Module 5 : Fluid Film Lubrication

Fluid Mechanics Concepts

Fluid is defined as a substance that easily moves and changes its relative position without a
separation from the bulk mass. Fluid includes all gases, liquids and easy flowing solids. Film means
an exceedingly thin layer or a thin covering. Lubrication makes relative motion between two surfaces
very smooth. It reduces the friction and minimizes the wear. In normal conditions, real area of
contact between tribo-pair is hardly ten percent of apparent area. With such low contact area, stress-
state always exceeds the elastic/fracture point of all known solids. It results in high plastic
deformation in ductile materials, while generates cracks in brittle materials. In such a condition,
relative motion between surfaces causes excessive wear. Therefore, it is essential to reduce the
severity of normal stresses imposed by applied load and to reduce the shear stresses induced due
to relative motion. Fig. 5.1(a) highlights few possible methods to achieve the reduction in normal
and shear stresses. The first two concepts are useful for few degree oscillations. Continuous relative
motion such as rotational motion requires solid lubricants, boundary lubricants, rolling elements and
associate lubricants, pressurized (hydrostatic, aerostatic, hydrodynamic, aerodynamic) lubrication
or magnetic/electric field. Electric or Magnetic field is a very good solution, but requires gigantic
dimensions to compete with any mechanism of fluid film lubrication (FFL). In fluid film lubrication
regime the sliding surfaces are completely separated by a film of liquid or gaseous lubricant.

Fig. 5.1(a): Various concepts to separate two solid surfaces.

Classification of FFL :

• Hydrodynamic (Aerodynamic) :
- Converging wedge shaped geometry; as shown in Fig. 5.1(b) is essential for this lubrication.
- Viscosity of lubricant plays an important role to support the load.
 Fig. 5.1(b): Converging wedge shape geometry.

• Squeeze Film :
- Load and/or speed variation generate squeeze film action.
- Viscosity of lubricant plays important role.

Fig. 5.2: Squeeze lubrication.

• Hydrostatic (Aerostatic) :
- External pressure of fluid needs to be supplied to generate hydrostatic/aerostatic lubrication.
- Independent or to support hydrodynamic lubrication.

Fig. 5.3: Hydrostatic.

Every mechanism of fluid film lubrication is suitable for a particular set of operating and
environmental condition. For example, hydrostatic lubrication that separates two surfaces by an
external pressure source. It is suitable for extremely high load carrying capacity at low speed or at
highly controlled precision works. This mechanism finds its application in large telescopes, radar
tracking units, machine tools and gyroscopes. In reverse, aerostatic (here aero is not restricted to
air, but nitrogen and helium are also used) works well in high speed (from 25,000 rpm to 7,00,000
rpm) and light load applications even in all odd environment temperature conditions (-2000C to
20000C). As pressure is generated and supplied by external sources, it is one of the expensive
approaches to separate two surfaces. Further, if applied load is reduced, the film thickness
(separation between tribo-pair) will increase. Similarly if more load is added to the moving surface,
the film thickness will decrease. If a load greater than design load is applied the tribo-surface will
not be able separated. To reduce this sensitivity feed back control system is used, which increases
the cost of overall system. To compensate cost, often a hybrid concept of hydrodynamic +
hydrostatic or aerodynamic + aerostatic is used to achieve best of both the mechanisms of fluid film
lubrications. Aerodynamic tribo-pair requires very sophisticated manufacturing facilities, and can
sustain 5-10 % load compared to tribo-pair based on hydrodynamic lubrication.
 Fig. 5.4(a): Hydrodynamic lubrication

Fig. 5.4(b): Shearing of lubricant.

In a hydrodynamic lubrication mechanism, a fluid is drawn into the region between the relatively-
moving surface by the virtue of its viscosity and adhesion to the surfaces; and due to the converging
geometry of the surfaces(as shown in Fig. 5.1(b)) a pressure is generated within the fluid that
separates the tribo-surfaces. The separating film is only generated when the there is relative motion.
Higher the relative velocity thicker is the lubricant layer. This lubrication mechanism is referred as
“the ideal form of lubrication”, since solid surfaces are prevented from coming into contact (as shown
in Fig. 5.4(a), where two surfaces are completely separated) that provides high resistance to wear
and low friction. Lubricant viscosity plays a very important role in the hydrodynamic lubrication.
Minimum film thickness(hmin), which is a critical design criterion, is a function of relative velocity (U)
and applied load (W). The expression hmin α (U/W)1/2 generally guides preliminary design of fluid film
bearings. Force is calculated using the expression F = (ηU/h)A, where η is lubricant dynamic
viscosity, U is relative velocity, and h is film thickness. This expression generally misguides and
indicates thicker the lubricant film lesser the friction. In reality, friction force in hydrodynamic
lubrication is represented as :

This expression shows friction depends on pressure generation as well as velocity. For example in
journal bearing, friction loss can be represented as :

In this expression, WΦ is load perpendicular to load line. This component of load decreases with
increase in eccentricity ratio. Best way to judge the friction performance is evaluate the coefficient
of friction (f). For example, for a typical journal bearing operation, at eccentricity ratio 0.5, 0.6, 0.7,
0.8 and 0.9, friction force is: 36.5 N, 39N, 43 N, 52N, 74 N respectively; while load capacity is: 4500
N, 8000 N, 12200N, 23540 N, and 56994 N respectively. In this way coefficient of friction will be
0.008, 0.0048, 0.0035, 0.0022, and 0.0013 respectively. Therefore one can say thinner the
hydrodynamic film, better is the friction performance. In addition to having low frictional drag and
almost nil wear rate, hydrodynamic mechanism is self acting and requires little attention. However,
hydrodynamic action cannot be sustained at low design speed. Further it breaks down during
starting, direction changing and stopping. Another well known mechanism that always occurs at the
start/stop of tribo-pair is boundary lubrication. This lubrication mechanism assumes(as shown in
Fig. 5.4(c)) almost negligible separation between tribo-surfaces that occurs at high load and very
low speed. In such cases, the working fluid between tribo-pairs adheres to or "wets" the surfaces,
and carries a fraction of imposed load. The physical and chemical properties of thin molecular films
and the surfaces to which they are attached determine the overall tribological behavior. The friction
and wear, in the case of boundary lubrication, are much higher compared to those in full film
lubrication. That is why hybrid concept of hydrostatic operation at start and hydrodynamic operation
at running conditions came into existence. Third important fluid film lubrication mechanism is mixed
lubrication which assumes (as shown in Fig. 5.4(d)) solid contact between some asperities of tribo-
pairs, while rest of the area covered by lubricant. The lubrication mechanism in this regime is
governed by a combination of boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication. Interaction takes place
between one or more molecular layers of boundary lubricating film.

Fig. 5.4(c): Boundary lubrication.

Fig. 5.4(d): Mixed lubrication.

Lowest friction producing fluid film lubrication mechanism is Elasto-Hydrodynamic Lubrication (EHL).
EHL mostly occurs in rolling element bearings, gears, cam-follower contact. As the name suggests
this lubrication mechanism utilizes: (1) elastic deformation, and (2) hydrodynamics. Relative
velocity between tribo-pair develops hydrodynamic action. Excessive load or relatively soft surface
results in elastic deformation of surface(s). In case of excessive load, generated fluid pressure is
very high (ranging between 0.5 to 2 GPa) and the surfaces deform elastically. As lubricant viscosity
is a strong function of pressure, particularly at high pressure, lubricant-viscosity may rise (as much
as 10 orders of magnitude) considerably, and this further assists the formation of an effective
lubrication. EHL analysis involves an iterative procedure to establish compatibility between
hydrodynamic pressure developed by relative motion and separation between tribo-pair caused by
this pressure. Simplest way to analyze EHL is by making assumption of film thickness, solve using
hydrodynamic equations, evaluate elastic deformation of surfaces, modify film thickness and iterate.
The iteration continues until the modified film thickness distribution matches with the new film
thickness distribution. One of the notable points of EHL compared to hydrodynamic lubrication is the
negligible effect of load on minimum film thickness hmin α W-0.075 and significant effect of relative
velocity on film thickness hmin α U0.68.

Reynolds’ Equation :
 Fig. 5.5(a): Fluid film lubrication between two plates.

Fig. 5.5(b)

• In 1886, Reynolds derived an equation for estimation of pressure distribution for “Fluid Film
Lubrication”.

• Quantification of fluid film lubrication can be made by solving Reynolds’ Equation, which provides
fluid film pressure as a function of coordinates and time. Reynolds equation helps to predict
hydrodynamic, squeeze, and hydrostatic film mechanisms.

....Eq.(5.1)
for geometry shown in Fig. 5.5.

....Eq.(5.2)

....Eq.(5.3)
 ....Eq.(5.4)

Derivation of Reynolds’ Equation :

To model the pressure as a function of angle of inclination, let us consider a fluid element subjected
to pressure and viscous forces, assuming gravity and inertia forces(as shown in Fig. 5.6) acting on
fluid element can be neglected.

Fig. 5.6: Fluid element subjected to pressure & viscous forces.

Fig. 5.7: Development of fluid pressure in relatively moving inclined plates.

On balancing forces, shown in Fig. 5.6,

 Eq.(5.5)

For laminar flow of Newtonian fluid,

....Eq.(5.6)
On substitution

Equation(5.6) is based on following assumptions :

1. Negligible inertia terms
2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness
3. Newtonian fluid

....Eq.(5.7)

....Eq.(5.8)

Fig. 5.8: Velocities of plates.

 ....Eq.(5.9)

....Eq.(5.10)

Assuming no slip at liquid-solid boundary;

y = 0, u = U2

y = h, u = U1

Utilizing these boundary conditions, values of integration constants can be evaluated.

....Eq.(5.11)

Equation(5.11) is applicable for following assumptions :

1. Negligible interia terms.

2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness.
3. Newtonian fluid.
4. Constant value of viscosity.
5. No slip at liquid solid boundary.

In Eq.(5.11) on right hand side there are three terms, two velocity terms and one pressure term.
Velocity terms represent “shear flow” also known as “Couette flow”. Flow due to pressure gradient
is termed as “Poiseuille flow”. similarly flow velocity in z dir.
 ....Eq.(5.12)

The Poiseuille flow term retards the fluid flow at entrance as shown in Fig. 5.7. This pressure term
boasts flow at exit as indicated in Fig. 5.7. In this figure ua = U1 - U2.

Module 5 : Fluid Film Lubrication

Equation of Continuity & Motion

To derive the Reynolds equation, Eqs. (5.11 & 5.12) must be coupled with continuity equation.
Continuity equation for incompressible fluid can be expressed as :

....Eq.(5.13)

Fig. 5.9: Inclined plates with fluid element and coordinate system.

Integrating this equation in y-direction from y = 0 to y = h.

....Eq.(5.14)

....Eq.(5.15)

....Eq.(5.16)
 ....Eq.(5.17)

Using Eq.(5.14)

... ....Eq.(5.18)

In substituting Equation(5.17).

....Eq.(5.19)
 ....Eq.(5.20a)

Alternative Method to derive Eq.(5.20) :

....Eq.(5.14)

....Eq.(5.20b)

....Eq.(5.21)

Combining Equations (5.16), (5.20) & (5.21) :

 Or....

....Eq.(5.22)

Equation (5.22) is applicable for following assumptions :

1. Negligible inertia terms

2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Constant value of viscosity
5. No slip at liquid solid boundary
6. Neglecting angle of inclination for coordinate system
7. Incompressible flow

Module 5 : Fluid Film Lubrication

Interpretation of Reynolds Equation for Incompressible Lubricants

Reynolds’ Equation for incompressible lubricants :

....Eq.(5.22)

• Left hand side term is called pressure term.

• Right hand side terms are called source terms.

• ∂U/ ∂x , ∂W/∂z :- Called stretching action.

• ∂h/∂x , ∂h/∂z :- Wedge action(inclined surfaces).

• (V1 - V2) :- Squeeze action(bearing surfaces move perpendicular to each other).

 Fig. 5.10: Description of Reynolds equation.

If surface is very soft and stretchable, then velocity gradient on the surface of bearing(as shown in
Fig. 5.11) occurs.

Fig. 5.11: Streching action.

Reynolds equation(Eq.5.22) can be simplified by making few assumptions.

Assuming constant viscosity(η)

Assuming no relative velocity in Z-direction (W1 = W2 = 0).

 ...Eq.(5.23)

Equation(5.23) is applicable for following assumptions :

1. Negligible inertia terms

2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Constant value of viscosity
5. No slip at liquid solid boundary
6. Neglecting angle of inclination for coordinate system
7. Incompressible flow
8. Relative tangential velocity only in x-dir

Assuming no stretching action.

Assuming one surface with zero tangential velocity.

....Eq.(5.24)

Equation 5.24 is applicable for following assumptions :

1. Negligible inertia terms

2. Negligible pressure gradient in the direction of film thickness
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Constant value of viscosity
5. No slip at liquid solid boundary
6. Neglecting angle of inclination for coordinate system
7. Incompressible flow
8. Relative tangential velocity only in x-dir
9. Both rigid surfaces
10. Only inclined surface slides

Pressure Distribution :

To estimate fluid film pressure, Reynolds equation(5.25) needs to be solved. Easiest way to solve
this equation is to neglect pressure distribution in one direction and consider pressure gradient only
in one direction(as shown in Fig. 5.12 and Fig. 5.13). Other method is numerical method in which
non-dimensionalization of cordinates and fluid pressure is required for getting faster convergence of
solution.
 Fig. 5.12: Dimension in x-dir is much larger than dimension in z-dir

Fig. 5.13: Dimension in z-dir is much larger than dimension in x-dir

....Eq.(5.25)

On non-dimensionlizing in terms of Reynolds equation such as

On non-dimensionlizing

Eq.(5.25)

Or ..

On substituting non dimensional pressure and time, Reynolds equation becomes Eq.(5.26).

....Eq.(5.26)

Where two most common approximations are "short bearing" and "long bearing".

....Eq.(5.27)

....Eq.(5.28)

Equation 5.27 shows that pressure gradient in X - direction is neglegible, while Eq.(5.28) shows that
pressure gradient in Z - direction is negligible. In other words effect of terms in the Reynolds’
equation depends on the geometry of the bearings.

Solution of Steady State Reynolds’ Eq. :

In static case, Journal position remains in static equilibrium and film thickness remains constant
w.r.t time. In other words, ∂h/∂t term of Eq.(5.26) will be zero and equation reduces to Eq.(5.27).

....Eq.(5.29)
 Fig. 5.14(a): Tribo surfaces under full film lubrication.

To solve Eq.(5.29) for tribo surface[Fig. 5.14(a)], surface can be discrelized in number of nodes, as
shown in Fig. 5.14(b).

Fig. 5.14(b): Discretization of surface.

To approximate partial derivation following Tayler series can be utilized.

This means.. ....Eq.(5.30)

 ....Eq.(5.31)

and

....Eq.(5.32)

Using this kind of Taylor series approximation in Eq.(5.29).

On rearranging

....Eq.(5.33)

Eq.(5.33) can be solved for i = 1, N and j = 1, M with appropriate boundary conditions, by writing
sequence of equations, such as
As most of values of nodal pressures(pi,j) are unknown therefore iterative loop is employed to
estimate the fluid prerssure.

Process of iterations will be repeated till following a convergence criterion is satisfied.

....Eq.(5.34)

The value of ε is very small. To understand complexity of solving Eq.(5.33), let us assume N = 25,
m = 25, k = 30. This means number of required steps 25 * 25 * 30 --> 18750. Calculation can be
reduced by approximating short length compared to other direction as given in Eq.(5.35) if
transverse Z length of surface is much lesser than tangential(X) length. By this approximate gradient
is one direction(X) direction is negligible.

....Eq.(5.35)

N = 0, m = 25, k = 15. Number of required steps 25 * 15 --> 375. 18750/375 = 50 times !!! --
> This means number of calculations decrease significantly by making short-bearing approximation.

Example : Assume a thrust pad of 10*100 mm dimensions. Leading and trailing film thicknesses
are 0.04 and 0.02 mm respectively. Sliding speed is 20 m/s. Viscosity of oil is 10 mPa.s. Find
pressure distribution.

Average clearence
 Fig. 5.15: Tangential length much lesser than transverse length.

Non dimensional film thickness

....Eq.(5.37)
On rearranging ....Eq.(5.38)

As film thickness is based on geometry, which does not change with time and iterations, therefore
film thickness can evaluated and stored as listed in Table 5.1.

Fig. 5.16: Boundary condition.

 Table 5.1: Film thickness values.

Using the values of film thickness(Table 5.1) and Eq.(5.38), pressure at various iterations can be
evaluated as listed in Table 5.2. Over every iteration error(Eq.5.39) shall reduce. In the present
example error at second iteration is 0.46 and error at 13 iteration is 0.052 as given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Values of fluid pressure over iterations.

....Eq.(5.39)
 Fig. 5.17: Fluid pressure at various nodes.

Fig. 5.18: Non-dimensional pressure over iteration.

Figures 5.17 and 5.18 illustrate variation in pressure profile. Pressure is minimum(ambient) at
boundaries(nodes 1 and 11) and reaches to maximum at node 8(slightly away from mid-node).

The same example solved by numerical method in previous pages can be solved using long bearing
approximation.

Generalized pressure expression for Approach1 :

For same film thickness expression( ).
Example : Assume a thrust pad of 10*100 mm dimensions. Leading and trailing film thicknesses
are 0.04 and 0.02 mm respectively. Sliding speed is 20 m/s. Viscosity of oil is 10 mPa.s and find
pressure distribution.
Fig. 5.19 : Thrust pad bearing.
Using Eq.(5.40) non-dimensional pressure(Fig. 5.20) can be evaluated. We can compare this
pressure with pressure calculated with numerical method(Fig. 5.21).
 Fig. 5.20: Nondimensional pressure vs nondimensional x-coordinate.

Fig. 5.21: Non-dimensional pressure calculated using numerical method.

In second example we can consider short bearing (X/Z) = 10.

Generalized pressure expression for Approach2(short bearing approximation) :

Example : Assume a thrust pad of 100*10 mm dimensions. Leading and trailing film thicknesses
are 0.04 and 0.02 mm respectively. Sliding speed is 20 m/s. Viscosity of oil is 10 mPa.s. Find
pressure distribution.
Fig. 5.22: Short bearing.
 Fig. 5.23: Non-dimensional pressure using short bearing approximation.

Hybrid Solution Approach to solve Reynolds’ Equation

In previous part of the solving Reynolds’ equation, two approaches: long bearing approach
(dimension in sliding direction much shorter than non-sliding direction: Approach 1) and short
bearing approach ((dimension in sliding direction much larger than non-sliding direction: Approach
2) were considered. Both approaches are simple to implement and provide quick solution, but
provide higher pressure values compared to actual fluid pressure developed by hydrodynamic
actions. These approaches may provide reliable results in very short span of dimensions. To improve
accuracy but maintain advantages of Approach 1/Approach2 we can hybridize these approaches.
Two examples of extreme dimensions have been considered to illustrate the simplicity and accuracy
of the hybrid approach. As hybrid approach requires pressure expressions obtain by Approach 1 and
Approach 2, therefore derivation of fluid pressures have been detailed in the present heading.

Fig. 5.24: Nondimensional pressure vs nondimensional x-coordinate.

Hybridization :
This indicates that if dimension in sliding direction is relatively short, Approach 2 provides very
INACCURATE pressure values.

This indicates that if dimension in sliding direction is relatively large, Approach 1 provides very
INACCURATE pressure values.

Example : Leading and trailing thicknesses are 0.04 and 0.02 mm respectively. sliding speed is 20

m/s. Viscosity of oil is 10 mPa.s. Find pressure distribution. In the present example

Let us consider two cases bearing dimensions for same film thickness expression.

CASE 1 : Thrust pad of 100*10 mm dimensions.

....Eq.(5.42)
 ....Eq.(5.43)

Case 1: Assume a thrust pad of 100 * 10 mm dimensions.

....Eq.(5.44)
Case 2: Assume a thrust pad of 10 * 100 mm dimensions.

....Eq.(5.45)

HYBRID APPROACH

CASE 1: Assume a thrust pad of 100 * 10 mm dimensions, use equations (5.42) and (5.44).

....Eq.(5.46)
CASE 2: Assume a thrust pad of 10 * 100 mm dimensions, use equations (5.43) and (5.45).

....Eq.(5.47)

Equations (5.46) and (5.47) are used to find pressure distribution for case 1 (Fig. 5.25a) and case
2 (Fig. 5.25b).
Fig. 5.25: Non-pressure calculated using short bearing and hybrid bearing
approximation.
 Fig. 5.26: Comparison between hybrid and Approach 1.

On studing Figures 5.25 and 5.26, it can be concluded that hybrid bearing approximation provides
lesser value of fluid pressure compared to approaches 1 and 2. To get more confidence on hybrid
approach let us consider following example :
Pressure expression does not change with value of Zin Approach 1. But pressure expression for
approach 2 changes with change in dimensions either in X or Z direction.

Fig. 5.27: Approach 1 ............................. Fig. 5.28: Approach 2.

Fig. 5.29: Hybrid approach.

Non-dimensional pressure distribution obtained using Approach 1(long bearing), Approach 2(short
bearing) and hybrid bearing are plotted in Figures 5.27 to 5.29 which plot provides better results
can be judged based on results of finite difference method.

Finite Difference Method to solve Reynolds’ Equation

Finite Difference Method(By central difference method) :

After substitution and rearrangement.

....Eq.(5.48)

As pressures at i, j nodes are unknown(except boundary pressures), following approximation at 0th

iteration is made

Assumption : film thickness only function of x :

By simplification of above equation we get

Non-dimensional nodal pressure :

We can remove subscript j from h terms and because we are taking equal spacing.
We can make computer program to get pressure results.

Computer Program(Matlab program) :

N=50; % number of nodes in X-dir.

M=50; % number of nodes in Z-dir.
C = 0.030; % radial clearence in mm.
Z1=25; % Length in axial direction(mm).
X1 = 10; % Length in sliding direction.
delxbar = 1/N;
delzbar = 1/M;
const1 = X1*X1/(Z1*Z1);
ITER = 1000; % Number of iteration.
for I=1:N+1
for J=1:M+1
p(I,J)=0.0; % Assigning zero pressure at every i, j node.
end
end
sum(1)=0.0;
for K = 1:ITER
sumij=0.0;
for I=2:N
X(I)=1/N*(I-1);
h=2/3*(2-X(I));
hm=2/3*(2-X(I)-0.5*delxbar);
hp=2/3*(2-X(I)+0.5*delxbar);
hm1=2/3*(2-X(I)-delxbar);
hp1=2/3*(2-X(I)+delxbar);
cubh=h*h*h;
cubhm=hm*hm*hm;
cubhp=hp*hp*hp;
const2 = (cubhp+cubhm+2*const1*cubh);
A=const1*cubh/const2;
CA=cubhp/const2;
D=cubhm/const2;
E=-0.5*delxbar*(hp1-hm1)*C/(const2*X1);
for J=2:M
Z(J)=1/M*(J-1);
p(I,J)=A*p(I,J+1)+A*p(I,J-1)+CA*p(I+1,J)+D*p(I-1,J)-E;
sumij=sumij+p(I,J);
end
end
sum(K+1)=sumij;
percentage = abs(sum(K+1)-sum(K))/abs(sum(K+1));
if percentage < 0.0001
break
end
end
y = K
SURF(p); % Plot pressure in 3-D.

Effect of error(ε) on solution :

Error is evaluated using Eq.(5.39). Pressure distribution for error(ε) = 0.01 is shown in Fig. 5.30.
Comparing pressure disribution shown in Fig. 5.31 with that in Fig. 5.30, it can be concluded that
pressure is modified and the maximum pressure is slightly higher in Fig. 5.31. Pressure distribution
shown in Fig. 5.31 and Fig. 5.32 are almost same which means convergence has occured.

Fig. 5.30: Pressure distribution for ε = 0.01, N = 10, M = 10.

 Fig. 5.31: Pressure distribution for ε = 0.001, N = 10, M = 10.

Fig. 5.32: Pressure distribution for ε = 0.0001, N = 10, M = 10.

Comparing results of pressure distributions obtained by Finite diffrence, hybrid approach

and Approach 1.
In previous subheading pressure distribution for thrust pad of 10 * 25 mm 2 dimension was obtained
using finite difference method. Pressure results are plotted in Fig. 5.33. On comparing Figures 5.33,
5.34 and 5.35 it can be said that pressure profile obtained by hybrid approach is very close to
pressure profile obtained by FDM.

Fig. 5.33: Pressure distribution for ε = 0.001; Node 50 * 50, (X/Z) = 0.4.

Fig. 5.34: Approach 1 ...................................... 5.35: Hybrid approach.

Conclusions :-

1. Hybrid approach provides better results compared to the results obtained by Approach 1 &
Approach 2.

2. Accuracy of pressure results obtained by finite difference method (FDM) depends on the number
of nodes (discretization of bearing space) and number of iterations.

3. To reduce the computation time required to estimate nodal pressures using FDM, we can assign
initial pressure values obtained by hybrid approach and involving subsequent iteration using FDM.

Viscosity Variation

In deriving Reynolds equation in previous subheading, an assumption of constant viscosity was

made. In practice viscosity is function of pressure and it increases with increase in fluid pressure, as
given in Eq.(5.49).

Eq.(5.49)

On substituting this viscosity relation in static Reynolds equation.

....Eq.(5.50)

....Eq.(5.51)

....Eq.(5.52)

Using Eq.(5.52) in Eq.(5.51), we get

....Eq.(5.53)
This Reynolds’ equation does not consider the shape of the surfaces under high pressure. It only
encompasses the alteration in the viscosity by defining reduced pressure. For multigrade oils,
viscosity is represented as :

....Eq.5.53(c)

Using Eq 5.53(c), Reynolds equation for multigrade oil is presented as:

Eq.5.53(d)

Effect of pressure viscosity relation :

Pressure profilies obtained by using Eq.(5.50) and Eq.(5.53) after converting reduce pressure to
fluid pressure have been plotted in Fig. 5.36 and Fig. 5.37 respectively. No noticeable difference in
pressures is observed. In other words for low viscosity oil, pressure viscosity does not bring much
difference in pressure.
Fig. 5.36: Pressure distribution without pressure viscosity, relation viscosity =
10 mPa.s

Fig. 5.37: Pressure distribution with pressure viscosity relation

Effect of pressure viscosity relation for thicker oils :

Fig. 5.38: Pressure distribution without pressure viscosity relation, viscosity =
200 mPa.s

Fig. 5.39: Pressure distribution with pressure viscosity relation, viscosity

200mPa.s
On comparing Figures 5.38 and 5.39, an increase in fluid pressure on accounting pressure viscosity
relation is observed.

Effect of pressure viscosity relation on increasing relative velocity :

Fig. 5.40: Pressure distribution without pressure viscosity relation (200mPa.s,

V = 50 m/s)

Fig. 5.41: Pressure distribution with pressure viscosity relation, viscosity

200mPa.s, V = 50 m/s.
VISCOSITY Temperature Relationship :

Lubricant viscosity is a strong function of temperature, as illustrated in Table 5.3. Vogel and Wather’s
relations are often used to express dependence of viscosity on temperature.

• Vogel`s equation : η = keb/(t + θ) .

k gives inherent viscosity. b has unit of temperature. b increases with increase in viscosity.

• Walther`s Equation loglog(cS + 0.6) = constant - c log T.

Table 5.3: Variation in viscosity with temperature.

Using these equations (Vogel/Walther) effect of temperature on pressure can be evaluated.

Reynolds equation for compressible fuid.

On accounting density variation of fluid Reynolds equation is given by

....Eq.5.53(a)

First two terms of this equation represent pressure-flow in two directions (in the plane of rotation).
Maximum complexity of Reynolds equation lies in these two terms, due to :

• Relation between density ρ and pressure P in aero- dynamic/static lubrication.

• Relation between viscosity, μ and pressure P; and relation between film thickness h and pressure
P in elasto hydrodynamic lubrication.

• Relation between viscosity μ and film thickness for multigrade liquids.

• Relation between viscosity μ and temperature (that depends on pressure) for thermal analysis.

As viscosity of gases is almost independent of temperature and pressure, Reynolds equation Eq

5.53(a) for aerodynamic lubrication is presented as :
 ....Eq.5.53(b)

Importance of viscosity :

Streibeck curve shows how the viscosity of lubricant affects the nature and quality of the lubrication.
Somerfield number on x-axis depends on viscosity, relative speed and mean pressure (specific load).
If load and speed are constant. Viscosity divides lubrication in three zones.

Zone 3 : Complete separation, thick film, hydrodynamic lubrication. Friction is entirely viscous
friction caused by mechanical shearing. Point C just sufficient to ensure complete separation of
surfaces. Point C ideal point to provide zero wear with almost minimum friction.

Zone2 : Load is carried partly by the film of lubricant and partly by asperity interaction.

Zone 1 : Zone of boundary lubrication. Chemical and physical properties of lubricant other than its
bulk viscosity control the quality of lubrication.

Fig. 5.42(a): Stribeck curve.

Petroff’s Equation :

To account thermal effects, we need to calculate friction loss. Petroff’s equation provides crude
estimation of friction loss in sliding bearing.
 Fig. 5.42(b): Lubricant shearing.

Fig. 5.43: Sliding bearing.

Petroff assumed concentric position of shaft as shown in Fig. 5.43. To derive friction he assumed
shearing(Fig. 5.42(b)) of Newtonian lubricant.

Friction = Shear stress * Area

F = (Viscosity * V/h) * Area

V = 2πRN; A = 2πRL

F = (η * 2πRN * 2πRL)/C....Eq.(5.54)

C is radial clearence. Equation(5.54) is known as Petroff`s equation. This equation can be used to
estimate generated heat.

Heat generated H = F.V ....Eq.(5.55)

Temperature Rise :

Friction, due to shear of lubricant film, generates heat (F * V) in lubricant oil(Eq. 5.55) and increases
the temperature of lubricant. Assuming that total generated heat is carried by the oil flowing through
bearing.
 ....Eq.(5.56)

Assume ρ = 860 kg/m3

CP = 1760 J/(Kg0C)

R/C = 1000

η = ηin e-β(t - t )
in

After substitution Δt = 52.2 η N....Eq.(5.57)

Assume rotational speed = 900 rpm.

Δt = 783 η....Eq.(5.58)

In hydrodynamic lubrication, increase in viscosity increases load capacity but also increases friction
and temperature(Eq. 5.58), therefore careful selection of viscosity is important.

Elastic Deformation

In previous paragraphs effect of pressure on viscosity was considered. In the present heading, we
shall consider effect of pressure on elasticity of the contacting (or non-contacting) materials. It is
generally known that elastic deformation of the material depends on “Young’s modulus” and
“Poisson’s ratio”. Under compressive load, elastic deformation of surfaces over a region surrounding
the initial point of contact occurs, as shown in Fig. (5.45). Associated stresses are highly dependent
on geometry of the surfaces in contact as well as loading and material properties.
Fig. 5.44: Spherical objects in without contact load...........Fig. 5.45: Spherical
objects in contact under compressive load.

Fig. 5.46: Cylindrical objects in contact. ...................... Fig. 5.47: Spherical

objects in contact.
 Fig. 5.48: Pressure profile.

Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication

Due to elastic deformation caused by compressive loading, a flat surface is created(as shown in Fig.
5.48) which allows lubricant to be captured. Such mechanism, known as elasto-hydrodynamic
lubrication, increases the load capacity of hydrodynamic action.

Spherical contact :

Pressure distribution in EHL between spherical(Fig. 5.48) object can modeled using.

....Eq.(5.59)

Here Pmax is the max, fluid pressure, 2b is total contact patch perpendicular to normal load r varies
between zero to value b.

On substituting expression of p from Eq.(5.59).

 ....Eq.(5.60)

Cylindrical Contact :

Fig. 5.49: Cylindrical contact.

Pressure distribution in cylindrical contact can be given by Eq.(5.61).

 ....Eq.(5.61)

Pressure variation along Y - axis is negligible, Therefore

....Eq.(5.62)

Total applied load on contact patch can be obtained by substituting Eq.(5.62) and integrating over
cylindrical length.

Let x = b sin θ. Total applied load on contact patch is

....Eq.(5.63)

On comparing with it can be

said that F in cylindrical contact > F in spherical contact.

Elastic Deformation suggested by Timoshenko & Goodier :

Equation(5.60) and (5.63) requires expression of b to estimate the load capacity. To find b we can

use
Fig. 5.50: Elastic deformation in Z-dir under compressive load.

....Eq.(5.64)

....Eq.(5.65)
Deflection δ1 can be approximate using Fig. (5.51).

....Eq.(5.66)
On using Equations (5.65), (5.66) and (5.60); and rearranging

....Eq.(5.67)

....Eq.(5.68)

Fig. 5.51: Sketch to express δ . 1

How to incorporate deflection in FDM :

In previous paragraphs we derived analytical expression of deflection, but for generic geometry we
need to use numerical methods, i.e., FDM, FEM.

....Eq.(5.69)

In FDM, nodal pressure Pi,j are evaluated which can be incorporated in Eq.(5.69).

Deflection at each node needs to be evaluated.

Fig. 5.52: Grid arrangement for FDM.

On non-dimensionlizing
 Or..
....Eq.(5.70)

Finite Difference Method :

In EHL we need to combine hydrodynamic and elastic deformation. To integrate both the action we
can solve Reynolds equation and update film thickness by incorporating local elastic deformation.
Or

....Eq.(5.71)

Eq.(5.71) can be solved using iteration and for each evaluated nodal pressure film thickness can be
updated by incorporating Eq.(5.70). Fig.(5.53) shows pressure profiles for same geometric
dimension.
 Fig. 5.53(a): Pressure profile accounting only hydrodynamic action.

Fig. 5.53(b): Pressure profile accounting viscosity pressure relation.

Deflection curve :
Fig. 5.53(c): Pressure profile accounting viscosity pressure and elastic
deformation in hydrodynamic action.

Fig. 5.54: Deflection curve.

 Fig. 5.55: Deflection curve after accounting elastic
deformation

Om comparing figures 5.54 and 5.55, lesser deflection in Fig. (5.55) is observed. This means
modification in film thickness, reduces local deformation.

Pressure distribution :

Due to elastic deformation, maximum value of pressure decreases and more uniform pressure
distribution occurs as shown in Fig. 5.56.

Fig. 5.56: Pressure distribution accounting EHL.

Thermo-hydrodynamic lubrication
In previous paragraphs elastohydrodynamic lubrication mechanism was explained. In the present
subheading we are going to discuss thermo-hydrodynamic lubrication. The analysis of a
hydrodynamic lubrication problem with allowance for viscous heating is commonly known as
thermohydrodynamics.

Why should we consider thermal heating ?

Answer of this question is provided in Table (5.4) which lists significant reduction in fluid viscosity
on increasing temperature occurs, which may reduce load carrying capacity.

Table 5.4

How to account Thermal effects ?

We need to solve energy equation with hydrodynamic equation(Eq. 5.72)

Energy Equation: The energy equation is a simplified form of the heat transfer equation commonly
used in fluid mechanics.

....Eq.(5.72)

In the present case Φ = τ(δu/δy)

For Newtonian fluid Φ = η(δu/δy)2 where

•u lubricant velocity in the direction of sliding [m/s];

•p lubricant density [kg/m3];

• Cp is the specific heat of the lubricant [J/kg K];

•K is the thermal conductivity of the lubricant [W/mK];

•w is the lubricant velocity in the ‘z’ direction [m/s];

•x is the co-ordinate in the direction of sliding [m];

• y is the co-ordinate normal to the horizontal plane of the lubricant film [m].

Terms present in the heat transfer equation can be eliminated by an order of magnitude analysis to
yield only the convection terms and the conduction normal to the plane of the film. The
characteristics of pressure and shear stress equilibrium in the oil film are unchanged except that the
viscosity is variable in all three dimensions, i.e. viscosity also varies through the film thickness.

Simplified Energy Equation :

Or

Or

....Eq.(5.73)

Or
 where

Fig. 5.57: Boundary condition.

To solve Eq.(5.73) we require boundary conditions. Temperatures at the outlet are unknown and
can be calculated by applying the boundary condition ∂/∂x = 0(Fig. 5.57). The condition ∂T/∂x = 0
relates to the very slow change in temperature by cooling once the lubricant leaves the bearing exit.