CHAPTER 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF TELECOMMUNICATION
(Quote)

Outline/Objective:
Communication System
Telecommunication System
Historical Trend of telephony and phones
Generations of wireless networks
Analog vs Digital communication System

1.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

A communication system is, simply, any system in which information (data) is transmitted
from one physical location to another physical location. The process of transmission and
reception of information is called communication.
A telecommunication system is any system in which information is transmitted from one
physical location to another physical location over a far or remote distance beyond the
reach of a natural voice.

In fact, Tele-means- Remote or Far; and the branch of engineering which deals with
communication systems is known as telecommunication engineering.

Telecommunication engineering is classified into two types based on Transmission media.

They are:

- Wired (Line) communication

-wireless( Radio) communication

In wired (Line) communication, the medium of transmission is a pair of conductors called

transmission line. In this technique signals are directly transmitted through the transmission
lines.

In wireless (radio) communication, transmission medium is open space or free space. In this
technique signals are transmitted by using antenna through the free space in the form of
Electromagnetic (EM) waves.

Telecommunication Signals

Telecommunication signals are variation over time of voltages, currents or light levels that
carry information.

Types of Telecommunication Signals

i. Analog Signals
ii. Digital Signals
Analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time-varying feature (variable) of the
signal is a representation of some other time varying quantity. They are represented as
sinusoids ( sine or cosine wave) as shown in fig.

For example signals from Audio, Video, Mechanical, Pneumatic, Hydraulic transmission,
Temperature, Wind speed, Light etc

Analog signal

Analog signal can be represented mathematically as:

V (t )  v cos(t   )

Where v = Amplitude , volts

 = Angular Frequency in radian
f = frequency in Hz
T = period in Hz
 =phase in degrees or radians

Digital signal is a signal that is being used to represent data as a sequence of discrete values.
At any given time, it can only take on one of a finite number of values, that is, a digital one
and a digital zero. They are represented with square waves. Examples include : Computer
data, HDMI, MIDI etc.

1.1.1 Analog to Digital Conversion

Any analog signal can be converted into a digital signal by passing through these three
processes, namely:

i. Sampling
ii. Quantization
iii. Encoding

1.1.2. Features of Telecommunication Signals

Amplitude is the maximum shift from the zero value, and is generally measured in volts (V)
or amps (A).

frequency of a periodic signal is the number of repetitions of the signal in one second , and
it‟s measured in Herz (Hz) .

The power of an electric signal is given by the product of its voltage and current; and is
measured in watts(W).
The energy of the signal is given by the product power over the time considered; and is
measured in joules (J), and also in Wh, with its multiple, the kWh (kilo watt hour) most
commonly used.
Review of Unit Prefixes

1.1.3 Signals and Spectra

A signal can be characterized by its behavior over time or by its frequency components,
which constitute its spectrum. Any periodic signal is composed of many sinusoidal
components, all of them multiples of the fundamental frequency, which is the inverse of the
period of the signal.
1.2 Electromagnetic Wave Signal
The wavelength (sometimes referred to as lambda, λ) is the distance measured from a point
on one wave to the equivalent part of the next, for example from the top of one peak to the
next. The frequency is the number of whole waves that pass a fixed point in a period of time.
Waves also have a property called amplitude. This is the distance from the center of the wave
to the extreme of one of its peaks, and can be thought of as the “height” of a water wave.

Unlike waves in water, electromagnetic waves require no medium to carry them through
space. It may be said that the media that oscillates is the electromagnetic field.

Phase
The phase of a wave is the fraction of a cycle that the wave is offset from a reference point.
It is a relative measurement that can be express in different ways (radians, cycles, degrees,
percentage).

Two waves that have the same frequency and different phases have a phase difference, and
the waves are said to be out of
phase with each other.
Wavelength and Frequency

c=f*λ
c = speed (meters / second)
f = frequency (cycles per second, or Hz)
λ = wavelength (meters)
If a wave on water travels at one meter per second, and it oscillates five times per second,
then each wave will be twenty centimeters long:

1 meter/second = 5 cycles/second * λ
λ = 1 / 5 meters
λ = 0.2 meters = 20 cm

Since the speed of light is approximately 3 x 108 m/s, we can calculate the wavelength for a
given frequency. Let us take the example of the frequency of 802.11b/g wireless networking:

f = 2.4 GHz
= 2,400,000,000 cycles / second

wavelength (λ) = c / f
= 3 * 108 m/s / 2.4 * 109 s-1
= 1.25 * 10-1 m
= 12.5 cm
Therefore, the wavelength of 802.11b/g WiFi is about 12.5 cm.

NB:

There are many more frequencies used in WiFi networking: one possible range spans over 85
MHz, starting at 2400 MHz and ending at 2485 MHz (but note that the ending value may be
different in different countries).

What is the wavelength of 5.3GHz 802.11a?

λ = 3 * 108 / 5.3 * 109 = 5.66 cm

Example 1
Calculate the wavelengths of a 1530-kHz AM radio signal, a 105.1-MHz FM radio signal,
and a 1.90-GHz cell phone signal.
Strategy
The relationship between wavelength and frequency is c = fλ, where c = 3.00 × 108 m/s is the
speed of light (the speed of light is only very slightly smaller in air than it is in a vacuum).
We can rearrange this equation to find the wavelength for all three frequencies.

Solution

Rearranging gives λ= cfλ = cf.

For the f = 1530 kHz AM radio signal

λ=3.00×108 m/s1530×103 cycles/s =196 mλ=3.00×108 m/s1530×103 cycles/s =196 m

For the f = 105.1 MHz FM radio signal:

λ=3.00×108 m/s105.1×106 cycles/s =2.85 mλ=3.00×108 m/s105.1×106 cycles/s =2.85 m

And for the f = 1.90 GHz cell phone:

λ=3.00×108 m/s1.90×109 cycles/s =0.158 mλ=3.00×108 m/s1.90×109 cycles/s =0.158 m

1.2.1 Sources of electromagnetic waves

The sources of classical electromagnetic waves are accelerating electric charges. A common
example is the generation of radio waves by oscillating electric charges in an antenna. When
a charge moves in a linear antenna with an oscillation frequency f, the oscillatory
motion constitutes an acceleration, and an electromagnetic wave with the same
frequency propagates away from the antenna

1.2.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Frequency spectrum may be defined as the representation of a signal in the frequency
domain. It is the entire distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to
frequency or wave length.

The figure below represents the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It goes all the way from
very low frequency radio waves on the left, to very high frequency X-rays and gamma rays
on the right. In the middle, there's a very small region that represents visible light. In the
scope of the entire electromagnetic spectrum, the range of frequencies that we can actually
perceive with our eyes is very small. You can see on either side of visible light is infrared and
ultraviolet. But the area that we are interested in is the very narrow range of frequencies used
by WiFi equipment. That is the very thin sliver at the low end of the microwave range.
-Although all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
-The electromagnetic spectrum comprises the span of all electromagnetic radiation and
consists of many sub ranges, commonly referred to as portions, such as visible light or
ultraviolet radiation.
- The various portions bear different names based on differences in behaviour in the
emission, transmission, and absorption of the corresponding waves and also based on their
different practical applications.
-The entire electromagnetic spectrum, from the lowest to the highest frequency (longest to
shortest wavelength), includes all radio waves (e.g.,
commercial radio and television, microwaves, radar), infrared radiation,
visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays

1.2.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum: Rules of Thumb

Three rules that apply to electromagnetic waves in general are as follows:

i. High-frequency electromagnetic waves are more energetic and are more able to
penetrate than low-frequency waves.
ii. High-frequency electromagnetic waves can carry more information per unit time than
low-frequency waves.
iii. The shorter the wavelength of any electromagnetic wave probing a material, the
smaller the detail it is possible to resolve.
Table of EM Spectrum
TABLE 1.6. Segments of the electromagnetic spectrum
S.No. Name Frequency Wavelength
1. Extremely low frequency (ELF) 30 - 300 Hz 107 to 106 m
2. Voice frequencies (VF) 300 – 3000 Hz 106 to 105 m
3. Very low frequencies (VLF) 3 – 30 kHz 105 to 104 m
4. Low frequencies (LF) 30 – 300 kHz 104 to 103 m
5. Medium frequencies (MF) 300 kHz-3 MHz 103 to 102 m
6. High frequencies (HF) 3-30 MHz 102 to 10 m
7. Very high frequencies (VHF) 30-300 MHz 10 to 1 m
8. Ultra high frequencies (UHF) 300 MHz-3GHz 1 to 10-1 m
9. Super high frequencies (SHF) 3-30 GHz 10-1 to 10-2 m
10. Extremely high frequencies (EHF) 30-300 GHz 10-2 to 10-3 m
11. Infrared - 0.7 to 10 µm
12. Visible light - 0.4 µm to 0..8 µm

1.3 Signal-to- Noise Ratio

signal-to-noise ratio, often written S/N or SNR, is a measure of signal strength relative to
background noise. The ratio is usually measured in decibels (dB) using a signal-to-noise ratio
formula. If the incoming signal strength in microvolts is Vs, and the noise level, also in
microvolts, is Vn, then the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, in decibels is given by the formula:

S/N = 20 log10 (Vs/Vn)

If Vs = Vn, then S/N = 0. In this situation, the signal borders on unreadable, because the noise
level severely competes with it. In digital communications, this will probably cause a
reduction in data speed because of frequent errors that require the source (transmitting)
computer or terminal to resend some packets of data.
Ideally, Vs is greater than Vn, so a high signal-to-noise ratio is positive. As an example,
suppose that Vs = 10.0 microvolts and Vn = 1.00 microvolt. Then:

S/N = 20 log10(10.0) = 20.0 dB

This results in the signal being clearly readable. If the signal is much weaker but still above
the noise -- say, 1.30 microvolts -- then:

S/N = 20 log10(1.30) = 2.28 dB

This is a marginal situation. There might be some reduction in data speed under these
conditions.

If Vs is less than Vn, then S/N is negative, representing a low signal-to-noise ratio. In this type
of situation, reliable communication is generally not possible unless steps are taken to
increase the signal level and/or decrease the noise level at the destination (receiving)
computer or terminal.

Communications engineers always strive to maximize the S/N ratio. Traditionally, this has
been done by using the narrowest possible receiving-system bandwidth consistent with the
data speed desired. However, there are other methods. In some cases, spread
spectrum techniques can improve system performance. The S/N ratio can be increased by
providing the source with a higher level of signal output power if necessary. In some high-
level systems such as radio telescopes, internal noise is minimized by lowering the
temperature of the receiving circuitry to near absolute zero (-273 degrees Celsius or -459
degrees Fahrenheit). In wireless systems, it is always important to optimize the performance
of the transmitting and receiving antennas.

Noise Factor is defined as the ratio of signal-to-noise power at the input of a device to the
signal to-noise power at its output.

1.4 Bit Error Rate

Bit error rate (BER) is a measure of the number of bit errors that occur in a given number of
bit transmissions. It is usually expressed as a ratio.

Also defined as, the measure of the quality of the transmitting device, the receiver, the
transmission path and its environment as it takes into consideration factors such as noise,
jitter, attenuation, fading, and any error detection and correction schemes used in the interface
standard.
For example, if 5 bit errors occur in one million bits transferred, the BER is 5/1,000,000 or 5
× 10−6.

1.4.1 Factors affecting bit error rate, BER

i. Interference: The interference levels present in a system are generally set by

external factors and cannot be changed by the system design. However it is possible
to set the bandwidth of the system. By reducing the bandwidth the level of
interference can be reduced. However reducing the bandwidth limits the data
throughput that can be achieved.
ii. Increase transmitter power: It is also possible to increase the power level of the
system so that the power per bit is increased. This has to be balanced against factors
including the interference levels to other users and the impact of increasing the power
output on the size of the power amplifier and overall power consumption and battery
life, etc.
iii. Reduce bandwidth: Another approach that can be adopted to reduce the bit error rate
is to reduce the bandwidth. Lower levels of noise will be received and therefore the
signal to noise ratio will improve. Again this results in a reduction of the data
throughput attainable.
iv. Lower order modulation: Lower order modulation schemes can be used, but this is
at the expense of data throughput.

1.5 Noise in Communication System

Noise is defined as the unwanted ( undesirable) form of energy which tends to interface with
the proper reception and the reproduction of transmitted signals.

Information

Noise
 Noise in Transmitted
Information.

1.5.1 Types of Noise

There are three types of noise:

(a) External noise
(b) Internal noise.
(c) Cross talk

External Noise

External noise is noise that is generated outside the device or circuit.

Primary sources of external noise:

(a) Lightning
(b) Solar noise
(c) Cosmic Noise
(d) Man-made noise

Lightning
It is a major source of noise and is caused by the static discharge of thunderclouds. A wide
band of frequencies is generated during discharge, thus affecting mostly low- and high
frequency bands up to 30MHz .

Solar Noise
It is caused by ionized gases of the sun produce broad range frequencies that penetrate
Earth‟s atmosphere at frequencies used by communication systems. These disturbances are
especially intense when sunspot activity peaks approximately every 11 years.

Cosmic Noise
It is caused by distant stars in our universe, like the sun, also radiate intense levels of noise at
frequencies that penetrate Earth‟s atmosphere.

Man-made Noise
It is simply noise that is produced by mankind such as from electric motors, automobile
ignition systems,etc. man-made noise is most intense in the more populated metropolitan and
industrial areas.

Internal Noise
Internal noise is caused by electrical interference generated within the device or circuit.
primary sources of internal noise:

(a) Shot noise

(b) Thermal noise

Shot noise
The name originates from the sound that it produces at the audio output of a receiver. The
sound is similar to that leaf shot falling on top of a tin roof. This noise is caused by the
random arrival of carriers (holes and electrons) at the output element of electronic devices,
such as diode and transistor.

Thermal Noise
It is caused by rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal
agitation.

Pn  kTB

where k = Boltzmann‟s constant of 1.38 x 10 −23

T = absolute temperature of the device (oK)
B = bandwidth
pn = noise power output

Cross Talk

cross talk noise occurs as a result of inductive and capacitive coupling from adjacent
channels.

1.5.2 Effects of Noise

i. Noise limits the operating range of the systems

ii. Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of noise.
A system‟s operation depends on the operation of its circuits. Noise limits the smallest
signal that a receiver is capable of processing.

iii. Noise affects the sensitivity of receivers Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input
signal necessary to obtain the specified quality output. Noise affects the sensitivity of
a receiver system, which eventually affects the output.

1.5.3 Noise in Reactive Circuits

In a warm resistor (i.e., one above absolute zero degrees Kelvin), free electrons move about
in thermally excited motion. This gives rise to a noise voltage that appears across the
resistor‟s terminals. This noise was first analysed in 1927 by J.B. Johnson of the Bell
Telephone Laboratories, and it goes by the names thermal noise, white Gaussian noise,
Johnson noise and kTB noise.

Often, small amounts of power are specified in dB relative to one milliwatt; the units used are
dBm. So 1/10 milliwatt would be -10dBm, 1 milliwatt would be 0 dBm and 10 milliwatts
would be +10dBm, etc.

In units of dBm, the noise power delivered by a resistor of R Ω at T degrees Kelvin in a

bandwidth of B Hz is

Example 1:

Convert the power level of 13 dBm to watts.

Solution:

From the definition given above, we can write

13 = 10log(Pwatts/.001),
A result that leads to

Pwatts = 20 mW (milliwatts).

This result can be obtained mentally without the use of logarithms. Since 0dBm is 1 mW,
We know that 10dBm is 10 mW. Also, we know that doubling the power is equivalent to a
3dB increase in power; so 13dBm is twice the power of 10dBm. This leads to the conclusion
that 13dBm is 20 mW.

RMS Value of Noise Voltage in a B Hz Bandwidth

VRMS = √(4RkTB)
where VRMS is the RMS value of the noise voltage Vn (considering a bandwidth of B Hz)

Exercise:

Consider a circuit where the resistor operates at a temperature of 17°C, and the external
circuit has a frequency response with a bandwidth of B =10kHz.

a) In watts and dBm, calculate the thermal noise power that the warm resistor delivers to the
external circuit under impedance matched conditions
b) Calculate VRMS if the impedance-matched, band-limited external circuit has a driving
point impedance of 100 ohms

1.5.4 Concept of decibel (dB) and system noise

Decibel (dB):
Decibel (dB) is a unit of measurement frequently encountered in communication studies. It
can be used in different contexts, for example, it can be used to measure the gain or loss in an
electrical communication circuit block. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel.
Let us consider denoting power measurement relative to a predefined value say Pref, we can
write expression as:

…. (1.

We can use decibel to express a system voltage gain rather than the power gain as:

… (1.

…. (1.

Similarly, we can obtain expression for current gain as:

… (1.

Applications/examples
Example 1.
An amplifier has an input of 5 mV and an output of 7 V. What is the gain in decibels?
Solution

Example
A filter has a power input of 60 mW and an output of 3 mW. What is the gain or attenuation?
Solution
The last example revealed that when the decibel value is positive, it suggests that the system
has gain, otherwise the decibel is less than one (negative) which suggests that there is
attenuation in the system.

Example
A power amplifier with a 50-dB gain has an output power of 120 W. What is the input
power?
Solution

1.6 INFORMATION THEORY AND CODING

1.7 Objectives of Communication System.

The objectives of a communication system include minimum bandwidth, maximum quality
( signal to Ratio), minimum Bit Error Rate ( BER), Maximum speed, Economy, Reliability,
Mobility.
1.7.1 Transmission bandwidth
Bandwidth can be defined as the portion of electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal.
That is, the frequency range over which an information signal is transmitted. It is the
difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal. Bandwidth is also the
amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed amount of time.

For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per second(bps) or bytes per
second. For analog devices, the bandwidth is expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).
We already know the different types of passband signals such as voice signal, music signal,
TV signal, etc. Each of these signals will have its own frequency range. This frequency range
of a signal is known as its bandwidth. As an example, the range of music signal is 20Hz to
15KHz. Therefore as shown in figure 1.2, the bandwidth is (f2 – f1).

Figure 1.2
Thus we write BW = f2-f1
BW = 15000 – 20 = 14980 Hz

The bandwidth of some signals have been listed in table 1.1

Table 1.1
S/N Type of Signal Range of frequency (Hz) Bandwidth (Hz)
1 Voice signal (speech) for 300 - 3400 3100
telephony
2 Music signal 20 - 15000 14980
3 TV signals (picture) 0 -5 MHz 5 MHz
4 Digital signal 300 – 3400 3100
(if it is using the telephone
line for its transmission )

Important Point: In fact, the required bandwidth in the data transmission depends upon the
rate at which the data is being transmitted. The BW increases with increase in the rate of data
transmission.

1.7.2 Transmission Power

1.8 Types of Communication System
There are two types of Communication System, namely:
- Analog Communication System
- Digital Communication System

Analog communication System

In Analog Communication, the message or the information to be transmitted is analog in
nature. This analog message is obtained from the source such as speech, video, audio etc.

Analog Technology communicates data as electronic signals of varying frequency or

amplitude. Broadcast and telephone transmission are common examples of Analog
technology.

Digital Communication System

In digital communication, the message signal are transmitted in digital form that means
digital communication involves transmission of data or information in digital form. In digital
technology, the data are generated and processed in two states: High (represented as 1) and
Low (represented as 0). Digital technology stores and transmits data in the form of 1s and 0s.

1.8.1 Basic Modes of Communication

There are two basic modes of communication;
1. Broadcasting
2. Point to Point communication
Broadcasting
In broadcasting, a single powerful transmitter is used which transmits information in all
direction. There are several inexpensive receivers which receives this information. In
broadcasting mode, the flow of information is always from the transmitter to receivers i.e.
one way as shown in figure 1.31. Examples of broadcasting are radio transmission, TV
transmission etc.
Point to Point Communication
Here, the communication takes place over a link between only one transmitter and one
receiver as shown in figure 1.32. The flow of information is generally bidirectional. To
facilitate this, transmitters and receivers are used on both ends. Example of point to point
communication is communication between two telephone subscribers.
1.8.2 A Typical Block Diagram for Analog Communication System

As shown in the block diagram, a typical Analog Communication System consist of three
main parts, namely :
i. Transmitter
ii. Channel
iii. Receiver
Transmitter
i. It is the arrangement that processes the message signal into a suitable form for
transmission and subsequently reception.

ii. It converts information into a signal that is suitable for transmission over a medium.

iii. Transmitter increases the power of the signal through power amplifiers

iv. It also provides interfaces to match the transmission medium such as an antenna
interface, fiber interface and so on.

v. It consist of the information Source, Input Transducer, Amplifier, Modulator,

Transmitting Antenna.

Information or Input signal:

 Information is the entity or message to be transmitted. It can be in the form of audio,

video, temperature, picture, pressure, etc.
 Signal is the single-valued function of time that carries the information. The
information is converted into an electrical form for transmission.
 baseband signal can be defined as a signal which is not modulated . The information
or the input signal to a communication system can be analog i.e. sound, picture or it
can be digital e.g. the computer data. The electrical equivalent of this original
information signal is known as the baseband signal.
Bandpass signal
Bandpass can be defined as a signal which has a non zero lowest frequency in its
spectrum. It is the modulated signal .

Input transducer:

A device or an arrangement that converts one form of energy to the other. An electrical
transducer converts physical variables such as pressure, force, temperature into corresponding
electrical signal variations. Example: Microphone – converts audio signals into electrical
signals. Photodetector – converts light signals into electrical signals.

Amplifier

The electronic circuit or device that increases the amplitude or the strength of the transmitted
signal is called an amplifier. When the signal strength becomes less than the required value,
amplification can be done anywhere in between transmitter and receiver. A DC power source
will provide for the amplification.

Modulator

As the original message signal cannot be transmitted over a large distance because of their
low frequency and amplitude, they are superimposed with high frequency and amplitude
wave called carrier wave. This phenomenon of superimposing of message signal with a
carrier wave is called modulation. And the resultant wave is a modulated wave which is to be
transmitted. The device that does modulation is called a modulator.

Modulation: Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics (i.e.

amplitude, frequency, and phase) of a carrier are varied in accordance with a modulating
wave.

Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation, which is used to get back the original
message signal. Modulation is performed at the transmitting end whereas demodulation is
performed at the receiving end.

In analog modulation sinusoidal signal is used as carrier where as in digital modulation pulse
train is used as carrier.

Advantages of Modulation

1. Reduction in the height of antenna

2. Avoids mixing of signals
3. Increases the range of communication
4. Multiplexing is possible
 5. Improves quality of reception

Antenna

An Antenna is a structure or a device that is radiate and receive electromagnetic waves. So,
they are used in both transmitters and receivers. An antenna is basically a metallic object,
often a collection of wires. The electromagnetic waves are polarised according to the position
of the antenna.

Channel:

 The communication channel is the medium used for transmission of electrical signal
from one place to other.

 The communication medium can be conducting wires, cables, optical fibres or free
space.

 Depending on the type of communication medium, two types of communication

system exists.

 Line communication: The line communication systems use the communication

medium like the simple wires or cables or optical fibres. Eg: Telephone, Cable TV.

 Radio communication: The radio communication systems use the free space as their
communication medium. The transmitted signal is in the form of electromagnetic
waves. E.g. Mobile communication, satellite communication.

Some of the important characteristics of a channel are as under:

i. Power required to achieve the desired S/N ratio
ii. Bandwidth of the channel
iii. Amplitude and phase response of channel
iv. Type of channel (Linear or non-linear)
v. Effects of external interference on the channel.

1.8.3 Multiplexing

1.9 Types of Communication Channel

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver, i.e, it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types:
 Types of Communication Channel

Guided Channel Unguided Channel

Radiowaves Microwaves Infrared

Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Optical
Fibre Cable

Cable
Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed
and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

 High Speed
 Secure

 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such
pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media.
Twisted Pair is of two types:
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for
this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High speed capacity

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

2. Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)

This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used
in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
 Disadvantages:

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive
 Bulky

(ii) Coaxial Cable –

It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated
protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode (dedicated
cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs
and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:

 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive

Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –

It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for transmission of
large volumes of data.
Advantages:

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost
 Fragile
 Unidirectional , ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication

2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:

 Signals is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances

There are three major types of Unguided Media:

 (i) Radio waves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range: 3KHz – IGHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones used Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.
(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range: 1 GHz. – 300 GHz. These are majorly used
for mobile phone communication and television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot
penetrate through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency
Range: 300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard,
printer, etc.

1.10 Categories of Communication System based on direction

Namely:
i. Simplex
ii. Half Duplex
iii. Full Duplex

Comparison between half duplex and full duplex systems

S/N Parameter Half Duplex Full Duplex
1 Definition Communication is two Communication is two way
Way but one at a time
2 Examples Walky Talky Telephone

Comparison between Simplex and Duplex Systems

S/N Parameter Simplex Duplex
1 Definition Communication is one way Communication is two way
2 Examples Radio/TV broadcast Telephone

Receiver:
  Receives the signal (undesired) with noise (undesired)
 Recovers the original signal in spite of noise
 Consist of amplifiers, filters, mixers, oscillators, demodulators, output transducers
 The receiver involves the reversed processes in the transmitter.
 The receiver always converts the modulated signal into original signal which consist
of Amplifier, Oscillator, Mixer.
 In summary, the Receiver consist of the receving Antenna, Demodulator, Amplifier,
output transducer , Information Source.

Output transducer:

 Output transducer converts electrical signal into the original form i.e. sound or TV
pictures etc. E.g. Loudspeaker, data and image convertor.

1.11 Advantages of analog communication

Some of the advantages of analog communications are as under:
i. Transmitters and receivers are simple
ii. Low bandwidth requirement
iii. FDM (Frequency division multiplexing) can be used
Drawbacks of analog communication
Some of the drawbacks are as under:
i. Noise affects the signal quality
ii. It is not possible to separate noise and signal
iii. Repeaters cannot be used between transmitters and receivers
iv. Coding is not possible
v. It is not suitable for the transmission of secret information
Applications
i. Radio broadcasting (AM and FM)
ii. TV broadcasting
iii. Telephones

1.12 A Typical Block Diagram of a Digital Communication System

-Source encoder compresses message to remove redundancy
◮ Encryption protects against eavesdroppers and false messages
◮ Channel encoder adds redundancy for error protection
◮ Modulator converts digital inputs to signals suitable for physical channel
Digital Communication System si discussed in details in chapter three.
1.12.1 Advantages of digital communication
Some of the advantages of digital communication are as under:
i. Due to the digital nature of the transmitted signal, the interference of additive noise
does not introduce many errors. Hence, digital has a better noise immunity.
ii. Due to the channel coding techniques used in digital communication, it is possible to
detect and correct the errors introduced during the data transmission.
iii. Repeaters can be used between transmitters and receivers to regenerate the digital
signal. This improves the noise immunity further
iv. Due to the digital nature of the signal, it is possible to use the advanced data
processing techniques such as digital signal processing, image processing, data
compression, etc.
v. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) technique can be used to transmit many voice
channels over a single common transmission channel.
vi. Digital communication is useful in military applications where only a few permitted
receivers can receive the transmitted signal.
vii. Digital communication is becoming simpler and cheaper as compared to the analog
communication due to the invention of high speed computers and integrated circuits
(ICs)
1.12.2 Drawbacks of Digital communication
Some of the important drawbacks of digital communication are as under:
i. The bit rates of digital systems are high. Therefore, they require a larger channel
bandwidth as compared to analog systems.
ii. Digital modulation needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation

1.12.3 Application of digital communication

i. Long distance communication between earth and space ships.
ii. Satellite communication
iii. Military communications which needs coding
iv. Telephone systems
v. Data and computer communications

1.13 Outline of Historical Trend in Telecommunication

i. 1790: Semaphore lines (optical telegraphs) by the Chappe brothers.

ii. 1838: Electrical telegraph by Samuel B. Morse with friends A.Vail and Leonard Gale

iii. 1858: First trans-Atlantic telegraph cable by Cyrus Field

iv. 1867: Signal lamps by Phillip Colomb

v. 1876: Telephones by Alexander Graham Bell

vi. 1877: Acoustic phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison

vii. 1880: Telephony via light-beam photophones by Alexander Graham Bell

viii. 1893: Wireless telegraphy by Nikolai Tesla

ix. 1896: Radio by Marconi

x. 1915: First North American transcontinental telephone calling: Alexander Graham

xi. Bell 1927: Television: Phillip T. Farnsworth

xii. 1927: First U.K.-U.S. radio-telephone service:

xiii. 1930: First experimental videophones: AT&T

xiv. 1934: First commercial radio-telephone service, U.S.-Japan:

xv. 1936: World's first public videophone network: Nazi Germany

xvi. 1946: Limited-capacity mobile telephone service for automobiles

xvii. 1956: Transatlantic telephone cable:

xviii. 1962: Commercial telecommunications satellite:

xix. 1964: Fiber-optic telecommunications: Charles Kao and George Hockham

xx. 1965: First North American public videophone network:

xxi. 1969: Computer networking:

xxii. 1973: First modern-era mobile phone

xxiii. 1979: INMARSAT ship-to-shore satellite communications

xxiv. 1981: First mobile phone network:

xxv. 1982: SMTP email: Prior to 1982,

xxvi. 1983: Internet: On January 1, 1983, the Internet was officially born.
 xxvii. 1998: Mobile satellite hand-held phones:

xxviii. 2003: VoIP Internet telephony:

1.14 Wireless Communication

Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without
the help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors. It is a broad term that
incorporates all procedures and forms of connecting and communicating between two or
more devices using a wireless signal through wireless communication technologies and
devices.

Features of Wireless Communication

The evolution of wireless technology has brought many advancements with its effective
features.
 The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters (for example, a
television's remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for example, radio
communication).
 Wireless communication can be used for cellular telephony, wireless access to the
internet, wireless home networking, and so on.
Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology include GPS units, garage door
openers, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, headphones, radio receivers,
satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones.

1.15 Generations of Wireless Communication Networks

The word “Generation”, referred as „G‟, indicates the major advances in the mobile wireless
technology with time. Each generation indicates a major change in technology, along with
significant advances in speed of data transfer. There are major generations, and sub-
generational technologies between, mostly in terms of data transfer speed.

1.15.1 Zero Generation (O G) Technology (Pre-cellular Era)

Key points:
i. 0 G Technology is generally known as the pre-cellular technology, also called a
Mobile Radio Telephone Systems. It became available after world war –II, 1945.
ii. It uses analog carriers and provides only half duplex transmission (for example
Walkie-talkie , Autoradiopuhelin (ARP)-Car Radio Phone).
iii. It comprises of various techniques such as Advanced Mobile Telephone System
(AMTS), Mobile Telephone System (MTS),Swedish abbreviation for Mobile
Telephony system D ( MTD), Norwegian abbreviation for offending land mobile
telephone (OLT), Push To Talk (PTT) and Improved Mobile Telephone Service
(IMTS)
 iv. It has two main parts, transceiver and head and it connects to local telephone
network within the range of 20Km with the capacity of 25 channels per city.
v. It was used as basic Voice Communication system primarily for loggers,
construction foremen, realtors and celebrities.

Drawback: 0 G technology does not support hand over ( hand off) and roaming.

1.15.2 Half Generation (0.5 G) Technology

Key points:
i. It‟s frequency of operation was 150MHz.
ii. It supports full duplex system for communication .
iii. The network is divided into number of cells with 30 Km of cell size.
iv. The calls easily get disconnected because it does not support handover.
v. These limitations led to the origination of Autotel which is also known as PALM
(Public Automated Land Mobile).

Autotel (also called PALM, or Public Automated Land Mobile) is a radiotelephone service which
was the "missing link" between earlier MTS/IMTS and later cellular telephone services. It used
digital signaling for supervisory messages (call setup, ringing, channel assignment, etc.), except
the voice channel was analog (as was the original NMT and AMPS cellular systems). This system
was not cellular, as it used existent high-power (35 watt) VHF channels. This system was
developed for rural British Columbia, Canada, where building a network of low-power cellular
terminals to cover a forest would have been prohibitively expensive.

Drawback : It does not support Hanover or Hand off. This led to the next generation of
wireless technology

1.15.3 First Generation ( 1G) Technology

i. 1G technology is the first generation of wireless telephone technology with a very
basic voice analog phone system using circuited switched technology for the
transmission of radio signals.
ii. It was developed in 1980s and completed in early 1990‟s
iii. It offered handover and roaming capability but the cellular networks were unable to
interoperate between countries.
iv. All voice calls get “Frequency modulated” to higher frequency of 150MHz
transmitted with Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) technology in the
frequency band of 824-894 MHz with channel capacity of 30 KHz .
v. 1 G technology was based on Advance Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) or Total
Access Communication System (TACS).
vi. 1G Technology can also be supported by Nordic mobile telephone (NMT) standard,
Radio Com 2000 (RC 2000) standard, C-450 standard, etc
vii. It provides data rate up to 24Kbps and support mostly voice calls only.
viii. Allows users to make voice calls in 1 country
Drawback : 1G technology had the following drawback such as less capacity, handoff
./handover problems, lack of security, very poor voice connection because of
only one carrier per channel, less battery life , Large size and inability to
interoperate between countries. These led to the next generation of wireless
technology

1.15.4 Second Generation (2G) Technology -GSM

Key Points

i. 2G is the Second-Generation wireless cell phones, based on digital technologies and

in early 1990‟s. 2G was launched in Finland in 1991.
ii. 2G Technology provided medium for short message services (SMS), multimedia
message services (MMS) and e-mail with high capacity and coverage.
iii. It follows completely digital multiple accessing techniques called Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) standards.
iv. All messages transmitted were numerically encoded; and thus it provides greater
security.
v. It avails the frequency band of 850-8900MHz and uses the technologies like global
system for mobile (GSM), PDC, iDEN, IS-136 or north American Digital Cellular
system (NADC) with TDMS process and IS-95 with CDMA process.
vi. GSM was the first 2G System . It uses TDMA to multiplex up to 8 calls per channel in
the 900 and 1800 MHZ bands.
vii. GSM standard makes international roaming very common between mobile phone
operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world.
viii. GSM can‟t only deliver voice but also circuit switched data at sped up to 14.4kbps.

Drawback: The core shortcoming of 2G technology is, it‟s difficult to support complex
data, such as videos. This led to the next generation of wireless technology.

1.15. 5. Second and Half (2.5 G) Technology -GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

Key Points:

i. 2.5 G includes the GPRS –General Packet Radio Services

ii. The General Packet Radio Services offers 56Kbit/s to 115Kbits/s data rate.
iii. The 2.5 G -GPRS can be used for facilities such as Wireless Application Protocol
(WAP), Access Multimedia Messaging Services (AMMS), and for communication
network services such as Email and World Wide Web access. It also supports SMS,
MMS and WAP, Mobile games etc.
iv. GPRS provided data rates from 56 Kbps up to 384 Kbps, using database HLR, VLR,
EIR, and AuC with HSCSD, GPRS and EDGE technologies.
Drawback: Insufficient Data rate transmission Capability. This led to the next generation
of wireless technology.

1.15.6 2.75 G Technology: EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution)

Key Points:
i. GPRS (2.5 G Technology) network evolved to EDGE networks with the
introduction of 8PSK encoding.
ii. Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution, Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS) , or IMT
Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone
technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an extension on top of
standard GSM.
iii. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003 initially by Cingular
(now AT & T) in the United States.
iv. EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM family, and it is an upgrade
that provides a potential three-fold increase in capacity of GSM/GPRS networks.
v. The specification achieves higher data –rates (up to 236.8 Kbits/s) by switching to
more sophisticated methods of coding (8PSK), within existing GSM timeslots.
vi. EDGE technology is an extended version of GSM. It allows the clear and fast .
transmission of data and information. It is also termed as IMT-SC or single carrier.
vii. EDGE meets the requirements for a 3G network but is usually classified as
2.75G.
viii. EDGE technology is preferred over GSM due to its flexibility to carry packet switch
data and circuit switch data. EDGE transfers data in fewer seconds if we compare it
with GPRS Technology. For example a typical text file of 40KB is transferred in
only 2 seconds as compared to the transfer from GPRS technology, which is 6
seconds.
ix. The biggest advantage of using EDGE technology is, one does not need to install any
additional hardware and software in order to make use of EDGE Technology. There
are no additional charges for exploiting this technology. If a person is an ex GPRS
Technology user, he can utilize this technology without paying any additional
charges.
x. Instead of three bits each symbol carried in one bit. enhanced data rates for GSM
evolution (EDGE), enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT single carrier (IMT-SC) is a
regressive compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data
transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard GSM.

Drawback:
1.15.7 Third Generation (3G) Technology: (UMTS)

Key Points:

i. 3G Technology usually referred as Universal Mobile Telecommunications Standard

(UMTS) is found to be 3 times better than GSM, so called 3GSM with maximum date
rate of 8Mbps.
ii. It assigns low data rate channel for voice calls and large data rate channel for video
calls.
 iii. The International standard used for 3G cellular networks is the International Mobile
Telecommunications 2000 (IMT 2000) in the year 1999.
iv. The 3G was supported by 2 main technologies UMTS and CDMA2000 with the
support of 3GPP and 3GPP2 respectively.
v. UMTS uses the air interface as wideband CDMA (WCDMA) often known as
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (UTRA).
vi. It is configured to support up to 2Mbps data rate with Frequency Division Duplexing
(FDD) and Time Division Duplexing (TDD), whereas CDMA 2000 uses multiple
narrowband CDMA carriers.
vii. 3G technologies enable network operators to offer users a wider range of more
advanced services while achieving greater network capacity through improved
spectral efficiency. Services include wide area wireless voice telephony, video calls,
and broadband wireless data, mobile television, GPS (global positioning system) and
video conferencing. all in a mobile environment.
viii. 3G has the following enhancements over 2.5G and previous networks: Enhanced
audio and video streaming, Several Times higher data speed, Video-conferencing
support, Web and WAP browsing at higher speeds, IPTV (TV through the Internet)
support

Drawback: It requires higher bandwidth. This led to the next generation of wireless
technology

1.15.8 Third and Half Generation (3.5G) Technology: HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet
Access)

Key Points:

i. 3.5G also termed as high-speed data packet access (HSDPA) is 6 times faster than
UMTS technology thereby supporting data rate up to 14.4 Mbps .
ii. High-Speed Downlink Packet Access(HSDPA) is a mobile telephony protocol, also
called 3.5G (or "3½ G"), which provides a smooth evolutionary path for UMTS-based
3G networks allowing for higher data transfer speeds.
iii. HSDPA is a packet-based data service in W-CDMA downlink with data transmission
up to 8-10 Mbps (and 20 Mbps for MIMO systems) over a 5MHz bandwidth in
WCDMA downlink.
iv. HSDPA implementations includes Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC),
Multiple-Input Multiple- Output (MIMO), Hybrid Automatic Request (HARQ), fast
cell search, and advanced receiver design.

Drawback:

3.75G – HSUPA (High-Speed Uplink Packet Access)

i. The 3.75G refer to the technologies beyond the well defined 3G wireless/mobile
technologies. High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA) is a UMTS / WCDMA
uplink evolution technology.
ii. The HSUPA mobile telecommunications technology is directly related to HSDPA and
the two are complimentary to one another.
 iii. HSUPA will enhance advanced person-to-person data applications with higher and
symmetric data rates, like mobile e-mail and real-time person-to person gaming.

3.9G Technology: LTE

i. Long term evolution (LTE) is thought as a lead towards the 4G technology and hence
named as 3.9G technology.
ii. It uses evolved UTRA (E-UTRA) as the air interface and is supported by single
carrier – frequency division multiple access (SC-FDMA) to achieve 50 Mbps data rate
at the uplink. In downlink 100 Mbps data rate is achieved through Orthogonal
frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) .

1.15.9 Fourth Generation (4G) Technology: LTE -A, Wi Max, E-HSPA

i. 4G technology is established to incorporate the major requirements such as quality of

service (QoS) and data rate. This is done by small applications such as MMS, Video
chat, HDTV, digital video broadcasting (DVB) and wireless mobile broadband access
(WMBA) et.
ii. ITU decided that LTE together with the aforementioned technologie ( WiMax,
Evolved High Speed Packet Access )can be called 4G technologies due to its
marketing pressure and the significant advancements.
iii. Very good inter-operability between various networks. For a stationary user – server,
it provides 1Gbps data rate and for a moving user it offers 1- 100 Mbps data rate.
iv. It uses a new technique OFDMA method which is the combination of CDMA and IS-
95 by dividing the channel in narrowband to transmit data packets with greater
efficiency. IEEE 802.16m and IEEE 802.16e developed the WMBA techniques to
provide downlink data rate of 128 Mbps and uplink data rate of 58Mbps.
v. LTE and Wi Max are the driving forces of 4G technology,

Drawback: There are some major issues in 4G, one is Position management and the other is
handoff management . LTE and Wi Max are the driving forces of 4G technology, these two
are suffering from security issues to destroy data availability, integrity, confidentiality and
authentication. Wi Max drawback is denial of service (DOS) attacks, replay attacks,
Eavesdropping, Key Management and reducing Quality of service. Whereas in LTE DOS
attack, Data modification and scrambling attack are the major issues .

1.15.10 Fifth Generation (5G) Technology: Internet of Things (IoT), mm-Wave

technology

Key Points:

i. 5G technology is a descendant of 4G called LTE Advance (LTE-A) which supports

FDD mode and TDD mode.
ii. 5G offers a minimum of 1Gbps data rate and allow us to experience a real
wireless world – wireless world wide web (WWWW) .
iii. It follows all IP model to provide inter-operability between all networks and uses
packet switching rather than circuit switching.
 iv. As the technology grows the requirement of spectrum increases significantly. 2G
requires 8 times additional spectrum than 1G, similarly 3G requires 25 times that
of 2G and 4G needs 4 times more spectrum than 3G. 5G should support ultra-
high-speed data(1Gbps) and ultra-low latency (<1ms), it requires a wide
bandwidth which is not very easy to provide.
v. 5G is revolutionized with Cloud RAN/ Edge Computing and Network Slicing .
Frequency permitting and spectrum organization problems might have been
solved by the Software Defined Radio link (SDR), therefore, it can allow more
than hundred channels simultaneously without streaming .
vi. 5G is viewed as a multi core reconfigurable technology inbuilt with
nanotechnology, cognitive radio networks (CRN), Cloud Computing to connect
all networks such as GSM, CDMA, Wi -Max and Wire line into a single core and
all the knowledges such as big data, smart grids (SG), mobile cloud computing
(MCC), internet of things (IoT), internet of vehicles (IoV), augmented reality
(AR), virtual reality (VR), and D2D Communication into a common network .
vii. 5G is mm-Wave dependent Generation. The major prerequisites of 5G technology,
such as larger bandwidth, data rate, low latency is achieved by shifting the
operating frequency towards the mm-wave frequencies. Due to the increased
demand of spectrum, frequency band below 6GHz is been over crowded and 5G is
research is concentrated in 10-15 GHz, local multipoint services at 28-30GHz, 38-
40 GHz, Unlicensed band 57-66 GHz, 71-76 GHz, 81-86 GHz, and 92-95 GHz .
viii. The performance is improved by mm wave beam forming, Multiple antenna
technologies, device to device (D2D) communication, Simultaneous transmission
and reception, network cooperation and interference management.
ix. 5G systems are more secured than the 4G. This is been achieved by the important
techniques such as New Trust models, Modified Drivers, Regularized privacy
policies, Flexible architecture and cloud computing security .

1.15.17 Sixth Generation (6G) Technology

Key Point:

The main aim of 6G technology is to assimilate all wireless mobile networks into single
global coverage effectively without roaming. Which can be accomplished by using low earth
orbit (LEO) Satellite and provide speed up to 1000 Gbps

1.15.18 Seventh Generation (7G) Technology:

Key Point:

The goal of 7G is to interrelate four GPS systems which are in space roaming into a single
network. It can offer data transmission rate of the order of 1Tbps.
Table 1.1: Evolution of Wireless Technology ( 0 G-5G)
Generations 1G 2G 3G 3.5G 3.75G 4G 5G
Deployment 1984 1990 2001 2003 2003 2010 2020
from
Frequency - - 1.6-2.5GHz 1.6-2.5GHz 1.6-2.5GHz 2-8GHz >6GHz
Data 2Kbps 10Kbps 384Kbps 2Mbps 30Mbps 200Mbps- Higher than
Capacity to-1Gbps 1Gbps

Technology - - Digital GSM/3GPP Digital IP-

Broadband Broadband broadband
packet data/IP Packet All, LAN/WAN/
technology more PAN&WW
FDD throughput W
TDD

Throughput 14.4 20Kbps 200Kbps 1-3 Mbps 100-

Kbps 300Mbp
Standard AMPS, CDMA,
NMT, TDMA,
TACS, GSM
MTS,
AMTS,
IMTS
Web -- WWW
Standard
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA MC- CDMA
CDMA CDMA,
OFDMA
Switching - - Circuit Packet Packet Packet Packet All Packet
Service Voice Voice High speed High speed High speed High speed Dynamic
only Data Voice/data/vide Voice/data/vide internet/multimedi access, HD Information
o o a capability, access,
Worldwide wearable
roaming, devices with
Wearable AI
devices capabilities

Main PSTN PSTN Packet Network GSM TDMA Internet Internet

Network
Hand off Horizonta Horizonta Horizontal Horizontal and Vertical
l l
Disadvantage Poor Digital Need more network capacity, Failed in real time More Yet to
s Handoff, Dependin applications battery deploy
less g usage,
security, proximity Complicate
Spectral , need d and
efficiency strong expensive
signals to hardware
h phones
le
 CHAPTER 2

ANALOG MODULATION

2.1 Definition of Analog Modulation

2.1.1 Classification of Analog Modulation

Analog Modulation

FIGURE

Continuous wave modulation (CW): When the carrier wave is continuous in nature the
modulation process is known as continuous wave modulation.

Pulse modulation: When the carrier wave is a pulse in nature the modulation process is
known as continuous wave modulation

Amplitude modulation (AM): A modulation process in which the amplitude of the carrier is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal.

2.2 Derivation of Equations for AM Wave

This section deals with the derivation of expressions for:
i. Amplitude Sensitivity of the Modulator
ii. AM Wave
iii. Modulation depth
iv. Frequency Spectrum for Single –tone modulation
v. DSB-Frequency Spectrum
vi.

Let the carrier signal be represented by a sinusoidal voltage signal Vc (t ) , given by:

Vc (t ) = vc cos(2f ct  c )

Where vc is the amplitude of the carrier signal, f c is the frequency of the carrier signal, and
c is the phase angle.

If the phase angle is assumed to be zero, then the carrier signal expression becomes:
Vc (t ) = vc cos(2fct )  vc cos ct ….. 1

Where c is the angular frequency.

Let the modulating (message) signal ( Vmt ) of amplitude vm , frequency f m and angular
frequency m be given by:

Vm (t )  vc cos 2f mt  vm cos mt ….. 2

Recalling the definition of Amplitude Modulation, the amplitude of the amplitude modulated
(AM) wave, after modulation is
vAM  vc  kVm cos mt ………..3

Where k is the constant of proportionality and a parameter of the circuit. Therefore , the
instantaneous Voltage of the AM signal is
VAM (t )  vAM cos ct ………..4

Substituting equation 3 into 4, we have:

VAM (t )  (vc  kvm cos mt ) cos ct …5

Factorizing vc from equation 5, we have:

kvm
VAM (t )  vc (1  cos mt ) cos ct ……6
vc

Hence, a single tone (single-frequency) amplitude-modulated wave can be mathematically

expressed as:
VAM (t )  vc (1  m cos mt ) cos ct ………7
Where the ratio , m is referred to as the modulation depth of the AM signal. Its value lies
between 0 and 1.
kvm
m ………………8
vc

The modulation depth can equally be expressed as percentage.

% modulation depth= m x 100

2.2 CONSTRUCTION OF AM WAVE ( Simulink model)

An amplitude modulated wave can be constructed as shown in figure (xx). The modulating
and unmodulated carrier waves are represented in figure xx (a) and (b) respectively. It could
be observed that the AM wave represented in figure xx (c) is obtained by “superimposing”
the modulating signal on the carrier. Hence the modulating signal forms an “envelope” to the
AM wave, provided that the modulation depth is less than unity (or 100%). It is important to
note that the frequency of the AM wave is the same as that of the carrier (i.e. fc); it is only the
carrier‟s instantaneous value that is made to vary in accordance with that of the modulating
signal.

Figure xx (a,b,c) construction of amplitude-modulated AM wave

Over modulation: This is said to have occurred if the modulation depth is greater than unity
(i.e. more than 100% modulation). In such a case, the shape of the envelope no longer
resembles that of the modulating signal. Figure xx illustrates AM waves of three different
modulation percentage values.

Figure xx illustrating different degrees of over modulation

2.3 Determination of Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave
The Frequency Spectrum of an AM wave shows how it is represented in the frequency
domain.
Expanding equation 7,
VAM (t )  vc cos ct  mvc cos ct cos mt …………………..9

Recall that,
1 1
cos A cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
2 2
Applying this , equation 9 becomes:
1 1
VAM (t )  vc cos ct  mvc cos(c  m )t  mvc cos(c  m )t ….10
2 2
Deductions:
Equation 10 shows that an AM Wave has three components:
i. A carrier signal of frequency f c with amplitude vc

1
ii. A lower side-frequency f c  f m with amplitude mvc
2
1
iii. An upper side frequency f c  f m with amplitude mvc
2
Figure ..shows the resulting frequency spectrum diagram. Note that the side-frquency signals
are symmetrically positioned around the carrier frequency f c and are of equal amplitude of
1
mvc
2

Vc

1/2mVc 1/2mVc

Frequency

0 fc-fm fc fc+fm
Figure xx Frequency spectrum of single-tone AM wave.

Example 2.1
A 70 kHz carrier signal is amplitude-modulated by an 8 kHz message signal. Determine the frequency
spectrum of the AM wave.
Solution
Given: fc = 70 kHz, fm = 8 kHz
Hence, the frequency components of the AM wave are:
Lower sideband frequency FLSB = fc-fm = (70-8) kHz = 62 kHz
Upper sideband frequency FUSB = fc+fm = (70+8) kHz = 78 kHz
Therefore, the frequency spectrum for the AM wave will range from 62 kHz to 78 kHz.

2.3.1 Determination of Frequency Spectrum for AM Wave ( Double tone /side)

In practice, the modulating signal usually occupies a frequency band instead of a single
frequency. For example, voice signal occupies a frequency range 300Hz-3400Hz.

Let the lowest and highest frequency components of the message signal be f m1 and f m 2
respectively. Then, after modulation, frequency f m 2 produces an upper side –frequency
f c  f m 2 and a lower side frequency f c f m1 . As a result, the modulation process produces
an upper side band ( USD) occupying band f c  f m1 to f c  f m 2 and a lower sideband (
LSB) occupying the band f c  f m 2 to f c  f m1 .

Figure… shows the resultant Frequency Spectrum. The two sidebands aer symmetrically
positioned about the carrier frequency f c . This form of modulation si called double –
sideband amplitude.

Vc

1/2mVc 1/2mVc

Frequency

0 fc-f2 fc-f1 fc fc+f1 fc+f2

Figure xx Frequency spectrum of AMDSB wave

Example 2.2

A message signal occupying the frequency band 300-3400 Hz is used to amplitude-modulate a 60

kHz carrier. Determine the frequency spectrum of the AM wave. Sketch the spectrum.

Solution

Given: f1 =300 Hz = 0.3 kHz, f2 = 3400 Hz = 3.4 kHz, fc = 60 kHz

Hence, the lower sideband will occupy fc-f2 to fc-f1

 (60  3.4)kHz to (60  0.3)kHz

 56.6kHz to 59.7kHz
And the upper sideband will occupy fc+f1 to fc+f2

 (60  0.3)kHz to (60  3.4)kHz

 60.3kHz to 63.4kHz
Thus, the frequency spectrum is shown in figure (xx)

Frequency (kHz)

0 56.6 59.7 60 60.3 63.4

Figure (xx)

2.3.2 Transmission Bandwidth of an AMDSB

Transmission bandwidth is the difference between the highest frequency f c  f m 2 and the
lowest frequency f c  f m 2

Therefore, for AMDSB,

B= ( f c  f m 2 ) -( f c  f m 2 ) = 2 f m 2

Therefore, the required transmission bandwidth of an AMDSB signal is twice the maximum
frequency component of the message signal.

2.3.3 Power in AMDSB Wave

If an AMDSB signal‟s power is allowed to dissipate on load resistance of R ohm, then th total
power , Pt, dissipated si the sum of carrier power Pc, the lower sideband power PLSB and the
upper sideband power PUSB
Where,
 2
vc (rms) (vc / 2 ) 2
Pc   ………
R R

( 1 mvc / 2 ) 2 m2vc 2
PLSB  PUSB  2 
R 8R

Therefore, the total power in the modulated wave si

2 2 2
v m2vc m2vc
Pt  c  
R 8R 8R

m2 m2 m2
 Pc  Pc  Pc  Pc (1  )
4 4 2

Deductions:

i. When m=1, Pt (max)  1.5Pc

- This means that both power and transmission bandwidth are maximum in in
AMDSB, when m=1
- The carrier power is at least two-thirds of the total power. Which implies that
the carrier signal alone consumes 66.7% of the total power required to
transmit an AMDSB. Which is a huge drawback in AMDSB transmission.
ii. The ratio of carrier power to total power is
Pc Pc 2
 
Pt m 2
2  m2
Pc (1  )
2

Example 2.4

Calculate the total power contained in an AMDSB wave with modulation depth of 0.6 and carrier
voltage amplitude of 8 volts. Assume a load of 1 Ohm.

Solution

Given: m = 0.6, R= 1 ohm, Vc = 8V

The carrier power is given by

Vc2 82 64
Pc     32W
2R 2  1 2
Therefore, the total power is

m2 0.6 2
Pt  Pc (1  )  32(1  )  32(1.18)  37.76W
2 2

Example 2.5

An AMDSB signal with modulation depth of 90% has a carrier power of 200 kW. Calculate the total
power in the AM signal.

Solution

Given: m = 0.9, Pc = 200 kW

Hence, total power can be evaluated as under

m2
Pt  Pc (1  )
2

0.9 2
Pt  200(1  )  200(1.405)  281kW
2
Examples A

Example 2.3
Consider a sinusoidal carrier that has amplitude of 15 V and frequency of 30 KHz. It is
amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal voltage of 5 V and frequency 1 KHz and modulated
voltage is developed across a 50 Ω resistance.
i). Determine the modulation index
ii). Write the equation for the modulated wave
iii). Plot the modulated wave showing the message, carrier and AM waves
iv). Draw the spectrum of the modulated wave.
Solution
Given: Vc = 15 V, Vm = 5 V, Fc = 30KHz, Fm = 1KHz, R =50 Ω

i). Modulation index, m =

ii). The equation is given by:

Therefore,
iii). the modulated waveform from matlab/simulink is shown in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 Message, Carrier and AM waveforms

iv). The spectrum of the modulated wave is shown as follows and plotted in figure 2.6:
The upper side band frequency FUSB = Fc + Fm = 30+1 = 31 KHz
The lower side band frequency FLSB = Fc – Fm = 30 – 1 = 29 KHz

Amplitude of each sideband = \

Carrier
Vc = 15 V

LSB USB
2.5 V 2.5 V

29 30 31 Frequency (KHz)

Figure 2.6 spectrum of the modulated wave

Example 2.4
Calculate the power contained in an AMDSB wave with modulation index of 0.6 and carrier
amplitude of 15 V. take R =1 Ω
Solution
Given: m = 0.6, Vc = 15 V, R =1 Ω

The carrier power is given by =

Therefore, the total power

1. Determine the modulation index and percentage modulation of the signal shown in figure 1.

Solution
AM signal

80

50

20

0 t
-20

-50

-80

Figure 1
Given that the AM signal which is shown in figure 1, we have to find ma, and M.

max( p  p)  min( p  p)
m
max( p  p)  min( p  p)
max( p  p)  2(80)  160
min( p  p)  2(20)  40
160  40 120
Thus, ma    0.6
160  40 200
Therefore M = ma  100  60%
2. A given AM broadcast station transmits a total power of 60 kW when the carrier is
modulated by a sinusoidal signal with a modulation index of 0.8 calculate:
i). The carrier power
ii). The transmission efficiency
iii). The peak amplitude of the carrier assuming the antenna to be represented by a (60
+j0) Ω load.
 Solution

i. The total transmitted power by the AM broadcast station is given by:

Pc (1  Px )  60kW
1
Px  (0.8) 2  0.32
2
hence ,
Pc (1  0.32)  60kW
60
Pc   45.45kW
1.32
ii. For the transmission efficiency,  , is given by
Pc .P x .P x 0.32
    0.24or 24%
Pc  Pc .P x 1  P x 1.32
Ac2 Ac2
iii. Also carrier power Pc    45.45  10 3 W
2  R 2  60
 Ac  2  60  45.45  10 3  2335.3  2.3kV
3. The efficiency  of ordinary AM is defined as the percentage of the total power carried by
the sidebands as:
Ps
  100%
Pt
Where Ps is the power carried by the sideband and Pt is the total power of the AM signal.
Find (a)  for ma= 0.5 (b) show that for single-tone AM,  max is 33.3 percent at ma =1
Solution
A single-tone AM signal is given by:
X AM (t )  A cos  c t  ma A cos  m t cos  c t
1 1
X AM (t )  A cos  c t  ma A cos( c   m )t  ma A cos( c   m )t
2 2
1
Pc = carrier power = A 2
2
Ps = sideband power
1 1 1 1 2
Ps  [( ma A) 2  ( ma A) 2 ]  ma A 2
2 2 2 2
And Pt is given by
1 2 1 2 2
Pt  Pc  Ps  A  ma A
2 2
1 1 2
Pt  (1  ma ) A 2
2 2
P
Thus   s 100%
Pt
Substituting the values of Ps and Pt we will have:
 1 2 2
ma A 2
2 ma
  100%   100%

2
1 1 2 2 2 m
(  ma ) A a
2 4
Given that ma  1
a. For ma = 0.5
0.5 2
  100%  11.1%
2  0.5 2
b. Since ma  1, it can be observed that  max occurs at ma =1 and is expressed as
1
   100%  33.3%
3

2.3.4 Determination Of Modulation Depth In Amdsb

It should be very obvious now that many approaches can be used to determine the modulation
depth of an AMDSB signal. Some of these methods are discussed as under:

(i) From Vc and Vm : by this method we have that the modulation index m is expressed as
under
Vm
m ……… (xx)
Vc
Where Vc and Vm are the amplitudes of the carrier and modulating signals respectively when
the modulation depth is unity (i.e. m = 1)
(ii) From waveform: Figure xx represents an AMDSB waveform from where we have that :
Vmax  Vmin
Vm  … (xx)
2
And
Vmax  Vmin
Vc  ….. (xx)
2
Vmax

Vc
2Vm
Vmin

Figure xx Determination of modulation index by waveform

So it can be given that the modulation index is expressed as

 Vmax  Vmin
V 2 V  Vmin
m m   max … (xx)
Vc Vmax  Vmin Vmax  Vmin
2
This is the preferred formula to be used when an oscilloscope time display is available.

(iii) From power relation: The modulation index can also be evaluated from the power relation
as follows:
P 
m  2 t  1 …. (xx)
 Pc 
(iv) From X-Y ploy on the oscilloscope: If the carrier is fed to the vertical input and the
modulating signal to the horizontal input of an oscilloscope, then an X-Y plot of the AMDSB
signal of the form shown in figure (xx) is obtained.

A B

Figure xx Determining m from X-Y plot

Hence, the modulation index m can readily be obtained from the relation

A B
m
A B

2.4 AM WAVE DERIVATIVES

In the process of Amplitude Modulation, the modulated wave consists of the carrier wave and
two sidebands. The modulated wave has the information only in the sidebands.

Sideband is nothing but a band of frequencies, containing power, which are the lower and
higher frequencies of the carrier frequency.

The transmission of a signal, which contains a carrier along with two sidebands can be
termed as Double Sideband Full Carrier system or simply DSBFC. It is plotted as shown in
the following figure.
Fig:......

However, such a transmission is inefficient. because, two-thirds of the power is being wasted
in the carrier, which carries no information.

If this carrier is suppressed and the saved power is distributed to the two sidebands, then such
a process is called as Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply DSBSC. It is
plotted as shown in the following figure.

2.4.1 Mathematical Expressions

Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for modulating and carrier signals as we
have considered in the earlier chapters.
i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos2πfmt)

Carrier signal

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of DSBSC wave as the product of

modulating and carrier signals.

s(t)=m(t)c(t)
⇒s(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)

2.4.2 Bandwidth of DSBSC Wave

We know the formula for bandwidth (BW) is

BW=fmax−fmin

Consider the equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

Thus, the bandwidth of DSBSC wave is same as that of AM wave and it is equal to twice the
frequency of the modulating signal.
2.4.3 Power Calculations of DSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of DSBSC modulated wave.

First, let us find the powers of upper sideband and lower sideband one by one.

Upper sideband power

Therefore, the power required for transmitting DSBSC wave is equal to the power of both the
sidebands.
2.5 Generation of DSB –AM wave

In this section, two types are considered, namely:

 Square law modulator

 Switching modulator

2.5.1 Square Law Modulator

The circuit diagram of the square law Modulator is shown in Figure…..while the block
diagram is shown in figure…..

Fig……..

Fig…….

Parts of the square wave modulator

i. Two input signals : modulating signal (m(t) ) and the carrier signal c(t) =Acos
(2πfct)
ii. Non-linear Device : a Diode
iii. Low pass filter

Mode of Operation

The two input signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. This summer block
generates an output, which is the summation of the modulating and the carrier signal.

Mathematically, we can write it as

 V1t= m(t)+Accos (2πfct)….. eqn1

This signal V1t is applied as an input to a nonlinear device (diode). The characteristics of the
diode are closely related to square law and its given by:

V2t=k1V1(t)+k2V12(t) ………..eqn2

Where, k1and k2 are constants.

Substitute V1(t) in Equation 2

V2(t)=k1[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]+k2[m(t)+Accos(2πfct)]2

⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k1 Accos(2πfct)+k2 m2(t)+k2 Ac2cos2(2πfct)+2k2m(t) Accos(2πfct)

⇒V2(t)=k1m(t)+k2m2(t)+k2Ac2cos2(2πfct)+k1Ac[1+( )m(t)]cos(2πfct)…eqn 3

Eliminating the first three terms using the band pass filter, the AM wave is generated .

Therefore, the output of square law modulator is

s(t)= k1Ac[1+( )m(t)]cos(2πfct) ----eqn 4

The standard equation of AM wave is

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)----eqn 5

Where, Ka is the amplitude sensitivity

By comparing the output of the square law modulator in eqn 4 with the standard equation of
AM wave in eqn 5, we will get the scaling factor as k1and the amplitude sensitivity ka as

2.5. 1 Switching Modulator

Circuit diagram
Fig:. block diagram of switching modulator.

Mode of Operation

Switching modulator is related to the square law modulator. The singular difference is that in
the square law modulator, the diode is operated in a non-linear mode, whereas, in the
switching modulator, the diode has to operate as an ideal switch.

Let the modulating and carrier signals be denoted as

m(t) and c(t)=Accos(2πfct)respectively.

These two signals are applied as inputs to the summer (adder) block. Summer block
generates an output, which is the summation of modulating and carrier signals.

Mathematically, we can state that:

V1(t)=m(t) + c(t)= m(t) + Ac cos(2πfct)

This signal V1(t)is applied as an input of diode. Assume, the magnitude of the modulating
signal is very small when compared to the amplitude of carrier signal Ac. So, the diode‟s ON
and OFF action is controlled by carrier signal c(t). This means, the diode will be forward
biased when c(t)>0 and it will be reverse biased when c(t)<0

Therefore, the output of the diode is

V2(t)=

We can approximate this as

V2(t)=V1(t)x(t) (Equation 2)
Where, x(t) is a periodic pulse train with time period T=

The Fourier series representation of this periodic pulse train is

The 1st term of the above equation represents the desired AM wave and the remaining terms
are unwanted terms. Thus, with the help of band pass filter, we can pass only AM wave and
eliminate the remaining terms.

Therefore, the output of switching modulator is

s(t)= (1 + ( ) m(t)) cos (2πfct)

We know the standard equation of AM wave is

 s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

Where, ka is the amplitude sensitivity. By comparing the output of the switching modulator
with the standard equation of AM wave, we will get the scaling factor as 0.5 and amplitude
sensitivity ka as .

2.6 DETECTION OR DEMODULATION OF AM WAVE

Detection or demodulation is the process of extracting an original message signal from the
modulated wave . The circuit, which demodulates the modulated wave is known as the
demodulator. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for demodulating AM wave.

 Square Law Demodulator

 Envelope Detector

2.6.1 Square Law Demodulator

Square law demodulator is used to demodulate low level AM wave. Following is the block
diagram of the square law demodulator shown in FIG...

This demodulator contains a square law device and low pass filter. The AM wave V1(t) is
applied as an input to this demodulator.

The standard form of AM wave is

Given that:

V1 (t )  Ac [1  k a m(t )] cos(2f c t ) … (1)

V2 (t )  K1V1 (t )  K 2V12 (t ) ….. (2)

Putting equation (1) into equation (2) for V1 (t ) , we will have,

V2 (t )  K1[ Ac (1  k a m(t )) cos(2f c t )]  K 2 [ Ac (1  k a m(t )) cos(2f c t )]2 …. (3)

V2 (t )  K1[ Ac (1  ka m(t )) cos(2fc t )]  K2[ Ac cos(2fc t )  Ac ka m(t ) cos(2fc t )]2 …. (4)

Expanding the squared term, we will have that,

V2 (t )  K1[ Ac (1  k a m(t )) cos(2f c t )]  K 2 [ A 2 c cos 2 (2f c t )  2[( Ac cos(2f c t ))( Ac k a m(t ) cos(2f c t ))] 
[ Ac k a m(t ) cos(2f c t ]2 ]..................(5)
V2 (t )  K1 [ Ac (1  k a m(t )) cos(2f c t )]  K 2 [ A 2 c cos 2 (2f c t )  2[ Ac k a m(t ) cos 2 (2f c t )] 
2

Ac k a m 2 (t ) cos 2 (2f c t )]..............(6)

2 2

V2 (t )  K 1 [ Ac (1  k a m(t )) cos(2f c t )]  K 2 [ A 2 c cos 2 (2f c t )  2 Ac k a m(t ) cos 2 (2f c t ) 

2

Ac k a m 2 (t ) cos 2 (2f c t )].........(7)

2 2

V2 (t )  K 1 [ Ac cos(2f c t )  Ac k a m(t ) cos(2f c ]  K 2 [ A 2 c {cos 2 (2f c t )  2k a m(t ) cos 2 (2f c t ) 

k a m 2 (t ) cos 2 (2f c t )}]...................(8)
2

V2 (t )  K1 Ac [1  k a m(t )] cos(2f c t )  K 2 A2 c [1  2k a m(t )  k 2 a m 2 (t )] cos 2 (2f c t ) …….(9)

In the above equation, the term k2Ac2kam(t) is the scaled version of the message signal. It can
be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter and the DC component

can be eliminated with the help of a coupling capacitor.

2.6.2 Envelope Detector

Envelope detector is used to detect (demodulate) high level AM wave.

Circuit diagram

Fig: block diagram of the envelope detector.

This envelope detector consists of a diode and low pass filter. Here, the diode is the main
detecting element. Hence, the envelope detector is also known as the diode detector. The
low pass filter contains a parallel combination of the resistor and the capacitor.

The AM wave s(t)is applied as an input to this detector.

We know the standard form of AM wave is

s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

In the positive half cycle of AM wave, the diode conducts and the capacitor charges to the
peak value of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is less than this value, the diode will
be reverse biased. Thus, the capacitor will discharge through resistor R till the next positive
half cycle of AM wave. When the value of AM wave is greater than the capacitor voltage, the
diode conducts and the process will be repeated.

We should select the component values in such a way that the capacitor charges very quickly
and discharges very slowly. As a result, we will get the capacitor voltage waveform same as
that of the envelope of AM wave, which is almost similar to the modulating signal.

2.7 DSBSC wave MODULATOR

. The following two modulators generate DSBSC wave.

 Balanced modulator
 Ring modulator

2.7.1 Balanced Modulator

Fig: Block diagram of the Balanced modulator.

Mode of Operation

2.7.2 Balanced modulator consists of two identical AM modulators. These two modulators
are arranged in a balanced configuration in order to suppress the carrier signal. Hence, it is
called as Balanced modulator.
The same carrier signal c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

is applied as one of the inputs to these two AM modulators. The modulating signal m(t) is
applied as another input to the upper AM modulator. Whereas, the modulating signal m(t)
with opposite polarity, i.e., −m(t)is applied as another input to the lower AM modulator.

Output of the upper AM modulator is

s1(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

Output of the lower AM modulator is

s2(t)=Ac[1−kam(t)]cos(2πfct)

We get the DSBSC wave s(t) by subtracting s2(t) from s1(t). The summer block is used to
perform this operation. s1(t) with positive sign and s2(t) with negative sign are applied as
inputs to summer block. Thus, the summer block generates an output s(t) which is the
difference of s1(t) and s2(t)

⇒s(t)=Ac[1+kam(t)]cos(2πfct)−Ac[1−kam(t)]cos(2πfct)
⇒s(t)=Accos(2πfct)+Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)−Accos(2πfct)+Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)

⇒s(t)=2Ackam(t)cos(2πfct)

We know the standard equation of DSBSC wave is

s(t)=Acm(t)cos(2πfct)

By comparing the output of summer block with the standard equation of DSBSC wave, we
will get the scaling factor as 2ka

2.7.3 Ring Modulator

 Fig: Block diagram of the Ring modulator.

In this diagram, the four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are connected in the ring structure.
Hence, this modulator is called as the ring modulator. Two center tapped transformers are
used in this diagram. The message signal m(t) is applied to the input transformer. Whereas,
the carrier signals c(t)is applied between the two center tapped transformers.

For positive half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D1and D3 are switched ON and the
other two diodes D2 and D4are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied
by +1.

For negative half cycle of the carrier signal, the diodes D2and D4 are switched ON and the
other two diodes D1 and D3 are switched OFF. In this case, the message signal is multiplied
by -1. This results in 1800phase shift in the resulting DSBSC wave.

From the above analysis, we can say that the four diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 are controlled
by the carrier signal. If the carrier is a square wave, then the Fourier series representation of
c(t)is represented as
The above equation represents DSBSC wave, which is obtained at the output transformer of
the ring modulator.

DSBSC modulators are also called as product modulators as they generate the output,
which is the product of two input signals

2.8 DSBSC DEMODULATION

The process of extracting an original message signal from DSBSC wave is known as
detection or demodulation of DSBSC. The following demodulators (detectors) are used for
demodulating DSBSC wave.

 Coherent Detector
 Costas Loop

2.8.1 Coherent Detector

Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating DSBSC signal) is used to detect
the message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection..
 Fig.. block diagram of the coherent detector

Mode of Operation

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from DSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in DSBSC modulation.
The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. Output of this filter is the
desired message signal.

Let the DSBSC wave be

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct+ϕ)

Where, ϕ is the phase difference between the local oscillator signal and the carrier signal,
which is used for DSBSC modulation.

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute, s(t)and c(t)values in the above equation.

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

v0t = m (t)

The demodulated signal amplitude will be maximum, when ϕ=00. That‟s why the local
oscillator signal and the carrier signal should be in phase, i.e., there the phase difference
between the two signals should be zero.

The demodulated signal amplitude will be zero, when ϕ=±900. This effect is called as
quadrature null effect.

2.8.2 Costas Loop

Costas loop is used to make both the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the
locally generated signal in phase.
Fig:… block diagram of Costas loop.

Mode of Operation

Costas loop consists of two product modulators with common input s(t), which is DSBSC
wave. The other input for both product modulators is taken from Voltage Controlled
Oscillator (VCO) with −900phase shift to one of the product modulator as shown in figure.

We know that the equation of DSBSC wave is

s(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)

Let the output of VCO be

c1(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ)

This output of VCO is applied as the carrier input of the upper product modulator.

Hence, the output of the upper product modulator is

v1(t)=s(t)c1(t)

Substitute, s(t)and c1(t)values in the above equation.

⇒v1(t) = Accos(2πfct)m(t)cos(2πfct+ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v1(t)as

 v1(t)= cosϕm(t)+ cos(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)

This signal is applied as an input of the upper low pass filter. The output of this low pass
filter is

v01(t)= cosϕm(t)

Therefore, the output of this low pass filter is the scaled version of the modulating signal.

The output of −900phase shifter is

c2(t)=cos(2πfct+ϕ−900)=sin(2πfct+ϕ)

This signal is applied as the carrier input of the lower product modulator.

The output of the lower product modulator is

v2(t)=s(t)c2(t)

Substitute, s(t) and c2(t) values in the above equation.

⇒v2(t)= Accos(2πfct)m(t)sin(2πfct+ϕ)

After simplifying, we will get v2(t)as

v2(t)= sinϕm(t)+ sin(4πfct+ϕ)m(t)

This signal is applied as an input of the lower low pass filter.

The output of this low pass filter is

v02(t)= sinϕm(t)

The output of this Low pass filter has −900phase difference with the output of the upper low
pass filter.

The outputs of these two low pass filters are applied as inputs of the phase discriminator.
Based on the phase difference between these two signals, the phase discriminator generates a
DC control signal.

This signal is applied as an input of VCO to correct the phase error in VCO output.
Therefore, the carrier signal (used for DSBSC modulation) and the locally generated signal
(VCO output) are in phase.
2.9 SINGLE SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED-CARRIER (SSB-SC) MODULATION
DEFINITION
2.9.1 SINGLE SIDEBAND (SSB)-SUPPRESSED CARRIER

In the previous chapters, we have discussed DSBSC modulation and demodulation. The
DSBSC modulated signal has two sidebands. Since, the two sidebands carry the same
information, there is no need to transmit both sidebands. We can eliminate one sideband.

The process of suppressing one of the sidebands along with the carrier and transmitting a
single sideband is called as Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier system or simply SSBSC.
It is plotted as shown in the following figure.

In the above figure, the carrier and the lower sideband are suppressed. Hence, the upper
sideband is used for transmission. Similarly, we can suppress the carrier and the upper
sideband while transmitting the lower sideband.

This SSBSC system, which transmits a single sideband has high power, as the power allotted
for both the carrier and the other sideband is utilized in transmitting this Single Sideband.

2.9.2 Mathematical Expressions

Let us consider the same mathematical expressions for the modulating and the carrier signals
as we have considered in the earlier chapters.

i.e., Modulating signal

m(t)=Amcos(2πfmt)

Carrier signal
 c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

Mathematically, we can represent the equation of SSBSC wave as

s(t)= cos[2π(fc+fm)t]for the upper sideband

Or

s(t)= cos[2π(fc−fm)t]for the lower sideband

2.9.3 Bandwidth of SSBSC Wave

We know that the DSBSC modulated wave contains two sidebands and its bandwidth is 2fm

. Since the SSBSC modulated wave contains only one sideband, its bandwidth is half of the
bandwidth of DSBSC modulated wave.

i.e., Bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave= =fm

Therefore, the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm and it is equal to the frequency of
the modulating signal.

2.9.4 Power Calculations of SSBSC Wave

Consider the following equation of SSBSC modulated wave.

s(t)= cos[2π(fc+fm)t]for the upper sideband

Or

s(t)= cos[2π(fc−fm)t]for the lower sideband

Power of SSBSC wave is equal to the power of any one sideband frequency components.

Pt=PUSB=PLSB

We know that the standard formula for power of cos signal is

2.9.5 Advantages of SSBSC

 Bandwidth or spectrum space occupied is lesser than AM and DSBSC waves.

 Transmission of more number of signals is allowed.
 Power is saved.
 High power signal can be transmitted.
 Less amount of noise is present.
 Signal fading is less likely to occur.
 Reduction in transmission bandwidth.
 Power saving since the high power carrier and one sideband are not being
transmitted.
2.9.6 Disadvantages Oo SSBSC

 The generation and detection of SSBSC wave is a complex process.

 The quality of the signal gets affected unless the SSB transmitter and receiver have an
excellent frequency stability.
 it is expensive and highly complex to implement.
2.9.7 Applications

 For power saving requirements and low bandwidth requirements.

 In land, air, and maritime mobile communications.
 In point-to-point communications.
 In radio communications.
 In television, telemetry, and radar communications.
 In military communications, such as amateur radio, etc.
2.10 SSSBSC-MODULATORS

In this chapter, let us discuss about the modulators, which generate SSBSC wave. We can
generate SSBSC wave using the following two methods.

 Frequency discrimination method

 Phase discrimination method

2.10.1 Frequency Discrimination Method

block diagram of SSBSC modulator using frequency discrimination method

In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator.
Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of band pass filter. This band pass filter produces
an output, which is SSBSC wave.

Select the frequency range of band pass filter as the spectrum of the desired SSBSC wave.
This means the band pass filter can be tuned to either upper sideband or lower sideband
frequencies to get the respective SSBSC wave having upper sideband or lower sideband.

2.10.2 Phase Discrimination Method

The following figure shows the block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase
discrimination method.
Fig:… block diagram of SSBSC modulator using phase discrimination method.

Mode of Operation

This block diagram consists of two product modulators, two −900phase shifters, one local
oscillator and one summer block. The product modulator produces an output, which is the
product of two inputs. The −900 phase shifter produces an output, which has a phase lag of
−900with respect to the input.

The local oscillator is used to generate the carrier signal. Summer block produces an output,
which is either the sum of two inputs or the difference of two inputs based on the polarity of
inputs.

The modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt)and the carrier signal Accos(2πfct)are directly applied as
inputs to the upper product modulator. So, the upper product modulator produces an output,
which is the product of these two inputs.

The output of upper product modulator is

s1(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt)cos(2πfct)

⇒s1(t)= {cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}

The modulating signal Amcos(2πfmt)and the carrier signal Accos(2πfct) are phase shifted by
−900 before applying as inputs to the lower product modulator. So, the lower product
modulator produces an output, which is the product of these two inputs.
The output of lower product modulator is

s2(t)=AmAccos(2πfmt−900)cos(2πfct−900)

⇒s2(t)=AmAcsin(2πfmt)sin(2πfct)

⇒s2(t)= {cos[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos[2π(fc+fm)t]}

Add s1(t)and s2(t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s(t)having a lower sideband.

s(t)= {cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}+ {cos[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos[2π(fc+fm)t}

⇒s(t)=AmAccos[2π(fc−fm)t]

Subtract s2(t)from s1(t) in order to get the SSBSC modulated wave s(t)having a upper
sideband.

s(t)= {cos[2π(fc+fm)t]+cos[2π(fc−fm)t]}− {cos[2π(fc−fm)t]−cos[2π(fc+fm)t}

⇒s(t)=AmAccos[2π(fc+fm)t]

Hence, by properly choosing the polarities of inputs at summer block, we will get SSBSC
wave having a upper sideband or a lower sideband.

The process of extracting an original message signal from SSBSC wave is known as
detection or demodulation of SSBSC. Coherent detector is used for demodulating SSBSC
wave.

2.10.3 Coherent Detector

Here, the same carrier signal (which is used for generating SSBSC wave) is used to detect the
message signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous
detection. Following is the block diagram of coherent detector.
Fig:… block diagram of coherent detector.

Mode of Operation

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from SSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in SSBSC modulation.
The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this filter is the
desired message signal.

Consider the following SSBSC wave having a lower sideband.

s(t)= cos[2π(fc−fm)t]

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

From the figure, we can write the output of product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute s(t)and c(t)values in the above equation.

v(t) = cos[2π(fc−fm)t]Accos(2πfct)

= cos[2π(fc−fm)t]cos(2πfct)

= {cos[2π(2fc−fm)]+cos(2πfm)t}
 v(t)= cos(2πfmt)+ cos[2π(2fc−fm)t]

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of low pass filter is

v0(t)= cos(2πfmt)

Here, the scaling factor is

We can use the same block diagram for demodulating SSBSC wave having an upper
sideband. Consider the following SSBSC wave having an upper sideband.

s(t)= cos[2π(fc+fm)t]

The output of the local oscillator is

c(t)=Accos(2πfct)

We can write the output of the product modulator as

v(t)=s(t)c(t)

Substitute s(t)and c(t)values in the above equation.

⇒v(t)= cos[2π(fc+fm)t]Accos(2πfct)

= cos[2π(fc+fm)t]cos(2πfct)

= {cos[2π(2fc+fm)t]+cos(2πfmt)}

v(t)= cos(2πfmt)+ cos[2π(2fc+fm)t]

In the above equation, the first term is the scaled version of the message signal. It can be
extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass filter.

Therefore, the output of the low pass filter is

v0(t)= cos(2πfmt)

Here too the scaling factor is

.

Therefore, we get the same demodulated output in both the cases by using coherent detector.

2.10.4 Advantages of SSB Over DSB-FC

The advantages of SSB over DSB-FC signal are:
(i) Less bandwidth requirements as SSB requires a BW of f m . This will allow more
number of signals to be transmitted in the same frequency range.
(ii) Lots of power saving. This is due to the transmission of only one sideband
component. At 100% modulation, the percent power saving is 83.33%.
(iii) Reduced interference of noise. This is due to the reduced bandwidth. As the
bandwidth increases, the amount of noise added to the signal will increase.
Do You Know?
Both DSP and SSB signals are more efficient in terms of power usage. The power wasted in
the useless carrier is saves, thereby allowing more power to be put into the sidebands.
2.10.5 Disadvantages of SSB
Even though the SSB system has many advantages it has the following disadvantages:
(i) The generation and reception of SSB signal is complicated as discussed later on.
(ii) The SSB transmitter and receiver need to have an excellent frequency stability. A
slight change in frequency will hamper the quality of transmitted and received signal.
Therefore, SSB is not generally used for the transmission of good quality music. It is
used for speech transmission.
2.10.6 Application of SSB
(i) SSB transmission is used in the applications where the power saving and low
bandwidth requirements are important.
(ii) The application areas are land and air mobile communication, telemetry, military
communications, navigation and amateur radio. Many of these applications are point to point
communication applications.

Why Is SSB not used for Broadcasting?

We have seen that there are so many advantages a SSB system has over the DSBFC system.
Still it is not used widely in the radio broadcasting applications. There are two reasons for it
as under:
(i) As the SSB transmitter and receiver require an excellent frequency stability, a small
frequency shift in the system can result in degradation in the quality of the transmitted signal.
Thus, it is not possible to transmit a good quality music using the SSB system.
(ii) It is not possible to design a tunable receiver oscillator with very high frequency
stability. Now, with the advent of the frequency synthesizers, this has becomes possible.
But, such receivers are too expensive.
Important Point: These are the reasons why SSB is not generally used in the broadcasting
applications.

2.11 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND

2.12 VESTIGIAL SIDEBAND SUPPRESSED CARIER (VSB-SC)

In the previous chapters, we have discussed SSBSC modulation and demodulation. SSBSC
modulated signal has only one sideband frequency. Theoretically, we can get one sideband
frequency component completely by using an ideal band pass filter. However, practically we
may not get the entire sideband frequency component. Due to this, some information gets
lost.

To avoid this loss, a technique is chosen, which is a compromise between DSBSC and
SSBSC. This technique is known as Vestigial Side Band Suppressed Carrier (VSBSC)
technique. The word “vestige” means “a part” from which, the name is derived.

VSBSC Modulation is the process, where a part of the signal called as vestige is modulated
along with one sideband. The frequency spectrum of VSBSC wave is shown in the following
figure.

Along with the upper sideband, a part of the lower sideband is also being transmitted in this
technique. Similarly, we can transmit the lower sideband along with a part of the upper
sideband. A guard band of very small width is laid on either side of VSB in order to avoid the
interferences. VSB modulation is mostly used in television transmissions.

2.12.1 Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulation

We know that the bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave is fm

. Since the VSBSC modulated wave contains the frequency components of one side band
along with the vestige of other sideband, the bandwidth of it will be the sum of the
bandwidth of SSBSC modulated wave and vestige frequency fv
.

i.e., Bandwidth of VSBSC Modulated Wave = fm+fv

2.12.2 Advantages of VSBSC

Following are the advantages of VSBSC modulation.

 Highly efficient.
 Reduction in bandwidth when compared to AM and DSBSC waves.
 Filter design is easy, since high accuracy is not needed.
 The transmission of low frequency components is possible, without any difficulty.
 Possesses good phase characteristics.

2.12.3 Disadvantages of VSBSC

Following are the disadvantages of VSBSC modulation.

 Bandwidth is more when compared to SSBSC wave.

 Demodulation is complex.

2.12.4 Applications

The most prominent and standard application of VSBSC is for the transmission of television
signals. Also, this is the most convenient and efficient technique when bandwidth usage is
considered.

Now, let us discuss about the modulator which generates VSBSC wave and the demodulator
which demodulates VSBSC wave one by one.

2.12.7 Generation of VSBSC

Generation of VSBSC wave is similar to the generation of SSBSC wave. The VSBSC
modulator is shown in the following figure.
In this method, first we will generate DSBSC wave with the help of the product modulator.
Then, apply this DSBSC wave as an input of sideband shaping filter. This filter produces an
output, which is VSBSC wave.

The modulating signal m(t)and carrier signal Accos(2πfct)are applied as inputs to the product
modulator. Hence, the product modulator produces an output, which is the product of these
two inputs.

Therefore, the output of the product modulator is

p(t)=Accos(2πfct)m(t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

P(f)= [M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]

The above equation represents the equation of DSBSC frequency spectrum.

Let the transfer function of the sideband shaping filter be H(f). This filter has the input p(t)
and the output is VSBSC modulated wave s(t). The Fourier transforms of p(t) and s(t) are P(t)
and S(t)respectively.

Mathematically, we can write S(f)as

S(t)=P(f)H(f)

Substitute P(f)value in the above equation.

S(f)= [M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)
The above equation represents the equation of VSBSC frequency spectrum.

2.12.8 Demodulation of VSBSC

Demodulation of VSBSC wave is similar to the demodulation of SSBSC wave. Here, the
same carrier signal (which is used for generating VSBSC wave) is used to detect the message
signal. Hence, this process of detection is called as coherent or synchronous detection. The
VSBSC demodulator is shown in the following figure.

In this process, the message signal can be extracted from VSBSC wave by multiplying it with
a carrier, which is having the same frequency and the phase of the carrier used in VSBSC
modulation. The resulting signal is then passed through a Low Pass Filter. The output of this
filter is the desired message signal.

Let the VSBSC wave be s(t)and the carrier signal is Accos(2πfct)

From the figure, we can write the output of the product modulator as

v(t)=Accos(2πfct)s(t)

Apply Fourier transform on both sides

V(f)= [S(f−fc)+S(f+fc)]

We know thatS(f)= [M(f−fc)+M(f+fc)]H(f)

From the above equation, let us find S(f−fc)and S(f+fc)

.

S(f−fc)= [M(f−fc−fc)+M(f−fc+fc)]H(f−fc)

⇒S(f−fc)= [M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)

S(f+fc)= [M(f+fc−fc)+M(f+fc+fc)]H(f+fc)

⇒S(f+fc)= [M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)

Substitute, S(f−fc)and S(f+fc) values in V(f)

V(f)= [ [M(f−2fc)+M(f)]H(f−fc)+ [M(f)+M(f+2fc)]H(f+fc)]

⇒V(f)= M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]+ [M(f−2fc)H(f−fc)+M(f+2fc)H(f+fc)]

In the above equation, the first term represents the scaled version of the desired message
signal frequency spectrum. It can be extracted by passing the above signal through a low pass
filter.

V0(f)= M(f)[H(f−fc)+H(f+fc)]

2.12.9 Advantages of VSB

(i) The main advantage of VSB modulation is the reduction in bandwidth. It is almost as
efficient as the SSB.
(ii) Due to allowance of transmitting a part of lower sideband, the constraints on the
filters have been relaxed. So practically, easy to design filters can be used.
(iii) It possesses good phase characteristics and makes the transmission of low frequency
components possible.
2.12.10 Applications of VSB
VSB modulation has become standard for the transmission of Television signals. Because
the video signals need a large transmission bandwidth if transmitted using DSB-FC or DSF-
SC techniques.
This is a special type of AM system which is used mainly for the TV transmission all over the
world. In the TV transmission, it is necessary to transmit the video information and audio
information simultaneously. The bandwidth of the video signal is about 4.2 MHz. Hence, if
we use the DSB-FC i.e. AM transmission for the TV signal, then, the system bandwidth will
be 4.2 x 2 = 8.4 MHz.

EXAMPLES B
4. A SSB transmission contains 15 kW. This transmission is to be replaced by a standard
amplitude modulated signal with the same power content. Determine the power content of
the carrier and each of the sidebands when the percentage modulation is 80%.
Solution
Given that PSSB = 15kW, M=80%, i.e. ma = 0.80
We are to determine Pc, PLSB, and PUSB
Since the total power content of the new AM signal is to be the same as the total power
content of the SSB signal, hence we have that:
Pt  PSSB  15kW
ma 2 Pc ma 2 Pc
Pt  Pc  PLSB  PUSB  Pc  
4 4
2 2
0.8 Pc 0.8 Pc 0.64 Pc
15,000  Pc    Pc   1.32 Pc
4 4 2
15,000
Pc   11,363W
1.32
The power content of the sidebands is equal to the difference between the total power and
the carrier power;

PSB  Pt  Pc

PLSB  PUSB  15,000  11,363  3,637

3,637W
PLSB  PUSB   1,818.5W
2
thus , Pc  11,363
and , PLSB  PUSB  1,818.5W

5. A carrier signal of 1 V amplitude and sinusoidal modulating signal of 0.5 V, put in series are
applied to a square law modulator of characteristics, i o  10  kVi  k 'Vi 2 mA. Where Vi is in
volts, k=2mA/V, and k ' = 0.2mA/V2. Taking into consideration the frequency components of
the AM signal corresponding to the carrier frequency, determine the depth of modulation in
the resulting AM signal.

Solution
 Vi (t )  cos c t  0.5 A cos m t

i o  10  kVi  k 'V 2
i o  10  2  10 3 [cos  c t  0.5 A cos  m t ]  0.2  10 3 [cos c t  0.5 A cos  m t ]2

Considering the carrier term only,

0.2  10 3
i o  2  10 3 cos c t   0.5 cos c t cos  m t
0.5

0.2  10 3
Hence m   0.4  10 3
0.5
6. Determine the percentage power saving when the carrier wave and one of the side bands
are suppressed in an AM wave modulated to a depth of (i) 100% (ii) 50%

Solution
m2
a) pt  pc (1  )
2
When m = 100% =1
12
pt  pc (1  )  1.5 pc
2
The power in one of the sideband is
m2 12 Pc
p SB  pc  pc   0.25Pc
4 4 4
P  PSB 1.5Pc  0.25Pc 1.25
Power saving hence will be  t    0.833  83.3%
Pt Pt 1.50
b) for m = 50%
0.5 2
pt  pc (1  )  1.125 pc
2
m2 0.5 2
p SB  pc  pc  0.0625Pc
4 4
P  PSB 1.125Pc  0.0625Pc
Power saving hence will be  t   0.944  94.4%
Pt 1.125 pc
7. A given AM broadcast station transmits a total power of 50 kW when the carrier is
modulated by a sinusoidal signal with a modulation index of 0.7071. Find the following: (i)
the carrier power (ii) the transmission efficiency and (iii) the peak amplitude of the carrier
assuming the antenna to be represented by (50 +j0) Ω load.

Solution
X AM (t )  A cos  c t  ma A cos  m t cos  c t
1 1
X AM (t )  A cos  c t  ma A cos( c   m )t  ma A cos( c   m )t
2 2
 1 2
Pc = carrier power = A
2
Ps = sideband power
1 1 1 1 2
Ps  [( ma A) 2  ( ma A) 2 ]  ma A 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2
A m m
Pt  (1  )  Pc (1  )
2 2 2
Given that Pt= 50 kW
Pt 50  10 3
1) Pc 
  40kW
m2 1.2499
1
2
P
2)   s 100% for transmission efficiency
Pt
1 2 2
ma A
2 m2 0.707 2 0.50
  100%   100%   100%   100  20%
1 1 2 2 2m 2
2  0.707 2
2  0.50
(  ma ) A
2 4

A2 c
3) Power delivered to the load Ac   40kW  2  40  10 3  50  2kW
2R
8. For a modulation coefficient of 0.4 and carrier power of 400W, determine the total sideband
and transmitted power.

Solution
Given: m=0.4, Pc= 400W
12
i. pt  pc (1  )
2
0.4 2
pt  400(1  )  432W
2
ii. PSB  Pt  Pc  432  400  32W
9. Show that for 100% sinusoidal modulation, each side band contains one-sixth of the total
power.

Solution
m2
i. pt  pc (1  )
2
12
pt  pc (1  )
2
pt  pc (1  0.5)  1.5 pc
Hence, total sideband power is
pt  pt  pc  1.5 pc  pc  0.5 pc

ii. Power in each side band

 pt  0.25 pc

But
pt  1.5 p c
pt
pc 
1.5

pt p
 Power in each side band  0.25   t proved.
1.5 6
10. The output of an AM DSBFC modulator is an 900kHz carrier with an amplitude of 40 V. the
second input is a 30 kHz modulating signal whose amplitude is sufficient to produce a
 10V change in the amplitude of the envelope. Calculate:
i). Upper and lower sideband frequencies
ii). Modulation coefficient and percentage modulation
iii). Maximum and minimum positive amplitude of the envelope
iv). Draw the output frequency spectrum
v). Draw the envelope and label it.

Solution:

Given: Fc = 900 kHz, Vc= 40V, Fm= 30kHz, Vm=10V

I. FUSB and FLSB will be:

FUSB  ( Fc  Fm )  (900  30)  930kHz
FLSB  ( Fc  Fm )  (900  30)  870kHz
II. Modulation coefficient and percentage modulation
Vm 10
m   0.25
Vc 40
%m  m  100  0.25  100  25%
III. Maximum and minimum positive amplitude of the envelope
Vmax  Vc  Vm  40  10  50V
Vmin  Vc  Vm  40  10  30V
IV. Frequency spectrum
Carrier amplitude Vc  40V
Vc 40
Sideband amplitude VSB  m  0.25   5V
2 2
 40V

5V

F
fc-fm (870 kHz) fc (900 kHz) fc+fm (930 kHz)

Figure 2 frequency spectrum

V. Figure 3 shows the envelope as follows:

Vmax =50V
Vm = 10V

Vmin =30V
Vc = 40V
t
0

Figure 3 envelope of AM wave

11. An AM voltage is represented by the expression

VAM  5[1  0.7 cos(6280t )] sin(2  10 4 )volts . Calculate: (i) modulation depth (ii) period
of the carrier wave (iii) the peak instantaneous value of the modulated wave.
Solution
i). VAM  5[1  0.7 cos(6280t )] sin(2  10 4 )volts
 It can be seen that m = 0.7 hence, modulation depth =0.7  100=70%
ii). Modulating frequency:
2f m  6280
6280
fm   1000 Hz
2
iii). Period of carrier wave
Carrier frequency f c  10 4
1 1
Period will be  4  100s
f c 10
iv). Instantaneous value of the AM wave
Peak carrier value Vc  10V
Peak modulating amplitude Vm  m  Vc  0.7  5  3.5V
Therefore peak instantaneous value of AM wave is
Emax  Ec  Em  5  3.5  8.3V

s
SIMULATION- Matlab/SIMLINK
Create a DSB-SC AM modulator model in simulink, and display the following:
i. Message signal
ii. Carrier signal
iii. AM modulated signal.
Solution
We will first of all build the model in simulink as shown in figure 2.1

Figure 2.1 Simulink model for DSB-SC AM modulator

The scope block in the model has three inputs corresponding to the message, carrier and
modulated signal respectively as shown in figure 2.2.
 Figure 2.2a message signal

Figure 2.2b carrier signal

Figure 2.2c AM modulated signal

Example 2.2
Draw an AM waveforms showing various degrees of modulation for:
i. M <100%
ii. M = 100%
iii. M > 100% and
iv. M = 0% where M is the modulation index, assume that the message
signal is pure sine wave.
Solution
The simulink model is represented in figure 2.3

Figure 2.3 Simulink model for various degrees of modulation

Figure 2.4 shows various degrees of modulation

Figure 2.4a AM wave for percentage modulation less than 100% (m=0.6)

Figure 2.4b AM wave for percentage modulation equal to 100% (m=1)

Figure 2.4c AM wave for percentage modulation greater than 100% (m=1.4)

Figure 2.4d AM wave for percentage modulation equal to 0% (m=0)

Figure 2.4 (a) and (b) show examples of linear modulation, while 2.4 (c) shows over
modulation which introduces envelope distortion and should be avoided.

Tutorials on AM modulation
1. For an AM DSB envelope with Vmax =25 V and Vmin = 5 V, find the following
i). Peak amplitude of the carrier
ii). Modulation coefficient and percentage of modulation
 iii). Peak amplitude of the upper and lower side frequencies (Ans. 15 V, 0.667,
66.7%, 5V )
2. Consider a sinusoidal carrier that has amplitude of 25 V and frequency of 30 KHz. It
is amplitude modulated by a sinusoidal voltage of 10 V and frequency 1 KHz and
modulated voltage is developed across a 50 Ω resistance. Write the equation for the
modulated wave (Ans. .)
3. A carrier 200 W is modulated to the depth of 60 %. Determine the total transmitted
power. (Ans. 236 W)
4. Consider an AM signal given
by . Determine the following:
i). Modulation index
ii). Amplitude of the carrier
iii). Carrier frequency
iv). Modulating signal frequency (Ans. 0.4, 10 V, 9.9 MHz, 99.9 KHz)
5. For an AM signal given by .
Determine the upper and lower side frequencies; hence calculate the amplitude of
each side band and draw the frequency spectrum. (Ans. 11 KHz, 9 KHz, 3 V)
6. A carrier is amplitude modulated simultaneously by two sine waves with modulation
indices of 0.3 and 0.6. What is the effective modulation index? (Ans. 0.67)
7. AM signals are susceptible to noise, discuss extensively.
8. An audio signal is represented by 30 sin ( *1000t) and it modulates a carrier
describes by 80 sin ( *150,000t).
i). Sketch the audio signal
ii). Sketch the carrier
iii). Construct the modulated wave showing all the amplitude magnitudes
iv). Determine the modulation factor and percentage modulation factor (Ans. 0.38,
38% )
9. Suppose that the modulating signal m (t) is a sinusoid of the form
m(t) = a cos(2 fmt) where Fm «Fc. Determine the DSB-SC AM signal and its upper
and lower sidebands.
10. For question 9, determine the power in the modulated signal and the power in each of
the sidebands.
11. The carrier amplitude after AM varies between 4V and 1V. Calculate the depth of
modulation. (Ans. 0.6 or 60%)
12. For a carrier of 1 MHz and modulating signal of 2 KHz, what is the frequency range
occupied by the AM wave? (Ans. 998 KHz to 1002 KHz.)

Computer simulation (CS)

1. Given that m(t) = sin(100t) modulates a carrier c(t) = cos(2ᴨfct), where fc = 250 Hz, to
produce a DSB-AM wave u(t).
a) Using sampling time ts=0.0001, plot m(t), c(t) and u(t) by deploying appropriate
simulink model.
b) Determine and plot the spectra of m (t) and u (t)
 c) Adjust the sampling time to 0.001 and repeat step (a), comment on the results
between (a) and (c).
2. For the message and carrier signal given in CS-1, assume that the modulation index
m=0.6,
a) Plot the message signal m(t) and the modulated signal u(t) using a sampling
interval ts = 0.0001.
b) Determine and plot the spectra of the message signal m(t) and the modulated
signal u(t).
 Chapter 3
ANGLE MODULATION
3.1 Introduction to Angle Modulation
In previous chapter, we have discussed the various types of AM systems in which the carrier
amplitude is changed in accordance with the variation in the message signal magnitude.
There is another method of modulating a sinusoidal carrier namely the angle modulation. In
angle modulation, either frequency or phase of the carrier is varied according to the message
signal, but the carrier amplitude is constant.
Thus angle modulation systems can be classified as follows:

Angle Modulation

Frequency Phase
Modulation (FM) Modulation (PM)

Frequency of the Carrier Phase angle of the Carrier

Is varied according to the is varied according to the
Message Signal Message Signal

Fig. 3.1 Classification of angle modulation

Frequency modulation as well as phase modulation is forms of angle modulation. Angle

modulation has several advantages over the amplitude modulation such as noise reduction,
improved system fidelity and more efficient use of power.
But there are some disadvantages too such as increased bandwidth and use of more complex
circuits.
Angle modulation is being used for the following applications:
(i) Radio broadcasting
(ii) TV sound transmission
(iii) Two way mobile radio
(iv) Cellular radio
(v) Microwave communication
(vi) Satellite communication
3.1.1 Principle of Angle Modulation
The principle of angle modulation can be stated as follows. The phase angle (  ) of a
sinusoidal carrier wave is varied with respect to time. An angle modulated wave can be
expressed mathematically as
 VC (t) = v c cos   c t +  (t) 
Where E c is the peak carrier amplitude,  c =carrier frequency and  (t) is the instantaneous
phase deviation.
In angle modulation  (t) is a function of modulating signal.
This means that  (t) = F  e m (t) 
Here Vm t (t) is the modulating signal given by,

Vmt= v m sin (  m t)

3.1.2 Frequency or Phasor Modulation

Depending on the way in which we change the value of  (t), we can define two types of
angle modulations as follows:
(i) Phase Modulation (PM)
(ii) Frequency Modulation (FM)

3.2 Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase modulation is the type of angle modulation in which the angular argument  (t)is
changed in linear proportion with the instantaneous magnitude of the message signal x(t).
Mathematically, for PM,  (t) = 2 f c t + k p xt 


Phase sensitivity rad/volt

Angular argument of unmodulated carrier
Here, it may be noted that the first term in the above expression i.e. 2 f c t represents the
angular argument of the unmodulated carrier (i.e. when x (t) = O). whereas the second term
k p x(t) represents the proportional phase change, because k p is the phase sensitivity in
radians per volt. x(t) is the message wave form which is assumed to be a voltage signal. The
value of  c i.e.  (t) at t = o has been assumed to be equal to zero for the sake of convenience.

3.2.1. Mathematical Expression for PM

A phase modulated can be mathematically expressed in time domain as follows:
Vc(t) = v c cos  (t)

Substituting the expression for  (t), we get,

PM wave: VPM(t)= v c cos  2 f c t + k p xt 


Varying phase angle

Constant amplitude
This expression shows that the PM wave has a constant amplitude equal to that of the carrier
but the phase shift is a function of x (t). It will also been shown that there is a proportional
change in frequency associated with the phase change.
3.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
The frequency modulation (F.M.) is a type of angle modulation in which the instantaneous
frequency f i (t) is varied in linear proportion with the instantaneous magnitude of the message
signal x (t). This is expressed mathematically as follows:
For F.M. f i t  = f c + k f xt 
  

Frequency sensitivity HZ/volt

Unmodulated carrier frequency
Instantaneous frequency
In this expression f c denotes the frequency of unmodulated carrier and the constant
k f represents the frequency sensitivity of the modulator. Its units are Hz/volt, assuming the
message signal to be a voltage signal. Since the instantaneous frequency f i (t) of FM is
changing continuously with time, we have to take the integration of x(t) over a duration of O
to t. Now we can write the expression of  (t) of FM wave is given by,
t
 (t) = 2 f c t + 2 k f  xt  dt
o

3.2.2 Mathematical Expression for FM

We can use  (t) to write the e xpression for FM in time domain as under:

Vc (t) = v ccos  (t)

t
FM wave: VFM(t) = v c cos  2 f c t + 2 k f  xt  dt 
o

Unmodulated carrier
Constant amplitude

Frequency Deviation.
Frequency deviation f represents the maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency
f i (t ) of the FM wave from the carrier frequency f c . Since f  k f Em , the frequency
deviation is proportional to the amplitude of modulating voltage (Em) and it is independent of
the modulating frequency fm .
The maximum frequency of FM wave is given by
f max  f c  f ……. (1)
Modulation index
The modulation index for an FM wave is defined as:

mf = …. (11)

f
mf  … (12)
fm

The modulation index mf is very important in FM because it decides the bandwidth of the FM
wave. The modulation index also decides the number of sidebands having significant
amplitudes.
In AM, the maximum value of the modulation index m is m = 1. But for FM, the modulation
index can be greater than 1.
3.2.10 Deviation Ratio
In FM broadcasting, the maximum deviation is limited to 75 kHz. The maximum modulating
frequency is limited to 15 kHz. The modulation index corresponding to the maximum
deviation and maximum modulating frequency is called as the deviation ratio given as under:

Deviation ratio = …. (13)

3.2.11 Percentage modulation of FM Wave

The percentage modulation is defined as the ratio of the actual frequency deviation produce
by the modulating signal to the maximum allowable frequency deviation.

Thus, % Modulation = …. (14)

3.3 Types of FM
The FM systems can be classified into two major types:
i). Narrow band FM
ii). Broadband FM

3.3.1 Narrow band FM

A narrow band FM is the FM wave with small bandwidth. The modulation index m f of
narrowband FM is small as compared to one radian. Hence, the spectrum of narrow band FM
consists of the carrier and upper sideband and a lower sideband.
For small values of m f , the values of the j coefficient are as under:

J 0 (m f )  1
J 1 (m f )  m f / 2
J n (m f )  0 For n > 1 … (15)

Thus, a narrow band FM wave can be expressed mathematically as under:

m f Ec m f Ec
eFM (t )  s(t )  Ec sin c t  sin(c   m )t  sin(c   m )t ….. (16)
2 2
Carrier USB LSB

The (-) sign associated with the LSB represents a phase shift of 1800. Practically, the narrow
band FM systems have m f less than 1. The maximum permissible frequency deviation is
restricted to about 5 kHz. This system is used in FM mobile communications such as police
wireless, ambulances, taxicabs etc.
3.3.2 Wide band FM
For large values of modulation index m f , the FM wave ideally contains the carrier and an
infinite number of sidebands located symmetrically around the carrier. Such a FM wave has
an infinite bandwidth and hence called as wideband FM. The modulation index of wideband
FM is higher than 1. The maximum permissible deviation is 75 kHz and it is used in the
entertainment broadcasting applications such as FM radio, TV etc.
Performance comparison of wideband and narrowband FM
S/No Parameter/characteristics Wideband FM Narrowband FM
1 Modulation index Greater than 1 Less than or slightly
greater than 1
2 Maximum deviation 75 kHz 5 kHz
3 Range of modulating 30 Hz to 15 kHz 30 Hz to 3kHz
frequency
4 Maximum modulation index 2 to 2500 Slightly greater than
1
5 Bandwidth Larger about 15 times Small.
greater than that of narrow Approximately same
band FM as that of AM
6 Applications Entertainment broadcasting FM mobile
(can be used for high communication like
quality music transmission) police wireless,
ambulance etc (this
is used for speech
transmission)
7 Pre-emphsis and De-emphasis Needed Needed
Comparison Analysis of FM and PM Systems
S/No FM PM
1 s(t )  Vc sin[c t  m f sin m t ] s(t )  Vc sin[c t  m p sin m t ]

2 Frequency deviation is proportional to Phase deviation is proportional to the

the modulating voltage. modulating voltage.
3 Associated with the change in f c , Associated with the change in phase ,there
there is some phase change. is some change in f c

4 m f is proportional to the modulating m p Is proportional only to the modulating

voltage as well as the modulating voltage.
frequency f m

5 It is possible to receive FM on a PM It is possible to receive PM on a FM

receiver. receiver
6 Noise immunity is better than AM and Noise immunity is better than AM but
PM worse than FM
7 Amplitude of the FM wave is constant. Amplitude of the PM wave is constant.
8 Signal to noise ratio is better than that Signal to noise ratio is inferior to that in
of PM. FM
9 FM is widely used. PM is used in some mobile systems.
10 In FM, the frequency deviation is In PM, the frequency deviation is
proportional to the modulating voltage proportional to both the modulating voltage
only. and modulating frequency.

3.3.3 Comparison of Angle Modulated Waves and Amplitude Modulated Wave

(i) The envelope of FM wave or PM wave is constant and is equal to the unmodulated
carrier amplitude. On the other hand, the envelope of AM wave is dependent on the
modulating signal x(t).
(ii) The zero crossings (i.e. the instants of time at which the waveform changes from
negative to a positive value or vice-versa) of a FM wave or a PM wave no longer exhibit a
perfect regularity in their spacing like AM wave. Thus this makes the instantaneous
frequency of the angle modulated wave depend upon time between two techniques:
3.3.4 Advantages of FM over AM
The frequency modulation (FM) has the following advantages over AM:
(i) FM receivers may be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove the amplitude variations
caused by noise. This makes FM reception a good deal more immune to noise than AM
reception.
(ii) It is possible to reduce noise still further by increasing the frequency-deviation. This
is a feature which AM does not have because it is not possible to exceed 100 percent
modulation without causing severe distortion.
(iii) Standard Frequency Allocations provide a guard band between commercial FM
stations. Due to this, there is less adjacent-channel interference than in AM.
(iv) FM broadcasts operate in the upper VHF and UHF frequency ranges at which there
happens to be less noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM broadcasts.
(v) The amplitude of the FM wave is constant. It is thus independent of the modulation
depth, whereas in AM, modulation depth governs the transmitted power. This permits the
use of low-level modulation in FM transmitter and use of efficient class C amplifiers in all
stages following the modulator. Further since all amplifiers handle constant power, the
average power handled equals the peak power. In AM transmitter the maximum power is
four times the average power. Finally in FM, all the transmitted power is useful where as in
AM, most of the power is carrier power which does not contain any information.

3.3.5 Disadvantages of FM Over AM

(i) A much wider channel typically 200 KHz is required in FM as against only 10 kHz in
AM broadcast. This forms serious limitation of FM.

(ii) FM transmitting and receiving equipment particularly used for modulation and
demodulation tend to be more complex and hence more costly.

Performance Comparison of FM and AM System

S.NO FM AM

1. Amplitude of FM wave is constant. It is Amplitude of AM wave will change with the

independent of the modulation index. modulating voltage.

2. Hence, transmitted power remains constant. It Transmitted power is dependent on the

is independent of m f modulation index.

3. All the transmitted power is useful. Carrier power and one sideband power are
useless.

4. FM receivers are immune to noise. AM receivers are not immune to noise.

5. It is possible to decrease noise further by This feature is absent in AM.

increasing deviation.

6. Bandwidth = 2f  f m  . The bandwidth BW = 2 f m . It is not dependent on the

depends on modulation index. modulation index.
7. BW is large. Hence, wide channel is required. BW is much less than FM.

8. Space wave is used for propagation. So, Ground wave and sky wave propagation is used.
radius of transmission is limited to line of Therefore, larger area is covered than FM.
sight.

9. Hence, it is possible to operate several Not possible to operate more channels on same
transmitters on same frequency. frequency.

10. FM transmission and reception equipment are AM equipment are less complex.
more complex.

11. The number of sidebands having significant Number of sidebands in AM will be constant
amplitudes depends on modulation index m f and equal to 2.

12. The information is contained in the frequency The information is contained in the amplitude
variation of the carrier. variation of the carrier.

13. FM wave: AM wave:

14. Application: Applications:

Radio, TV broadcasting, police wireless, point Radio and TV broadcasting.

to point communications.

Solved problems

Solves examples on angle modulation (FM and PM)

PART A
Example 3.1

A 600 Hz signal frequency-modulates a carrier with a frequency deviation of 4 kHz. Calculate the
modulation index of the resulting FM wave.

Solution

Give: fm = 600 Hz = 0.6 kHz, f  4kHz

Recall that
f  f m
f 4
 m   6.67
f m 0.6

Example 3.2

A 95.6 MHz carrier is frequency-modulated by a 6 kHz message signal. If the frequency deviation of
the resulting FM is 60 kHz, find (a) the highest and lowest frequencies of the FM wave, (b) The
carrier swing (c) the modulation index.

Solution

Given: fc = 95.6MHz, fm = 6 kHz, f  60kHz  0.06MHz

a. Highest frequency  fc  f  (95.6  0.06)MHz  95.66MHz

Lowest frequency  fc  f  (95.6  0.06)MHz  95.54MHz
b. Carrier swing  2f  2  60kHz  120kHz
f 60kHz
c. Modulation index   m    10
fm 6kHz

Example 3.3

An FM signal is represented by the expression v(t )  25 cos(2  10 6 t  10 sin 5142t ) volts.

Calculate the following:

a) Amplitude of the carrier signal

b) The carrier frequency
c) The modulating signal frequency
d) The modulation index
e) The frequency deviation
f) The power dissipated in a 60-ohm resistor by the FM signal.

Solution

The general equation of an FM wave is given by

Comparing this with the expression given

v(t )  25 cos(2  10 6 t  10 sin 5142t )

a. Amplitude of the carrier Vc = 25 V

c 2  10 6
b. Carrier frequency fc    318,309 Hz  3.18kHz
2 2
 5142
c. Modulating signal frequency fm  c   818.374 Hz
2 2
d. Modulation index   10 radians.
 e. frequency deviation f  f m  10  818.374  8.183kHz
f. power dissipated in a 60-ohm resistor by the FM signal

PART B
Example 1
Design a simulink model for an FM modulated signal and hence sketch the message, carrier
and FM waves.
Solution
The simulink model is as shown in figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7 Simulink model of FM modulated signal

Figure 2.8 shows the waveform for the message, carrier and FM modulated wave.
Message signal

Carrier signal

FM signal

Figure 2.7 FM modulated wave

As shown in figure 2.7, for the FM signal, it has points of maximum frequency and points of
minimum frequency.
Example 2
Create a simulink model to produce PM signal, print (display) your model file, the message
signal and FM signal. Use sampling time ts=0.01, f=2ᴨfm where fm=2Hz.
Solution
The simulink model is as shown in figure 2.8

Figure 2.8 Simulink model for PM modulated wave

The generated PM wave is shown in figure 2.9
Example 3
A 100 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 6 KHz message signal. If the frequency
deviation of the resulting FM signal is 50 KHz, determine the following:
a) The highest and lowest frequencies of the FM wave
b) The carrier swing
c) The modulation index
Solution
Given: Fc=100 MHz, Fm=6 KHz, △f =50 KHz = 0.05 MHz
i. Highest frequency = Fc + △f = (100+0.05) = 100.05 MHz
Lowest frequency = Fc - △f = (100 – 0.05) = 99.95 MHz
ii. Carrier swing = 2*△f = 2*50KHz = 100 KHz
iii. Modulation index m =

Example 4
Let‟s consider an FM wave represented by the equation
calculate the following: (a) the amplitude
of the carrier, (b) the carrier signal frequency (c) the modulating signal frequency (d) the
modulation index (e) the frequency deviation (f) the power dissipated in a 50 Ω resistor by
the Fm signal.
Solution
Let‟s recall that the general expression for FM wave is given by:

Let‟s compare this model with the equation we were given:

a) The carrier amplitude Vc= 20 V

b) Carrier frequency Fc can be obtained as follows:

0.318 MHz
c) Modulating signal frequency Fm is calculated as thus:
d) Modulation index: by comparing the equation with the general model, the modulation
index
e) Frequency deviation △f = m*Fm = 10* = 795.77 Hz
f) Power dissipated:

SOLVED EXAMPLES ON ANGLE MODULATION

1. A 100 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a 6 KHz message signal. If the

frequency deviation of the resulting FM signal is 50 KHz, determine the following:
d) The highest and lowest frequencies of the FM wave
e) The carrier swing
f) The modulation index
Solution

Given: Fc=100 MHz, Fm=6 KHz, △f =50 KHz = 0.05 MHz

iv. Highest frequency = Fc + △f = (100+0.05) = 100.05 MHz

Lowest frequency = Fc - △f = (100 – 0.05) = 99.95 MHz
v. Carrier swing = 2*△f = 2*50KHz = 100 KHz
vi. Modulation index m =
2. Let‟s consider an FM wave represented by the equation
calculate the following: (a) the
amplitude of the carrier, (b) the carrier signal frequency (c) the modulating signal
frequency (d) the modulation index (e) the frequency deviation (f) the power
dissipated in a 50 Ω resistor by the Fm signal.
Solution

Let’s recall that the general expression for FM wave is given by:

Let’s compare this model with the equation we were given:

g) The carrier amplitude Vc= 20 V

h) Carrier frequency Fc can be obtained as follows:

0.318 MHz
i) Modulating signal frequency Fm is calculated as thus:
j) Modulation index: by comparing the equation with the general model, the modulation
index
k) Frequency deviation △f = m*Fm = 10* = 795.77 Hz
l) Power dissipated:

3. In an FM system, the modulating frequency Fm = 2 kHz, the modulating voltage Em

=3 V and the deviation is 6 kHz. If the modulating voltage is raised to 5 V, then what
is new deviation? If the modulating voltage is further increased to 9 V and the
modulating frequency is reduced to 500Hz, what will be the deviation?

Solution
Given: fm = 2 kHz, Em =3V, △f = 6 kHz
We know that  f  K f Em

f 6kHz
Or K f   2kHz / V
Em 3V

i. For Em =5 V,  f  K f Em  (2kHz / V )  5V  10kHz

ii. When the modulating voltage increases to 9V, then
 f  K f Em  (2kHz / V )  9V  18kHz
4. When the modulating frequency in an FM system is 400Hz and the modulating
voltage is 2.8 V, the modulation index is 70. Calculate the maximum deviation. What
is modulation index when modulating frequency is reduced to 250 Hz and the
modulating voltage is simultaneously raised to 3.5 V

Solution
Given: Fm = 400 Hz, Em = 2.8 V, mf = 70
i. Maximum deviation  f  m f  f m  70  400  28kHz
ii. When fm = 250 Hz and Em =3.5 V
We know that  f  K f Em
=. Hence for the new value of Em=3.5 V
 f  K f Em  8kHz / V  3.5V  28kHz
f 28kHz
 The modulation index m f    112
f m 250 Hz
5. Determine the permissible range in maximum modulation index for (i) commercial
FM which has 40Hz to 20 kHz modulating frequencies. (ii) Narrowband FM system
 which allows maximum deviation of 10 kHz and 100 Hz to 3 kHz modulating
frequencies.

Solution
i. For commercial FM, maximum deviation is given as f  75kHz
f
Modulation index in Fm is given by m f  .
fm
75khz
So, at 40 Hz, modulation index for commercial FM will be: m f   1,875
40 Hz
75khz
Also, at 20 kHz, modulation index for commercial FM will be: m f   3.75
20kHz
Therefore, the modulation index for commercial FM varies between 1875 and 3.75

ii. For a given narrow band FM system, the frequency deviation is given as
f  10kHz . Hence the modulation index will vary between
10kHz
mf   100
100 Hz
10kHz
mf   3.33
3kHz

6. A carrier wave of frequency 2 MHz and amplitude 3 V is frequency modulated (FM)

by a sinusoidal modulating signal frequency of 600 Hz and of peak amplitude 1volt.
The frequency deviation is 2 kHz. The level of the modulating signal is changed to 5
volt peak and the modulating frequency is changed to 3 kHz. Obtain the expression
for the new modulating waveform (FM).
Solution
A typical FM wave is given by
s(t )  A cos[2f c t  m f sin(2f m t )]
Given that f c  2MHz  2  10 6 , A=3V, Am= 1V, f  2kHz
f 2  10 3
Recall that k f    2  10 3 Hz / V
Am 1
When Am= 5V and Fm=3 kHz, the modulation index will be:
f 2  103  5
mf    3.33
fm 3  103
s(t )  A cos[2f c t  m f sin(2f m t )] …. (i)
Putting all these values into equation (i), we will have that
s(t )  3 cos[2  10 6 t  3.33 sin(2  2  103 t )]
s(t )  3 cos[2  10 6 t  3.33 sin(4  103 t )]
7. Consider a rule of bandwidth for FM sometimes used as B  (2m f  1) f m . Find the
fraction of the signal power that is included in that frequency band. Assume that mf =
2 and 10.
Solution
 We calculate the bandwidth of FM on the basis of 98% power requirement expressed
by Carson‟s rule,
1
BW  2f (1  )  2(m f  1) f m
mf
The portion of the signal power included in the frequency band B is
B 98
P 
BW 100
Hence,
B
i. For m f =2 P  0.98
BW
B (2m f  1) f m 2 2 1
P  0.98   0.98   0.833  83.3%
BW 2(m f  1) f m 2(2  1)
B
ii. For m f =10 P  0.98
BW

B (2m f  1) f m 2  10  1
P  0.98   0.98   0.98  97.6%
BW 2(m f  1) f m 2(10  1)

8. In an FM system, a 8kHz modulating signal modulates 108.6 MHz carrier wave so

that the frequency deviation is 70 kHz. Find (i) carrier swing in the FM signal and
modulating index mf (ii) the highest and lowest frequency attained by the FM signal.
Solution

Given that f =70 kHz,

i. Carrier swing =2 f = 2  70kHz  140kHz

f 70  10 3
Modulation index m f    8.75
fm 8  10 3
ii. The upper frequency attained by the FM will be
f cf  108.6  10 6  70  103  108.67MHz
The upper frequency attained by the FM will be
f cf  108.6  10 6  70  103  108.53MHz
9. The modulating signal in an FM is 500 Hz with amplitude 3.5 V and frequency
deviation 7.4 kHz. If the audio frequency voltage is now increased to 8 V, find the
new frequency deviation and modulation index. Also if the audio frequency voltage is
raised to 15 V while the audio frequency drops to 300 Hz, determine the frequency
and the modulation index.
Solution
Given that: f  7.4kHz, fm  500Hz  0.5kHz,Vm  3.5V
f f
We know that k f  
E m Vm
f 7.4kHz
kf    2.11kHz / V
Vm 3.5V
 Hence, for Vm= 8V
f  kf  Vm  2.11kHz / V  8V  16.914kHz
For Vm=15 V
f  kf  Vm  2.11kHz / V  15V  31.65kHz
It is important to note that change in modulating frequency made no difference to the
frequency deviation because it is independent of the modulating frequency.
Therefore, the corresponding modulation indices are as follows:
f 7.4kHz
For f  7.4kHz, m1    14.8
f m 0.5kHz
f 16.914kHz
For f  16.914kHz, m2    33.8
fm 0.5kHz
f 31.65kHz
For f  31.65kHz, m3    105.5
fm 0.3kHz
10. Given an angle-modulated signal xc (t )  20 cos(c t  5 sin m t ) . Assume PM where
fm=2 kHz. Calculate the modulation index and the bandwidth if (i) fm is double and
(ii) fm is decreased by half.

Solution
For general PM wave, we have that
x PM (t )  A cos[c t  k p m(t )]  20 cos(c t  5 sin m t )

We have that m(t )  am sin m t

Thus, x PM (t )  20 cos(c t  k p a m sin m t ) where   k p a m =modulation index
Hence   k p a m  5
Now, when fm=2 kHz, f B  2(  1) f m  2(5  1)2kHz  24kHz
i. When fm is doubled,  =5, fm=4kHz
f B  2(  1) f m  2(5  1)4kHz  48kHz
ii. When fm is reduced by half,  =5, fm=1kHz
f B  2(  1) f m  2(5  1)1kHz  12kHz

Tutorials on angle modulation (FM modulation)

1. For an FM wave with a frequency deviation of 10 KHz and maximum allowable
deviation of 25 KHz. Determine the percentage modulation. (Ans. 40%)
2. Given an FM system, the maximum value of deviation is 80 KHz, and the modulating
frequency is 20 KHz. Determine the ratio of deviation and the system bandwidth
employing Carson‟s rule. Hint B= 2[△fmax + fm (max)]. (Ans. 4, 200 KHz)
3. A 30 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz modulating signal. If the carrier voltage
is 5 V, and the maximum deviation is 10 KHz. what is the modulation index, write
down the mathematical expression for FM and PM waves. (Ans. 25)
4. An FM wave is represented by the equation x (t)
= ]. Find the amplitude of the carrier, carrier
 frequency, modulating frequency, and modulation index. (Ans. 5V, 20 MHz, 400 Hz,
25)
5. If the maximum allowed deviation of FM sound signal in TV is 70 KHz, and the
actual deviation is 40 KHz. What is the modulation index and percentage modulation?
( Ans. 0.57, 57% )
6. The equation of an FM signal is given by s (t)
= ]. Determine the modulating frequency.
(Ans. 1000 Hz)
7. Determine the carrier swing, the highest and lowest frequencies attained and the
modulation index of the FM signal generated by a frequency modulating a 101.6 MHz
carrier with an 8KHz. (Ans. 80 KHz, 101.64 MHz, 101.56 MHz, 5)
8. Consider an FM system given that the maximum frequency deviation is 25Hz for a
modulating sinusoid of unit amplitude and frequency of 100 KHz. Determine the
required value of frequency multiplication n to produce a maximum frequency
deviation of 20 KHz when the modulating sinusoid has unit amplitude and frequency
of 200 Hz. ( Ans. n= 800)
9. Find the bandwidth of an angle-modulated signal expressed as s (t)
= ]. (Ans. 402 KHz)
10. Given that s (t) = ].determine the carrier
frequency, modulating frequency, modulation index, frequency deviation and the
bandwidth. (Ans.127.32 MHz, 9.55 KHz, 7, 66.845 KHz, 152.79 KHz)

Computer simulation (CS)

1. Given that m(t) = sin(100t) ) modulates a carrier c(t) = cos(2ᴨfct), where fc = 250
Hz, and frequency deviation constant Kf=100.
a) Plot the message signal, sampling interval Ts= 0.0001
b) Plot the FM signal u(t)
c) Demodulate the FM to recover the message signal and compare the result
with the original message signal.
2. Design an FM model in simulink and use the following parameters:
Fc= 10 Hz, modulating signal s(t) = cos(2*pi*t), sampling time Ts=0.01, use
fixed-step solver. Comment on your results.
3. Given m(t) = sin 20πt, kp =100, the carrier has a frequency 100 Hz and magnitude
1.
(a) Create a simulink model to produce the PM signal, print your model file, the
message signal and PM signal in both time and frequency domain. Find the
maximum and minimum instantaneous frequency of the PM signal. Determine the
bandwidth of the PM signal and whether this PM signal is NBPM or WBPM?

(b) If the message signal amplitude is doubled, adjust your model in (a) and
simulate again. Print your the message signal and PM signal in both time and
frequency domain. Find the maximum and minimum instantaneous frequency of
the PM signal. Determine the bandwidth of the PM signal and whether this PM
signal is NBPM or WBPM?
 4. Given m(t) = cos 20πt, kf =20π, the carrier has a frequency 100 Hz and magnitude
Create a simulink model to demodulate the FM signal with discriminator. Print
your model file, the message signal, FM signal, the signal before the envelope
detector in time domain based on simulation, and sketch the demodulated signal in
time domain by hand.

TABLE 1.5
S.No. Analog modulation Digital modulation
i. Transmitted modulated signal is analog in Transmitted signal is digital, ie. Train of
nature. digital pulses.
ii. Amplitude, frequency or phase variations in the Amplitude, width or position of the
transmitted signal represent the information or transmitted pulses is constant. The message
message. is transmitted in the form of code words.
iii. Noise immunity is poor for A.M. but improved Noise immunity is excellent.
for FM and PM.
iv. It is not possible to separate out noise and signal. It is possible to separate signal from noise.
Therefore, repeaters cannot be used. Therefore, repeaters can be used.
v. Coding is not possible. Coding techniques can be used to detect and
correct the errors.
vi. Bandwidth required is lower than that for the Due to higher bit rates, higher channel
digital modulation methods. bandwidth is required.
vii. FDM is uded for multiplexing. TDM is uded for multiplexing.
viii. Not suitable for transmission of secret Due to coding techniques, it is suitable for
 information in military applications. military applications.
ix. Analog modulation systems are AM, FM, PM, Digital modulation systems are PCM, D,
PAM, PWM, etc. ADM DPCM, etc.
 CHAPTER 4

PULSE MODULATION
CHAPTER 4

PULSE MODULATION
Objectives:

-Sampling

-Classification of Pulse Modulation

- Pulse-Analog Modulation techniques

-Pulse Digital Modulation

-PCM

-Quantization

-Encoding

nevertheless

Pulse modulation is a form of modulation in which the signal is transmitted in the form of
pulses. The carrier signal in pulse modulation is a train of pulses and not a sinusoidal wave as
in the case of analog modulation. In pulse modulation, continuous signals are sampled at
regular intervals.

Advantages of Pulse Modulation over Analog Modulation

i. Transmission and processing of discreet or pulse signals are easier
ii. The process consumes less power since only a sample, instead of the whole signal is
transmitted.

Sampling technique is a very key process in pulse modulation implementation; and also the
first step in Analog to Digital conversion.

Steps in Analog to Digital Conversion

i. Sampling

ii. Quanitization

iii. Encoding

Sampling Theorem
Sampling theorem states that “A continuous-time signal may be completely represented in its samples
and recovered back if the sampling frequency is .

Where is the sampling frequency & is the maximum frequency present in the signal.

Samples must be taken fast enough in order for high frequency components to be recognized and
adequately represented.
A minimum sampling rate is two times the highest frequency component or upper bandwidth limit of
the analog signal. This is called the sampling theorem.
Maximum signal frequency means that the bandwidth of this signal is simply 2

NYQUIST RATE AND NYQUIST INTERVAL

Nyquist rate is also called the minimum sampling rate. It is a condition or point when the sampling
rate becomes exactly equal to 2 samples per second

Maximum sampling interval seconds.

NB: the use of sampling rate higher than the Nyquist rate also has the beneficial effect of easing the
design of the construction filter used to recover the original signal from its sampled version.

Example 1: An analog signal is expressed by the equation,

X(t) = 5 Cos (60πt) + 20 Sin (400πt) – Cos (100πt). Calculate the Nyquist rate for this signal.
Solution;
The given signal is expressed as;
X(t) = 5 Cos (60πt) + 20 Sin (400πt) – Cos (100πt) equation 1
Let three frequencies present be w1, w2, and w3 so that the new equation for signal,
X(t) = 5 cos w1 t + 20 sin w2 t – cos w3 t .
Comparing equations 1 & 2;
w1 t = 60πt; w1 = 60π.
Therefore 2πf1 = 60π
f1 = 30 Hz.

Similarly,
w2 t= 400πt
2πf2 = 400π
f2 = 200 Hz
 w3 t = 100πt
2πf3 = 100π
f3 = 50 Hz.
Therefore, the maximum frequency present in X(t) is,
f2 = 200 Hz
Recall that, Nyquist rate

Where = maximum frequency present in the signal.

Here = = 200 Hz

Nyquist rate =2 = 2 × 200 = 400 Hz.

Example 2: Determine the Nyquist rate for a continuous-time signal

X(t) = 8 Cos (60πt) + 30 Sin(400πt) – 20 Cos (150πt).
Solution: In general,
equation 1

equation 2

Comparing equations 1 & 2;

Thus, the highest frequency component of the given message will be,

Example 3; find the Nyquist rate and the Nyquist interval for the signal,

Solution:

Recall from trigonometry,

……………………………………….equation 1

The new equation for the signal will be;

………………………………………………… equation 2

Comparing 1 & 2
 The maximum present in X(t) is;

= 4000 Hz

Nyquist Rate,

Nyquist Interval,

Example 4: A continuous-time signal is given below;

Determine:
i. Minimum sampling rate i.e. Nyquist rate required to avoid aliasing
ii. If sampling frequency = 400 Hz, what is the discrete-time signal X(n) or X(nTs)
obtained after sampling?
iii. If sampling frequency = 150 Hz, what is the discrete-time signal X(n) or X(nTs)
obtained after sampling?
iv. What is the frequency if sinusoidal that yields samples identical to those
obtained in part iii
Solution:
i. The highest frequency component of continuous-time signal is f = 100 Hz. Hence
minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing is called Nyquist rate & is given as:

ii. The continuous-time signal X(t) is sampled at = 400 Hz.

The frequency of the discrete-time signal

Then the discrete-time signal will be given as:

Or

iii. The continuous-time signal X(t) is sampled at . The frequency of

discrete-time will be;
 Then the discrete-time signal will be given as;

iv. For sampling rate of

Then, the sinusoidal signal will be;

Sampling at , yields Identical samples hence is an alias of

for sampling rate

Example 4:
A band pass signal has spectral range that stretches from 30 to 95 KHz. What is the required range of
sampling frequency ?

Solution:
Bandwidth = 2 = 95 KHz-30KHz = 65KHz.

Hence, minimum sampling rate =

Recall that the range of minimum sampling frequency is specified for bandpass signal.
It lies between 4 to 8 samples per second.

Therefore, range of minimum sampling frequencies

Classification of Pulse Modulation Techniques

Pulse modulation can be classified into two major types, namely :

i. Pulse-Analogue Modulation :Setting of sample amplitude is infinitely variable

 ii. Pulse- Digital Modulation : Sets sample amplitude at the nearest predetermined
level.

A block diagram showing the basic classification of pulse modulation techniques is shown in
Fig….

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Pulse Amplitude Modulation ( PAM) is a pulse modulation technique in which the message
signal is sampled at regular intervals with each sample made proportional to the amplitude of
the modulating signal at the instant of sampling. It is the simplest form of Pulse Modulation.
PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal, as the signal traces out the path of
the whole wave. Meaning, a signal which is sampled at Nyquist rate can be recovered by
passing it through Low Pass Filter (LPF) with exact cut-off frequency. It is very easy to
produce and detect PAM. This technique transmits the data by encoding in the amplitude of
a series of signal pulses.
 Fig: PAM Signal

From the figure, it is clear that the pulse amplitude modulated signal is following the
amplitude of the message signal.

Types of PAM.

1. Single Polarity PAM:

In this type, a fixed DC level is added to the signal so that the signal is always
positive.

2. Double Polarity PAM:

In this, the pulses are both positive and negative.

Advantages of PAM

 Both Modulation and demodulation are simple.

 Easy construction of transmitter and receiver circuits.
Disadvantages of PAM

 Large bandwidth is required for transmission.

 Interference of noise is more and cannot be easily removed.
 The transmission power required is more because the amplitude is varying.
Applications of PAM

 Mainly used in Ethernet communication.

 Many microcontrollers use this technique in order to generate control signals.
 It is used in Photo-biology.
 It acts as an electronic driver for LED circuits.

Example :

For a pulse-amplitude modulated ( PAM) transmission of voice signal having maximum

frequency equal to fm = 3.5 kHz, calculate the transmission banwidth. It si given that the
sampling frequency fs= 10kHz and the pulse duration   0.2Ts

Solution:

Recall that , sampling period Ts si given by :

 1 1
Ts   seconds
f s 9 x103

Ts  0.111x103 seconds

Given that,   0.2Ts

Therefore,   0.2 x0.111x103  20 seconds

The transmission bandwidth for PAM si given by:

1
BW 
2

1
Therefore, BW   25 Hz
2  20  10 6

Generation of PAM

Block diagram of PAM generation

Fig…..shows the generation of PAM signal from the sampler which has two inputs , that is,
modulating signal and the carrier pulse.

Pulse modulation can be used in transmitting analog information such as continuous speech
signal or data.

Demodulation of PAM
Fig: PAM Demodulator

As shown in Fig…, PAM signal is fed to the low pass filter which removes the high
frequency ripples and generates the demodulated signal which has its amplitude proportional
to PAM signal at all time instant . This signal is then applied to an inverting amplifier to
amplify its signal level to have the demodulated output with almost equal amplitude with the
message signal.

Fig…. shows the modulated and demodulated PAM Signal

Pulse Time Modulation (PTM)

In PTM, the pulses have the same amplitude. However, one of their timing characteristics is
made proportional to the amplitude of the sampled signal. This variable characteristic can be
either frequency, position or width.

Advantages of PTM

 Low power consumption is involved

 Noise interference is less.
 High power handling capacity
 It has a very high efficiency

Disadvantages of PTM

 The circuit is more complex.

  Voltage spikes can be seen.
 The system is expensive as it uses semiconductor devices.
 Switching losses will be more due to high PWM frequency.
Applications of PTM

 Used in encoding purposes in the telecommunication system.

 Used to control brightness in a smart lighting system.
 Helps to prevent overheating in LED‟s while maintaining it‟s brightness.
 Used in audio and video amplifiers.

Classification of PTM
i. Pulse Width Modulation
ii. Pulse Position Modulation
iii. Pulse Frequency Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation

Pulse Width Modulation is also known as pulse duration modulation (PDM). In PWM, the
width of the pulse is varied in proportional to the amplitude of the signal. Since the width is
changing, the power loss can be reduced when compared to PAM signals.

Advantages
i. Very good noise immunity
ii. Synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver is not necessary.
iii. It is possible to recover the PWM signal from a noise , contaminated PWM

Disadvantages
i. It has a variable power content
ii. The bandwidth required in PWM is higher than that required in PAM

Generation of PWM
PWM signal can be generated by using a comparator, where modulating signal and sawtooth
signal form the input of the comparator,
i. As shown in Fig.. the positive and negative inputs are fed by the input
message or modulating signal and the sawtooth signal respectively which
operates at carrier frequency.
ii. Observing both sides (positive or negative), the maximum of the input signal
should be less than that of sawtooth signal.
iii. The comparator would compare the two signals together to produce the PWM
signal at its output as shown in Fig…..
iv. The rising edges of the PWM signal coincides with the falling edge of the
sawtooth signal.
v. When the sawtooth signal is at the minimum value which si less than the
minimum of the input signal, then the positive input of the comparator is at
higher potential which gives the comparator output as positive.
vi. When the sawtooth signal rises and is at the maximum value, the negative
input of the comparator is at higher potential, which will produce the
comparator output to be negative,
vii. Thus the input signal magnitude determines the comparator output and its
potential, which then decides the width of the pulse generated at the
output.
viii. Conclusively, the width of the pulse generated signal si directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.
Fig…….
Demodulation of PWM
i. In PWM demodulation, a ramp is put at the +ve edge which will stop at the
arrival of –ve egdge.
ii. The ramp will attain different heights in each cycle since the widths aer
different and the heights attained aer directly proportional to the pulse
width and in turn the amplitude of the message signal.
iii. This is then passed through a low pass filter where it will follow the envelope
( message signal) which generates the demodulated signal at the output

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

In PPM, both the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant. The position of each
pulse is varied with reference to a particular pulse. Here a single pulse is transmitted with the
required number of phase shifts. Pulse position modulation is an analogue modulation
scheme where the amplitude and width of the pulse are kept constant, while the position of
the pulse with respect to the position of a reference pulse is varied according to the
instantaneous value of message signal.
PPM can be obtained from PWM. This is done by getting rid of leading-edge and bodies of
PWM pulses. The main advantage of pulse position modulation is that it requires constant
transmitter power output while the major disadvantage is that it depends upon transmitter-
receiver synchronisation.
The waveforms of PPM are given below:

Advantages of PPM

 Less power is consumed in PPM when compared to pulse amplitude modulation.

 Noise interference is less because its amplitude does not vary
 It has a good power efficiency.
 separation of signal from a noisy signal in PPM is easier
Disadvantages of PPM

 It has composite system

 More bandwidth is required in PPM

Applications of PPM

 It is used for storage because of its data compression ability.

 It is applied in the air traffic control system and telecommunication systems.
 Remote controlled cars, planes, trains use pulse code modulations.
Generation of PPM

Working Principle

i. The PWM signal is sent as input into the inverter which reverses the polarity of the
pulses.

ii. The output of the inverter si fed into the differentiator which produces +ve spikes for
PWM signal moving from High to Low and –ve spikes for Low to High
transition. The spikes produced aer shown in the fourth waveform of Fig…

iii. These spikes aer then fed into the positive edge triggered pulse generator which
generates fixed width pulses when a +ve spike appears, coinciding with the falling
edge of PWM signal.

iv. Thus the PPM signal is generated at the output which is shown in the fifth waveform
of Fig…where pulse position carry the message information.

Fig. Modulation and demodulation wave forms of PWM

Demodulation of PPM

i. In PPM demodulation, ramp is used which starts at the +ve edge of the
one pulse and stops at the +ve edge of the next pulse.
 ii. Thus the height of the generated ramp si determined by the delay
between the pulses which indirectly follows the amplitude of the
modulating signal.

iii. This si then passed through a low pass filter which eliminates the
envelope information as the demodulated signal

Fig. Modulation and demodulation wave forms of PPM

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Pulse code modulation is a technique that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital
signal so that a modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication
system. PCM is in binary form with only two possible states high and low(0 and 1)

Message
input LPF Sampler Quantizer Encoder
signal

Regenerative Repeater

(CHANNELS)

Figure (xx) Block diagram of a single-channel PCM system

Regeneration Decoder Reconstruction Message
circuit filter signal
output
The Low pass filter (LPF): limits the maximum frequency of the incoming message or modulating
signal to say, W Hertz.
The Sampler circuit samples the incoming band-limited analogue signal with a pulse train in
accordance with the sampling theorem. That is, the sampling rate or frequency must be greater than
2W Hertz in order that the samples closely approximate the original message signal and for the
perfect construction of the message at the receiver. Basically, the sampling process converts the
analogue signal to a PAM signal.

Fig… Analog and Sampled Signal

Quantizer: the basic reasoning behind PCM is that analogues signal (e.g. voice or video signal)
originally containing many instantaneous values could be divided into discrete number of amplitude
step-sizes, each of which is assigned a discrete value. This is illustrated in figure (xx) with the
sampled signal range divided, here, into M=8 quantization levels. Each sample of the message signal
is then assigned a discrete between 0 and 7, depending on the amplitude of the sample. The
difference between two adjacent quantization levels is known as step-size or quantum, δ, which is
uniform in this example. There is an associated quantizing error accompanying the quantization
process and it is the difference between the output (quantized) value and the input to the quantizer
at each sampling time. The quantization error ranges between minus half a step-size and plus half a
step-size (i.e. -1/2 δ and +1/2 δ).

Instead of uniform quantization process, it may be preferable in certain applications to employ non-
uniform quantizer. This is equivalent to passing a baseband signal through a compressor circuit and
then applying the so-compressed signal to a uniform quantizer. At the receiving end, an expander
circuit must be used in order to restore the original samples to their correct relative level. The
 characteristics of the expander must, therefore, be complementary to that of the compressor. The
combination of a compressor and an expander is called a compander.

Encoder: The output pulse-amplitudes of the quantizer are coded in a particular fashion. For M=8
quantization-level example illustrated in figure (xx), n = 3 bits are required for the coding of each
pulse amplitude (M = 2n). Hence, the binary coded message is as written in the figure (xx). Such
encoding makes the quantized symbols suited for transmission over a line or radio path. Binary code,
involving symbols 0 and 1, are commonly used because they are easy to generate and have better
noise performance over other encoding systems. . Each quantized sample is encoded into an 8
codeword by using A-law in the encoding process.
 Bit 1 is the most significant bit (MSB), it represents the polarity of the sample. “1”
represents positive polarity and “0” represents negative polarity.
 Bit 2,3 and 4 will defines the location of the sample value. These three bits together
form a linear curve for low level negative or positive samples.
 Bit 5,6,7 and 8 are the least significant bits (LSB) it represents one of the segments
quantized value. Each segment is divided into 16 quantum levels.

Amplitude

0 t

Pulse amplitude: 1.6 3.0 6.0 6.5 4.9 4.4 2.4

Coded amplitude: 2 3 6 7 5 4 2

Coded message: 110 011 110 111 101 100 010

Figure (xx) Quantization and encoding process

Regenerative repeaters: When the PCM wave is transmitted through a channel (hard-wired or
otherwise), distortion and noise are introduced into the system. The function of the regenerative
repeaters is, therefore, to control such effects. This regenerative process involves amplifying and
wave-shaping the received coded pulses. The output waveform of the repeater is expectedly a
“clean” binary signal that is free from noise and distortion at the start of each pulse. In practical PCM
systems, such as transmission between telephone exchanges, regenerative repeaters are placed
approximately every two-kilometre distance along the telephone cables.

Decoder: At the receiving end, the cleaned pulses are first regrouped by the decoder into
codewords which are eventually decoded back into a quantized PAM signal. This decoding process
may sometimes be preceded at the receiver by the regeneration of the received distorted signal.

Reconstruction Filter: The quantized PAM pulses are passed through a low pass filter in order to
recover the original message signal. The cut-off frequency of the reconstruction filter should be
equal to the message signal bandwidth.
Types of PCM
i. Differential Pulse Code Modulation ( DPCM)
ii. Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation ( ADPCM)

Differential Pulse Code Modulation ( DPCM)

In DPCM only the difference between a sample and the previous value is encoded. The
difference will be much smaller than the total sample value so we need some bits for getting
the same accuracy as in ordinary PCM. So that the required bit rate will also reduce. For
example, in 5-bit code 1 bit is for polarity and the remaining 4 bits for 16 quantum levels.

Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation ( ADPCM)

ADPCM is achieved by adapting the quantizing levels to analog signal characteristics. We

can estimate the values with the preceding sample values. Error estimation is done as same as
in DPCM. In 32Kbps ADPCM method difference between the predicted value and sample,
value is coded with 4 bits, so that we‟ll get 15 quantum levels. In this method data rate is half
of the conventional PCM
Pulse Code Demodulation

Pulse Code Demodulation will be doing the same modulation process in reverse.
Demodulation starts with the decoding process, during transmission the PCM signal will be
affected by noise interference. So, before the PCM signal sends into the PCM demodulator,
we have to recover the signal into the original level for that we are using a comparator. The
PCM signal is a series pulse wave signal, but for demodulation, we need a wave to be
parallel.
By using a serial to parallel converter the series pulse wave signal will be converted into a
parallel digital signal. After that the signal will pass through the n-bits decoder, it should be a
Digital to Analog converter. Decoder recovers the original quantization values of the digital
signal. This quantization value also includes a lot of high-frequency harmonics with original
audio signals. For avoiding unnecessary signals we utilize a low-pass filter at the final part.

Advantages of PCM

 It is mainly used in long distant communication.

 Transmitter efficiency is more.
  It has higher noise immunity when compared to other methods.
Disadvantages of PCM

 More bandwidth is required when compared to analogue systems.

 In this method encoding, decoding and quantisation of the circuit have to be done.
This makes it more complex.
Applications of PCM

 It is used in the satellite transmission system.

 It is also used in space communication.
 Used in Telephony.
 One of the recent applications is the compact disc.

Delta Modulation