Professional Documents
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Lab Manual Final Optimized
Lab Manual Final Optimized
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CE 4030
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List of Experiments
1 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION 5
1.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.2 Bernoulli’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Technical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Observing Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.7 Observation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.9 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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3.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.3 Technical Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2.5 Observation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2.6 Model Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.7 Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.2.9 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 GUELPH PERMEAMETER 31
5.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1.2 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.2.3 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2.5 Observation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.2.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.2.8 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6 HYDRAULIC JUMP 40
6.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.1.2 Analysis of hydraulic jump in horizontal rectangular channel . . . . . . 40
6.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.2 Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
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7 IMPACT OF JET 45
7.1 THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
7.1.2 Effect of height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7.1.3 Impact of Jets apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 EXPERIMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.2.4 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.2.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2.7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.2.8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
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List of Figures
7.1 Different target vanes (flat, conical and semi-spherical from left to right) . . . . 46
7.2 Cussons P6233 Impact of Jets apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3 F1–16 Impact of a jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
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1
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
1.1 THEORY
1.1.1 Bernoulli’s Theorem
Bernoulli’s theorem is basically the law of conservation of momentum as applied to a fluid
flow system. It states that for an inviscid, incompressible, irrotational and steady flow along a
streamline the total momentum remains the same.
P V2
+ + z = constant (1.1)
γ 2g
where P = static pressure measured at a side hole, V = fluid velocity, z = vertical elevation of the
fluid. Each term of the above equation represents energy per unit weight and has the dimension
of length and hence is known as the energy head. Here Pγ is called pressure head and represents
2
the pressure energy per unit weight, V2g is called velocity head and represents the kinetic energy
per unit weight, z is called potential head or datum head and represents the potential energy per
unit weight. Sum of all these components is known as the total energy head. When the equation
is applied to any two points, along a streamline in the flow we get:
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 = H = constant (1.2)
γ 2g γ 2g
where subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two points (1) and (2) If the tube is horizontal, the difference
in height can be disregarded. So the above equation becomes:
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ = + (1.3)
γ 2g γ 2g
since z1 = z2
A1 V1 = A2 V2 (1.4)
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1.1.4 Measurements
Static Pressure Head
With the armfield F1-15 apparatus shown in the Figure 1.1, the static pressure head h in meters,
is measured using a manometer directly from a side hole pressure tapping. The static pressure
head is related to the pressure by the following relation (tube is horizontal):
P
h= (1.5)
ρg
This allows Bernoulli’s equation to be written in a revised form:
V12 V2
h1 + = h2 + 2 (1.6)
2g 2g
The total pressure head, ho , can be measured can be measured from a probe with an end hole
2
facing into the flow such that it brings the flow to rest locally at the probe end. Thus ho = h+ V2g
V2
and from Bernoulli’s equation it follows that ho1 = ho2 . The term 2g
is called dynamic head.
Velocity
The velocity of the flow is measured by measuring the volume of the flow, V, over a time period.
Volumetric measurement is generally done using F1-10 hydraulics bench apparatus as shown
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V
in Figure 1.2. This gives the rate of volume flow as: Qv = t
which in turn gives the velocity
of flow through a defined area A.
Qv
V = (1.7)
A
1.2 EXPERIMENT
1.2.1 Aim
To investigate the validity of the Bernoulli equation when applied to the steady flow of water
in a tapered duct.
1.2.2 Method
To measure flow rates and both static and total pressure heads in a rigid convergent/divergent
tube of known geometry for a range of steady flow rates.
1.2.3 Apparatus
• F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
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1.2.5 Procedure
(i) Level the Apparatus
Set up the Bernoulli equation apparatus on the hydraulic bench such that its base is hori-
zontal. This is necessary for accurate height measurement from the manometers.
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top of the manometers (you may need to adjust both valves in order to achieve this); re-
tighten the screw when the manometer levels reach a convenient height. The maximum
volume flow rate will be determined by the need to have the maximum (h1) and minimum
(h5) manometer readings both on scale. If required, the manometer levels can be adjusted
further by using the air bleed screw and the hand pump supplied. The air bleed screw
controls the air flow through the air valve, so, when using the hand pump, the bleed screw
must be open. To retain the hand pump pressure in the system, the screw must be closed
after pumping.
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Volume Collected,V(m3 ) Time to collect,t(sec) Flow rate,Qv (m3 /sec) Area of duct,A(cm2 ) Static head,h(m) Velocity,v(m/sec) Dynamic head(m) Total head(m)
6.16
4.34
2.69
1.54
10
2.69
4.34
6.16
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1.2.8 Discussion
(i) What are the conditions under which the Bernoulli’s equation is valid and are they being
fulfilled in the experiment?
(iii) Is there any restriction to the cross-sectional area that you can have at the junction of the
converging and diverging portions?
1.2.9 Precautions
(i) It is to be ensured that there are no air bubbles in the manometer
(ii) Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions are established
(iii) There should be no leakage between upstream and downstream end of the conduit
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2
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTICS
CURVE
2.1 THEORY
2.1.1 Introduction
In centrifugal pump, the fluid is drawn into the centre of a rotating impeller and is thrown
outwards by centrifugal action. As a result of the high speed of rotation, the liquid acquires a
high kinetic energy. The pressure difference between the suction and delivery sides arises from
the conversion of this kinetic energy into pressure energy. This conversion process of energy
into pressure is done by two main parts:
(i) Impeller: Rotating part that converts the driver energy into kinetic energy.
(ii) Volute (diffuser): The stationary part that converts the energy into pressure.
The impeller is a high speed rotary element with radial vanes integrally cast in it. Liquid flows
outward in the spaces between the vanes and leaves the impeller at a considerably greater ve-
locity with respect to the ground than at the entrance to the impeller. The amount of energy
given to fluid is directly proportional to the velocity of the flow at the edge of the vanes of the
impeller; the faster the impeller is (v = ω ∗ r) or the larger it is, the larger kinetic energy is
transformed to the fluid. This kinetic energy of the fluid coming out of an impeller is harnessed
by creating a resistance to the flow. The first resistance is created by the pump volute (casing)
that catches the liquid and slows it down. The liquid then leaves the pump through a tangential
discharge connection. In the volute the velocity head of the liquid from the impeller is con-
verted into pressure head. In the discharge nozzle, the liquid further decelerates and its velocity
is converted to pressure according to Bernoulli’s principle. The power is applied to the fluid by
the impeller. The impeller is directly connected through a drive shaft to an electric motor. The
work performed in changing the energy stages of a unit mass of the fluid may be expressed as
the total dynamic head (H) of the pump.
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The relative vertical distance between the inlet and outlet may then be expressed as head dif-
ference:
H = Hd + (h2 − h1 ) (2.4)
In the laboratory, centrifugal pump characteristics are investigated using the armfield F1-27
apparatus as shown in the figure below:
2.1.2 Principle
The centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic machine, which increases the pressure energy of a liquid
with the help of centrifugal action. In this type of pump the liquid is imparted a whirling motion
due to the rotation of the impeller which creates a centrifugal head or dynamic pressure. This
pressure head enables the lifting of liquid from a lower level to a higher level.The fluid flows
from the inlet to the impeller centre and out along its blades. The centrifugal force hereby
increases the fluid velocity and consequently also the kinetic energy is transformed to pressure.
Centrifugal pumps are fluid- kinetic machines designed for power increase within a rotating
Impeller. Therefore it is also called the hydrodynamic pumping principle. According to this
principle, the fluid is accelerated through the impeller. In the outlet connection of the centrifugal
pump, the resulting increase in speed is converted into delivery head.
2.1.4 Efficiency
The efficiency is an important factor in selecting a pump and it represents the ratio between
energy inputs (from motor) to energy output (to the flow) of the pump.
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2.2 EXPERIMENT
2.2.1 Aim
• To investigate the operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump used to transport water
• Explore characteristic curve of varying head versus the volumetric flow rate
2.2.2 Apparatus
• Hydraulics bench which provides one of the two pumps used during this experiment, and
allows the volume flow rate to be measured by timed volume collection
• Centrifugal Pump
• Stopwatch
• Pressure Gauges
2.2.3 Procedure
Single Pump Operation
(i) Empty the tank and set the inverter to the value of 50 Hz and run the machine.
(ii) Note down the initial readings for inlet head, outlet head and also the pump power input
(watts)
(iii) Now open the valve a little and allow some water to flow into the tank.
(iv) Note down the time taken to fill the tank by 5 litres from the measuring tube on the side
of the equipment.
(v) At this point also note down the values from the for inlet head, outlet head and the pump
power input values.
(vi) Now increase the flow more by opening the valve further and repeat steps 4 to 6.
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(viii) Perform the above steps 1-7 for frequencies: 45, 40, 35, and 30 Hz.
Conversion of frequency into RPM: The frequency of the pump is multiplied by 56 to know
the RPM of the pump. The following table gives the speed of the pump for the corresponding
frequency:
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S No. Speed(rpm) Volume of water(L) Time to collect(s) Inlet head(mm of Hg) Outlet Head(m) Power input(KW) Inlet head(m) Discharge(cms) Total head(m) Power(KW) Efficiency(%)
10
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2.2.5 Discussion
(i) Explain how the pump characteristics curves will help in choosing the pump?
(ii) By comparing the curves of head against flow rate and overall efficiency against flow rate
determine the optimum operating point for different speeds of the pump.
(iii) Discuss about the performance curves of single pump and parallel pumps for same speed.
Do we get double the flow rates for parallel pump? Give reasons for any differences
observed.
2.2.6 Precautions
(i) Prime the pump to remove the air completely before starting the pump.
(ii) After each change in the valve opening let the flow stabilize before taking readings.
17
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
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3
ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES
3.1 THEORY
3.1.1 Introduction
There is a pressure drop when a fluid flows in a pipe because energy is required to overcome
the viscous or frictional forces exerted by the walls of the pipe on the moving fluid. In addition
to the energy lost due to frictional forces, the flow also loses energy as it goes through fittings,
such as valves, elbows, contractions and expansions. This loss in pressure is often due to the
fact that flow separates locally as it moves through such fittings. The pressure loss in pipe flows
is commonly referred to as head loss. The frictional losses are referred to as major losses while
losses through fittings, etc, are called minor losses. Together they make up the total head losses
for pipe flows.
18
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
The plot of f versus Re is usually referred to as Moody diagram and is shown below:
Two types of flow may exist in pipe: Laminar and Turbulent. In laminar flow frcitional
resistance is mostly due to viscous resistance of fluid to flow and h ∝ u. In turbulent flow,
frictional resistance is due to resistance offered by viscosity of fluid and surface roughness of
the conduit and h ∝ un .
where h = head loss and u = fluid velocity.
The theoretical formulation for laminar flow is:
64
f= (3.4)
Re
19
hange E hange E
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F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
For turbulent flow in a smooth pipe, a well-known curve fit to experimental data is given
by:
f = 0.316 ∗ Re−0.25 (3.5)
In laboratory, we determine head loss or friction factor using armfield F1-18 apparatus as
shown below:
3.2 EXPERIMENT
3.2.1 Aim
To investigate the head loss due to friction when the water through a pipe and to determine the
associated friction factor. Both variables are to be determined over a range of flow rates and
their characteristics identified for both laminar and turbulent flows.
3.2.2 Apparatus
• F1-10 Hydraulics Bench which allows to measure flow by timed volume collection.
• F1-18 Pipe Friction Apparatus.
• Stopwatch to allow us to determine the flow rate of water.
• Thermometer
• Measuring cylinder for measuring very low flow rates
20
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
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C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
3.2.4 Procedure
(i) Check for a constant head in the reservoir tank.
(ii) Change head and try to make it constant by opening the valve.
(iii) Allow a minimum flow to occur when the head is constant by opening the tap.
(iv) Collect volume of water for t seconds and note down the readings for Head 1 and Head 2
(mercury levels)
(v) Repeat the step 4 for 12 different (increasing) flows through the valve.
21
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
(vi) Make sure that there are no fluctuations in the readings of the two: h1 and h2. If there is
fluctuation, take average of the top and bottom readings of the fluctuation.
(vii) Measure the temperature of the water in the tank using a thermometer by placing it in
water for 10 seconds.
22
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
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C
C
.c
.c
w
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tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Kinematic Viscosity (Search for corresponding value from internet with respect to temperature):
Volume,V(*10−6 m3 ) Time to collect,t(sec) h1(mm) h2(mm) Head loss(mm) Flow rate,Q(*10−6 m3 /sec) Velocity,v(m/sec) Friction factor,f Reynolds number,Re
23
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
3.2.7 Graph
(i) Plot graph between ln(Reynolds number) vs ln(friction factor)
3.2.8 Discussion
(i) What is the reason behind the fluctuations in the readings of the heads?
(iv) What is the dependence of head loss upon flow rate in the laminar and turbulent regions
of flow?
(v) Identify the laminar and turbulent flow regimes. What is the critical Reynolds number?
(vi) Assuming a relationship of the form f = KRen , calculate these values from graphs you
have plotted and compare these with the accepted values.
(vii) What is the cumulative effect of experimental errors on the values of K and n?
3.2.9 Precautions
(i) There should be no leakage from any of the pipe fittings.
24
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
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C
C
.c
.c
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tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
4
FLOW OVER WEIRS
4.1 THEORY
4.1.1 Introduction
A weir is a device used for measurement of flow in open channels and rivers. It is nothing but a
partial obstruction placed across the flow in the channel causing the liquid to backup, upstream
of the obstruction and then flow over it. Thus the discharge thorugh an open channel can be
obtained by the measurement of a single parameter i.e., the head of liquid above the crest of
the weir. In open channel hydraulics, weirs are commonly used to either regulate or to measure
the volumetric flow rate. They are of particular use in large scale situations such as irrigation
schemes, canals and rivers. For small scale applications, weirs are often referred to as notches
and invariably are sharp edged and manufactured from thin plate material. There are different
shapes of weirs that can be used to measure the volumetric flow rate. These shapes with their
dimension are shown below:
25
hange E hange E
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F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
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N
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Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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om
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The discharge equation for the weir is derived using velocity of approach method i.e., by
integrating V dA = V Ldh. over the total head on the weir. Here, L is the length of the weir and
V is the velocity at any given distance h below the free surface. Neglecting streamline curvature
and assuming negligible velocity of approach upstream of the weir, one obtains an expression
for V by writing the Bernoulli equation between a point upstream of the weir and a point in the
plane of the weir. Assuming the pressure in the plane of the weir is atmospheric, this equation
is:
p1 V2
+ H = (H − h) + (4.1)
γ 2g
Here the reference elevation is the elevation of the crest of the weir, and the reference pres-
sure is atmospheric pressure. Therefore p1 = 0 and the above equation reduces to:
√
V =
2gh (4.2)
√
dQ = 2ghLdh and the discharge equation becomes:
∫ H√
2 √
Q= 2ghLdh = L 2gH 3/2 (4.3)
0 3
In the case of actual flow over a weir, the streamlines converge downstream of the plane of the
weir, and viscous effects are not entirely absent. Consequently, a discharge coefficient, Cd must
be applied to the basic expression on the right-hand side of the equation to bring the theory in
line with the actual flow rate. Thus the rectangular weir equation is:
2 √
Q = Cd L 2gH 3/2 (4.4)
3
26
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
O
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U
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to
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.c
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tr re tr re
.
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ac ac
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The coefficient of contraction of a notch depends upon the length of the wetted perimeter.
In a triangular notch there is no base to contraction. The contraction is due to sides only. Con-
sequently the coefficient of discharge is nearly constant in a triangular notch for all heads. A
triangular notch is very accurate for the measurement of low discharges.
(a) Springing Clear (b) Depressed Nappe (c) Drowned Nappe (d) Clinging Nappe
27
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
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O
O
N
N
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Y
U
U
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.
.
ac ac
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4.2 EXPERIMENT
4.2.1 Aim
• To determine the characteristics of open channel flow over triangular and rectangular
weirs.
4.2.2 Apparatus
(i) Hydraulic bench which is used to measure flow by timed volume collection
4.2.4 Procedure
(i) Measure the datum height of base of the Vee notch with the help of height gauge. Height
gauge is provided with one drop adjustment screw and one fine adjustment screw. First
lower the gauge using coarse adjustment screw until its tip is just above the datum height
and then use fine adjustment screw for accurate adjustment.
28
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
O
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ac ac
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(ii) Start the pump and control the flow using bench regulating valve to get the required head
in the flow channel. Once the flow height is stabilized, measure the height of the flow
(water level) using height gauge.
(iii) While taking the readings of water level, adjust the height gauge till tip of the gauge
coincides with its reflection in the water.
(iv) Close the outlet valve of volumetric tank and measure timed volume of the flow.
(v) Repeat the steps (2) to (4) for different flows, which can be adjusted using bench regulating
valve.
(vi) Take care not to allow spillage over the plate top adjacent to the notch and also clinging
to the notch.
4.2.5 Observations
Angle of Vee Notch =
Flow number Notch type Datum height,ho (m) Water level,h(m) Volume collected,V(m3 ) Time taken for collection,t(sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6
4.2.6 Calculations
Volume flow rate (m3 /sec) = Volume collected / Time taken
Height above the notch = (h − ho ), (m)
Q
Discharge Coefficient Cd = 8 (θ) √ Qactual
= Qtheoretical
tan 2 2gH 5/2
15
For flow number 1,
Discharge Coefficient Cd =
29
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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Flow number Volume flow rate,Qt(m3 /sec) Height above notch,H = h − ho (mm) H 5/2 Cd
1
2
3
4
5
6
Slope (graphical) =
Cd (tabulated average) =
Cd (graphical) =
4.2.7 Results
Average Cd value =
Graphical Cd value =
30
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
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B
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to
to
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ac ac
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4.2.8 Discussion
(i) Compare the experimental results to the theory.
(iii) Why would you expect wider variations of Cd values at lower flow rates?
4.2.9 Precautions
(i) Each reading be taken only when the steady state conditions is established and the head
remaining constant
(ii) Preferably flow rate for each reading be recorded over the same time period which being
sufficiently large
31
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
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to
to
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5
GUELPH PERMEAMETER
5.1 THEORY
5.1.1 Introduction
The determination of the steady state infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity of soils in the
field is an important measurement in order to determine the hydraulic properties of the soil
and to track the fate of infiltrating rain and irrigation water. Borehole permeameters are used
to determine in-situ saturated hydraulic conductivity in soils, when steady state infiltration is
achieved i.e., the rate of infiltration is constant.
The Guelph permeameter provides a good estimation of the field saturated hydraulic con-
ductivity, matrix flux potential and soil sorpitivity in the field. The Guelph Permeameter works
by creating constant head permeability test within the hole according to the Marriotte Principle.
At the start of a test, the hole is flooded with water to create a constant head inside the hole. The
outflow of water from the reservoir and into the hole creates a partial vacuum above the water
level in the reservoir. The sum of the pressures of the head height of the water reservoir and the
partial vacuum will equilibrate to the atmospheric pressure acting on the water in the hole.
When the user raises the upper air tube to the chosen height, the lower air tube will be also
be raised by that height. When the lower air tube is raised, water will fill the hole until it reaches
the air inlet tip. As water infiltrates through the soil, it will cause the water level in the hole to
fall. Once the water level has fallen below the Air inlet Tip then the now exposed Air Inlet Tip
will allow air to rush into the reservoir and relieve the partial vacuum. This in turn causes the
water in the reservoir to run out and back into the hole, where it will rise up to the level of the
Air Inlet Tip.
5.1.2 Principle
Mariotte’s bottle is a device that delivers a constant rate of flow from closed bottles or tanks.
The Guelph Permeameter which is an in-hole constant-head permeameter used for measuring
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity in the field employs the Marriote principle. The method in-
volves measuring the steady-state rate of water recharge into unsaturated soil from a cylindrical
well hole, in which a constant depth (head) of water is maintained.
32
hange E hange E
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or
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to
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5.2 EXPERIMENT
5.2.1 Aim
To determine the field saturated hydraulic conductivity Kf s(cm/sec), matrix flux potential
ϕ(cm2 /sec) and macroscopic capillary length parameter (α∗ ) of soil with the help of in-hole
constant head permeameter (Guelph Permeameter) set-up. The experiment is performed for
two different head levels.
5.2.2 Apparatus
(i) Toothed and flat bottomed augers for hole preparation
33
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
34
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
35
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
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.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Testing
At this point, the Guelph Permeameter is placed into the hole. The bottom of the outlet
tip should be in contact with the bottom of the hole. Once the Permeameter is situated, the
Tripod bushing should be pushed down to fit into the Tripod Base for stability. The legs on the
Tripod can also be splayed out if the hole is especially deep, or, if the hole is extremely deep, the
documentation says that the Tripod bushing can be used as the base and the tripod legs can be
done away with entirely. Once the Permeameter is situated properly, pull up the upper air tube
so that the Well Head Marker is at the appropriate height. The water should fill the hole up to the
bottom of the Air Inlet Tip. (If the water fills higher than that, this could be a sign of a seal issue
within the Guelph Permeameter. More info on this and other problems is in the Troubleshooting
page.) Take height measurements of the water level at the proper intervals (generally 2 minutes,
but adjustable depending on the soil) and record the data. The test is complete when the drop
in the reservoir is maintained at a steady rate for three straight intervals. This indicates that the
soil has reached saturation and you are observing the saturated conductivity.
5.2.4 Procedure
(i) Set up the Guelph Permeameter by threading the support tube through the hole in the tripod
base.
(ii) Next, remove the cork from the top of the reservoir tank and fill the reservoir to the desired
height.
(iii) If the notch on the knob at the bottom of the reservoir is pointing upwards, then both reser-
voirs will fill. If it is pointing down, only the inner reservoir will fill. In this experiment
we perform Combination Reservoir method.
(iv) Pull the air tube up to 5 cm mark to create a constant head of 5 cm in the hole.
(v) Start the stop watch and record the water level in the reservoir at regular intervals.
(vi) Calculate rate of change of head at each interval and continue the experiment till a constant
rate of change in head is obtained.
(vii) Now pull up the air tube to 10 cm mark and perform the similar experiment for 10 cm
constant head.
36
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
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k
k
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C
.c
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.
.
ac ac
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Depth of hole:
Radius:
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
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w
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.
.
ac ac
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PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
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.
.
ac ac
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5.2.6 Calculations
(i) Field Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity Kf s (cm/sec) = A×10−5 (6.8R2 −9R1 )(cm/sec)
(ii) Matrix flux potential ϕ(cm2 /sec) = A × 10−4 (9.5R2 − 3.9R1 )(cm2 /sec)
where A is the cross-sectional area of the outer reservoir tube and is equal to 28.274 cm2
5.2.7 Applications
• The Guelph Permeameter can be used wherever a hole can be augured in soil. The above
instructions present a generalized method for determining field-saturated hydraulic con-
ductivity, matric flux potential, and α∗ parameter.
• Guelph Permeameter is ideally suited for involving analysis and design of irrigation sys-
tems, drainage systems, canals, reservoirs, sanitary landfills, land treatment facilities,
tailings areas, hazardous waste storage areas, septic tank systems, soil and hydrologic
studies and surveys
• The Guelph Permeameter can be used to investigate changes in the hydraulic properties
of soils with depth.
• A soil profile description and soil survey report will greatly enhance the value and under-
standing of data obtained with the Guelph Permeameter.
• Because of the ease and simplicity of the Guelph Permeameter and its depth profiling
capability, it is a very useful method for understanding the three-dimensional distributions
of the water transmission properties of soils.
39
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
5.2.8 Discussion
Soil texture-structure categories for site-estimation of α: Macroscopic capillary length parameter α∗ represents the ratio of gravity to capillary
Compacted, structureless, clayey or silty materials such as landfill caps and liners, lacustrine or marine sediments, etc. 1.01
Soils which are both fine textured (clayey or silty) and unstructured; may also include some fine sands. 0.04
Most structured soils from clays through loams; also includes unstructured medium and fine sands. The category most frequently applicable for agricultural soils. 0.12
Coarse and gravelly sands; may also include some highly structured soils with large and/or numerous cracks, macro pores, etc. 0.36
40
forces during infiltration or drainage. Large α∗ values indicates dominance of gravity over capillarity, which occurs primarily in coarse textured
and/or highly structured porous media. Small α∗ values indicate dominance of capillarity over gravity which occurs primarily in fine textured
and/or unstructured porous media. Although , Kf s and ϕ can individually range over many orders in magnitude in a porous medium, α∗ generally
varies from about 0.01 cm−1 to 0.5 cm−1 .
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
6
HYDRAULIC JUMP
6.1 THEORY
6.1.1 Introduction
The sudden, turbulent passage of water from a super-critical state to a sub-critical state causes
the formation of hydraulic jump. Hydraulic jump frequently occurs in a canal below a sluice,
at the foot of a spillway or when a steep channel slope meets a flat slope. Hydraulic jump is a
very useful means of dissipation of energy which otherwise, would cause damages downstream.
Hydraulic jump analysis can be carried out by making the following assumptions:
• The flow is uniform and hence the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, before and after
the formation of jump.
• The weight component of the water mass in the direction of flow is negligible.
Q1 = Q2 (6.1)
V1 A1 = V2 A2 (6.2)
For constant width:
V1 h1 = V2 h2 (6.3)
41
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Newton’s second law states that the net force acting on a body in any fixed direction is equal
to the rate of increase of momentum of the body in that direction. Using relation obtained from
conservation of mass:
h21 h2
ΣFx = F1 − F2 = ρg − ρg 2 = qρ(v2 − v1 ) (6.4)
2 2
√
2
h2 1 8v
= 1 + 1 − 1 (6.5)
h1 2 gh1
where q is flow rate per unit width. The above equation is known as Belanger’s equation. Here,
we define F r1 = √vgh1
1
and F r1 is called Froude number at section 1.
Energy Loss
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between section 1 and section 2 and taking bed of channel as
datum equation for energy loss in hydraulic jump can be derived. The equation for energy loss
is:
(h2 − h1 )3
hL = (6.6)
4h1 h2
6.2 EXPERIMENT
6.2.1 Aim
To study charateristics of hydraulic jump
42
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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ww
om
om
k
k
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C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
(ii) Calibrated meter scale, mounted on the top with a roller and with a sharp end, to measure
the heights of the flow just before and after the jump.
(iii) Another meter scale, to measure length of jump i.e. distance between the points the height
is measured.
(iv) A piece of chalk, to mark the points at which the height is measured.
6.2.3 Procedure
(i) By adjusting the supply valve, sluice gate, and the tail gate, we need to form a stable
hydraulic jump in the flume.
(ii) Take the pointer gauge readings for the bed levels and water surface elevations at pre-jump
section (1) and post-jump section (2) to get heights (h1, h2) of jump.
(iv) Repeat steps (1) to (3) for other positions of valve, sluice gate, and tail gate.
Width of flume =
43
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
′ ′ ′
S.No Length of Jump,L Height over Weir,H = H − a H1 = H1 − b H2 = H2 − b Flow Rate,Q V1 V2 F r1 E1 E2 hL hj hj /E1 hL /E1
3
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (m /s) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Ogee Spillway
Step Spillway
1
44
4
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
6.2.5 Graphs
(i) Plot h2 /h1 v/sF rl on a simple graph paper. On the same plot also draw the line.
6.2.7 Applications
(i) Usually hydraulic jump reverses the flow of water. This phenomenon can be used to mix
chemicals for water purification.
(ii) Hydraulic jump usually maintains the high water level on the downstream side. This high
water level can be used for irrigation purposes.
(iii) Hydraulic jump can be used to remove air from water supply and sewage lines to prevent
the air locking
(iv) It prevents the scouring action on the downstreamside of the dam structure
(v) It is most commonly used choice of design engineers for energy dissipation below spill-
ways and outlets.
6.2.8 Questions
(i) Explain briefly phenomenon of hydraulic jump?
(ii) Identify different types of jumps that occurred while doing experiments?
(iii) If channel is not rectangular, then what will be your observation on this experiments?
(v) What are your observations on jumps occurred in both types of spillways?
(vi) What are the different types of conditions for hydraulic jump to occur?
(vii) How can hydraulic jump can be classified based on Froude number?
(ix) Can the equation given for energy loss in the above theory be applicable for jump that
occurs in a compound channel?
(x) What is the approximate time to wait to get proper jump after adjusting sluice gate?
45
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
7
IMPACT OF JET
7.1 THEORY
7.1.1 Introduction
Water turbines are widely used throughout the world to generate power. In the type of water
turbine referred to as a Pelton wheel, one or more water jets are directed tangentially on to vanes
or buckets that are fastened to the rim of the turbine disc. The impact of the water on the vanes
generates a torque on the wheel, causing it to rotate and to develop power. Although the concept
is essentially simple, such turbines can generate considerable output at high efficiency. Powers
in excess of 100 MW, and hydraulic efficiencies greater than 95 percent are not uncommon.
To predict the output of a Pelton wheel, and to determine its optimum rotational speed, we
need to understand how the deflection of the jet generates a force on the buckets, and how the
force is related to the rate of momentum flow in the jet. In this experiment, we measure the
force generated by a jet of water striking a flat plate or a hemispherical cup, and compare the
results with the computed momentum flow rate in the jet. A jet of water striking a solid surface
will exert a force on the surface and continue to flow along the surface. For a jet of steady
velocity which is not highly turbulent the rebound of water from the surface will be negligent.
If we neglect the frictional forces by assuming water as an inviscid fluid and neglect the energy
losses due to shocks and turbulence, we can see that the velocity of the fluid stream does not
change in magnitude after striking the solid surface. Hence the change in momentum at surface
is not from the change in magnitude of the jet but from change in direction.
Considering typical target vanes as shown in Fig 7.1 (flat, conical and semi-spherical), the
water deflects at a different angle from each of them along its surface. For the flat target vane
the water deflects at an angle of 90o . For the conical target vane the water deflects by an angle
of 45o . For the semi-spherical target vane the water is deflected by an angle of 135o . To find the
force exerted by the water jet we have to find the change in momentum of the water jet upon
incidence on the target vane. We have already established that the change in momentum occurs
only in direction and not in magnitude.
Applying Newton’s Second Law of Motion along the direction of the water jet,
46
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
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C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Figure 7.1: Different target vanes (flat, conical and semi-spherical from left to right)
F
= (1 − cos θ) (7.4)
ρQVi
In all cases of vanes it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the water from the
surface so that the exit angle is parallel to the exit angle of the target.
47
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
P V2 Pi Vi2
+ n + Zn = + + Zi (7.6)
γ 2g γ 2g
Since the jet is open to the atmosphere, we have:
P Pi
− =0 (7.7)
γ γ
Zn − Zi = 0 (7.8)
Therefore,
Vi2 = Vn2 − 2gh (7.9)
where h is the height of target above the nozzle exit.
Impact on normal plane target
F = mg
Experimentally,
F = ρQVi (1 − cos θ) (7.13)
48
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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C
.c
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w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
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The reaction vane is held within the transparent shield approximately 20 mm above the
vertical water supply pipe nozzle by a rod which passes through the top cover and supports a
flat tray, onto which masses may be placed. In operation, water from the Hydraulics Bench is
fed into the unit and a vertical jet is produced through the supply pipe and its interchangeable
nozzle. The water from the jet is deflected by the reaction vane under test, and drains away
through the large aperture in the base of the chamber. The force produced by the jet impinging
on the target is transmitted by the rod, to the flat tray where weights are placed in order to
balance this transmitted force. Three different types of reaction vane are supplied with the
apparatus and the types are flat, hemispherical cup and 45 cone form. Each vane can be secured
to the pivot arm by a set screw and when not in use is stored on pegs on the unit base plate.
Two interchangeable nozzles for the supply pipe are supplied, one of 8 mm and one of 5 mm
diameter.
7.2 EXPERIMENT
7.2.1 Aim
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to various target
vanes.
7.2.2 Apparatus
(i) Hydraulics Bench which allows us to measure flow by timed volume collection.
49
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
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W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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C
.c
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w
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.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
(ii) Impact of Jets Apparatus with interchangeable target vanes such as flat, conical, semi
spherical and nozzles.
(v) Weights
7.2.3 Procedure
(i) Screw on the 5mm nozzle and the Flat Target Vane
(ii) In free condition adjust the pointer to align with the base of the weight platform
(iii) Measure the height difference between the tip of the nozzle and the target vane
(iv) Add a known weight to the weight platform. The platform will move downwards
(v) Start the pump in the hydraulic bench and adjust the flow rate so that the water jet velocity
from the nozzle changes and it raises the weight platform back to its original position
(vi) Measure the volumetric flow rate used timed collection using a stopwatch from the hy-
draulic bench
(viii) Adjust the flow rate again so that the platform moves back to its original position
50
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Repeat this procedure for all combinations of nozzles and target vanes, namely, 5mm and 8mm
nozzles and flat, conical and semi-spherical target vanes.
7.2.4 Observations
Observations for first nozzle:
51
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XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
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Y
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B
B
7.2.5 Calculations
to
to
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ac ac
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Calculations procedure used to complete the above tables:
7.2.6 Results
(i) The theoretical value of vanes such as flat, semi spherical and conical target are …………… respectively.
(ii) The experimental value of vanes such as flat, semi spherical and conical target are ……………
(iii) The percentage of error involved in theoretical an experimental value of vanes (flat, conical and semi
spherical) are ……………… respectively.
7.2.7 Discussion
(i) Is there any deviation between theoretical and experimental value? If yes, why it occur?
(ii) How to minimize the error involved between theoretical and experimental value?
(iii) If you want to implement the vane to the turbine, then which kind of vane you would prefer? And why?
(iv) Why the energy of the water jet is used differently by each body?
(v) Why the efficiency of semispherical is best to use energy of water jet?
7.2.8 Conclusion
Conclude whether the theoretical and experimental forces do or do not have significant percentage of error.
52
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
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or
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Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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ac ac
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8
PIPE SURGE AND WATER HAMMER
8.1 THEORY
8.1.1 Introduction
Fluid distribution systems (hydropower plants, pumping facilities, jet fueling systems, and
wastewater collection systems) and hydropower plants can be severely damaged by pipe surge
and water hammer. The first thing to understand is that surge is very different from pulsation
or water hammer. Water hammer can destroy turbo machines and cause pipes and penstocks to
rupture. Water hammer can be solved by designing and/or operating these systems such that un-
favorable changes in water velocity are minimized. The damage caused by water hammer by far
exceeds the cost of preventive analysis and control measures (surge tank, air vessel, fly wheel,
air valve). But surge is less predictable and can also cause severe damage to pipes, valves,
fittings and pumps. Water systems never operate at a constant pressure. Pumps going on and
off line, changes in temperature, demand and tank levels, alter system flow rate and pressure at
any given time. A mild change called a surge, results from water pressure oscillations within
the system and can damage pipes, valves and fittings. A gradual closing of valve in a pipeline
creates pipe surge while quick closing sets in water hammer.
More severe water hammer, on the other hand, comes about when there is a sudden change
at either the inlet or outlet of a system. Pumps suddenly going on or off line or valves rapidly
closing are the most common causes. In other words, it is the forceful slam, bang, or shudder
that occurs in pipes when there is a sudden change in fluid velocity creating a significant change
in fluid pressure. When an outlet valve suddenly closes, the energy contained in the water
flow compresses the water nearest the valve. Like a spring, this energy then reverses flow,
sending a shockwave at the speed of sound back upstream until it hits an obstruction: a joint,
another closed valve or the impeller in the pump. Most of the energy from that shockwave then
bounces off that obstruction and returns to hammer the valve. The wave travels back and forth
between the obstruction and valve until friction finally dissipates the energy. Under unfavorable
circumstances, damage due to water hammer may occur in pipelines measuring more than one
hundred meters and conveying only several tenths of a litre per second. But even very short,
unsupported pipelines in pumping stations can be damaged by resonant vibrations if they are
not properly anchored. By contrast, the phenomenon is not very common in building services
systems, e.g. in heating and drinking water supply pipelines, which typically are short in length
and have a small cross-section.
53
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
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Y
U
U
B
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to
to
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C
.c
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w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
0.22 π
mwater = ∗ 900 ∗ 1000 = 28274kg (8.1)
4
This is more or less the same as the weight of a truck; v = 3 m/s corresponds to 11 km/h. In
other words, if the flow is suddenly stopped, our truck – to put it in less abstract terms – runs
into a wall (closed valve) at 11 km/h (water mass inside the pipe). In terms of our pipeline, this
means that the sequence of events taking place inside the pipe will result in high pressures and
in high forces acting on the shut-off valve. As a further example of inertia, Figure 8.1 shows a
pump discharge pipe. At a very small moment of inertia of pump and motor, the failing pump
comes to a sudden standstill, which has the same effect as a suddenly closing gate valve. If
mass inertia causes the fluid flow on the downstream side of the pump to collapse into separate
columns, a cavity containing a mixture of water vapour and air coming out of solution will be
formed. As the separate liquid columns subsequently move backward and recombine with a
hammer like impact, high pressures develop. The phenomenon is referred to as liquid column
separation or macro-cavitation.
54
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
Figure 8.2: Effect of sudden valve closure on elasticity of water visualized as a spring, it has to
be noted that the regions indicated by red lines are compression zones where the velocity of the
spring/water is zero.
55
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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om
om
k
k
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C
.c
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.
.
ac ac
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Figure 8.3: Pressure and velocity waves in a single-conduit, frictionless pipeline following its
sudden closure. The areas of steady-state pressure head are shaded medium dark, those of
increased pressure dark, and those of reduced pressure light. The expansion and contraction of
the pipeline as a result of rising and falling pressure levels, respectively, are shown. To give
an idea of the relationship involved: With a 100 bar pressure rise, the volume of water will
decrease by about 0.5 percent
56
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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om
om
k
k
lic
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C
.c
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w
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.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
For t = 0, the pressure profile is steady, which is shown by the pressure head curve running
horizontally because of the assumed lack of friction. Under steady-state conditions, the flow
velocity is vo (Figure 8.3[1]). The sudden closure of the gate valve at the downstream end of the
pipeline causes a pulse of high pressure ∆h; and the pipe wall is stretched. The pressure wave
generated runs in the opposite direction to the steady-state direction of the flow at the speed
of sound and is accompanied by a reduction of the flow velocity to v = 0 in the high pressure
zone. The process takes place in a period of time 0 < t < 1/2 Tr , where Tr is the amount of time
needed by the pressure wave to travel up and down the entire length of the pipeline. The im-
portant parameter Tr is the reflection time of the pipe. It has a value of 2L/a (Figure 8.3[2]). Up
to the point where t = 1/2Tr , the conversion of original steady-state kinetic energy of the fluid
into elastic energy takes place. Immediately before the reflection of the wave at the reservoir,
the velocity of the liquid column is v = 0 everywhere and it is totally devoid of kinetic energy.
Thus the kinetic energy has been changed into elastic energy, comparable to the situation of a
compressed steel spring.
At t = 1/2 Tr the pressure wave has arrived at the reservoir. As the reservoir pressure p =
constant, there is an unbalanced condition at this point. With a change of sign, the pressure wave
is reflected in the opposite direction. The flow velocity changes sign and is now headed in the
direction of the reservoir(Figure 8.3[3]). A relief wave with a head of −∆h travels downstream
towards the gate valve and reaches it at a time t = Tr . It is accompanied by a change of velocity
to the value −vo (Figure 8.3[4]). Upon arrival at the closed gate valve, the velocity changes from
−vo to v = 0. This causes a sudden negative change in pressure of −∆h(Figure 8.3[5]). The
low pressure wave −∆h travels upstream to the reservoir in a time Tr < t < 3/2 Tr , and
at the same time, v adopts the value v = 0(Figure 8.3[6]). The reservoir is reached in a time
t = 3/2 Tr , and the pressure resumes the reservoir’s pressure head(Figure 8.3[7]). In a period
of time 3/2 Tr < t < 2 Tr , the wave of increased pressure originating from the reservoir
runs back to the gate valve and v once again adopts the value vo (Figure 8.3[8]). At t = 2Tr ,
conditions are exactly the same as at the instant of closure t = 0, and the whole process starts
over again(Figure 8.3[9]).
Friction
Without friction, the pressure fluctuations would not diminish. In actual fact, no system
is ever entirely without friction, but the reduction in pressure fluctuation is relatively small in
reality, because the energy conversion into frictional heat as a result of the fluid rubbing against
the pipe walls, the inherent fluid friction and, finally, the deformation of pipe walls and fixtures
is relatively small.
Analysis of pipe surge through surge tank
Let the area of the surge tank be AT and the area of the main pipe be AP . The length of the
pipe is L. Let the volume flow rate during normal operation of the turbines be Q. In the simplest
analysis we will consider that there is no friction anywhere and that when an emergency stop is
made, all the water is diverted into the surge tank.
Mean Velocity in surge tank uT = dz dt
= AQT ; Q = AT dzdt
Q
Mean Velocity in the pipe uP = A
AT dz
Substitute for Q, uP = AP dt
The diversion of the flow into the surge tank raises the level by z. This produces an increased
pressure at the junction point of Δp = ρgz
57
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
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Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
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C
.c
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w
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tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
The inertia force required to decelerate the water in the pipe is:
F = mass × acceleration = −ρAP L du dt
d2 z gAP
2
=− z = −ω 2 z (8.2)
dt LAT
where ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2πf )
By definition this is simple harmonic motion since the displacement z is directly proportional to
the acceleration and opposite in sense. Time period
√ of oscillation (T) is the inverse
√ of frequency
gAP
(f). Therefore from the above equation ω = LA T
and hence T = 2π
ω
= 2π LA gAP
T
zo is the maximum amplitude, that is, the maximum amount by which the height in the tank will
move up and down from the mean level. The following is a direct way of finding the amplitude:
zo
The mean change in height = 2
√
LAP
Equation for full harminic motion is , zo = gAT
sin(ωt)
The peak of the surge occurs at T/4 seconds from the disturbance. (Figure 8.4)
58
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
8.2.2 Apparatus
• Hydraulics bench
• Head tank
8.2.3 Formulation
Actual head loss between reservoir and surge tank due to friction in the pipeline zf = zs − zv
where zs = static head (height in surge tank with no flow in pipe), zv = velocity head (height in
surge tank with flow in pipe)
59
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
√
2π LAT
Time period of oscillation, T = ω
= 2π gAP
√
LAP
zo = u − 0.6zf (8.4)
gAT
where u = flow velocity in the pipe before valve closure
8.2.4 Procedure
(i) Close the flow valve on the water hammer circuit
(ii) Close the supply valve, level operated gate valve and flow control valve in pipe surge
circuit.
(v) Open lever operated gate valve and flow control valve, adjust supply control valve until a
steady trickle of water continues to return to the sump tank via return feed pipe
(vi) Close the lever operated control valve completely and allow the oscillations to stop. Note
down the level in surge tank
(vii) Open the lever operated valve completely once again and allow the oscillations to stop.
Note down the new level in surge tank.
(viii) Record the flow rate using the volumetric tank and Close the lever operated gate valve
quickly.
(x) Record the minimum height reached and the time taken for it.
(xi) Repeat the same for all the oscillations till the datum level is confirmed.
60
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
From theory:
√
2π LAT
T = = 2π (8.5)
ω gAP
√
LAP
zo = u − 0.6zf (8.6)
gAT
Verify theoretical values of time period and amplitude with that of the observed values.
61
hange E hange E
XC di XC di
F- t F- t
PD
PD
or
or
!
!
W
W
O
O
N
N
Y
Y
U
U
B
B
to
to
ww
ww
om
om
k
k
lic
lic
C
C
.c
.c
w
w
tr re tr re
.
.
ac ac
k e r- s o ft w a k e r- s o ft w a
8.2.6 Discussion
(i) Explain the difference between pipe surge and water hammer.
(ii) In this experimental set up, we are able to generate pipe surge but not water hammer, why?
(iii) Explain the various causes for the occurrence of pipe surge and water hammer.
(iv) Describe how the excessive pressure generated in pipe surge and water hammer is damp-
ened using air chamber, surge tank and fly wheel?
(v) Plot the heights and time between successive oscillations. Does the graph represents
SHM? Justify your answer with reason behind it.
(vi) Explain the damages that can occur during unfavourable situations of sudden change in the
flow when surge protection devices/measures are not installed in a waste water treatment
facility and a hydro-power plant.
(vii) Can surge analysis performed for installation of surge tank on a pipeline that is laid almost
flat be generalized to another pipeline system which has one or more high elevations? Both
have same diameter, thickness, length and made are out of same material. Justify.
62