question map
aids this elimination process and can be used to minimize bias when determining the
direction of the research.
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