KITWE DISTRICT EDUCATION BOARD

WORLD HISTORY

PAMPHLET

EDITED BY:
JANE TEMBO KAFULA- KITWE BOYS SECONDARY SCHOOL
LORRAINE MWILA SINYINZA- KITWE BOYS SECONDARY SCHOOL
BRUNO BAKO B- WUSAKILE SECONDARY SCHOOL
REVISION KIT 2018
EUROPEAN HISTORY 1870 TO 1945

11.1. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

Q1. Locate on the map of Europe the major European empires by 1870

11.2.1. Bismarck and the unification of Germany, 1870

Q2. Describe the stages leading to the unification of Germany

Background till 1871, Germany was divided into 38 independent stages, having in common
except the Germany language. All these states were members of the German Confederation,
which was weak and disunited. Between 1815 and 1848, Prince Metternich of Austria
dominated the Confederation.

After 1848, Prussia became the leading state, by uniting the confederation into the economic
union (Zollverein). Austria did not join this union, thereby, losing the opportunity for German
leadership. In 1862, Bismarck became Chancellor of Prussia and by series of wars, unified
Germany in 1871.

The first sage in the unification of Germany started in 1848 when every German state revolved
against their rulers, demanding democratic constitutions. The Frankfurt Constituent Assembly

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 was formed, which suggested unifying Germany as a Constitutional monarch, with the Prussian
King being crowned the Emperor Germany. The Prussian King declined this offer as he did not
wish his power to be limited by a constitution.

The second stage/phase began under Bismarck’s leadership and his militaristic policy of ‘Blood
and Iron’. He did not want Germany to be a democratic country controlled by the
revolutionaries. He wanted Germany, dominated by the aristocracy and army under the
leadership of the Prussian King.

The third and final stage began with series of wars (policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ against Austria,
France and Denmark, by which Austria was removed from the German Confederation, France
and Denmark defeated and King William I of Prussia was declared emperor of the united
Germany in 1871.The following were the three wars of unification:

a) The Danish War of 1864- The war aimed at liberating Holstein and Schleswig from
Denmark. In this war Denmark was defeated. After the war, Prussia got Schleswig and
Austria got Holstein.

b) The Austro-Prussian War 1866- The war lasted for seven weeks. Austria was defeated at
the battle of Sadowa and was forced to surrender Holstein and the other 39 German states to
Prussia.

c) The Franco-Prussian War 1870 – 1871- Excuse for war against France came from the
Spanish succession. The French were against the new successor Prince Leopold from
Prussia. Word was sent to Kaiser William I to withdraw the candidature of the throne
failure to which the French would declare war on Prussia. William I sent an EMS telegram
to Bismarck who changed the wording of the telegram. This angered the French and
declared war in 1870. The French were defeated and signed the humiliating treaty of
Frankfurt.

Q3. Explain Bismarck’s home and foreign policies

Bismarck was chancellor of Germany from 1870 to 1890. He exercised great influence in both
home and foreign policies of the empire. He worked under two Emperor William I who died in
1855 and William II in 1888 - 1918
 Bismarck’s home policy

Aims of Bismarck’s home police:

 He wanted to consolidate power o himself

 He wanted to eliminate all opposition

 He also wanted to achieve economic development for Germany

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 Bismarck ruled Germany from 1871 to 1890. During this period, he faced a number of political
problems especially from the Catholics and the Socialists:

1. Resistance from the Catholics

The German Catholics did not like the command position of Prussia in the new Empire. As
such, the Catholic Church at the Vatican refused to recognise the power of the state over the
Catholics. In 1870, the Catholic Church preached a dogma of Papal Infallibility which
demanded that all loyal Catholics should obey the official statements of the pope without
question. In 1871, a catholic central group was formed and Bismarck was politically
threatened. As a result, Bismarck launched a direct attack on the Roman Catholic Church.
As a result, Bismarck instituted the following laws:

 In 1871, Bismarck broke off all diplomatic relation with the Vatican

 In 1871, Bismarck introduced repressive laws that were directed against the Catholics.
Priests who preached politics were arrested and charged with the misuse of the pulpit.
Church controlled schools were brought under government control. Religious societies
such as Society of Jesus (Jesuits) were expelled from Germany while others were
dissolved

 Bismarck also introduced May Laws. These brought the training appointments and
work of the priest under the government control. The catholic who disobeyed or
opposed the laws were imprisoned, dismissed from work or suffered exile. Civil
marriages were also made illegal hence reducing the authority of the church over family
matters. This campaign or struggle against the church was called Kulturkampf
(Struggle for Civilization).

2. Resistance from the Socialists

The socialist’s party also alarmed Bismarck. The socialists believed in the teaching of Karl
Marx who advocated for the overthrowing of the Capitalist Governments and their replacement
by Governments controlled by workers. The social democratic party condemned militarism and
demanded for the creation of a socialist state were the government would won and control
major industries on behalf of the people. After 1875, the socialists became a threat to national
security. In 1876, there were two assassination attempts on the Kaiser. Bismarck blamed the
socialists and introduced Exceptional Laws to deal with them. Under these laws:
 All socialists meetings and publications that supported socialism were banned.

 The socialist party was also banned

 Under exceptional laws many people were imprisoned and exiled

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3. Social Reforms

In order to deal further with the problem of socialism, Bismarck promoted social reforms to
benefit workers so as to prevent them from joining socialism. He introduced insurance schemes
against sickness, old age and accidents.

4. The presence of Racial Minorities

Bismarck thought that racial minorities were an obstacle to complete Germany unity. There
were a few million non German-speaking people e.g. danes, and French within the Germany
Empire. Bismarck tried to solve this problem of minority races by introducing the policy of
PRUSSIANISATION (GERMANISATION). This was done to ensure unity in Germany.
Some of the features of Prussianisation were:

 Introduction of a Prussian Code of Law

 The Prussian Mark became the only currency

 The education system was based on the Prussian Mark

 Germany was introduced as the official language in order to assimilate the minority groups.

 The government also encouraged Germans to buy up properties from non-Germans

5. Economic Problems

German industries also faced a lot of problems as a result of stiff competition from outside’ to
ensure economic and industrial development, Bismarck introduced the Triple Law of 1879. This
was done to protect the three main industries i.e. the manufacturing, commercial and agriculture
industries against outside importations by introducing high tariffs. Bismarck wanted to make
Germany less dependent on imported goods and make Germany as self-sufficient as possible
economically.

6. Nationalisation of the railway system

The railway system became state owned so that low transporting rates were introduced to
benefit the local industries. The government also subsided the shipping lines to enable them
compete with other countries such as Britain. These measures led to the development of
Germany industries.

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 Bismarck Foreign Policies

Aims of Bismarck’ foreign policies

 To preserve the Frankfurt Treaty that led to the creation of the German Empire

 To maintain peace in Europe by a policy of German strength and domination

militarily and economically

 To isolate France because Bismarck feared that with the help of another country,
France would attack Germany and revenge to get back the provinces of Alsace and
Lorraine

 To dominate European diplomacy with the set up of governments in Europe

To achieve his aims, Bismarck created a system of alliances which are as follows:

Bismarck’s Alliances
a. The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and Austria-
Hungary (Frank Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and understanding with the
German Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was called the Three Emperors’
League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty. The terms of the treat were:

 All agreed to isolate France

 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires

 Agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over the

Balkan states

b. The Dual Alliance of 1879

The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a military alliance
signed between Austria – Hungary and Germany in 1879. This was after Russia and
Austria-Hungary quarrel over the Balkan States. Bismarck held a meeting in Berlin
to discuss the matter. At this meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria. This offended
Russia. The terms of this alliance were:
 To isolate France

 To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more countries but
to remain neutral if attacked by only one.

c. The Re-newed Dreikaiserbund of 1881

According to this treaty, membership and terms remained the same.

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 d. The Triple Alliance of 1882
The members of the Triple Alliance were Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The
Alliance was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and Austria-
Hungary after she was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia, which Italy
considered, as her territory. Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French
occupation of Tunisia. The terms were:

 To isolate France.

 To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power

 Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against Britain

e. The secret Re-insurance Treaty 1887

Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France and Russia. He
also wanted to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war. As a
result, Bismarck secretly approached Russia to sign the re-insurance Treaty. The
terms of the alliance were:

 Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans

 Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany would
remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would help each other
if attacked by two or more countries.

 The alliance was to be renewed after three years

11.2.2. The Ottoman Empire up to 1914

Q4. Analyse the factors that led to the decline of the Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire reached its peak of power in the time between the 16 th and 17th centuries.
However, towards the beginning of the 18th century, their power across Europe began to sharply
decline. This can be attributed to a number of various developments:
 Internal factors such as:

 The loss of power and authority of the Sultan-

 The poor state of the Ottoman economy- the economy was dwindling and she was
also weakening politically because of corruption and embezzlement, poor collection
of the poll tax, high and unnecessary government expenditure as well as retaining of
some taxes collected by vassal governors

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  Lack of good political leadership-the oppression and harsh ways of the Turkish
Sultan especially towards the Orthodox Christian aroused nationalism in the Balkan
Region.

 External factors such as:

 Fear of many European nations towards Ottoman- the attitude of European powers
towards the Ottoman Empire made it appear weak and sick, hence crowned as ‘the
Sickman of Europe’.

 Decline in the Ottoman’s military strength- Turkey’s political right or power

depended on her military strength; she had conquered Asia, Africa, and even
European territories by use of force.

 The rest of western world caught up to them- the different interests of European
countries made Turkey look sick, weak, confused and a victim of circumstances
beyond her control. The European powers controlled major rivers, seas of the
Empire and continued to play diplomatic games that made Turkey not to appear the
sole owner of these waters.

11.2.3. The British policy of Splendid Isolation.

Q5. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the British policy of Splendid Isolation
Definition of Splendid Isolation-

 This refers to enjoying the good, wonderful or beautiful state of being without much contact
with other people.
 It refers to the enjoyment of a good state of being alone (to stay aloof).

 Therefore, in this policy Britain decided not to involve herself in European affairs.

Why Britain followed the policy (Advantages)

Britain followed the policy of isolation because of a number of factors which included;
 Geographical position: Britain is separated from continental Europe by the English Channel,
hence by nature she was isolated. However, with a strong and reliable navy with which she
could effectively defend herself and her colonial possessions, she chose to be isolated.
 Overseas Expansion: British wanted to continue with her overseas expansion without
interruption. During this time, the British Empire comprised of ¼ of the world population.
Therefore Britain was preoccupied with her overseas expansion as such she needed not to take
part in European quarrels so she isolated herself.

 Self sufficiency economically and militarily: Britain enjoyed her Naval, commercial and
industrial supremacy. London was the center of the world and banking and half the merchant

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 shipping of the world was British. Militarily, Britain had the strongest Navy in the world. As a
result of the industrial revolution she started, she became the richest country in Europe and she
did not need any economic help from any country.

 The French Revolution: Britain also wanted to preserve her monarchy after the French
Revolution of 1879, which brought an end to the monarchy in France; Britain wanted to avoid a
similar revolution by isolating herself.

 Crimean War of 1854 – 1856: involved Russia and Turkey over the Balkan Region. Britain
fully supported Turkey. The bitter experiences of wars and misery caused by the war forced the
British politicians and the public to urge the British government to limit Britain’s costly
commitment abroad especially in Europe.

 Lord Salisbury’s Government (1895 -1902’s regime seemed to favour isolationists stance thus
Britain maintained it under his rule.

Why the policy was abandoned (Disadvantages)

Britain and to abandon her policy of Splendid Isolation for a number of reasons:
 The system of Alliances: other European countries were busy making alliances in case of war.
This made Britain be aware that she would be on her own if war broke out. Britain was
especially threatened when her two enemies France and Russia signed the Dual Entente in 1894.
 The provocative foreign policies of Kaiser William 2: from 1890, when Kaiser William II
became the Germany Emperor, his foreign policies provoked Britain as follows:

 He started challenging the British Naval, colonial and industrial supremacy e.g. in 1902, the
British introduced an advanced battleship called the DREADNOUGHT: this was the first of
its kind in Naval history. It had heavier guns and it was faster. However, in 1907, German
started producing an imitational Dreadnought called the U-BOAT. This was a direct
provocation to Britain.

 The Germany Government also gave moral and material support to the Boers during the 2 nd
Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902.

 The 2nd Anglo-Boer War of 1899 to 1902; was also significant in the abandoning of the
policy of Splendid Isolation because it revealed the weakness of the British Army. This is
because the British suffered a series of defeats by the ill equipped Boer Army and prolonged
guerrilla warfare.

 Colonial Rivalries: Britain faced colonial rivalries in North Africa from France, in south
East Asia from Russia and in the Middle East from Germany because Kaiser William II
wanted to build a railway line from Berlin to Baghdad. In addition, Germany also
challenged Britain as world leading colonial power at the Berlin Colonial Conference.

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  The Armenian Massacre of 1895: the Armenian massacre inflicted by the Turks in 1896
also acted as an eye opener for the British. This involved the killing of about 6, 000
Armenian minorities in Turkey. This was a violation of international laws. Gladstone, the
then Prime minister led a campaign against the Turks and approached the other countries to
take action. However, other countries did not respond. As such, the British also realised that
it was dangerous to be isolated and abandoned the policy.

How the policy was abandoned

Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various alliances with
other countries which included:
 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance – 1902: was the first step that Britain took towards the
abandoning of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and Japan. The terms
were:

 Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against German and Russian
imperialism.

 Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked one of
them.

 The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser William II’s
encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the suspicions of increased naval
competition, Britain decided to become friends with France. Britain began to settle her
differences with France in Africa over colonies. This resulted into the signing of the Anglo-
French Entente Cordial (friendly agreement) of 1904. The term were:

 Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn, France recognized the
British occupation of Egypt and Sudan

 Agreed to hold regular talks on economic and military issues

 They also agreed to assist each other against Germany aggression.

 The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid Isolation when
she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to come close together, therefore,
Britain and Russia settled their differences over Prussia, Tibet and Afghanistan.

 The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the Middle East

 It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked

 The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple-Entente
Alliance

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Conclusion
The policy Britain used at that time can be likened to what is prevailing now in what they are
calling Brexit. They have realised economically that their currency is advantaging other currencies
in the European countries henceforth their plans to withdraw from the union. Their Splendid
Isolation of 1899 –1902 was based on avoiding spending too much on procuring ammunition and
the costs involved in managing other colonies during the wars. The current one is based on
strengthening the British economy having realised that the pound is stronger.

11.2.4 Russia under Tsarist rule, 1870 – 1914

Q6. Describe Russia’s efforts at industrialization leading to the Russo-Japanese War of 1904 –
05
This was a war fought between Russia and Japan between 1904 and 1905. Though Russia’s
thirst towards Western Europe and the Balkans had reduced after the Crimean war of 854-1856
and the Berlin Congress of 1878, she was still driven by her expansionist policy. She decided
to concentrate her expansion eastwards. In her attempt to fulfil her desire, she collided with
Japan which had similar interests in Eastern Europe thus resulting into the Russo-Japanese War
of 1904-1905.

Causes of the Russo-Japanese War

 Russia had overwhelming ambitions for expansion which dragged her into war with Japan.
Russia was defeated during the Crimean war but still was driven by her natural desire for
expansion, hence clashed with Japan resulting into Russo-Japanese war.
 The natural advantages and importance of Port Arthur with no doubt made Russia and Japan
go for war over the control of the port.
 The expression of similar interests over Korea and Port Arthur resulted into war.
 The need for both powers to test their Military strength.
 Pressure from both powers, public opinion and the need to attain foreign glory and prestige
for both countries climaxed into the Russo-Japanese war

Q7. Assess the impact of Russia’s defeat by Japan on revolutionary activity leading to the
1905 Revolution

Russia’s defeat by Japan on revolutionary activity leading to the 1905 revolution had impacts
which include:

 The Russo-Japanese war humiliated Russia both at home and outside. The war was one
of the most humiliating naval defeats in the history of Russia. It proved beyond doubt
that Russia had one of the weak naval fleet in Europe.

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  The war showed that Russia was not yet strong enough to fight a modern war and that
she had to strengthen her military first if she was to fight any other war. Therefore the
Russo-Japanese war had helped check Russia military might and had proved a good
lesson to the Russians to strengthen their naval power.

 The war made the Tsarist regime to lose popularity at home. It exposed the total
inefficiency and corruption of the Tsarist system.

 The war sowed seeds for the outbreak of 1905 Russian Revolution. Russian masses
were greatly disappointed by Russia’s performance and had therefore lost support of the
Tsarist regime.

 The war made Father Gapori the organiser of the government approved trade unions
lead a procession into St Petersburg to petition the Tsar to grant political freedom,
improve wages, grant an eight-hour working day and to grant a constitutional assembly
on Sunday 22 January 1905. The crowd of protestors was blocked by the royal troops
who later opened fire on them killing hundreds of people and left so many wounded.
The day came to be known as ‘Red’ or bloody Sunday.

 The war further weakened the Russian economy since a lot of funds were rechanneled
to finance the war instead of developing other sectors of the economy like agriculture
and industry.

 The war led to growth of Marxist ideas and the formation of political parties such as the
Social Democratic Party (SDP) and the Social Revolutionary Party all along Marxist
principles. The workers and the intelligentsia found in Marxism the answer to their
grievances which the Tsarist regimes failed to solve. The marxists under Lenin and
Martov intended to mobilize and organize the removal of the tsarist regime. Thus the
workers started spreading propaganda against the government and their activities
resulting into a revolution in 1905.

11.2.5. France, 1870 – 1914

Q8. Explain the efforts France made to regain her lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to
Germany.
Despite the economic depression that hit the Franco-Prussian war and the Paris commune
revolt, important development took place in the domestic history of France which aimed at
healing the wounds of the French economy by giving aid to repair France for regaining of her
lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In order to regain her lost provinces, the following
reforms were made:
 Political Reforms: these were established in France and there was complete freedom of
press and public meetings. Workers were given liberty to form trade unions which would

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 fight for workers rights. This was a positive score by government among the French masses
as this made them to cooperate with government in the struggle to regain their lost provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany.
 Education Reforms: free and compulsory elementary education was established for all
children between the age of six and thirteen. In addition, all citizens were to get some form
of education to help them in decision making. It would also make them aware of the need to
fight and gain their lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
 Health Reforms: the public health act was passed in order to regulate female and child
labour. It was also to enforce safety measures in mines, factories and keep proper sanitary
dwellings for workers.
 The period 1870-1914 generally contributed to great commercial and industrial
development in France. Industries such as Silk, Iron and Coal improved tremendously.
Further, these developments, commercial loans were availed to mainly farmers and
industrialists. All these development increased the wealth of France to the extent that she
became one of the sources of loans to other countries. All these aimed at creating a powerful
French economy that would provide a strong base for creating a strong modern and well
trained army that would fight or the liberation of Alsace and Lorraine.
 Transport and Communication Reforms: the French government developed its
infrastructure such as roads, railways, canals, harbours and steamships. This would provide
easy transportation of troops during the fight to regain the lost provinces
 Improvement of the strict new conscription laws as well as improved training of the
regular: a great and efficient army for France was created where all young men of both rich
and poor were to serve. This was meant to create a strong, modern and well trained French
Army that would fight for the liberation of lost provinces.

11.2.6. China, 1900 – 1914

Q9. Describe China’s political, economic and social development before the First World War
 Political Developments
China is one of the countries with a very high population in the world. By 1900, China was
under the leadership of the Qing family known as the Manchu’s. During this period, China
was heavily controlled by foreign nations and this increased civil disorder in the country.

 The Boxer Rebellion

Soon broke out in 1900, this was a semi spiritual effort to rid China of foreigners often
by riding their heads of their bodies hundreds of Christians missionaries and their
Chinese convents were killed.

 The Koumintang Nationalist Party

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 The main hope for survival of the United China lay with the Koumintang or National
People’s Party formed in 1912 by Dr. Sun Yat-sen who was dismayed by the
disintegration of China and wanted to create a modern, united, democratic state. He
succeeded in setting up a government at Canton in Southern China 1917. Sun gained
respect as an intellectual state man and revolutionary leader but when he died in 1925,
little progress had been achieved.

 The Revolutionary Military uprising-the Wuchang

 In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising brought down the Qing Dynasty, thus bringing to an
end the longest but brief presence of Sun Yat Sen and the turbulent warlord era, both
CCP, led by Mao Zedong.
 Economic Development
 Trade- China generally was a prosperous country boosting of her economy both at home
and abroad. She was already producing rice and wheat which she exported to outside
countries. Through trade China received world trade crops which include: tobacco,
peanuts, and sweet potatoes. However China’s economy became affected due to absence
of usable land for expansion. This was attributed to the fast growing population. In the
early 1900, western powers such as USA, Britain, German, France and Italy seriously
competed for spheres of influence in China.
 Natural disasters such as drought and famine also hit China during the late 19 th century.
Floods resulting from over reclamation of wetlands, low lands and even mountain slopes
also affected the country. To worsen the situation, a series of revolutions rocked China
during 19th century for instance Boxer revolution. All these disrupted China’s economy.
Generally before the outbreak of the World War One, China’s economic development
was at a very low pace mainly because this was a period of internal instabilities and
foreign aggression.

 Social Development
 Religious struggle- China was characterised by religious struggles. Buddhism already
existed in China. Other missionaries also entered China. Both Protestants and Catholics
had preached the gospel and had won some followers for Christ.
 Anti-Foreign Movement- The popular anti-foreign movement and the Boxer uprising
allied at Manchu Court in Beijing and ordered for killing of foreigners. During the
Boxer rebellion, both European missionaries and converts were killed. Despite this
massive killing, it was a blessing and gave the Christian Missions in China a TRULY
‘Golden Age’ since Christianity spread at a high rate. Mission schools gained prestige
and a good number of elites converted to Christianity for instance, the provisional
president of the young Republic, Sun Yat-sen was baptised as a Christian. The loss of
lives clearly depicted the suffering of Christ according to Hudson Taylor the founder of

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 China Inland Mission (CIM). The trends of events were moving towards
Christianisation of China.
 Foot binding of young girls and women (limiting women mobility and increasing
subjugation to their husband- though it lasted for so long, it started collapsing by the
first half of twentieth century. In fact by 1908, the majority of the Chinese elite had
spoken out against foot binding and in 1912, the practice was prohibited although this
was not completely effected in remote areas.
 The cult of windows- during the Qing period he had gained strength especially in the
educated class. Childless widows even committed suicide. Young women whose
weddings had not yet taken place sometime refused to enter into another engagement
after the death of the fiancé instead moved to their fiancé home to serve his parents as
daughter in-law. In Confucian time, women held inferior position than men. Even in the
field of education, women were forbidden to attend school or even writing Chinese even
after 20th century. Formal education was denied to most women. However, after the
revolution of 1912, women in urban areas began accessing education opportunities.
Most women were employed as nurses, clerical workers, teachers and sales women.
However, despite all this, most women were discriminated in the work force between
1900 and 1914.
 Abolishing of national and provincial assemblies- power shifted from Sun Yat-Sen to
Yuan Shikai who commanded the new army. He turned out to be a dictator and
abolished the assemblies. He further declared himself Emperor in 1915. His
subordinates were alarmed at the rate he was carrying on his imperial ambitions and
checked his dictatorship by fiercely opposing his harsh imperial designs. In March 1916,
he abdicated and died after sensing characteristics that would lead to a rebellion. His
death left a power vacuum in China which left China to be ruled by shifting coalitions of
competing provincial military leaders. However, due to power struggles, this ushered in
the Warlord Era in China which continued up t the end of the war and even after.

11.2.7. Japan, 1900 – 1914

Q10. Describe Japan’s political, economic and social development before the First
World War
Japan is one of the few powers that currently determine the fate of the world. The period 1900
– 1914 was historically a period of the outbreak of World War I. During this era Japan
registered political, economic and social developments.
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 Political developments
Japan was under the Merji from 1900 up to 1912. In 1901, the Merji government appointed
General Taroka Tsura as prime minister. Japan attacked Russia in 1904 resulting into the
Russso-Japanese war over control of Korea, Machuria and China. Japan destroyed Russian
fleet. Japan and Russia signed the treaty of Portsmouth in which Russia recognised Japan
protectorate over Korea.

 Economic developments
By 1900, the population f Japan was very small, about 44 million and Japan was mostly a
fishing and farming society. In 1903, taxes were imposed and were supervised by the
prefectural police. This became the rich source of local income. Further, economic
expansion was made by Japan in 1904 as she started exporting cotton clothes, watches,
perfume, ceramics, eye glasses, and buttons to Korea. She also imported Korean foodstuffs
and other raw materials from Korea.

 Social developments
Japan’s cardinal goal before World War One was to ensure the country was military
powerful and wealth so that her independence is not threatened. Notable social
developments took place beginning with the Merji era and these include:

 Education developments- The Japanese leaders established a new system of education

which was western based. Education was made free as it was perceived as first capital
for self reliance and improvement. The Tokyo University was created and other private
universities such as Shigenobu Okuma’s Waseda Fukuzawu’s Keio among others were
also built and so many foreign teachers were employed.
 Infrastructure developments- The government built new roads and renovated those in
poor state. There was also inauguration of land reform program to prepare the country
for further developments.
 Private enterprise- the government emerged as the chief promoter of private enterprise,
thus it provided economic conditions in which business would flourish
 Hair style- for men, short cut hair replaced the top knot while for women, shaving eye
brows and blackened teeth began to disappear and to look outdated.
 Housing style- also developed. Western style like stone building concrete and brick
buildings were all built in China e.g. the Bank of Japan, Tokyo Central Station. Gas
lighting and electricity were already in Japan’s capital Tokyo to resemble that of
Britain’s London, France’s Paris or even USA’s New York before the World War I.
 Eating habits- were also imported to Japan, though not widespread. Sugar, soya sauce,
tea, fruit and polished Rice were seriously in consumption, meat along with beer was
encouraged. There was serious influx of Western fashions of all sorts. In addition, there
was increased social mobility

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11.2.8. The United States of America, 1900 – 1914

Q11. Briefly explain America’s non-involvement in the alliance systems of Europe before
1917,
America was not at any time involved in the alliance system of European power’s because of
the following reasons:
 She was not a European power so did not involve herself in the affairs of another continent
which would raise many questions and she would be looked at with suspicion by other
powers in the world.
 America was one of the leading powers in trade and commerce across the world. She
therefore, she needed to be on good terms with all countries especially where she carried out
her trade. The fact that America traded with almost all European powers could not ally with
some of them as this would make members of the rival camp enemies and would affect
trade with them.
 America never wanted to reveal her secret to other powers especially those from Europe
which seemed good competitors.
 She also wanted to maintain her fame and prestige across the world.

11.3. Rivalry among major world Kingdoms and Nations

11.3.1 The European Alliance Systems

Q12. Describe the alliance systems that European states entered into before 1914
 The three Emperor’s League or the Dreikaiserbund Treaty of 1872
In 1872, Bismarck persuaded the Emperors of Russia (Tsar Alexander) and Austria-
Hungary (Franz Joseph) to sign a treaty of friendship and understanding with the German
Emperor Kaiser William I. This alliance was called the Three Emperors’ League or the
Dreikaiserbund Treaty. The terms of the treat were:
 All agreed to isolate France
 Agreed to crush socialism and republicanism in the three Empires
 Agreed to consult each other on international matters especially over the Balkan
states.

 The Dual Alliance of 1879

The members of the alliance were Germany and Austria. This was a secret alliance signed
between Austria – Hungary and Germany 1879. This was after Russia and Austria-Hungary
quarrel over the Balkan States. Bismarck held a meeting in Berlin to discuss the matter. At
this meeting, Bismarck sided with Austria. This offended Russia. The terms of this alliance
were:
 To isolate France

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  To assist each other if one of them was attacked by two or more countries but to
remain neutral if attacked by only one.
 In 1881 and 1884, the Dreikaiserbund was renewed under the same terms of 1872 with the
same members.
 The Triple Alliance of 1882
The members of the Triple Alliance were German, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Alliance
was signed in 1882. Italy formed this alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary after she
was offended by the French occupation of Tunisia, which Italy considered, as her territory.
Bismarck had diplomatically encouraged the French occupation of Tunisia. The terms were:
 To isolate France. This Alliance depended the isolation of France
 To assist each other if attacked by a fourth power
 Italy also pledged not to be involved in any war against British

Bismarck was still determined to prevent an Alliance between France and Russia. He also wanted
to avoid fighting on two fronts in case of an outbreak of war. Therefore, after the end of
Dreikaiserbund Treaty, Bismarck indicated that Russia could easily join France to attack Germany.
As a result, Bismarck secretly approached Russia to sign the re-insurance Treaty 1887 to reassure
Germany against an attack from France. The terms of the alliance were:

 Germany recognised the Russian influence in the Balkans

 Russia would remain neutral if France attacked Germany and Germany would
remain neutral if Russia was attacked by Austria. The two would help each other
if attacked by two or more countries
 Agreed to isolate France
 The alliance was to be renewed after three years

Other Alliances Signed includes that following;

Britain abandoned the policy of splendid isolation through the signing of various alliances with
other countries which included:

 The Anglo-Japanese Alliance–1902: was the first step that Britain too towards the abandoning
of the policy. This was a treaty that was signed by Britain and Japan. The terms were:
 Japan agreed to protect British possession in South East Asia against German and Russin
imperialism
 Britain and Japan also promised to assist each other if two or more countries attacked one of
them.

 The Anglo-French Entente Cordiale -1904: after being angered by Kaiser William II
encouragement of the Boers in the 2nd Anglo-Boer and the suspicions of increased naval
competition Germany, Britain decided to become friends with France. Britain began to settle

17
 her differences with France in Africa over colonies. This resulted into the signing of the Anglo-
French Entente Cordial (friendly agreement) of 1904. The term were:
 Britain recognized the French occupation of morocco and in turn, France recognised the
British occupation of Egypt and Sudan
 Agreed to hold regular on economic and military issues
 They also agreed to assist each other against German aggression.
 The Triple Entente – 1907: in 1907, Britain abandoned the policy of Splendid Isolation when
she signed the Triple-Entente. France wanted her two allies to come close together, therefore,
Britain and Russia settled their differences over Prussia, Tibet and Afghanistan.
 The treaty was anti-Germany, it prevented Germany from penetrating the Middle East
 It was a military alliance to support each other if attacked
 The members also pledged to work together to counteract the effects of the Triple-Entente
Alliance.

11.3.2 European scramble for and partition of Africa

Q13. State and analyse the reasons for the European scramble for and partition of Africa

MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING THE EUROPEAN EMPIRES IN AFRICA IN 1914

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 Imperialism
Scramble for Africa and Imperialism definitions:-
 The scramble for Africa also known as the Race for Africa or Partition for Africa was a process
of invasion, occupation, colonization and annexation of African territory by European powers
during the new imperialism period, between 1881 and World War I in 1914.
 This was the extension of European economic, social and political influences in
underdeveloped areas of Africa and Asia to benefit European countries. This was usually
done through the acquisition of territories by major European countries such as Britain,
France and Germany. This new Imperialism took place in the second half of the 29th
century. Imperialism started in the 16th century. However, between 1870 and 1914,
European countries acquired colonies especially in Africa. This was what was referred to as
the ‘scramble for Africa’.

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The Berlin Conference 1884 – 1885
To avoid war among European countries, especially not to antagonise Britain, Bismarck organised
and chaired the Berlin Conference 1884 – 1885 in Berlin. The conference was held in order to
divide the African continent among European countries peacefully. This division of the African
continent was referred to as the ‘partition of Africa’. The result of thus Berlin Conference was:
 Africa was partitioned among European countries
 Europeans countries agreed to settle all border disputes between the countries involved
 There was to be effective occupation of the colonies acquired
 All European countries accepted the freedom of trade on all the major rivers and water ways
 Areas already proclaimed as protectorates before 1884 were accepted and recognized
 The European countries to sign treaties with African Chiefs
 The Congo free state to be given to King Leopold of Belgium

Reasons for the Scramble for Africa

a. Economic Reasons-economically the 19th century saw the apex of industrial revolution in
Europe. The need for raw materials and the industrial revolution created a stiff competition
and made the European countries to think of an alternative of rushing to Africa in order to
get raw materials. In addition, the replacement of labour with machines caused
unemployment and resulted into a social crisis.
b. Political Reasons- the other factor was nationalism and prestige. It is urged that growing
love for one’s country and a sense of belonging greatly contributed to the scramble for
Africa. Europe believed that the more colonies a country had the more power it was
considered to be. Besides that, the greatness of any country was to be reflected in the
economic potential of the acquisition of colonies in Africa.
c. Social Reasons- the need to spread western culture; socially, the European powers wanted
to spread western culture and education.
d. Strategic Reasons- according to historians such as Professor Robinson and Gallagher, the
scramble for Africa did not take place because of mere economic reasons but because of the
British occupation of Egypt in 1882. They argued that British occupied Egypt because of
her strategic location thus surrounded by the Red and Mediterranean Sea, access to River
Nile (longest river in Africa) and an opening to the Suez Canal as short cut to India where
Britain had a lot of economic interests. It was still against this background that British
wanted to occupy Uganda in order to safeguard their positions in Egypt for fear that if
hostile powers did so would divert the Nile River and make Egypt a desert.
e. Humanitarian reasons- the spreading of Christianity in Africa was a mere disguise for
promoting European economic interests. Britain only wanted to abolish slave trade in order
to protect their commercial interests.

Reasons for the low demand of African Colonies before 1870

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 Africa had no economic incentives for European countries. Most European countries saw
the acquisition o African countries as an expensive venture because they had little
knowledge about the existence of abundant resources hence had no economic interest.
 Europeans had no knowledge of the African continent; they considered it as a ‘Dark
Continent’.
 Lack of a reliable means of transport also acted as an obstacle to Europeans to come to
Africa hence prevented penetration of the African interior.
 Thick forests and bad climatic conditions also led to the low demand for African colonies.
Aras such as Niger, Congo and Zambezi were hot with jungles and thick forests. This
hindered early colonialists from acquiring colonies in Africa.
 Tropical diseases such as malaria, bilharzias, sleeping sickness prevented colonialists from
coming to Africa before medicines were discovered.
 Un-navigable rivers were also another obstacle to European acquisition of territories.
Swamps, rapids and waterfalls made most rives of African not to be navigable. This made
them believe that it is impossible to penetrate the interior using boats.
 Hostile tribes: some tribes could not welcome them while others had a reputation of being
cannibals.
 Wild beasts such as dangerous snakes, lions, biting insects such as mosquitoes in the jungles
of tropical Africa were also a threat to them.
 Geographical barriers such as mountains and deserts further hindered the colonization of
Africa before 1870

Factors that facilitated the Scramble for Africa after 1870

 Explores; through the works of explores such as David Livingstone explored most of central
Africa and De-Brazza who explored the Congo basin, Europe became knowledgeable about
African Continent.
 The knowledge of transport such as the Steamship was another factor that contributed to the
Scramble for AFRICA.
 The discovery of medicines such as quinine to cure tropical diseases also made it easier for
Europeans to colonise Africa
 Men of enterprise such as Cecil Rhodes and his BSA company also facilitated the Scramble
for Africa.
 The discovery of modern weapons such as the Maxim gun also made it easier to colonise
Africa because resistant African Chiefs could easily defeated.

Examples of Imperialism north of the Equator

 The occupation of Egypt – 1882
This caused conflict between France and Britain. The French were the first to have interest
in Egypt. The Suez Canal was designed by a Frenchman called Ferdinand De Lesseps and
the French government financed the building o the Suez Canal. It was completed and

21
 opened in 1869. The Egyptian ruler Khedth Ishmael acquired half of the share while the
French got the other half.

In 1881, there was a national uprising under Arabia in protest against the Anglo-French
financed control of Egypt. The uprise led to attacks on foreigners resulting in British
intervention. The French government of the day was invited to help in putting down the
uprising but declined. In 1882, the British managed to put down the uprising and established
a British protectorate over Egypt. This led to friction between Britain and France.

 The occupation of Sudan – 1885

 The occupation of Morocco – 11905 – 1906

Examples of Imperialism south of the Equator

 The First Anglo-Boer War of 1889 – 1881, this was a war for independence for the Boers.
 The second Anglo-Boer war 1899 – 1902: this was a political struggle between the British
and the Boers. The Brits were determined to create their Cape to Cairo dearth while the
Boers were equally determined to maintain their independence and their own imperialist
ambitions.

Importance/significance/consequences of the Scramble

 The scramble for Africa brought Europeans into the interior of Africa with their traditions,
economics, political and religious beliefs.
 It exposed Africa to an exploitative economy, Africa produced goods that she could not
consume and consumed what she could not produce.
 It led to the destruction of African traditional subsistence economy. This led to hunger and
starvation in most African society.
 It led to a disintegration of the pre-existing strong and isolated African State e.g Buganda,
Asante, Dahomey etc.
 It led to the decline of African culture. This was due to the introduction of Western Culture
through Western Education.
 Introduction of Christianity
 Importation of European goods
 It led to the creation of new boundaries in Africa and divisional of some African
communities into different states.
 It led to the improvements of the means of transport and communication system and this
facilitated the exploitation of African economies and administration of the colonies.
 It led to the depopulation of Africa, this was due to the African resistance against the
colonial domination.
 It led to a creation of new states in Africa

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  It paved a way to neo-colonialism and contributed to further exploitation of the African
Continent after independence African states have maintained close relations with their
former colonial masters.
11.3.3 First World War

Q14. Explain the causes of the First World War

The First World War began on 28th July 1914, when Austria declared war on Serbia, and Serbia
appealed to Russia for help, setting in motion a series of events which culminated in what
became the First World War.

Causes of the First World War

The causes of World War I could be divided into two forms: the long term and short term:
Long Term Causes include:
a. Imperialism- this is the economic control of one country by another. During the second
half of the 19th century, imperialism led to colonial rivalry among European powers, the
colonies were a symbol of power and prestige. In 1898, Britain and France almost came to
blows over Fashioda in Sudan. Later in 1905 and 1911, German and French interests
cashed over morocco. The matter was resolved in favour of France, to the disappointment
of Germany.

b. The Alliances- by 1907, the alliance system divided Europe into two armed rival campus,
namely: the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, and the Triple Entente
of Britain, France and Russia. These and other alliances like the Dual Alliance of Germany
and Austria-Hungary committed countries to help each other in times of war. This meant
that a war between two countries from the two camps was bound to involve the other
members of the alliances.

c. The Arms Race- it began when Kaiser William II assumed power in Germany as a naval
race. It was centered on the construction of battle ships known as Dreadnoughts. The
Dreadnought were originally designed and developed by Britain. Germany copied the
dreadnought and later developed her own type of battleship known as Long- Barrel Bertha.
As the arms race between Britain and Germany intensified, the two countries increased
expenditure on armaments and expanded their armies using conscription. Fearing for their
safety and security, the other countries soon joined the arms race. The arm race led to
suspicion and tension among European countries. The possibility of a war increased as
more and more countries became confident of success in war. Some countries were anxious
to test their weapons and arms.

d. The Balkan Conflicts- the period from1870 to 1890 was characterised by conflict of
interest of big powers, among them: Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy.
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 During the same period, there was conflict in the Balkans which resulted from the
nationalism of the Balkan monarchies. The most defining of these conflicts were:

 The 1908 Balkan Young Turk Revolution

 The 1912/1913 Balkan Crisis

 Short term causes

Four incidents gradually led to the World War One. They were the causes of the war. Here
the world nearly came to blows, but tempers cooled and peace survived. On the fourth
occasion the war began. The immediate causes of the First World War and the early
development of the war were:

a. The First Moroccan Crisis

The French were the major European power in Morocco, in North Africa. However,
when the Kaiser came to know of the existence of the Entente Cordiale he felt offended
because it shut Germany out of Morocco and because it created a partnership of France
and Berlin.

In 1905, German ruler, Kaiser William II visited Moroccan Port of Tangier and declared
Germany’s support for the independence of Morocco in his speech and disputed French
position in Morocco. This frustrated the French for interference.

War between France and Germany was avoided by calling of an international

conference which was held in Algeciras in Spain. Here France was supported by Britain,
Russia, Italy, Spain and the USA in condemning the Germans for interfering in
Morocco. The Germans were outvoted and only Austria supported them. Germany went
home frustrated and humiliated as the conference confirmed France’s position in
Morocco. The humiliation and bitterness that Germany experienced increased the
possibility of war.

b. The Bosnia-Herzegovina Crisis

The Ottoman Empire of the Ottoman Turks was by the end of the 18 th century a power
in decline. As the Empire was declining, efforts to secure independence and movements
of revolts took place among the Empire’s various subject peoples. By 1900, feelings of
Pan-Slavism had grown into constant trouble in the Turkey Empire.

The part of Turkish Empire called Bosnia-Herzegovia was been administered by Austria
Hungary since 1878, though remained under the overall control of the Turkish Sultan.
The Slav people of Bosnia-Herzegovia longed for independence while their neighbour
Serbia had already gained her independence.

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 In 1908, a revolution known as the Yurk movement broke out of the empire. The Young
Turk movement demanded for a parliament, a modern constitution, to strengthen Turkey
as well as to allow Christian subjects equal privileges with the Moslems. The movement
managed to secure by rebellion a parliamentary system of government from Abdul
Hamid II.

Austria took advantage of dis-organization and confusion in Turkey during revolution

and annexed the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908; thus, killing all
the hopes of the two province’s desire for independence.

The Russians protested angrily but could not fight back because they were still
recovering from their humiliating defeat against Japan in 1905, their ally France would
not fight either. In addition Germany supported Austria, so Russia kept quiet as Bosnia-
Herzegovia was swallowed up into Austro- Hungarian Empire.

The crisis had two unfortunate effects:

 It encouraged the war party in Vienna

 It made Russians more determined to fight next time so as to try and save their Slav
Brothers and sisters

c. The Second Moroccan Crisis (Agadir Crisis)

In 1911, Germany protested against French action when the French troops occupied Fez,
the capital of Morocco to try and put off a revolt by the Moroccans. German was not
prepared to see Morocco get swallowed by France.

Hence, German reacted by sending a gun boat called Panther and a cruiser known as the
Berlin to Agadir harbour in morocco to protect Germany interests.

This angered the French and the British got worried as they believed that Germans
wanted to establish a Navy base at Agadir close to vital British base at Gibraltar. The
British took this evidence that the German Navy intended to threaten the British Royal
Navy. Britain therefore, threatened to fight Germany.

Faced with the British threat, Emperor William withdrew and agreed to recognise
French supremacy in Morocco. Germany took this as proof that Britain did not want her
to join the other great powers in Europe.

The crisis helped to strengthen the friendship between the French and the British, thus
making it more likely that Britain would fight on one with France in any future war.

d. The Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand

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 The hatred of the Slav people for their Austrian rulers reached a peak in 1914. The
Bosnia-Herzegovina crisis of 1908, when the two provinces were transferred to Austrian
rule, was the breaking point. Serbia, which was already independent, encouraged her
Bosnia-Herzegovina terrorists who were trained and given weapons by Serbia. By 1914,
the Black Hand had already carried out several terrorist activities.

Despite this, the Austria Archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie decided to
make visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. On 28 th June 1914 when finally the
Archduke visited Sarajevo, Gavril Princip, a nineteen year old boy who was bitterly
anti-Austria, and a fanatical Bosnian dedicated to freedom for Bosnia, assassinated the
Archduke and his wife. Gavril had come straight from the meeting of an ant- Austrian
Society in Serbia on the day he committed the assassination.

Even long before the murder was committed, Germany had already promised to support
Austria-Hungary in case of conflict between Serbia and Austria. With the assurance of
the German support Austria had waited for an opportunity to attack Serbia. The whole
aim was to defeat and silence Serbia into submission so that Austria can freely control
Bosnia-Herzegovina without any danger. This long awaited opportunity came with the
assassination of the Archduke. Austria now wanted to use this as an excuse to attack and
silence Serbia once and for all.

However, the murder of the Archduke had a shuttering effect on Europe, because within
five weeks the world was at war, and the slaughter of about ten million soldiers began.

11.4. The World During and After the Inter-War Era

1.4.1The end of the First World War and the Treaty of Versailles

Q15, Discuss terms of the Treaty of Versailles and their impact on defeated nations.
The treaty of Versailles dealt only with Germany. Separate treaties were made with all the
other countries which had fought on the German side. Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-
German, and the treaty of Trianon which dealt with Austria and Hungary the old Austro-
Hungarian Empire was broken up and the minority peoples now got their chance to have their
own separate states. Thus:
 Serbia was enlarged to form Yugoslavia. Here the Bosnians and Slav peoples of Austria-
Hungary were placed.

 Czechoslovakia was created out of some of the former territories of Austria-Hungary.

Austria was drastically reduced as she also lost the territories of Istria, Trieste and Tyrol
to Italy.

26
  To deal with Turkey, a Treaty of Lausanne was signed in 1923. As a result of the Turkish
Empire also broken up.

 Turkey lost her empire in Asia as new countries were created for the various Arabs who
had helped Britain during the war. These included Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Saudi Arabia.

 Turkey lost her land to Greece and Rumania too.

 In 1919, another treaty was signed with Bulgaria, a Germany ally in the war. This was the
treaty of Neuilly. As a result, Bulgaria lost land to Greece and Yugoslavia.

 Russian territories losses: - The Baltic states of Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania were
formed from what were once Russian territories while Finland became independent from
Russia.

 The Habsburg Empire was gone forever.

 The balance of power in Central Europe had been completely changed. Two new states,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia had been created. An old one Poland had been freed from
foreign occupation.

 Two large dissatisfied powers, Germany and Russia, bordered on these countries.
Germany and Russian were looked at as revisionist countries. Meaning that they would
like to change the map of Europe to their own advantage.

Q16. Describe Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points

The peace settlement was based on Wilson’s fourteen points, although most of them were
ignored. The most important were:
 All diplomacy and negotiations between states was to be carried out openly and frankly
and in public.

 Absolute freedom of navigation on all seas was granted in period of peace and war in
territorial waters.

 All nations were to give guarantee that they will disarm to the lowest point, consistent
with safety.

 Germany evacuation of all Russian territories.

 Belgium was to be completely independent

 France was to receive back Alsace and Lorraine

27
  Italy to receive her proper national frontiers

 Equality of trade conditions between nations and abolition of tariffs ‘so far as possible’

 Adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the people concerned.

 Rumania , Serbia and Montinegro were to be evacuated and Serbis was to be given
access to the sea

 The people of Austria-Hungary to be given the opportunity of independent development.

 The people of Turkish rule were to be autonomous and the Dardenelles were to be open
to the ships ad commerce of all nations

 An independent state of Polland was to be established with exclusively Polish

population

 An international organisation was to be formed to guarantee the independence of all

states both great and small.

11.4.2, The Weimar Republic 1919 – 1933

Q17. Explain the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic

This was formed after the World War I. It resulted from German defeat during World War I.
The weaknesses of the Weimar Republic were:

 The Weimar politician did not have a common political ideology. The monarchists for
instance detested democracy and demanded for a monarchical government under
Kaiser’s lineage.

 The republic suffered several coups especially in the early years. In March 1920,
Wolfgany Ilapp together with a group of professional army officers seized control of
Berlin. In 1923 Saxony made attempts to break away from the Republic but only failed.
In Bavaria nationalist and Nazi organised a coup in November 1923. These successive
coups with time weakened the republic.

28
  The effects of the world war I was another set back to the Weimar government. The war
crippled the German’s economy and came along with economic hardships that affected
the German population.

 Weimar Republic was internationally isolated especially after the World War I when she
was declared guilty of causing the war. She was hated and isolated by the victorious
powers which include: France, Britain and USA.

 She faced harsh terms of the Versailles treaty where she was not even invited. At first,
she was not even allowed to join the League of nations not until late when she had paid
off the indemnity

 French hostility towards German proved another serious weakness to the Weimar
Republic. The loss of the rich mineral provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany
after the Franco-Prussian War, (1871) made France to develop a revengeful attitude as
well as open hostility towards Germany.

11.4.3. The Rise of Adolf Hitler

Q18. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism
The terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty contributed to the rise of Hitler and Nazism in
Germany. By the term of treaty, Germany was disarmed, had to accept the war guilty clause

29
 among other punishments. This was a humiliating treaty that was imposed on Germany. And
it is this humiliation that inspired the formation of the National Socialist Germany Workers
Party (NAZI) as an expression of protest against the international position of Germany
 Hitler based his propaganda on his unfair treaty when he claimed that Germany had
never been defeated in the war but was betrayed by the Weimar democrats who signed the
Versailles Peace Treaty. It is from that many Germans believed in him and his leadership
that promised liberation thus is rise to power.
 The world economic depression of 1929 – 1933 enabled Hitler and the Nazi party to
capture power in Germany.
 Hitler’s personality and character greatly contributed to his rise to power. He was gifted
by good oratory skills whose speeches always held the audience’s attention during his
speech. In addition, he had good leadership qualities which he employed to organize large
meetings for his Nazi party thus displayed good organizational and mobilization skills.
Hence, his character attracted all classes and groups of German masses which include
soldiers, youths, middle class people, industrialists, peasants and even the unemployed.
This together with his charisma and foresightedness made him rise to power.
 The weakness of the Weimar Republic also contributed to his rise and Nazism in
German. The Republican government was too weak and unpopular and failed to control
the political violence that prevailed in Germany in the 1920s.
 The Nazi propaganda also contributed to the rise of Hitler and the Nazi Party to power.
The party was well organised from the grass root to the top. It had political, social,
economic and military departments that were well coordinated by the party leaders.
 The role of the storm troopers: this was a private army of the Nazi Party-which was
composed of students and working class used terror and intimidation to win political
power for Hitler.
 The death of the president Hindenburg contributed to the rise of Hitler to power and the
Nazi party. Hindenburg’s death left a vacuum that needed to be filled. Beside, Hitler
served as a chancellor which increased his chances of taking over power
 Hitler’s writings also contributed to his rise to power. While in prison, Hitler wrote the
first part of his book called Mein kampf (My Struggle). With this, Hitler was becoming
more popular in Germany.

Q19. Analyze Hitler’s political career, showing his role in the Second World War 1939- 1945
Having held power in Germany, Adolf Hitler embarked on consolidating his position as a
German leader through the following ways:
 He reorganized the local government by abolishing all local councils and ended
elections to these officers. All governors were answerable to him and to the central
government too.
 Hitler established strict censorship of the press and banned all newspapers and only the
Nazi newspaper and magazines were published.

30
  He further consolidated himself in power through education. The school curriculum was
set to conform to Nazi’s ideas. There was a lot of physical training in schools, religious
studies were banned and portraits of Hitler displayed in school compounds as a must.
Teachers had to take oaths of allegiance to Hitler and in fact were spied on by students.
 Trade union was also used by Hitler to consolidate himself in power. He banned all trade
unions and replaced them with Germany Harbour for Employers and employees.
 Hitler banned all political parties on the opposition side.
 The use of the secret police (Gestapo) was another method employed by Hitler to
strengthen himself in power. He used police agents as spies in schools, factories, offices
and shops. By doing this Germany became a police state.
 He abolished Christianity in Germany because the principles of Christianity were
against Nazism. He changed the Catholic schools into Nazi schools and even persecuted
many clergy. He replaced religious education with the worship of Hitler.
 Through youth organizations, Hitler consolidated himself in power. He indoctrinated the
youths in German with Nazi ideas. Girls joined the League of German maidens-working
in factories and farms while boys were taught military skills and tactics.
 Through suppression and persecution of the Jews. He believed that the German race,
Aryan/Nordic was the greatest of all mankind and was believed to rule the world. He
hated the Jews who were a wealth class and blamed them for the misfortune that occurred
in German. He tortured many in concentrated camps while others were murdered; hence,
he weakened the opposition.
 Through the enabling law. Only Hitler enacted laws that were affected immediately
after their publication meaning German was in Hitler’s hand and only he could decide her
destiny.

11.4.4. The rise of Benito Mussolini in Italy

Q20. Discuss the circumstances that led to the rise of Benito Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

31
  His brilliancy, charisma, eloquence and oratory powers attracted the attention of Italian
masses
 Also his foresightedness and self-driven made him rise to power

 The unfair terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty on the part of Italy

 The weakness of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy

 The social economic distress in Italy especially after the war, created a situation that was
exploited by Mussolini

 The strong support of Mussolini from Italian mass

 The method Mussolini used made him rise to power, for instance, he abandoned peaceful
and constitutional methods and preferred the use of violence, dictatorship and terror in order
to attain power.

 The worsening economic situation in Italy made Italians welcome and support fascist ideas
which seemed to have the solutions to the Italians.

 The lack of serious government machinery to handle the delicate political affairs of that
time.

Q21. Analyse Mussolini’s political career, showing his role in the Second World War 1939 –
1945

Having seized power, Benito Mussolini embarked on consolidating himself in power. He

therefore, employed policies that safeguarded his position. Such policies included:

 The principle of fascism that centred on extreme nationalism and totalitarianism between
October 1922 when he rose to power to July 1943 when he fell from power.

 Mussolini incorporated opposition party leaders in his newly formed government to weaken
the opposition and to eliminate them in future

 He used force and violence to keep him in his position by attacking opposition newspaper
offices and forced them to close.

 Abolition of the old forms of government. In 1923, he appointed Farinaci, one of his most
violent followers as secretary general of the party. This ushered in more intensive Fascist
violence.

 Mussolini strengthened his opposition by recognizing and strengthening his military and
police forces.

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  He further created a strong sound economy by providing subsidies where necessary.

 He encouraged industrialization.

11.4.5. Russian Socialist Revolution

Q22. Describe conditions in Russia under the monarchy

One of the most outstanding consequences of the First World War was the Russian Revolution
of 1917. In1917, Russian citizens rose up against their ruler Czar Nicholas II in an attempt to
end the Ancient Regime and replace it with new and modern government. The revolution
occurred in two phases:

The March 1917 Russian Revolution

 Was led by Bolsheviks, Menshevik and social revolutionaries.
 The demonstration involved students, workers and the Russian masses in towns, cities and
upcoming areas.

 The Czar’s response was through sending his most reliable troops, the Cossack regiments
to suppress the demonstrators but they simply fraternised with demonstrators.

 Other regimes joined forces to overthrow the Czardom regime in Russia.

 The Czar abdicated on March 15, 1917 and this marked the end of the Czardom in Russia;
and a provisional government was set up under the leadership of Prince Lvov.

The November 1917 Russian Revolution

 Was led to overthrow the provisional government and to establish the first republic. The
new Bolshevik government was headed by Vladmir Lenin with Trotsky in charge of
defence and foreign affairs.

Q23. Discuss the role of Lenin in the 1917 socialist Revolution and thereafter
Lenin was a leader of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party formed in 1918. He
worked together with Leon Trotsky and Stalin who were close to him. Together they adopted
the revolutionary theories of Karl Marx. As the party grew stronger, individual differences
began to eat up the party and eventually split it into two on an account of the strategy to
follow. Lenin and those who advocated for his rigid principles of having active and devoted
workers in the movement won a majority on the executive and so came to be known as the
‘Bolsheviks’ meaning Majority men.

On the other hand, the party that wanted both active and passive members as well as giving
room for sympathisers came to be known as Mensheviks meaning Minority men.

33
 Lenin led the Bolsheviks revolution that promoted the idea of an immediate revolution
against the Tsarist regime.

He made and prepared people ready for the revolution. He wrote many articles in which he
drew the attention of the people to their worsening conditions and the need to overcome
them.

Lenin also advocated for socialism as the only way through which people’s struggles would
be addressed. Many Russian masses believed it and when the revolution broke out it got
massive support.

Lenin announced the formal coup d’etat by the Bolshevik in November 1917. His Marxist
propaganda resulted into various strikes that rocked Russia for instance the 1895 – 1986 in St
Petersburg and cotton factories.

Hence with all these, Lenin played a pivotal role in the outbreak of the 1917 socialist
revolution.

Q24. Describe Stalin’s home and foreign policy

Home policy
 Geographical expansion of the Soviet Union, Stalin embarked on the geographical
expansion of his country and by 1953, Latvia and Lithuania had been added on the Soviet
Union which increased the land for settlement and agriculture in Soviet Union.

 Education sector- he struggled hard to ensure that people’s standards of living improved
for the better by establishing good medical facilities within the union

 The five tear development plan. This was initiated to increase the manufacture of goods
within the union.

 End of Kingship (Tsarism) in Russia

 Promotion of education

 Collectivization policy

 Promotion of trade union

Foreign policy
 Sovietisation of Europe
 Defeat of Germany

 Formation of the United Nations Organization

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11.4.6The Spanish Civil War, 1936 – 1939

Q25. Explain the causes of the 1936 – 1939 Spanish Civil War and the role played by
Francisco Franco

 The presence of both the communist or leftist wing and the capitalists or Nationalist wing
with different interests

 Franco launched a military rebellion against the popular front government

 The failure of the Republican government to prevent the barbaric actions of the extreme
leftists which included riots, assassinations, strikes, arson and burning of churches
resulted into the outbreak of civil war.

 The Spanish war was as a result of economic reasons

 The desire by both the communists and capitalist blocks to win Spain on each other’s
side.

11.4.7. China from 1919 to 1939

Q26. Discuss the political and economic developments in China from 1919 – 1939

Political developments
 World war one ended when Chiang Kai- Shek was temporarily in the driving seat in
China. He lost popularity when he registered many blunders in his administration e.g. he
failed to take over the Germany possession of the Far East.
 In 1919, the Versailles treaty was signed that concluded the war and handed over Far East
possessions to Japan. This was totally rejected by the Chinese and caused wide spread
demonstrations resulting into the Fourth May Movement which was against Feudalism,
Warlordism, autocracy, imperialism among others. It instead advocated for democracy,
freedom, patriotic, science, and progress among others. The movement resulted into the
formation of the Chinese Communist party under Sun Yat-sen.

 In 1925, Sun Yat-sen died of cancer and Chiang Kai-Shek seized control of the
Kuomintang Nationalist Party. He succeeded into bringing most of the south and central
China under his control through a military campaign called Northern Expedition.

 In 1927, due to some differences Chiang Kai-Shek turned against the communists and
killed them in large numbers- about 250, 000. The incidence was termed as the White
Terror.

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  In 1934, the survived communists moved along a journey that covered 600miles for 385
days crossing mountains, 12 rivers and villages and established a guerrilla base at Shensi.
The movement was called Long Match. The communists reorganized under a new leader
Mao-Tse-tung or Mao Zedong.

 In 1937, the two Chinese parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese
during the Sino-Japanese War. The Japanese forces reacted by committing numerous war
atrocities against civilians in the Alls Policy of ‘Kill All, Burn All and Loot All’ an
incidence known as Nanking Massacre

Economic developments
 The pace of economic development was slow just like it was during the pre-war era
because Western powers especially Britain and Japan imposed unequal treaties on China’s
sovereignty and dominated the international trade with their imperialist policies. Britain
also employed a military policy where armed mercenaries were used to force its imports
on China. China was flooded with British and Indian goods.
 China’s economy was also centered on Chinese domestic culture and traditions. Due to
this, China’s economy was in stagnation.

11.4.8. Japan from 1919 – 1939

Q27. Describe the political and economic developments in Japan from 1919 -1939
Political developments
 After the successful annexation of Korea, Makoto Saito was appointed governor of Korea
in 1919. In June 1920 about 450 Japanese civilians and 350 soldiers were massacred on
the Amur River by Partisan forces associated.
 In 1922, Japanese Community party was founded. Due to domestic opposition, economic
and human cost in October 1922, the Prime Minister Kato Tomosaburo withdrew
Japanese forces from her far territories.
 In 1925, Wakatsuki became the prime minister, the electorate increased from 3.3 million
to 12.5
 In 1926, Emperor Taisho died and shown Emperor Hirohito took over. In 1927, Tanaka
Giichi became prime minister in April 20th.
 On 2 July 1929, Osachi Hamaguchi became prime minister but on the 14 th November
1930 he was wounded in an assassination attempt and died in 1931. On the 14 th April,
1932, Wakatsuki Reijiro became prime minister. On 13th December, same year Inukai
Tsuyoshi became prime minister.
 On 29 February 1932, Henry pu yi became Emperor and in the same year Tsuyoshi Inukai
was assassinated during a coup attempt and on 5 May Saito Makoto beame prime
minister.

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  On 27 March 1933, Japan left the League of Nations and took over Jeho from China in
the same year.
 On 8 July 1934 Keisuke Okada became prime minister and on 29 December Japan
withdrew from the Washington Naval Treaty
 On 9 March prince Fumimaro Konoe became prime minister replaced Senjuro Hayashi.
On July 1937, Japan captured Beijing followed by the Nanjing Massacre on 13 December.
 In 1938, canton falls to Japanese forces on 21 October after the battle of Taierzhuang on
24 March same year. Japan prohibited the expulsion of Jews, in Japan, Manchuria and
China basing on the spirit of racial equality.
 On 5 January 1939, Hiranuma Kiichito became prime minister followed by Abe
Mobuyuki on 30 August.

Economic developments
 The economy of Japan continued to boom even during the interwar period despite some
notable challenges that were met. Various companies of raw materials i.e. Sumitomo
electric industries, Mitsui mining, Kobe steel among others boomed. In fact between 1907
and 1917 total net revenue of Japan rose from 2 million yen to 15 million yen.
 In 1918, an electric company called Panasonic was founded by Konosuke Matsushira.
Generally, there was an economic boom in Japan during the era of World War I.

 In 1920’s Japan took up developmental projects that boost education, there was improved
transport and communication, health centres and roads were constructed. Harbours were
renovated and generally sanitation greatly improved.

 In 1920 Mazda was founded. Technology was advancing and generally the industrial sector
grew rapidly.

 However, in 1923, the pace of economic development was disrupted by the great Kanto
Earthquake which strained the economy. Kanto was the major commercial, industrial and
financial centre. Therefore, the serious damage from the earthquake left the economy
greatly affected.

 Despite the effects of the earthquake, economic developments continued to take place. Big
companies such as South Seas Development Company engaged in Phosphate mining and
coconut production emerged.

 By 1925 oil, timber and coal were founded in some colonies like Karafuto, Kwantung
territory also became industrialized.

 In 1927, banks in Japan were in danger of collapsing and workers rushed to withdraw their
savings. It was worsened by the great economic depression of 1929; the economy suffered

37
 greatly especially due to the collapse of banking system. The post war depression hindered
and greatly affected both rural and urban areas.

 Despite the economic depression that rocked Europe between 1929– 1933, Japan was not so
much affected like other European powers. In fact business continued though at a slower
pace. There was notable development especially between 1912- 1932. During this period,
the standard of living improved national income per capita doubled and generally Tokyo
transformed into modern city.

 The volume of trade and exports expanded. Merchant marine fleet doubled and heavy
industries develop to meet the increasing demand for producer capital goods which included
steel, coal, Iron and heavy machinery.

 There was increasing employment opportunities as hydro-electric-power increased.

Industries for electrical goods developed

 In 1939, Japan’s economy was at its peak. World War II had created new opportunities for
Japanese trade. This forced Britain and her allies to withdraw from Asian markets and
turned to Japan for military ammunitions. These developments boosted Japan’s economy
between 1919- 1939.

 The Japanese economy during the interwar period faced chronic crisis e.g. The financial
crisis of 1927 and the depression of 1930- 1931.

.
11.4.9. The Second World War

Q28. Discuss the causes of the Second World War

 The Versailles Treaty of 1919 led to the outbreak of World War II. It should be noted that
the Versailles peace treaty was too unfair to Germany. It intended to keep Germany weak
but instead sowed a seed of future trouble. The treaty humiliated Germany politically,
ruined her economy and made her a permanent enemy of the victor powers. This made
Germany to develop the need to revenge hence resulting in the Second World War.
 The failure of the League of Nations to maintain world peace

 Extreme Nationalistic demands by members of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis accelerated

the outbreak of the second world war

 The rearmament of the Germans and the military preparedness of Europeans largely
contributed to the outbreak of the second world war

 The rebirth of the alliances

 The imperialistic factor

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  The Spanish Civil War 1936 – 1939

 The appeasement policy of the prime minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain

 The economic depression of 1929 during the inter war period accelerated the outbreak of
World War II.

 The foreign policies, personalities and beliefs of Hitler of German, Mussolini of Italy and
Tojo and Hiro Hirto of Japan with no doubt brought the second world war

 The invasion of Poland 1st September 1939

 The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour

 Hitler aggressiveness

 The economic development and military superiority of major powers like Britain and
Germany.

11.5 ATTEMPTS AT WORLD PEACE AND BALANCE OF POWER, 1919 TO

PRESENT.

11.5.1 LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Explain the origin (Establishment) of the League of Nations.

It was initiated in 1919 by Woodrow Wilson president of the United States of America (USA). He
became a leading member and designer of the League. The League was established in 1920 with its
headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

What were the aims of the League of Nations?

 To promote international co-operation and achieve international peace and Security.

 To provide objectives through which its aims can be achieved.
 To disarm nations so as to ensure peace and national security.
 To improve the living and working conditions of people in all parts of the world.

Describe the organization of the League of Nations.

39
The League of Nations had the following main organs:

League council Secretariat

General

Assembly

The permanent court Mandate council

Of international justice
Various

Committees

Disarmament WHO ILO Slavery refugees

THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY

It was also known as the international parliament. This comprised of representatives from each
member state. It was a platform for debating and each member had one vote. Decisions made
required two-third majority. It admitted new members, approved the budget and it met once in
Geneva.

THE LEAGUE COUNCIL

This was made up of five permanent members who were the victorious powers of USA, Britain,
France, Italy and Japan. It selected smaller members elected after three years. It dealt with security
matters, drawing plans for disarmament, mediate between members in case of disputes, and could
recommend sanctions against offending states.

THE SECRETARIAT

It was established at Geneva to conduct the day to day business of the League. It collected and
recorded information on any subject under inquiry by the League such as health, social problems,
disarmament and racial minorities. It was headed by the secretary-General.

THE PERMANENT COURT OF INTERNATIONAL JUSTICE

40
This was the international judiciary which settled disputes between member states peacefully. Its
headquarters was at the Hague. It was not a court which tried criminal cases by jury. It was rather a
court of appeal in which judges of various nationalities gave decisions on international disputes. It
gave advice to the council or assembly on request.

THE MANDATE COUNCIL

This looked after the future of the former Germany colonies and various committees such as world
Health Organisation (WHO), International Labour Organisation (ILO), child welfare, disarmament
and refugees.

Assess the successes and failures of the League of Nations

A. SUCCESSES

 It repatriated war prisoners on exchange basis after World War 1. 400, 000 prisoners of war
returned home.
 It looked after the welfare of refugees. In 1923 after the war between Greece and Turkey,
the league arranged the settlement of a million Greek refugees from Asia – minor.
 It organised injury and sickness benefits for the workers.
 The League played a major role in the organisation of Trade Unions by workers and old age
pensions.
 Controlled the spread of contagious diseases and spreading of good methods of hygiene
through education.
 Organized governments of free cities such as Memel and Danzig.
 Wooing big powers into the league to give it importance. Germany became a member in
1926 and Russia in 1934.
 Setting up League of Nations Associations in many countries. Thereby causing growth of
the League.

41
 It tried to maintain peace by settling disputes. For instance the league settled disputes
between Finland and Sweden.
 International co-operation was established in such things as transport and telegraph.
Meetings for exchanging ideas were arranged between Scientists of different nations.
 In 1923, Austria was rescued from economic collapse by loans of money to develop her
agriculture and industry and re-established her trade. Similar help was given to Hungary.
 It intervened in the Greek – Bulgarian shooting incident of 1925.
 B. FAILURES
 Some big powers such as America (USA), Russia (Soviet Union), and Germany were not
members and could not support it. The USA had retired into isolation again after World
War 1. Russia become a member in 1934 but was expelled in 1939 when she attacked
Finland. Germany was granted membership in 1926 but left in 1933 over disarmament.
 America rejected Wilson and his ideas and declined to join the organisation.
 Russia was not admitted to the organization when it was formed because of
the communist revolution which was taking place there.
 Germany was not allowed membership because she was not trusted.
 Big powers left the league when their services were needed most. For
example Japan and Germany left the league in 1933 and Russia in 1939.
 The league was born out of war and the chaos which followed the war, and in
a hurried atmosphere of the peace conference. It acquired features which
weakened it as it grew.
 Britain and France disagreed on how the league should attempt to carry out
its primary task of maintaining peace and security.
 Britain was unwilling to commit herself to future action in defense of other
members because she had a huge empire to defend.
 The league had no army of its own to enforce sanctions.
 The British and French policies towards the league due to the absence of
USA, and USSR.
 League was weakened by constitutional defects, for example the Assembly
met only once a year.

42
  Lacked authority, league had no means of compelling a nation to submit its
case to arbitration.

11.5.2 Outline the steps leading to the formation of the United Nations Organisation.
Formation of the United Nations was done in stages inform of conferences

discussing aims, functions and structure.

STEPS

1. London Conference of June 1941.

 Held in London among Allied powers fighting Germany.
 They expressed the willingness to work together for a peaceful world.
2. Atlantic Charter 1941
 The three leaders, Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin
met aboard a ship near New Found land in the Atlantic Ocean.
 They signed the Atlantic Charter and agreed to:
(a) Keep peace and to oppose use of force when settling disputes.
(b) Set up an effective system to maintain international peace.
(c) Support the principle of self determination
(d) Encourage economic and social co-operation between nations.
3. Moscow Conference 1943
 Foreign ministers of the United States of America, Great Britain and the
Soviet Union, expressed the need of forming an organisation for keeping
international peace.
 Agreed that all peace loving nations of the world either big or small
should be free to join.
4. Tehran Conference 1943
 Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin endorsed their
foreign ministers proposal for the establishment of an international
organisation.
5. Dumbarton oaks conference 1944.

43
 Representatives of United States of America, the Soviet Union, Great Britain
and China met to reach agreement on the organization and functions of the
proposed organisation.

6. Yalta Conference 1945

 Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt met at Yalta, a
Russian holiday resort.
 They agreed to divide Germany into four zones of occupation and that a
conference among nations should be held at San Francisco to establish
the proposed organisation.
7. San Francisco Conference 1945
 Ratification of the United Nations Organisation by the USA, USSR,
France and China plus other small nations.
 The above five nations become permanent members of the Security
Council.
 Initial membership of the UNO was fifty-one in 1945.
 The UNO was formally established on 24th October, 1945.
 New York in the USA became its Headquarters

Describe the objectives, structure and functions of the United Nations

Organisation.
A OBJECTIVES OF THE UN

 Ensure peace through co-operation either by collective security or religious

or through military intervention on the offended side.
 Encourage development of former German territories to self –government
through the trusteeship council.
 Remove the causes of War by ending secret diplomacy.
 Encourage international cooperation, combat ignorance, disease and poverty.
 Prevent trade in girls for use of prostitutes and misusing child labour.
 Stamp out illegal and unlicensed traffic in drugs.

44
  Provide for refugees and supervise all international organisations on refugees
already in existence.
 Encourage intellectual co-operation among peoples of different nations
A. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE UN
Secretariat
International Security Council

Court of justice
General Economic and

Assembly Social council

Trusteeship Specialized
Council
Agencies

ILO WHO UNHCR UNESCO IMF UNICEF

(i) The General Assembly (International Parliament)

 Meets once a year but can be summoned for special sessions by any member
upon giving three months notice.
 Useful platform for the expression of opinion.
 Resolutions reached by two-thirds majority can influence the world.
 Elects non permanent members of the Security Council.
 Votes for the budget
 Chooses the new Secretary – General.
 Amends the charter

(ii) The Security Council (International police force)

 Meets frequently than other UN organisations

 Meets whenever summoned
 Made up of fifteen members of whom ten are non-permanent.

45
  Dispatch peace – keeping forces to areas of conflict.
 Apply economic sanctions against nations instead of using force.

(i) The Secretariat (International Civil Service)

 Implements decisions of the Security Council and General Assembly.
 Employs more than 25, 000 Civil Servants from member states.
 Headed by the Secretary General who is the administrative officer.
 Keeps financial account of the UN.
 Provides personal to translate the six official languages.
 Advised the Secretary General on world problems.
(ii) The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
 Made up of 54 member states
 Meets twice a year
 Discusses social and economic issues
 Draft conventions
 Promotes human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
 Promotes international co-operation and helps poor nations.
(iii) The Trusteeship Council
 Established to protect countries which were not yet independent and help them
attain independence.
 The successor of the Mandate Council of the League of Nations.
 It was made up of 25 members.
 Now dormant since most countries are independent.
 Investigated any maladministration
(iv) The permanent court of international justice
 International judiciary at the Hague, Holland.
 Made up of fifteen judges elected by the General Assembly and Security
Council.
 Each judge is drawn from a different country.

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  Develops a system of international law
 Interprets international treaties and conventions
 Gives advice to the Council or General Assembly on request.
 Makes decisions where two parties disputing request it.

C. Assess the achievements and failures of the UN

(i) Achievements (successes)

 Mainly in the field of ECOSOC, Secretariat and trusteeship council.
 Deployment of armed forces as peace keepers
 Worked well on disarmament by setting up the UN disarmament commission.
For example, nuclear test ban, outer space arms control and reduction on
military budget.
 Decline in a number of wars, genocides and human right abuses since the end
of cold war.
 Limited success under security council
(ii) Failures
 In 1946 it failed to either unite or divide Palestine which was handed over to
the UN by Britain. The Jews gave themselves independence. This problem
has remained unresolved.
 It has failed to re-unite North Korea and South Korea since 1953.
 It failed to control the prolonged civil war in Zaire (DRC). In 1960 war broke
out between Tshombe and Lumumba in which Lumumba was murdered and
Tshombe was exiled. In 1961 Dag Hammarskjold was even killed in a plane
crush on his peace keeping mission to Zaire.
 Failure to prevent the 1994 Rwandan Genocide in which about one million
people were killed.
 Failure to effectively intervene during the second Congo war which claimed
five million people in DRC from1998 to 2002. Also failed in distributing
humanitarian aid.

47
  The Security Council is unable to act in a clear and decisive way when
confronted with a crisis especially if one member of the Security Council is
involved.

11.5.3 Describe the objectives of the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO).

 NATO was formed in April 1949 against a possible attack by the Soviet
Union or any other aggressor.
 It was formed by Britain, USA, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg,
Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Norway. Greece and Turkey
joined in 1952 while West Germany joined in 1955.

Objectives of NATO

 To contain the spread of communication in Western Europe and outside.

 Defend the sovereignty or territorial integrity of member States.
 “An armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America
shall be considered as an attack against all of them.”
 Promote joint economic co-operation within the North Atlantic as a way
compared to international economic policy.
 Resolve disputes among member states through peaceful means.
 Eliminate conflicts in the member international relations policy to enhance
co-operation among member states.
 Safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their people
founded on the principles of democracy individual liberty and rule of law.

11.5.4 Describe the objectives of the Non-Aligned Movement.

 Non-Aligned movement was formed in 1955.

 Movement where Africans and Asians were called upon to stay neutral. Not
to fall on the Eastern side that is, communist tendencies of USSR or Western
capitalist tendencies of USA.
 objectives.

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  Enhancing social and economic development in the third world. Ensuring
that Africa, Asia and Latin America got loans from USA and USSR and use
them to develop their economies.
 Maintaining a closer link between Africans, Asians and part of Latin
America to enhance cultural promotion.
 Act like a mediator between the superpowers so as to end rivalry between
them.
 Ensuring that colonialism and all its manifestation was completely rejected in
the third world.
 Promoting human rights throughout the world as stipulated in the universal
declaration of human rights in 1948.
 Create a fertile ground which would allow Africans, Asians and Arabs
engage fully in world politics.
 Ensure that the culture of the third world is respected by the big powers.
 Fight neo-colonialism in new states.
 Avoid any military alliances with either the capitalist or socialist block.

11.5.5. Describe the objectives of the Warsaw pact

 Warsaw pact was named so because the treaty was signed in Warsaw,
Poland, on 4th May, 1955. Poland, Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Bulgaria, Albania, and East Germany signed the pact. These states agreed to
resist attacks from the western powers.
 The pact was a military alliance and a direct counter of NATO. This led to a
number of tensions which almost made the third world war inevitable.
 It was a carbon copy of NATO.

Objectives

 Ensure mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member

countries.

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  Ensure mutual defense of any member who would be attacked by an outside
party.
 Safeguard and respect the independence, sovereignty and political
independence of member states.
 Promote social, political and economic development of member states.
 Increase the welfare and general standard of living of people of the member
states.

Consolidate unity, co-operation and solidarity among member states.

 Promote peace and security.

 Ensure a free and democratic environment in which member states operates.
 Consider the affairs and interests of member states.
 Mediate in conflicts among member states or between a member state and an
outside party.
 Defend human rights of member states.
 Promote communist ideologies in the region against capitalist ideologies.

1.6.0 OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS

11.6.1 Describe the objectives of the Commonwealth of Nations.

 This is made up of Britain, her former colonies, protectorates and dominion

states.
 Its headquarters is in London.
 It has 53 member states.

50
 Queen Elizabeth Head of Commonwealth

Objectives

 Unite Britain and all her former colonies, protectorates and dominions under
one umbrella.
 Promote good governance and democracy among member states.
 Carry out joint ventures in trade and resolve political conflicts.
 Provide market for industrial and agricultural products.
 Uplift the standard of living among member states
 Enable member states to exploit their resources fully in order to promote
industrialisation.
 Promote education, sports, agricultural and health standards.

11.6.2 Describe the objectives of theEuropean Union.

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  Formerly called the European Economic Community or Common market.
 It was formed in 1958 with its headquarters in Brussels, Belgium.

Objectives

 Promote good governance and democracy among member states.

 Provide market for industrial and agricultural products of member states.
 Promote education, sports, agricultural and health standards especially
among member states.
 Help developing countries by extending loans and grants to them.
 Unite all European countries under one umbrella.
 Ensure development of all European countries socially, economically and
politically.
 Have a joint venture in trade and to resolve political conflicts.
 Uplift the standard of living among member countries
 Enable member countries to exploit it.

11.6.3 Describe the objectives of the Caribbean and pacific states.

 This was created by the George Town Agreement in 1975.

 It is composed of African, Caribbean and pacific states.
 Total membership is 79.

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 Objectives

 Attain sustainable development of member states

 Ensure peace and stability of the member states.
 Promote unity and co-operation among member states.
 Eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
 Defend the sovereignity, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
 Consolidate unity and solidary among member states.
 Ensure free and democratic environment in which member states will
operate.
 Defend the human rights of people of member states.
 Increase the welfare and general standards of living of people of member
states.
 Seek solution to common political, economic, and social problems affecting
people of member states.

11.6.4 Describe the objectives of the Organisation of African Unity / African Union
(OAU).

 OAU was formed on 25th May, 1963, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It was
transformed in 2002.
 Now called African Union.

Objectives

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  Promote unity and solidarity for all African states.
 Eradicate all forms of colonialism and neo-colonialism from the African
continent.
 Promote international co-operation in respect to the requirements of the
United Nations charter.
 Spearhead economic development all over the continent.
 Defend the independence, territorial integrity and sovereignity of all African
states.
 Provide and improve the standards of living amongst African people through
provision of basics like food and shelter.

11.6.5 Describe the objectives of the Organisation of American states (OAS).

 OAS is an intercontinental body that unites all the Southern States of

America.
 Founded in 1948 with its headquarters in Washington D.C, United State.
 Initially, it had 21 members but now they are 35.

Objectives

 Strengthen solidarity and co-operation among member states.

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  Defend the sovereignity, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
 Strengthen peace and security of the continent.
 Seek solution to political, judicial and economic problems that may rise from
member states.
 Eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
 Promise co-operative action towards economic social and cultural
development.
 Promote and consolidate representative democracy, with due respect from
principle of non-intervention.
 Provide a common action on member states in the event of aggression.
 Prevent possible causes of difficulties to member states and to ensure
settlement of disputes that may arise among member states.
 Control production of military weapons by member states and instead
develop efforts towards economic and social development.

11.6.6 Describe the objectives of The Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS)

 ECOWAS had its origin in 1972 when Nigeria and Togo signed a bilateral
agreement.
 Established on 28th May 1975 with total membership of 15states.
 Cameroon and Chad did not become members.

Objectives

 Freetrade and open common market for the member states.

 Promote economic co-operation and integration of West of African States.
 Developing, modernizing, and harmonising agriculture among member
states.
 Bringing about economic independence of the member states.
 Co-ordinating industrial development.

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  To improve transport and communication network in West Africa.
 Putting in place the West African parliament and the West African court of
justice.
 To revive African culture that had been undermined by the colonialists
 Improve on the provision of social services of all member states.
 Promote trade and boost the economic development of member states that
made ECOWAS.
 To protect economic resources of West Africa, minerals, forests among
others.

11.6.7 Describe the objectives of the Maghreb union

 The Maghreb union is a trade agreement of the Arab Maghreb countries of

North Africa.
 Member states include Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania and Morocco
 The union was founded on 17th February 1989
 A programme was laid on which the union was going to operate during the
Marrakech submit

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Objectives

 Obtain an economic and political unity among Arab countries of the

Maghreb.
 Guarantee co-operation among member countries.
 Ensure industrial, agricultural, commercial and social development of
member states.
 Realise free movement of people, services, goods and capital between
member states.
 Ensure progress, improved standard of living and well being of people of the
member states.
 Ensure respect of human rights of member countries

The Maghreb union has ten main institutions and these are:

 The Presidency
 The consultative council
 The monitoring committee
 The meeting of the Prime Ministers
 The Council of Foreign Ministers
 The Ministerial specialised commissions
 The Maghreb Bank for investment and foreign Trade (BMICE)
 The Judicial organ
 The University of Maghreb
 The Headquarters are in Rabat, Morocco, Chairmanship is rotational.

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11.6.8 Describe the objectives of the Arab League.

 A regional organisation of Arab countries in North Africa, Horn of Africa

and South West Asia.
 The league was formed on 22nd March, 1945 in Cairo, Egypt.
 Currently membership is 22 but with suspension of Syria there are 21
countries.
 Headquarters is in Cairo, Egypt.
 Member states have oil, natural gas and fertile land.

Objectives of the Arab League

 To promote social, political and economic development of member states.

 To consolidate unity and solidarity among members states.
 To safe guard the independence and sovereignity of member of member
states.
 To defend the human independence and sovereignity of members states.
 To defend human rights of people of member states.
 To consider the affaires and interest of the Arab countries.
 To strengthen and co-ordinate the political, cultural, economic and social
programs of the member states.
 To mediate conflicts among member states.

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  Increase the welfare and general standard of living of people of member
states.
 To ensure peace and stability in the region.
 To eradicate extreme poverty among member states.
 To seek solution to common problems affecting member states.
 To ensure a free and democratic environment in which members operate.
 To promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world
and its trading partner, UK.

11.6.9 Describe the objectives of the Association of South East Asian Nations.

 This is an alliance promoting political, economic, cultural social

development and co-operation among member states.
 ASEAN was formed on 8th August 1967 by five member states which
included Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines and Thailand.
 Later, Cambodia, Laos, Burma, Vietnam and Vrunei joined forming ten
member states.

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  To promote political, social, cultural and economic development of member
states
 To protect regional peace and stability
 To create a conclusive environment for member countries to discuss their
differences peacefully.
 To increase the welfare of people in the region both economically and
culturally.
 To promote unity and co-operation among member states.
 To seek solution to political, economic and social problems that may arise in
the region.
 To eradicate extreme poverty from member states.
 To defend the sovereignity, territorial integrity and independence of member
states.
 To provide a common action on member states in the event of aggression.
 To defend human rights of people of the member states.

The association has three pillars namely the political, security community, the
economic community and the social- cultural community.

 On 15th December 2008, the ASEAN charter entered into force and it become
an international organization.

11.6.10. Describe the objectives of the common market for Eastern and Southern Africa.

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  COMESA was established in December 1994. It replaced the preferential
Trade Area (PTA)
 Current membership is over twenty countries.
 Has population of about 400 million.
 COMESA’s treaty states that, it is “an organisation of free independent
sovereign states which have agreed to co-operate in developing their natural
resources for the good of all their people”.

Objectives and functions of COMESA

 To offer a common and competitive market

 To promote and encourage industrial productivity
 To promote and encourage modernisationof agriculture and food security.
 To promote and encourage balanced exploitation of natural resources.
 To seek to harmonise the financial decision within the region.
 To promote and encourage reliable transport, infrastructure and
communication.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

A. THE AUTHORITY OF HEADS OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT

 Highest policy- making organ of COMESA

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  Meet once a year (meeting is called the summit)
 Monitors and gives direction to the organisation.

B. COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
 It is made up of government ministers from the member states.
 Prepares the agenda for the summit.
 Ministers monitor and review the financial and administrative management of
the organisation.

C. THE COMESA COURT OF JUSTICE

 Judicial organ which handles all legal matters among member states.
 Decides on matters referred to it concerning the COMESA treaty.
 Headed by the chairperson and four other members who are qualified lawyers.

D. THE INTER-GOVERNMENT COMMITTEE

 It is made up of permanent secretaries from the member states.
 These permanent secretaries fall under the ministries of finance, trade, customs,
transport, industry and legal affairs.
 They make development programmes and action plans for the organisation.

E. SECRETARIAT
 The administrative body of COMESA
 Headed by the Secretary General who is appointed by the authority.
 Elected for a period of four years but can renew for another four year term.
 The headquarters of COMESA are in Lusaka.

F. THE COMMITTEE OF GOVERNORS OF CENTRAL BANKS

 Organ formed by the governors of the central banks from the member states.
 Responsible for overseeing the proper implementation of the monetary and
financial programmes of the organisation.
 Determines the maximum debit and credit limit to the organisation.

COMESA has specialized institutions such as :

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  COMESA trade and development Bank in Nairobi, Kenya.
 COMESA Re-insurance Company, Nairobi, Kenya.
 COMESA clearing house in Harare, Zimbabwe
 COMESA leather institute in Ethiopia
 COMESA Association of commercial banks, Harare, Zimbabwe.

11.6.11. Describe the objectives of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC).

 SADC was transformed from the Southern Africa Development Co-ordination

conference (SADC) set up in 1980.
 SADC had nine regional members (Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Angola,
Botswana, Lesotho, Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Swaziland).
 SADC wanted to reduce dependence on South Africa because of its apartheid
policy and to set up programmes that would benefit member states.
 SADC was transformed from a conference to the “community” in 1992 august,
Namibia.
 Headquarters of SADC are in Gaborone, Botswana.
 Official languages are English and Portuguese

PRINCIPLES OF SADC

 Sovereign equality of all member states.

 Solidarity, peace and security
 Human rights, democracy, and the rule of law
 Equity, balance and mutual benefit
 Peaceful settlement of disputes

Objectives

 To cause development and economic growth among the member countries.

 To develop and strengthen the common political values and good governance.
 To promote and defend political stability, security and peace in the region.
 To promote collective self-reliance and interdependence of the member states.

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  To strengthen the long standing historical, culture and social relations among the
peoples of the member states.
 To maximize the exploitation of the natural resources as well as protecting the
environment.

ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

A. THE SUMMIT
 This is made up of Heads of state and government.
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  Highest policy – making organ
 Controls the direction and the functions of the community.
 Chairperson is usually a President of a member state

B. THE TROIKA
 Consists of the chairperson of SADC
 The system came into being in order to speed up the implementation of decisions
made by the summit.

C. THE POLITICS, DEFENCE AND SECURITY ORGAN

 Concerned with the promotion of political stability, defence and security in the
region.
 The organ reports to the chairperson of SADC
D. THE COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
 This is the organ that is made of foreign ministers from each member state
 It is responsible for overseeing the operations and development of SADC.
 It ensures that decisions of the organisation are properly implemented

E. THE INTEGRATED COMMITTEE OF MINISTERS

 It is responsible for monitoring the four major areas which are: Trade, Industry,
Finance and Investment.
 Others are infrastructure and services; Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources
(FANR); Social and Human Development and Special Each Programmes.
 Each member state has a representation of two ministers.
 The organ is under the council of ministers.

F. THE TRIBUNAL
 It ensures that all the member states stick to principles and regulations of SADC.
 It helps to settle disputes among the member countries that have been referred to
it.
G. SADC NATIONAL COMMITTEES

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 Special committees made up of the individuals representing of governments, private
sector and civil society from member countries.

11.7 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

11.7.1 Discuss the major causes of conflicts and their consequences in the modern world.

- Conflict is a misunderstanding or quarrel, struggle or fight between two individuals, communities,

societies or countries.

- Conflicts occur when the ideas, needs, interests of individuals groups of people or nation differ.

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS

HISTORY - Research has revealed that historical reasons have contributed to the emergency of
conflicts. For example, conflicts between Christians and Moslems dates back to the first
Millennium AD.

ETHNICITY - When people belonging to different cultural groups refuse to accept each other as
citizens belonging to the same country. For instance, Eritrea broke off from Ethiopia.

REFUGEES - As the number of refugees increase, so is the pressure on local resources of host
communities. Sometimes, refugees use these areas as springboards for attacking their government
forces. This may result in the invasion of foreign troops into the host communities and may lead to
fighting.

POVERTY, ILLITERACY AND UNEMPLOYMENT – In many third world countries poverty

and inequality in accessing goods and services increase tensions that leads to conflicts in urban
areas. The Lumpen proletariat is usually easy targets for war recruiters and political extremists.

INJUSTICE – Wherever there is injustice peace can never prevail. Civil wars are caused by
injustice practices of the existing governments. For example, the Apartheid policy in South Africa
the whites mistreated the Bantu.

CONSEQUENCES

- Killing of many innocent people, especially Children, Women, the disabled and old people.
Women are also sexually harassed.

- Increase in the number of refugees. Zambia, Tanzania and Uganda have a lot of refugees.

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- Infrastructure is badly damaged, bridges, airports, seaports and railway lines. For instance, The
Benguela railway line in Zambia going to Angola was destroyed during the Angola war of
independence.

- The economy of any country is negatively affected. Agriculture and trade decline.

- Insecurity stops investors from establishing industries in the countries experiencing conflict.

- During armed conflict there is disruption of health and food supplies.

- In times of war, there is an emergence of child soldiers.

11.7.2 Discuss the efforts applied in conflict resolution and management in the modern world.

- Conflict resolution is the settlement or avoidance of disputes between individuals or groups

through solutions that avoid violence. It is a means of maintaining peace.

EFFORTS APPLIED:

NEGOTIATION

- Conducted by a reliable and skilled negotiator directly between the disputing parties.

-Dispute can be resolved if the concerned reach a mutually acceptable solution that can be
implemented.

MEDIATION

- Method of conflict handling by a neutral third party acceptable to the disputing parties.

- Two sides accommodate each other’s views before reaching a solution.

ARBITRATION

- This is where the disputing parties appoint an arbitrator to resolve their differences.

- The arbitrator provides a binding decision after listening from the disputing parties, which is
usually in written form.

- Implementation depends on both parties accepting the final decision.

LITIGATION

- This allows the parties who have failed to accept the decision of the arbitrator to proceed to the
public courts of law.

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- The judge is empowered to make and implement decisions.

- Conflicts between countries are taken to the international court of Justice (ICJ) at the Haque to be
resolved.

EXAMPLES OF CONFLICTS

1. THE MIDDLE EAST CRISIS

- The Middle East is compromised of countries like Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Iraq, Yemen, Turkey,
Syria, Lebanon and Israel.

- Before the beginning of the twentieth century, the Middle East countries were under the control of
the Ottoman Empire.

- In the early 1960’s the Arabs with the help of the British rebelled against the Ottoman Empire.

CAUSES OF CONFLICTS

A - During World War One, the British promised Arabs political independence. This was an empty
promise and it resulted into militant nationalism in the region.

B – The Balfour declaration of 1917 which saw the creation of the Jewish state of Israel in 1948.
Left many Palestinians displaced.

- This caused endless battles between the Jews and Palestinians who wanted the state of Israel to be
erased from the World map.

C – Failure by neighbouring states to officially recognise the state of Israel caused conflicts, despite
the 242 UN resolutions which gave Israel official recognition.

- This forced Israel to spend more on Military hardware on its national budget.

D – Territorial disputes has caused conflicts. For example, the Lebanon – Syria war. Syria claimed
some territories from Lebanon.

E – Nationalism of the Suez Canal in 1956 and the blocking of port Akaba from being used by
Israelites ships sparked conflict (Sinai Campaign).

F – The British did not honour the 1917 Balfour declaration in which they promised to establish a
national home in Palestine for the Jews.

G – The British withdrew from Palestine in 1948 as they failed to resolve the conflict between the
Jews and Arabs. The Jews declared independence to themselves and this has remained a source of
conflict in the Middle East.

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H – The use of expatriates to extract oil from the Middle East countries has led to the importation of
their home conflicts in the region.

I – Emblessing of Western Culture by some nationals in the region has caused conflict. Norms like
alcoholism, prostitution and smoking are contrary to the teaching of Islam.

J – The emergency of new and young radical leaders like Nasser (Egypt) and Gadaffi (Libya),
whose unfair actions like expansionist policies angered Islamic revolutionalists. This increased
conflict in the region.

K –The influence of cold war politics between the USA and USSR. These wanted to control the
energy resource found in the region. As a result each group financed its supporters creating political
unrest in the region.

EFFECTS

- Slow pace of the economic development. Constant fighting’s in the region scare investors. This
has negatively affected the economies world over.

- The continued funding of rebel groups, the Western powers and their plans of overthrowing rulers
who try to block them from enjoying benefits from the oil, has increased hatred towards the western
countries.

-Increased sale of military arms especially by the USA, France and Britain to the region has
encouraged continuous fighting. Hence, the Middle East is the most Militarized region in the world.

- The Middle East crisis has contributed to increased terrorist activities in the world. In the Middle
East people attribute their suffering to Western powers particularly USA. This has led to the
formation of Islamic militias as terrorist groups. For instance, Al-Qaeda terrors attack on
11/09/2001 which has put the world to fear.

- Middle East crisis has made international politics more complex. Initially, the USA dominated
politics but now it is challenged by China and Russia.

11.7.2 DR CONGO REGIONAL CONFLICTS

- Since independence DRC has failed to stabilize.

- Constant wars have caused insecurity in the region.

CAUSES

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- The presence of various minerals in DR Congo such as gold, copper, diamond and Zinc has
caused conflicts in the region. Armed insiders and outsiders engage themselves in the exploitation
of these resources, creating instability and insecurity in the country.

- The size of DR Congo is another cause of conflicts. The country is extremely big in size. It is
equivalent to Western Europe. Its natural forests harbour rebel groups. It’s hard for the government
to exercise effective control.

- The general weakness of the successive governments since independence. DR Congo has never
had a strong leader. Hence, rebel groups took advantage of it to enter DR Congo and disturb peace.

- Lack of National Unit is another cause of conflict. Since independence from Belgium various
states of DR Congo became isolated from each other. This becomes hard for the government in
power to exercise effective control.

- After the Rwandan genocide, the post-war Tutsi government invaded DR Congo in the search of
the extremist Hutu militias who had escaped into Congo. This later resulted into conflicts.

EFFECTS OF DR CONGO REGIONAL CONFLICTS

- Violation of human rights as a result of conflict. Rape cases by rebels against the local people.

- Family break ups as a result of conflict. Some people left their country and crossed to
neighbouring countries. In this manner some families broke up never to meet their loved ones
again.

- The Congo conflict has resulted into displacement of so many Congolese. According to the
international rescue committee some 3.4 million people were forced to flee their homes between
1997 – 2003.

- As the result of the conflict 5.4 million people were killed from 1997 – 2003. In 2006 conflict
over 3.3 Congolese were killed.

- The conflict has bought insecurity in the region. Due to constant fighting DR Congo has
become insecure.

- The conflict retarded economic development in the region. Agriculture, mining and trade
disrupted by the constant fighting.

- Many Congolese have continued to suffer various diseases that result from war. For example,
Cholera, Typhoid and Dysentery.

- There has been theft of countries resources by various rebel groups. Copper, gold and diamonds
have been stolen.

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- The conflicts have strained relationships between DR Congo and her neighbouring countries,
especially Rwanda and Uganda.

11.7.3 THE 1994 GENOCIDE IN RWANDA

- A genocide is a deliberate and systematic extermination in whole or in part of an ethnic, racial,

regions or national group.

– In relation to Rwanda, genocide can be defined as the mass extermination of the Tutsi by the
second republic led by Habyarimana.

- The Rwandan Genocide was a gradual process which started in the first republic of Gregory
Kayibanda. It reached its climax in 1994.

Genocide ideologies developed through the use of the media, training and re-arming interahammwe
purposely to kill the Tutsi. To exterminate the Tutsi across the globe, discriminate them in
education and issuing discriminative identity cards or “Indangamuntu”.

CAUSES OF THE TUTSI GENOCIDE

- Genocide ideology was one of the causes of Tutsi genocide. Radio-television stations and
newspapers were used to inform Rwandese that they were different despite living in the same
geographical area. Hatred gradually developed within Rwanda leading to the 1994 genocide.

- Effect of colonialism led to genocide. The Belgians and Germans sided with one group against
another. Hence, there was no room for social, economic and political cohesion. It just created
genocide ideologies.

- The death of president Habyarimana in the Aircraft clash was the spark of the mass massacre of
the Tutsi. Government leaders in the Habyarimana’s regime falsely accused the Tutsi’s for having
participated in massacre of the president. This eventually led to the mass massacre of the Tutsi’s.

- Anti government activities. Rwandan’s in exile attacked the Habyanimana regime for
mismanagement of the social, political and economic systems and failure to implement the Arusha
accord. The government also claimed that the Tutsi were secretly giving economic, social, political
and moral support to rebels intending to overthrow the Habyanimana regime. The government
secretly decided to exterminate any Tutsi in Rwanda.

- The second republic influenced the rise of genocide through the training of Interahamwe. The
youth were trained in skills and knowledge of extermination. They were also equipped with

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machetes to exterminate Tutsi’s who had been labelled the term “Inyenzi” meaning cockroaches
invading the government.

- The role of the media led to genocide. Newspapers, radio stations, magazines, television talk
referred to the Tutsi as enemies of the country. So, the Rwandan genocide in 1994 broke out to
exterminate the enemies of the country.

CONSEQUENCES / EFFECT

- It led to massive loss of life. About one million people died.

- It created anarchy and insecurity in the country.

-Many Rwandans took refuge in neighbouring countries were they suffered from social and
political challenges.

- There were many widows, widowers in Rwanda which became a challenge to the post regimes in
Rwanda. A nine years basic education was launched to equip them with knowledge and skills of
self sustenance.

- Genocide resulted into the rise of traumatisation. Rwanda was reviewed as a battle field.
However, the role of the nationalists like major general Paul Kagame and late Fred Reigyema
helped the image of Rwanda to restore quickly.

- The genocide depopulated Rwanda as many people died.

- The war revealed the weakness of OAU (AU). It withdrew its troops in 1994 at the height of the
crisis on the excuse of financial hardships. Hence it failed to affect the Arusha resolution to stop the
war.

- It attracted the evacuation of foreign nationals from Rwanda.

-The beginning of the war created political upheavals within the great lakes region. For example,
the second Republic in Rwanda accused Uganda for harbouring rebels. But Uganda was facilitating
the creation of a new government based on true pillars of democracy.

- The end of the revolution ushered a new government which laid a ground for social, economic and
political reconstruction of Rwanda.

- It enabled the Rwandan exiles to return home.

11.7.4 THE LAND ISSUE IN ZAMBAMBWE

Reasons or causes or need for land reform in Zimbabwe:

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- The need for equitable distribution of land between disenfranchised Blacks and the minority
Whites. By 1979 Whites were five percent of the population and owned seventy percent of the most
fertile land. Native blacks were ninety five percent of the population but only owned thirty percent
of the land which was unfair.

- Colonial government policies on land favoured whites. For instance, loan guarantee systems,
grants, funding of agricultural research all benefited the minority whites. Majority blacks were
extended to less fertile areas with unreliable rainfall.

-Lack of individual title to land also created the need for land reform. This often resulted into land
wrangles since there was no clear demarcation of land.

- Need for ethnic balance of land ownership also created the need for land reform. Land needed to
be equitably distributed to all ethnic groups in Zimbabwe to achieve this, the land apportionment
act of 1930 was signed to handle the case.

CONSQUENCES/EFFECTS OF THE LAND ISSUE OR REFORM IN ZIMBABWE

- Socially the land reform programme boosted the growing of business in rural areas. Fifty percent
of those who received land were peasants who worked hard to improve their lives.

- Economically, the land reform was continuously affected the economic stand of Zimbabwe
negatively. Tobacco is the country’s top foreign exchange earner whose production dropped by
forty three percent from 2000 to 2009. Few years after the reform, Zimbabwe lost her position as
the second largest exporter of tobacco.

- The land reform resulted into famine, starvation and malnutrition among Zimbabwean population.
Because primary beneficiaries lacked experience and practical skills. This resulted into a drop total
farm output.

- Unemployment has increased since the land reform. More than 300,000 farm workers were chased
by land owners.

- As a result of land reform, poverty increased in Zimbabwe. According to the Zimbabwe

Vulnerability Assessment Committee (ZIMVAC) report, seventy two percent of the urban
population was below the poverty line.

- Socially a big number of Zimbabwean natives have suffered various injustices since the land
reform. Most Zimbabweans were harassed by war veterans especially those in Mashona land some
were kicked, raped and punched.

- Politically the land reform increased hatred towards the government of Robert Mugabe. The
losing government reacted by harassing and intimidating its critics like media civil society and
members of the opposition.

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- Land reform resulted in the rise of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC).

- MDC led by Morgan Tsvangirai advocated for change and won many followers.

- Politically the land reform exposed the true colours of President Robert Mugabe who decided to
increase the violation of human rights.

11.7.5 INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

- The term terrorism comes from a French word terrorism which is also derived from a Latin verb
terreo which means to “frighten”.

- Used to describe the inhuman actions of the Jacobin club during the “Reign of terror” in the
course of the French Revolution of 1989.

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- International terrorism refers to the terrorist activities done across the world.

-Terrorism is characterised by killing of innocent people for political purpose; causing death or
body harm to civilians, psychological torture and psychological repression beyond the target group.

- Political in aims and objectives as they do not wear uniforms for easy identification.

- Terrorist is a person who engages him or herself in terrorist activities. Common terrorist groups in
the world include; Al-Qaeda in Arab countries, Yeman, North Africa, book Haram in Nigeria, West
Africa, Alshabaab in Somalia and Al Nusrah front ANF; Syria.

CAUSES

- Opposition to western policies led to most terrorist activities. Fanatic Islamic terrorists oppose
alliance with western Christian powers in order to protect Islam from contamination. EG, Al Qaeda.

- Lack of satisfaction from the government of countries where terrorist groups exist. Some terrorists
groups where members in the governments of those countries where they live but only broke away
their governments due to political disagreements. These kill civilians and bomb government
buildings. For example, Al Shabaab in Somalia.

- Terrorism occur because there is sure support from various groups or countries. Iran, North Korea,
Cuba, Sudan and Syria sponsor terrorists. They are alleged to own weapons of Mass Destruction
(WMD). They are also funded by Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

- Terrorism is also partially due to the ideological reasons. Some terrorists are intentionally sent and
supported by the leftwing to attack the rightwing and vice-versa.

- The need for political recognition. Some terrorist groups carry out various terrorist activities so as
to become known. The Boko Haram group in Nigeria for instance was not popular before it started
suicide, killing civilians and kidnapping over 200 school girls from school.

- The need for funds by some terrorist groups to finance their activities. Some groups may kidnap a
very important person in government and demand for a lot of money from the government with an
ultimatum of which failure to meet it, the person is either terrorised or killed.

- When terrorists are caught by government due to their activities like suicide bombing, fellow
terrorist put up tough conditions for their release. Failure to comply often leads to suicide bombing,
killing innocent civilians and kidnapping important people as a way of revenge.

- Some terrorist activities are linked to the historic rivalry between Hindus and Muslims in the
Indian continent.

CONSEQUENCES/EFFECTS

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- It has resulted into serious loss of lives across the world. For instance, the Al Qaeda operatives on
11th September, 2001 attacked the twin tower building in USA killing and injuring many during the
suicide bombing.

- It has led into serious destruction of valuable property.

- In some countries like Nigeria terrorism has scared the education of the girl child. The kidnapping
of over 200 girls by Boko Haram has scared girls and has affected their education and fear that they
might be attacked.

- It has resulted into environmental degradation. Bombs used are made of dangerous chemicals
which include poison gas. The poisonous smoke that comes out of bombs contaminates the fresh air
in the atmosphere.

- International terrorism has increased international expenditure to combat terrorism. USA for
instance has almost doubled her defense budget in order to counter terrorist activities. Other
countries have embarked on training anti-terrorist groups ready to fight terrorists and financing
anti-terrorist patrol.

- It has increased fear among people and seriously increased tension in the world.

- International expenditure on victims of terrorism has increased. A lot of money is spent to nurse
severe injuries and those killed by suicide bombers.

- It has resulted in psychological torture by the victims of terrorism. Relatives of those killed or
kidnapped are psychologically and emotionally affected.

11.7.6 Discuss the effects of HIV/AIDS in economic development.

- HIV is a virus that causes a disease known as AIDS.

 It affects white blood cells that protect the body against diseases. HIV means Human
Immune-Deficiency Virus.
 White blood cells are killed the body becomes defenseless and many diseases can weaken it.
 Where HIV is responsible for the destruction of the Immune system condition is called
HIV/AIDS.
 AIDS means Acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome.
 People who have HIV in the bodies are said to be HIV Positive.
 HIV lives in body fluids like semen, lymph, breast milk, blood and vaginal fluid.

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 11.7.6 CAUSES/SPREAD OF HIV/AIDS

 Through sexual intercourse

 Sharing skin cutting objects, safety pins, razor blades
 Through mother to child transmission at birth
 From infected mother to unborn child
 Through blood transfusion
 Through breast feeding

Economic development refers to a situation where a country utilises her resources and labour force
in order to develop her economy. HIV/AIDS has the following effects on economic development:

 HIV/AIDS affects people who are between 15 – 49 years who are the largest energetic and
most productive labour force. Therefore, the country its denied of its productivity labour
which strains her economic development.
 Both skilled and unskilled people contribute to the economic development of their
countries. This is through providing labour, payment of taxes and delivery of services.
When they get infected and die it retards economic development.
 The government and the private sector including families spend a lot of money to train and
equip skills in their people. Trained people include teachers, lawyers, Engineers, doctors,
soldiers and police force. If such trained people die, it strains economic development.
 HI/AIDS is a dangerous disease. The government spends heavily on prevention, care and
treatment through counseling services, HIV testing, HI/AIDS awareness, programmers on
Radio and Television stations, news papers, awareness seminars and Workshops.
 Provision of Anti-retrial drugs, training special medical personnel and building health
centers for treating the infected tend to be costly.
 The government spends a lot of money on continuous research about HIV/AIDS, training,
counseling and buying laboratory equipment. It spends on transport and accommodation.

11.7.7 Discuss major causes and effects of environmental degradation

- Environmental degradation is spoiling or destroying the environment. The environment

comprises of land, air and water.

(A) CAUSES OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

NATURAL CAUSES

 Flooding is the natural cause of environmental degradation. The water stagnates in the
area and becomes dangerous to soil, human and animal life. Floods contaminate water
believes like wells and sometimes kills living organism that live in soil which help in
soil formation.

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  Draught is another cause of environmental degradation. Its a long sunny period which
causes water bodies to dry up and makes water in the soil to dry. This leaves soil from
supporting crop growth and in this way soil is degraded.
 Volcanic eruption is another cause of environmental degradation. Some active organic
mountains sometimes erupt throwing out very hot larva and burning rocks. These
blusterous plants, animals and peoples life. Dust, ash and other particles are released
into the air resulting in air pollution.
 Earthquakes also cause environment degradation due to the earth’s movements. It
deforms the earth’s surface and also destroys life and property.
 Siltation causes environment degradation. Here soil and other substances begin to be
deposited into rivers, wells and dams. They tend to make these water bodies shallow
and in turn reduce the volume of water.

MAN-MADE CAUSES

 Deforestation. That is massive cutting of trees in an area. This reduces rain due to a
reduction in the rapid evaporation of moisture from the forest. It also results in soil erosion.
 Poaching is another cause of environmental degradation. This is the illegal hunting of wild
animals in gazetted areas like national parks and game reserves, poaching reduces the
number of animals and may lead to extinction of some spices.
 Poor farming practices for instance over cultivation, mono-cropping, bush burning and
improper dumping of non-bio-degradable waste result in environment degradation.
 Improper handling of waste materials like faeces, waste from industries like soap, medicine,
solid waste and dust from construction sites result in environmental degradation.

CONTROL AND PREVENTION

Environmental degradation can be controlled through the process of protecting the environment.
This is referred to as environmental conservation.

 Conservation of forest is one way of preserving the environment. This is mainly done by the
government issuing strict laws against tree harvesting and poaching.
 A forestation is another way of controlling environmental degradation. This is the planting
of trees in places where they are absent.
 Rural electrification can control pressure on forests.
 Re-a forestation. Planting of trees to replace the cut ones. For every one tree cut. It is
advisable to plant two or three.

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  Proper management of solid waste. The bio-degradable and non-degradable wastes may be
regarded into manure and be resold to farmers. The treatment of industrial waste is another
way of preserving the environment. This makes them harmless. The government should ban
the use of vehicles which emit a lot of smoke which is harmful to human health and pollutes
air.
 Over fishing and fishing of young ones should be controlled. Only allowed fishnets should
be used.
 Good farming methods such as mulching crop rotation, contour ploughing and application
of manure prevent soil erosion and soil exhaustion.
 Use of law to protect wetlands and game parks. Strict laws forbidding hunting of game
animals should be passed.
 The use of wood fuel saving cooking equipment for instance charcoal stoves.

11.7.8 Discuss the effects of child labour and abuse to children

A-Child abuse is a form of mistreatment and misuse of a child by an adult.

B-FORMS/TYPES OF CHILD ABUSE

(1)PHYSICAL ABUSE-Any form of act or aggression that results in physical injury. Actions can
be beating, hitting, slapping, kicking, pinching, throwing and burning. This can result in to cuts,
bite marks, burns, bruises and wounds.

(2)CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE-This is any sexual act between an adult and a child. This may include
penis penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, touching a child’s genitals spying on a naked child and
telling sexual stories.

(3)CHILD EMOTIONAL ABUSE (PHYSCHOLOGICAL ABUSE)-This is a pattern of behaviour

intended to communicate to a child that he or she is unloved and unwanted. This can be done by
isolation, rejection, scorn, terrorism and neglect.

(4)CHILD NEGLECT-Failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. This can be physical, medical,
educational and emotional.

C- EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOUR AND ABUSE

 Traumatises children, victims of abuse become dehumanised which affects their social well
being.
 It results in children becoming hardcore criminals. Pain received as a result of torture makes
children lose a sense of humanity and end up becoming criminals since it looks normal to
them.

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  It also results in to street children, continuous torture and punishment both at home and
school makes children to hate their homes and school. Eventually, they run away and find
themselves on streets as a way of getting relief.
 It denies children a chance to like work. They see work as a means of torture.
 It prevents children from appreciation of social values like love, care and empathy, some
children even become tough to others.
 It even results into school drop outs. Children can hate school due to corporal punishments
and end up dropping out of school for relief.
 It undermines relationship between parents or teachers and the children. It makes children
believe that parents and teachers are responsible for their suffering. As a result they will
hate both of them.
 It affects children’s health especially cases of serious torture, for example burning, rape and
beating.

11.7.9 Describe possible solutions to human trafficking.

A-Human trafficking is the illegal way of carrying human beings from one place to another with the
intention of taking advantage of them.

B-POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

 Strict spy network should be employed by the security agencies of every country in order to
get those involved in human trafficking.
 Awareness programmes should be available on radio and TV stations to alert people on
what is happening.
 People should be alert and conscious about con-men and report them to the nearest police
station.
 There should be serious co-ordination and co-operation of all security bodies internationally
on issues concerning human trafficking.
 Tough punishments should be given to whoever is caught in human trafficking .For
instance, life imprisonment.
 Worldwide abolition of human trafficking through law enforcement bodies.
 Tightening security within nations and on the borders.
 Immediate action should be taken where to police are alerted on suspected people dealing in
human trafficking.
 Tricks used by people dealing in human trafficking should be communicated to people
through various channels of media.
 Security groups in every country must be strict on immigrants or foreigners and their travel
documents. They should make follow ups on what they do and where they stay.

11.7.10 Discuss gender based violence

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A-Gender-based violence is that directed against a person on the basis of gender.

-Physical or emotional force involving men and women in which the female is usually a victim.

B-Mostly it is men who inflict violence against girls and women. Physical violence is often used by
raping and battering them.

 Violence can be referred to as all acts of gender violence that can bring about psychological,
physical, social and economic harm or suffering to an individual.
 Women are one of the vulnerable groups of people whose rights are abused on daily basis
due to their gender.
 Women are beaten by their husbands in homes. This is called battering and is part of
domestic violence.

DRUG TRAFFICKING AND ABUSE

Drug trafficking

 This is the illegal way of carrying drugs from one place to another with the intention of
selling them to get money.
 Drugs may be carried from one country to another.

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  Drug abuse refers to the using of drugs that are forbidden by the law.
 Drug trafficking is a major international problem.
 Drug trafficking includes a range of people from powerful international drug barons to
street dealers.
 Money laundering is common in drug trafficking.

Drug abuse

 This is the using of drugs that are forbidden by law.

 Drugs are harmful to the body.
 Socially, they interfere in relationships with other people.
 Common drugs include Marijuana, Cocaine, Tobacco, Mirungishisha among others.
 Some of these drugs are smoked, chewed, inhaled or even drunk.

Classification of substances

These fall under two categories. These are over the counter and controlled substances.

Over the counter substances can be bought over the counter such as panadol, asprin, cafenol and
fansidar. These substances can be bought without a prescription.

Controlled substances can only be obtained if one has a prescription. Examples are morphine,
valium, pethidine, mandrax, cocaine and marijuana.

Classification according to chemicals

Depressants. These are also known assedatives or hypnotics. Examples are, alcohol and mandrax.

Stimulants. These stimulate the central nervous system. Examples are, tea, coffee, chocolate and
coca cola.

Hallucinogens. These distort the way the brain translates messages. The brain may produce images
with no basis in reality called hallucinations. Examples are, cocaine and magical mushrooms.

Narcotics or opiates. These substances make the senses dull and relieve pain by depressing the
cerebral cortex. Narcotics are derived from the opium poppy plant. Examples are raw opium,
morphine and heroin.

Inhalants or solvents. These are household products such as glue, perfume sprays and fuel gases.
Once inhaled entry to the brain is fast and the intoxicating effects are intense.

consequences

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Money obtained illegally is used to destabilize governments through corruption, intimidation,
violence and buying votes. It causes inflation in the nation. Governments spent a lot of money to
eradicate drug trafficking.

Possible solutions

Law enforcement agencies with international police (Interpol) provide information about
international criminals and their activities. They detain suspects and sometimes hand them over to
law enforcement agencies of their respective countries.

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