Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

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Children and Youth Services Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

Passports out of poverty: Raising access to higher education for care leavers
in Australia
Patricia McNamaraa,⁎, Andrew Harveyb, Lisa Andrewarthab
a
Department of Clinical and Community Allied Health, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3086, Victoria, Australia
b
Centre for Higher Education Equity and Diversity Research, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Access to education has long been associated with lifelong wellbeing and poverty prevention. Indeed, education
Care leaver is often described as a ‘passport out of poverty’. For care leavers, higher education access can create powerful
Foster care social and economic protection, but poverty often creates both material and cultural barriers to this access. The
Kinship care research described here explored the access and achievement of care leavers in Australian higher education. The
Poverty
study employed mixed methods, including a literature review; examination of national data sets; an online
Higher education
survey of public universities; and interviews with out-of-home care (OOHC) providers. Here we present quali-
University
tative findings from the online survey and interviews which captured the perspectives of senior representatives
within both the higher education and community service sectors. These findings reveal the role that childhood
poverty, trauma and disadvantage play in affecting education outcomes for many growing up in OOHC. Learning
deficits and disabilities clearly affect academic preparedness for higher education. Poverty can also limit the
ability to afford the costs of university study and reduce the capacity to visualise and construct an educational
future. Educational disadvantage is often combined with limited institutional support for care leavers, exacer-
bating their marginalisation from higher education. Our findings highlight both a paucity of Australian research
in this area and the disturbingly small number of care leavers who successfully transition to higher education.
Raising university access requires specific measures to redress poverty, including financial support for care
leavers beyond the age of 18, and study bursaries, fee remission and accommodation support. More broadly,
cultural change is needed to address the consequences of poverty, which often include low educational ex-
pectations and horizons.

1. Introduction
Access to education, especially higher education, has long been
associated with lifelong wellbeing and poverty prevention. Indeed,
education is often described as a ‘passport out of poverty’ (Hope
Foundation, 2015). In this paper, we review the qualitative findings of a
national research project into the university access and achievement of
care leavers. Our project captured the perspectives of senior re-
presentatives within both the higher education and community service
sectors. We begin by describing how a background of poverty and
placement in out-of-home care can manifest in cumulative educational
disadvantage. We highlight the low rate of care leavers transitioning to
university, which is problematic given the link between higher educa-
tion and increased employment, earning potential and psycho-social
benefits. We then describe the material and methods used for our
survey of university policies and practices, and our interviews with key
stakeholders in the community service sector. The survey and interview
findings are presented, along with some illustrative case studies. Fi-
nally, we discuss implications for the higher education and community
service sectors, and provide recommendations for future national and
cross-national research.
Poverty clearly affects parental capacity to care safely for children.
Where families are faced with financial hardship they are more fre-
quently challenged by mental health issues, alcohol and other drug
misuse, violence, unemployment and housing insecurity (Australian
Council of Social Services, 2014; McLachlan, Gilfillan, & Gordon, 2013).
These stressors impact heavily on intra-familial relationships, including
caregiving. Notwithstanding this, most families challenged by poverty
manifest enormous resilience in maintaining good care of their chil-
dren. However, environmental pressures on poorer families are asso-
ciated with higher incidence of neglect and abuse (Australian Institute
of Family Studies, 2015; Garbarino, 1977). Neglect and abuse increase
the likelihood of children being removed from their biological families
and placed in out-of-home care (OOHC) (Australian Institute of Family

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Clinical and Community Allied Health – Social Work, La Trobe University, Bundoora, 3086, Victoria, Australia.
E-mail addresses: p.mcnamara@latrobe.edu.au (P. McNamara), Andrew.Harvey@latrobe.edu.au (A. Harvey), l.andrewartha@latrobe.edu.au (L. Andrewartha).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.07.015
Received 13 July 2017; Accepted 18 July 2017
0190-7409/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Please cite this article as: McNamara, P., Children and Youth Services Review (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.07.015
P. McNamara et al.
Studies, 2015).
Around 43,000 children live in out-of-home care in Australia and
this number has risen every year over the past decade (Australian
Institute of Health and Welfare, 2015a). Many children enter care as
babies, toddlers or pre-schoolers. Approximately 44% of children ad-
mitted to out-of-home care are aged under 5 years (Australian Institute
of Health and Welfare, 2015a). Already they have often experienced
considerable trauma as a result of abuse, neglect and attachment dis-
ruption; this usually has long term impacts on formal and informal
learning (Perry & Szalavitz, 2006; van der Kolk, 2005). For children
who enter OOHC at school age, placement outside the family can result
in cumulative educational disadvantage (Bromfield, Higgins, Osborn,
Panozzo, & Richardson, 2005; Fernandez, 2008; Townsend, 2012).
These children have commonly had disrupted and inadequate schooling
prior to placement. Trauma and early attachment disruption frequently
manifest in challenging classroom behaviour along with concentration
and learning difficulties (Perry & Szalavitz, 2006; van der Kolk, 2005).
Moves within the care system exacerbate existing learning deficits and
difficulties and increase alienation from the educational process
(Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2007, 2011). The trauma of
past abuse and neglect; health and mental health issues; behavioural
problems; involvement in the criminal justice system; absenteeism;
bullying; lack of support from family; and lack of additional assistance
from the school all contribute to educational problems for those in
OOHC (CREATE Foundation, 2006; Fernandez, 2008;
Frederick & Goddard, 2010; McFarlane, 2010; Townsend, 2012). Stu-
dents from poverty who enter OOHC often also have limited aspirations
for education and constrained expectations invested in them (Creed,
Tilbury, Buys, & Crawford, 2011).
While poverty increases the likelihood of a child being placed in
out-of-home care, a young person is also often exposed to poverty when
they ‘age out’ of care. When adolescents in OOHC approach the care
leaving age (usually 18 years of age in Australia) they are at high risk of
material disadvantage (Stein & Munro, 2008). One reason for this rea-
lity is the substantial decrease in formal support for this group that
occurs at 18 years of age, which often results in an accelerated transi-
tion to independence. This group experiences high rates of home-
lessness (Thoresen & Liddiard, 2011), unemployment and poor educa-
tional outcomes (Mendes, 2009a, 2009b; Mendes & Moslehuddin,
2006). Relatively few young people in care complete the full six years of
secondary education and an even smaller number progress to any form
of tertiary education (Cashmore, Paxman, & Townsend, 2007;
Townsend, 2012).
The term ‘care leaver’ is somewhat contested. The Care Leavers'
Association UK, for example, considers a care leaver to be any adult
who spent time in care before the age of 18 (Care Leavers' Association,
2013). Similarly, in Australia, leaving care is formally defined as ‘the
cessation of legal responsibility by the state for young people living in
out-of-home care under a child protection order from the Children's
Court’ (Mendes, Snow, & Baidawi, 2013, p. 6). For the purposes of the
research described in this paper a ‘care leaver’ is defined as any adult
who spent some time in care before the age of 18 (Australian
Government, 2015).
The proportion of care leavers who transition to university is not
accurately tracked in Australia. However, it has been estimated to be
around 1%, compared with 26% of all young people in the general
population who transition to higher education (Mendes,
Michell, & Wilson, 2014). The percentage of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander care leavers who progress to higher education will al-
most certainly be even lower due to compound disadvantage (Harvey,
Andrewartha, & McNamara, 2015; Harvey, McNamara,
Andrewartha, & Luckman, 2015). Indigenous students overall are
under-represented in higher education, constituting only 1.6% of do-
mestic undergraduate enrolments (Koshy & Seymour, 2015) despite
representing 3% of the general population (Australian Institute of
Health and Welfare, 2015b). In addition to this general under-
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Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
representation, the rate of Indigenous children in out-of-home care
nationally is around nine times the rate for non-Indigenous children.
While Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders comprise only 5% of all
children aged 0–17 years in Australia, they constitute 35% of all chil-
dren in out-of-home care (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare,
2015a). These alarming statistics reflect the enduring poverty and
socio-cultural marginalisation that remains the lived experience of
many Australian Indigenous families.
The research described here explored access and achievement of
care leavers in Australian higher education (Harvey, McNamara et al.,
2015). The study employed mixed methods, including a literature re-
view; examination of national data sets; an online survey of public
universities; and interviews with OOHC service providers. Here we
present qualitative findings from the online survey and interviews. This
research project was conducted by La Trobe University in the state of
Victoria and funded through an external research grant provided by the
National Centre for Student Equity in Higher Education (NCSEHE) at
Curtin University in Western Australia. The aims of the study were to
map higher education for care leavers to increase the visibility of the
out-of-home care cohort; and to provide a strong information base for
future policy development and research.
Despite the paucity of data, available evidence suggests that
Australian care leavers rarely transition to higher education. Factors
that may increase the likelihood of care leavers pursing higher educa-
tion include: staying in stable care, receiving social support after
leaving care (Cashmore et al., 2007), having advocacy for the practical
components of enrolling and applying for scholarships, and the high
expectations of carers, workers and teachers (Jurczyszyn & Tilbury,
2012). Higher education access can clearly create powerful social and
economic protection, but poverty often creates both material and cul-
tural barriers to this access. Care leavers are thus largely excluded from
the level of education that brings lifetime rewards, including vital
protection from poverty in adulthood. The private benefits of higher
education include lower rates of unemployment. In 2012, the un-
employment rate for people aged 25 to 54 with a Bachelor degree was
2.7%, while the unemployment rate for those whose highest qualifi-
cation was Year 11 or below was 6.6% (Australian Institute of Health
and Welfare, 2013). Higher education graduates also benefit from in-
creased in lifetime wages:
‘Over the working lifetime of a university graduate the financial gain
generated from income is more than $1.5 million or 70% more than
those whose highest qualification is Year 12, even after taking into
account the foregone earnings of students while they study.’
(Payne & Percival, 2008, p. 1)
However, being able to find a more fulfilling job, achieving better
personal and family health, higher levels of education for one's children
and improved overall life satisfaction are perhaps equally important for
many who hold university degrees; these outcomes also buffer against
poverty (Arnau-Sabatés & Gilligan, 2015; Lomax-Smith, Gibson,
Watson, & Webster, 2011). Higher education should also be an en-
riching social and emotional experience; for care leavers whose life
experiences have too often been impoverished and who are commonly
marginalised as young adults, an undergraduate experience can result
in important personal growth, enhanced identity formation and im-
proved social capital (Noble-Carr, Barker, McArthur, & Woodman,
2014).
The potential of higher education to protect graduates, including
care leavers, from poverty is well established. However, the extremely
low university participation rates of Australian care leavers have not
been coherently addressed, with no public national agenda for im-
provement. In the higher education system, care leavers do not con-
stitute one of the six identified equity groups that the Australian
Government monitors (Department of Education, Employment and
Training, 1990). Consequently, institutional data is not collected to
monitor their access, participation and retention rates. Research that
P. McNamara et al.
has been undertaken on Australian care leavers in higher education has
typically been project-based and geographically specific (e.g. Cashmore
et al., 2007; Jurczyszyn & Tilbury, 2012; Paxman, Tully,
Burke, & Watson, 2014) rather than being informed by national datasets
and/or driven by government policy. Similarly, there would appear to
be a pervasive subculture of low expectations and limited educational
support across the OOHC sector (Harvey, McNamara et al., 2015) which
creates barriers at all levels of learning including higher education.
In contrast to Australia, there has been considerable research into
the higher education experiences of care leavers in the United Kingdom.
The first major research project to highlight the poor higher education
outcomes of care leavers was the By Degrees project (Jackson,
Ajayi, & Quigley, 2005). This research tracked 50 care leavers through
the British higher education system, identifying the barriers and en-
ablers to their aspiration, participation and achievement. Findings from
the research encouraged universities to increase their support of care
leavers through bursaries, accommodation support and outreach ac-
tivities, and led to significant legislative changes targeting care leavers
in higher education (All-Party Parliamentary Group for Looked After
Children and Care Leavers, 2012; Department for Business Innovation
and Skills, 2014). In turn, these measures led to an increase in the
proportion of care leavers transitioning to higher education in the UK.
Only 1% of 19-year-old care leavers were in higher education in 2003
(Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2014) but this figure
increased to 6% by 2013 (Department for Education, 2013). Following
the By Degrees project, the Young People from a Public Care Back-
ground: Pathways to Education in Europe (YiPPEE) research project
confirmed the pervasiveness of education disadvantage for care leavers
across five European countries (Jackson & Cameron, 2012).
In the United States, a substantial amount of research has been
conducted into the college experiences of people from foster care
backgrounds. Professor Peter Pecora led two significant, large-scale
research projects which highlighted the low college completion rates of
this group (Pecora et al., 2005; Pecora et al., 2006). Pecora (2012)
noted that foster care alumni care benefit from: encouragement from
caseworkers and foster families to plan for college; college-preparatory
programs; college tuition waivers; and on-campus supports. In addition,
staying in foster care beyond the age of 18 has been positively asso-
ciated with greater college participation (Courtney & Dworsky, 2005;
Courtney, Dworsky, Lee, & Raap, 2010) which, in turn, has been found
to translate into better employment outcomes (Hook & Courtney,
2011).
In stark contrast to the UK and the US, Australia has given little
research or policy attention to care leavers in higher education. There is
a pressing need to fill Australian knowledge gaps around education
outcomes during and post OOHC, to challenge low academic expecta-
tions for this cohort, and to better support transition to higher educa-
tion.
1.1. Research questions
The study sought to address the following research questions:
1. What higher education policies, support structures, and procedures
are currently in place for care leavers, and what could be improved?
2. What are the major barriers to higher education access and success
for care leavers, and what additional support is required?
2. Material and methods
2.1. Ethics approval
Ethics approval for this research project was granted by the La
Trobe University Education Faculty Human Ethics Committee (ref:
R026/14).
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Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
2.2. Survey of university policies and practices
Our research included a survey of Australian public universities. The
survey was designed to determine the types of policies, support struc-
tures and procedures universities currently have in place that specifi-
cally target care leavers, and how universities can increase higher
education access and support for care leavers. The survey was designed
using the Qualtrics online survey tool. Invitations to complete the on-
line survey were emailed to senior equity representatives at all 37
Australian public universities. A total of 28 universities responded to
the survey, representing a 76% response rate.
2.3. Interviews within the community service sector
We interviewed eleven senior representatives from major out-of-
home care services providers across Australia. The interviews were
semi-structured and covered: data collection in relation to educational
progress and outcomes; expectations for university study; major facil-
itators and barriers for higher education; and case studies of successful
and unsuccessful transitions to university. Interviews were transcribed
and analysed for content and themes using NVivo 10 software (QSR
International, 2012). An interpretative phenomenological approach
was employed in the analysis of interview data (Smith,
Flowers, & Larkin, 2009).
3. Results
1. What higher education policies, support structures, and procedures
are currently in place for care leavers, and what could be improved?
3.1. Survey of higher education institutions
Survey respondents from 28 universities completed the survey. The
results show that few universities had specific policies, support struc-
tures, or procedures in place for care leavers. Specifically, only a min-
ority of universities employed the following types of support targeted to
care leavers: recruitment policies or guidelines (only two universities);
admission policies (five universities); outreach programs (four uni-
versities); scholarships (one university); accommodation support (zero
universities); data collection procedures (one university); progress
tracking procedures (one university); relationships with out-of-home
care services providers (five universities). While established initiatives
for care leavers are uncommon, there is evidence of recent steps to
better support care leavers at two universities. One university had re-
cently advertised for a care coordinator whose primary role will be to
increase the number of care leavers applying to the university, and
another university had recently established a working group which will
explore the particular support needs of care leavers.
Survey respondents more commonly described general equity
measures that might cater to care leavers indirectly. Universities typi-
cally employ a suite of measures targeted to students in the equity
groups, most commonly students from low socio-economic back-
grounds, which may encompass some care leavers. As one survey re-
spondent commented, ‘We have a range of recruitment policies which
target students from non-traditional and low SES [socio-economic status]
backgrounds, so these students would be captured to the extent that they may
be a sub-set of such groups.’
Our survey results show that it is rare for universities to collect data
on care leaver status or to monitor the progress of this group of stu-
dents. Only one of the surveyed universities reported systematically
collecting data about care leaver status as part of widening participa-
tion activities. In this case, the reporting of care leaver status was op-
tional and, since some students may choose not to disclose their care
background, it was likely to result in an underestimate of numbers.
Three universities reported that there may be some limited and de-
centralised data collection of care leaver status at their institution, for
P. McNamara et al.
example in (confidential) client records held by student support ser-
vices. Only one university is tracking the progress of care leavers par-
ticipating in equity initiatives, such as transition programs.
Respondents were asked what higher education institutions could
do to increase access for care leavers. A total of 23 survey respondents
provided a response to this question. The most frequently made sug-
gestions were to: offer targeted scholarships and financial support
(mentioned by nine respondents); build partnerships with out-of-home
care service providers (nine respondents); and work closely with sec-
ondary schools to support students in out-of-home care (five re-
spondents). Respondents were asked what higher education institutions
could do to better support care leavers while they are studying. A total
of 21 respondents provided a response to this question. The most fre-
quently made suggestions were to: provide scholarships and financial
support (mentioned by ten respondents); provide accommodation
support (seven respondents); ensure care leavers are linked to student
support services (six respondents); and create institutional awareness
and recognition of the group in equity policies and initiatives (five re-
spondents).
2. What are the major barriers to higher education access and success
for care leavers, and what additional support is required?
3.2. Interviews with the community service sector
3.2.1. Tracking educational outcomes
One common theme arising from the interviews was the lack of
systematic monitoring of educational progress occurring within com-
munity service organisations. Frustration was expressed that appro-
priate tracking of learning outcomes was not possible under current
funding arrangements. Development of centralised education data
management systems at state and national levels was considered a
priority by several interviewees:
‘What's missing is a centralised data system to record the educational
outcomes for children, young people in our services.’
The number of young people from out-of-home care transitioning to
further education was estimated as being very small, with about 90% of
that small group attending Technical and Further Education (TAFE) or
undertaking apprenticeships rather than transitioning directly to uni-
versity. A number of interviewees observed that young people leaving
care are often unprepared to transition to higher education at 18 years
of age. The phenomenon of young people returning to study in their late
twenties or early thirties was mentioned by several interviewees.
3.2.2. Raising aspirations and expectations
Another theme across the interviews related to the importance of
aspirations and expectations on likelihood to participate in higher
education. While children in out-of-home care sometimes aspire to at-
tend university in the early years, these aspirations can diminish during
adolescence. A lack of self-confidence can be a major barrier to higher
education participation:
‘It takes a level of confidence and self-belief to put yourself in a position
where you are going to learn particular things. We know that from adults
who have left school early, and they later go on in life to further educate
themselves. They've got to get over that hurdle of, ‘Am I able to do that?’.
It was suggested that aspirations for higher education are heavily
influenced by carer expectations and experiences. Carers who have
participated in higher education appear to hold higher expectations for
the young people in their care. However, many carers have experienced
educational disadvantage themselves and this is associated with lower
expectations for the young people in their care:
‘We have a high percentage of carers that have low education
(achievement) and they've had low aspirations themselves. And we know
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Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
the impact that that has on the kids that they have in their home.’
3.2.3. Academic preparedness
Interviewees confirmed national benchmark testing in Australia
(National Assessment Program – Literacy and Numeracy - NAPLAN)
which has demonstrated for some time that young people growing up in
OOHC perform considerably below average on literacy and numeracy
measures. Children in care also often presented as unsettled and dis-
ruptive in the classroom. Neurosequential manifestations of trauma are
clearly not uncommon; concentration, cognitive processing and visual/
auditory memory issues are felt to frequently create learning barriers.
Absenteeism and exclusion from school make for further discontinuity
and can constitute case management challenges for community service
organisations and for schools:
‘If you've gone year after year where you're gradually getting further and
further behind, because a lot of days you don't go to school because of
what's happening at home, or you do go to school and you're sitting inside
the principal's office, or you're sent home because of your behaviours,
you naturally fall behind academically, even though you've got absolutely
the potential.’
Interviewees described many young people as not continuing at
school beyond Year 10. Very few complete the six years of secondary
education. A small number (generally estimated by interviewees at
around 5%) transition to TAFE programs; these programs do provide
pathways for a small percentage of care leavers to transition to uni-
versity:
‘They talk about wanting to go to university, but I think towards the end
of schooling those aspirations change and they start to talk about TAFE
and doing VET [vocational education and training], so they'll often go
and do the VET courses and the less academic stream of study.’
3.2.4. Creating opportunities
Interviewees consistently agreed that one major barrier to partici-
pation in higher education is the substantial decrease in formal support
that occurs for people in care at 18 years of age, which often results in
an accelerated transition to independence.
‘The notion of moving kids on at 18, and the pressure that that puts on
kids to actually start to join the adult world, is horrendous, and they
shouldn't be asked to do that. I mean we don't ask our own kids to do
that!’
It was considered vital to provide increased funding for young
people to remain in care, especially in long term foster or kinship care
placements. It is also clear from our data that many young people are
unready to transition to higher education immediately after leaving
secondary school. Some are unready to embark upon university study
until they have begun to work through trauma carried into young adult
life from a childhood marked by loss, neglect and abuse. Sometimes
access to strong professional support may actually delay transition to
university as processing of early trauma is prioritised.
‘Young people who have a higher perception of support from people
whom they consider as significant in their lives, so not friends, not family,
you know examples of people would be support workers or other adults,
other teachers in educational settings, when they have higher expecta-
tions of support from those people, they're actually less likely to be en-
gaged in education (upon leaving school).’
Life course milestones, such as the establishment of stable adult
relationships or commencement at school of their own young children,
sometimes create opportunities for care leaver engagement in higher
education. This might occur when the care leaver has reached their
later twenties or thirties. Funding and other programmatic supports are
needed to support transition to higher education by those care leavers
P. McNamara et al. Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

who have moved into the category of mature age students. Other bar- access to those residential units might help as well, as that would provide
riers to higher education frequently mentioned in the interviews were: them with living support, emotional support, mentoring and good people
housing issues, financial issues; lack of interdepartmental collaboration; around them that are motivated to help them keep going.’
lack of carer educational training; lack of birth parent support for on-
going education; and lack of on-campus mentorship and support.
4. Case studies
3.2.5. Indigenous experiences
The following case studies were collected as part of our interviews
One interviewee, who represented an Indigenous-controlled pro-
with the community service sector and highlight some of the key
vider of child and family welfare services, confirmed that the number of
themes identified the study. The first case study, ‘Sarah’, is an example
Indigenous care leavers transitioning to tertiary education is extremely
of a successful transition to university. Her experience demonstrates
small. In over ten years of managing out-of-home care, the interviewee
several key issues: the importance of providing financial and accom-
could not recall one case of a young person from the program transi-
modation assistance to allow care leavers to attend university; the ad-
tioning directly to university. A number of young people had com-
ditional emotional and social pressures that care leavers may experi-
menced TAFE courses, however, including several who had returned to
ence at university; and the benefit of continuity of care beyond 18 years
study in their twenties when their lives had stabilised. For Indigenous
of age.
care leavers living in remote communities campus based accommoda-
tion, academic and psycho-social supports are clearly important facil-
4.1. SARAH
itators of successful transition to higher education.
It was estimated that around 50% of caregivers employed by one
‘A young woman in foster care wanted to go to university to study ar-
Indigenous-controlled organisation had experienced tertiary education;
chitecture, and she was one of the ones that got fee support and support
this appeared to impact positively on carers' educational aspirations
from the university college for accommodation. But she really struggled
and advocacy for the children in their care. Indigenous young people in
when she got there because she left a very supportive and loving foster
care experience some unique barriers to successful secondary education
family and they really encouraged her to do this … but she really missed
completion and higher education transition, especially intergenera-
them and so it was really difficult for her and she wasn't very good at
tional trauma, including Stolen Generation experience in the family.
expressing her feelings and so the foster carer was able to pick up; she
Many young people also need to attend to cultural and family respon-
had that capacity to be able to pick up when she was talking to her on the
sibilities; this is especially true of those from remote communities:
phone and it'd be nothing for them to drive down on a Thursday even
‘They have to go back to country to maintain responsibilities…lore and though she might have been coming home on a Saturday …but they'd
culture…they've always got this stuff going on in their head and they do drive down there because they knew that she needed to see them. She's
get homesick.’ doing fine now.’
As a result, this group may not be ready to transition into higher The second case study, ‘Kara’, is an example of an unsuccessful
education until later in life: transition to university. Kara had high levels of aspiration and persis-
tence but, like many care leavers, had experienced early educational
‘So for Aboriginal kids in out-of-home care they want to revisit [their
challenges and disrupted schooling and was academically unprepared
country and family], and be part of something that they've sort of missed
for university study.
out on along the way perhaps. They may be ready for tertiary education
in their later 20s when maybe they're starting to form other relationships
4.2. KARA
themselves and get a bit more stability in their lives.’
The most useful interventions to support transition into higher ‘There was a young woman who really aspired to go to uni[versity] and
education were described by interviewees as: mental health responses; she did get in, obviously with the disadvantage assistance. But her lit-
behaviour management strategies; mentoring; carer training; enhance- eracy skills held her back; she couldn't really write, couldn't read that
ment of birth parent engagement and aspirations; and academic tu- well and it was such a struggle, so she did have to keep repeating and in
toring. A team approach to welfare and educational case management the end she gave up; she kept going back and then trying again and then
was also stressed, along with the importance of building trust through gave up. So the last I heard she had children and I don't know if she ever
continuity of supportive relationships. One organisation offers financial went back but it was her literacy skills that were, probably too long in-
support for tutoring and extra-curricular activities to foster and kinship grained to correct at that late stage perhaps, I don't know. We got all the
carers. Another described mentoring and referral policies managed by a tutoring going but it was really hard to shift. She was dogged, she was
team of Educational Consultants: determined, but it just didn't happen…’
‘…we have an education policy that outlines what the Education Team is
The third case study, ‘Alex’, highlights the choice that Indigenous
doing within our organisation. And the Education Consultants, provide one-
care leavers often have to make between studying at university and
on-one support for students, or we provide training to teachers to have a
returning home, often to remote locations, to address cultural and fa-
better understanding of the needs of the specific child, or about children in
mily responsibilities.
foster care or children with a traumatised background.’
Suggestions for university and government policy and program-
4.3. ALEX
matic improvements included: waiving university and TAFE fees for
care leavers; offering financial, housing and social support on campus;
‘I've got a young man that I'm supporting; he came to the city to study, but
and delivering transitional programs to develop academic skills. Of
earlier this year decided to go home …He lives in a remote community
these improvements, financial support and housing support were con-
with his family, he has cultural connections and responsibilities. A lot of
sidered particularly important:
these young people know and are aware of all their responsibilities which
‘I really think scrapping HECS [Higher Education Contributions Scheme] are very strong and they'll be drawn back to country every time, that's
fees for kids who have been in care needs to happen so that they've got part of their societal role to look after country and sacred sites; if they're
some incentive to keep on going… For young people who can't live at not there to do it, then things can pretty much go haywire…He isn't likely
home, maybe if there's some allocation within the residential colleges on to return to study. What I′d like to see is study going to him [though
University campuses for kids who have been in care to have a scholarship distance education]. I was trying to access correspondence courses, [for]

5
P. McNamara et al.
rangers and health workers, all those type of qualifications that will help
them better their community, and help them stay on country and help
them look after their community and the [whole] community - not just
country, but people as well.’
5. Discussion
5.1. Findings and implications
Our survey and interview findings confirm that care leavers are a
group whose academic potential and educational needs are consistently
underestimated and overlooked. The survey of Australian universities
confirmed that few specific policies exist at institutional level to im-
prove access and achievement of care leavers. Results suggest that it is
rare for universities to collect data on care leaver status or to monitor
the progress of this group of students. While a significant proportion of
care leavers will generally be included in broader equity categories,
such as low socio-economic status backgrounds, the extremely low le-
vels of access for care leavers highlight the need for direct and explicit
support for this group. In the UK, for example, care leavers are formally
recognised as an under-represented group in higher education and their
participation is closely monitored through the Higher Education
Statistics Agency. Universities have comprehensive policies relating to
care leavers and offer a range of support through bursaries, accom-
modation, outreach, admissions policies, and dedicated staff
(Department for Business Innovation and Skills, 2014).
Australian universities could be more active in developing targeted
practices and policies for care leavers. In particular, they could provide
increased financial and accommodation support. Access to financial
support is critical as care leavers often come from backgrounds of ex-
treme socio-economic disadvantage. Universities could introduce tui-
tion fee waivers for care leavers wishing to purse higher education; this
would potentially promote access and improved participation. South
Australia, Victoria and Western Australia have already introduced fee
waivers for care leavers wishing to pursue vocational education and
training at TAFE institutes (Beauchamp, 2014) but there are no
equivalent initiatives for higher education. Cost-of-living scholarships
and residential scholarships for care leavers will also help financially
support care leavers while they are studying.
Universities could also provide increased academic support where
needed to compensate for disrupted schooling and time away from
study, as well as ‘wrap around’ supports such as personal advisors,
mentors, tutoring and counselling. A designated care coordinator could
be appointed at institutions, and the availability of support services
could be better promoted to care leavers through marketing and student
service areas. In addition, universities could incorporate the out-of-
home group in both their outreach and in-reach activities, working
closely with educational stakeholders and community service organi-
sations.
Our interviews revealed the difficulties faced by community service
organisations in collecting and monitoring their own data on educa-
tional outcomes and care leaver transitions. Organisations require
support to better monitor academic progress and introduce centralised
data collection. The interviews also reveal a culture of relatively low
educational expectations for care leavers. Further work is required to
promote the aspirations and expectations of carers, case workers, para-
professional staff, and others who support children in care. At the heart
of this cultural change lies greater education and training, and com-
munity service organisations need support to deliver this education and
to advise and support those who work with young people in care.
The interviews also revealed specific issues with Indigenous chil-
dren in care, including cultural and societal obligations. Given the over-
representation of Indigenous children in care, specific strategies are
required to support their accommodation, cultural and societal needs in
order to provide pathways to higher education. It is important that
6
Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Indigenous communities and peak bodies are closely involved in the
development of these strategies.
5.2. Strengths and limitations
A major strength of our project is that it was the first major research
project to investigate higher education policies, data and practices for
care leavers in Australia. This project was also the first to map uni-
versity practices relating to care leavers at a national level. The survey
captured valuable information regarding the current lack of institu-
tional strategies targeted to care leavers, as well as potential methods
for increasing the higher education access and success of this group. We
also interviewed major OOHC service providers around these themes
for the first time. Several previous studies have involved interviews
with care leavers about their higher education experiences. However,
our project had the unique strength of eliciting a cross-sectoral per-
spective. Our collaborative governance and targeted methodology
profiled the experience and views of senior stakeholder representatives
across Australia in both the community service and higher education
sectors. The findings begin to address major knowledge gaps in this
domain.
The project also had some limitations that should be noted. The
survey responses were strong but not comprehensive. The survey was
distributed to 37 universities and 28 responded, representing a 76%
response rate. This is a healthy sample from which we were able to
make generalisations about the sector. However, nothing could be in-
terpreted from the non-responses. For example, a non-response could
not be interpreted to mean that the university does not have any policy
or support structures in place for care leavers. For the interviews, we
secured participation from a variety of national, multi-state and single
state agencies. However, we were not able to secure participation from
any organisations specifically covering the Northern Territory, South
Australia or Tasmania. Furthermore, we were only able to secure the
participation of one Indigenous-controlled community service organi-
sation.
5.3. Future research
Current education outcomes at all levels for Australian young
people growing up in OOHC are clearly unacceptable. For Indigenous
young people in care the situation is critical. As suggested by this
project's findings, creative interventions aimed at cultural and policy
change along with programmatic development is required; these also
need to be rigorously evaluated. Future national research could thus
focus on both higher education institutions and community service
sector organisations to assess for change, especially in university tran-
sition rates. Future research could also seek to capture the perspectives
of young care leavers themselves. Cross-national research might capi-
talize on existing linkages across the UK, Europe and the US, such as the
International Association for Outcome Based Evaluation and Research
on Family and Children's Services (iaOBERfcs, 2015). A recent national
study in England, led by University of Oxford and University of Bristol,
links out-of-home care placements with serial educational outcomes
(Sebba et al., 2015); this important initiative provides a potential cross-
national research template, perhaps extending current Australian da-
tabase development by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
(2015c). Such collaborations are needed to promote programmatic and
policy modelling and address mutual knowledge gaps.
5.4. Conclusion
Higher education has the capacity to protect care leavers from po-
tential poverty and secure their wellbeing. Effective policy and practice
change in Australia can ensure that more care leavers have the ability to
fulfil their academic potential by attending university; those from
OOHC backgrounds will also be able to access the powerful psycho-
P. McNamara et al. Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

social benefits of campus life. There is, however, opportunity for im-
provement in both the higher education and community service sectors.
Specifically, there is a need for: greater recognition and awareness of
care leavers as an educationally disadvantaged group within all levels
of education, including the higher education sector; systematic and
centralised data collection of education outcomes for those in OOHC
from primary school onward; a focus on increased educational aspira-
tions and expectations within community service organisations and
schools for those growing up in care; and increased financial assistance.
Such cross-sectoral change is needed to provide care leavers with a
passport out of poverty, into higher education, and towards socio-
emotional wellbeing and fulfilling employment.
Conflict of interest
None.
Acknowledgements
This article is based on research funded through an external re-
search grant provided by the National Centre for Student Equity in
Higher Education at Curtin University. The authors would also like to
acknowledge the higher education equity professionals and out-of-
home care managers who gave so generously of their time and wisdom
to enrich this research.

Appendix A. Online survey questions

Question Response type

Recruitment
Are there any recruitment policies or guidelines at your institution that specifically target care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these recruitment policies. Free text
Please describe any other recruitment policies at your institution that may cover care leavers. Free text
Admission
Are there any admission policies at your institution that specifically target care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these admission policies. Free text
Please describe any other admission policies at your institution that may cover care leavers. Free text
Outreach
Are there any outreach programs at your institution that specifically target students from out-of-home care backgrounds? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these outreach programs. Free text
Please describe any other outreach programs at your institution that may include students from out-of-home care backgrounds. Free text
Scholarships
Are there any scholarships at your institution specifically targeted to care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these scholarships. Free text
Please describe any other scholarships that may be available to care leavers. Free text
Accommodation
Are there any accommodation options specifically targeted to care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these accommodation options. Free text
Please describe any other accommodation options that may be available to care leavers. Free text
Other support
Does your institution have any other policies or support programs that are specifically targeted to care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe these policies and support programs. Free text
Data collection and tracking
Does your institution collect any data about care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe the types of data collected. Free text
Does your institution track the progress of care leavers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe how these students are tracked. Free text
Relationships with service providers
Does your institution have any relationships in place with out-of-home care services providers? Yes, No, Unsure
If yes, please describe the relationships. Free text
Facilitators for higher education
What could higher education institutions do to increase access for care leavers? Free text
What could higher education institutions do to better support for care leavers while they are studying? Free text
Please make any further comments here. Free text

Appendix B. Interview guide

Questions Prompts

Service description
Can you please briefly describe your service? Aims, size, location, programs offered

7
P. McNamara et al. Children and Youth Services Review xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx

What are your organisation's goals in relation to the education of young people in out-of- What policies/resources/programs are in place to
home care? actualise these goals?
What is missing? What would need to happen to fill the
gaps?
Data collection - education progress and outcomes
What educational data do you currently keep in relation to educational progress and What key data is missing?
outcomes for young people in out-of-home care - during care and after leaving care? What data might be accessed with additional resources?
What additional resources would be required?
Can you estimate what proportion of your agency's young people in out-of-home care have What is the VET/university split?
transitioned to tertiary education, either VET (vocational education and training, How successful has transition to university proved? e.g.
including TAFE) or university, over the past 5 years? retention rates, graduation rates
What were the outcomes for those who completed
university? e.g. employment rates
Expectations
What proportion of young people in out-of-home care do you think aspire to attend What factors influence the aspirations of this group?
university?
Facilitators for higher education
What currently works well in helping young people transition to university from out-of- What does not work well?
home care?
What are the key factors supporting success in higher education?
Barriers to higher education
What are the main barriers to university for care leavers?
What additional support is required to increase the number of care leavers entering higher
education?
What additional support is required to help care leavers complete their higher education?
Case studies
Can you briefly describe the story of a young person who was unable to successfully access What got in the way for her/him?
higher education but who clearly had the capacity to undertake further study?
Can you describe one success story? What helped make success possible?

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