Vol 19 No 5 May 2020

IJLTER.
ORG
International Journal
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Learning, Teaching
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Educational Research
p-ISSN: 1694-2493
e-ISSN: 1694-2116
Vol.19 No.5
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
(IJLTER)
Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 2020)
Print version: 1694-2493
Online version: 1694-2116
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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 5 May 2020
Table of Contents
Social Pedagogy as a Necessary Basis for Teachers Training in Greece .......................................................................... 1
Vassilis Pantazis and Despoina Styla
Game-Based Learning Platform and its Effects on Present Tense Mastery: Evidence from an ESL Classroom ...... 13
Mohd Iskandar Idris, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said and Kim Hua Tan
Effectiveness and Stakeholders’ Perceptions of the Integration of Automated E-Learning Courses into Vocational
Education Programmes in Universities in Ukraine .......................................................................................................... 27
Valentyna I. Bobrytska, Tatyana D. Reva, Svitlana M. Protska and Oksana M. Chkhalo
Implementation of Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Approach in Chemistry Instructional with Context of Tofu
Liquid Waste Treatment ...................................................................................................................................................... 47
Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja, Wahyu Sopandi and Dini Anggraeni
Ready or Not: The Experiences of Novice Academic Heads in School Leadership ..................................................... 78
Gilbert S. Arrieta and Inero V. Ancho
Action Research in Hadith Literacy: A Reflection of Hadith Learning in the Digital Age ......................................... 99
Tedi Supriyadi, J. Julia, Ani Nur Aeni and Elan Sumarna
Perception of TPET Lecturers’ on the Effect of Global Partnerships in Developing Students’ Career Human
Capital .................................................................................................................................................................................. 125
James Edomwonyi Edokpolor and Vero Iyalekhue Abusomwan
Development of the Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) Medium to Improve the Cognitive Skills on the Heat Transfer
Concept ................................................................................................................................................................................ 141
Firmanul Catur Wibowo, Esmar Budi, Lari Andres Sanjaya, Dina Rahmi Darman, Mohamad Syarif Sumantri and Dinas
Kurnia Robby
Junior High School Students' Experiences of High Technology Based Learning in Indonesia ................................ 153
Supardi Supardi and Enung Hasanah
Factors that Influence Learning Strategy Use among Senior High School Economics Students in Ghana: A
Quantitative Approach ...................................................................................................................................................... 167
Anthony Akwesi Owusu and Cosmas Cobbold
Teachers’ Efforts in Understanding the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive Assessment Using the
Revised 2013 Curriculum................................................................................................................................................... 186
Hermayawati .
The Impact of Specialty, Sex, Qualification, and Experience on Teachers’ Assessment Literacy at Saudi Higher
Education ............................................................................................................................................................................. 200
Sabria Salama Jawhar and Ahmad M. Subahi
Enhancing Students’ Academic Performance in University System: The Perspective of Supplemental Instruction
............................................................................................................................................................................................... 217
Oyinlola Omolara Adebola, Cias T. Tsotetsi and Bunmi Isaiah Omodan
Aesthetic Education as a Topical Direction of Preparation of a Modern Specialist ................................................... 231

Olena F. Sbitnieva, Liudmyla M. Sbitnieva, Hanna E. Ovcharenko, Victoria S. Furkalo and Svitlana S. Bondar
Pedagogical Training System of Future Social Workers in Ukraine: Experimental Study ....................................... 245
Hanna A. Ridkodubska, Oksana Ya. Romanyshyna, Oksana Y. Karabin, Nataliia V. Kazakova and Halyna S. Tarasenko
Potential of the Use of Social Networks in Teaching a Foreign Language in Higher Educational Institutions ..... 260
Iryna M. Zvarych, Natalia M. Lavrychenko, Nataliya H. Zaitseva, Olena M. Chaika and Oksana M. Skorobahata
Development of Social Intelligence in Preschool Children by Art Therapy: Case Study of Oyna Educational
Centre ................................................................................................................................................................................... 276
Akhmetzhan S. Seitenov, Rakhila Zh. Aubakirova, Alyona A. Kostyunina, Ekaterina V. Mishchenko, Natalya B. Shevchenko
Application of Cloud Educational Technologies for Teacher Competence Development ........................................ 289
Iurii L. Mosenkis, Liudmyla V. Lukianyk, Oleksandr M. Strokal, Vira A. Ponomarova and Hanna V. Mykhailiuk
Using U-NO-ME Card Game to Enhance Primary One Pupils’ Vocabulary .............................................................. 304
Brenda Ak Lukas, Finola Iba Ak Patrick, Gloria Chong, Nursuriati Binti Jaino and Melor Md. Yunus
Academic Reading and Writing Needs of Undergraduate Nursing Students in Research ...................................... 318
Reynold C. Padagas and Bonjovi H. Hajan
Perspectives on Mentoring Support During Teaching Practicum in Local & International Settings ...................... 336
Rohaya Abdullah, M. Ali Ghufron, Yunita Puspitasari Puspitasari and Norlida Ahmad
Peer Tutorial: Championing Students at Risk ................................................................................................................. 352

Joel B. Tan and Esterlina B. Gevera
Malaysian Public University Lecturers’ Perceptions and Practices of Formative and Alternative Assessments .. 379
Tajularipin Sulaiman, Sedigheh Shakib Kotamjani, Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim and Muhammad Nazrul Hakim
Enhancing Mathematical Language through Oral Questioning in Primary Schools ................................................. 395
Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud, Aida Suraya Md. Yunus, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Tajularipin Sulaiman
STEM Education in Malaysia towards Developing a Human Capital through Motivating Science Subject .......... 411
Fazilah Razali, Umi Kalthom Abdul Manaf and Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub
1

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 1-12, May 2020
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.1
Social Pedagogy as a Necessary Basis for

Teachers Training in Greece
Vassilis Pantazis
Department of Early Childhood Education
University of Thessaly, Greece
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0915-7752
Despoina Styla
Department of Early Childhood Education
University of Thessaly, Greece
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9354-7125
Abstract. This paper aims to examine the importance of social pedagogy

theory and practice throughout teachers’ continuing training in Greece.
Teaching is a demanding job that cannot be complete, unless the teacher
is scientifically trained and that’s why we argue, according to relevant
scientific researches, that social pedagogy theory, through practical
application, can be very constructive, for this purpose. Thus, the authors
initially attempt to go through a general overview of social pedagogy, to
inform teachers about what social pedagogy is, about the theory, the
content and objectives of social pedagogy. Moreover, the research method
of the study is a systematic review and a thematic analysis of sociological
and other scientific studies relevant to social pedagogy and teachers
training, conducted/found on the Web. According to the results, first of
all, considering the major responsibility of classroom teachers for
continuing training, it’s important for teachers to be social pedagogues,
since the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them with the
ability to deal with problems and difficulties raised in the classroom.
Secondly, that importance is growing, if we consider that teachers
attempt for a holistic teaching/didactic approach, following social
pedagogy’s principles, is reflected in children’s ability for social and
emotional development, for healthy relationships, for achieving
wellbeing and becoming complete citizens. Finally, the necessity of this
research is growing, if we consider that especially nowadays in Greek
society, students face many social problems, the majority of which occur
due to the current economic crisis (such as bullying, poverty, racism) and
that’s why the spread of social pedagogy’s theory and practice in Greek
teaching/educational community, is of high essentiality and can be
achieved through teachers continuing training.
Keywords: teachers; continuing training; social pedagogy; social

pedagogues; Greek society
©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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1. Introduction
The founding of Social Pedagogy in Germany depicts the enormous socio-
economic problems that this country was experiencing in the 19th century due to
the industrial revolution, which gave birth to the need for "resistance" from
society and especially from the lower social class, so that social changes can take
place. Thus, more emphasis was placed on the social functioning of education
(Hämäläinen, 2003).
As a scientific field, social pedagogy appeared in the 20th century, when the
German philosopher Paul Natorp (1854-1924), published, in 1899, the book
‘Sozialpädagogik: Theorie der Willensbildung Auf der Grundlage der
Gemeinschaft’ (Social Pedagogy: The Theory of Educating the Human Will into a
Community Asset) (Eriksson, 2010). Specifically, Natorp (1904, p.94) as mentioned
in Kornbeck and Jensen (2012, p.201) argued that “teachers should always consider
the interaction between the social aspects of education and the educational aspects of social
life”.
There are some theorists of the 19th and 20th century whose philosophy affected
Social Pedagogy such as Karl Mager (1810-1858) and Friedrich Distersweg (1790-
1866) who believe in education’s social mission and Herman Nohl (1879-1960)
who argued that pedagogical intervention should focus on social help, based on
love (Schugurensky & Silver, 2013).
Social pedagogy΄s relationship with the area of education is narrow, according to
what Moss and Petrie (2019 p. 402) say about that issue. They claim that social
pedagogy is capable of ‘’spanning and infusing’’ all the areas that work with people
of all ages, including schools of all levels. Also, in some European countries, social
pedagogy is the subject of undergraduate and postgraduate studies (Petrie, 2013).
In Greece, at this point, there have also been developed higher education study
programs, dealing with the subject of social pedagogy, such as: 1) the
undergraduate course called ‘introduction to social pedagogy’ at the University
of Thessaly, Department of Early Childhood Education, 2) the undergraduate
course called ‘Socio-educational approaches in primary school’ at the University
of West Macedonia, Department of Primary Education, 3) the postgraduate
course, called ‘Social Neuroscience, Social Pedagogy and Education’ at National
and Kapodistrian University of Athens (EKPA) (Kontogianni, 2019). However,
there is a great need that the range of those education programs about social
pedagogy should become wider.
Moreover, although Greek university students start becoming familiar with social
pedagogy theory (to clarify the theoretical basis, such as learning a theoretical
introduction to social pedagogy, including a history of ideas, basic concepts, etc.),
during their studies at the university, there is no research evidence (research
studies) that they continue with this, during their continuing training. We argue,
that there is a great need, that teachers around the world rediscover the concept
of social pedagogy, during their continuing training. And this is very crucial,
especially for Greek teachers, as Greek society is currently affected by an economic
crisis that also translates into a social crisis (Kyridis, Christodoulou, Vamvakidou
& Paulidis-Korres, 2015). Thus, this paper aims, through literature review, to
emphasize the importance of the social pedagogy theory and practice, throughout
continuing training of teachers and especially Greek teachers.

3
2. Methodology
A systematic review was used in the collection of texts, included in this study.
Systematic review is ‘’a form of literature review, which involves identifying,
synthesising and assessing all available evidence, quantitative and/or qualitative, in order
to generate a robust, empirically derived answer to a focused research question’’ (Mallett,
Hagen-Zanker, Slater & Duvendack, 2012, pp. 445-446). Moreover, according to
Green, Johnson and Adams (2006, p.104) “authors of systematic reviews attempt to
obtain all original research studies published on the topic under study by searching in
multiple databases, performing hand searches and contacting authors of previously
published research’’.
After examining the offered possibilities for selecting open accessed articles, on-
line books, conferences proceedings, dissertations/theses and reports relevant to
social pedagogy, we decided to limit the research to the Education Resources
Information Centre (ERIC), to Google Scholar database, to Scopus database, to
Web of Science (WoS), to Research Gate network and Akademia.edu network of
professionals and scientists.
Great effort has been made to perform a scientific procedure, to meet academic
standards of high quality. The following inclusion criteria were conducted, to
select texts in the review: (1) deal with social pedagogy (which were the first
Keywords search), (2) deal with teachers training (which were the second
Keywords search), (3) be published in peer-reviewed journals, (4) be published
during the period 2000-2020, (5) written and published in the English Language,
(6) the terms ‘social pedagogy’ or ‘social pedagogues’ must appear clearly in the
titles, (7) the term ‘teachers training’ must appear in the titles, separate or
combined to the social pedagogy term, (8) avoid texts referring to social work and
social workers, a distinct/separate scientific field (9) avoid comparative studies of
social pedagogy and social work, as they are irrelevant to our study’s topic.
Using the above search criteria on Web (our study’s query run between September
2019 and December 2019) we obtained 85 articles, 3 on-line books, 3 theses, 4
reports, that were eligible for thematic analysis, which is a method for identifying,
analysing, organizing, describing, and reporting themes found within a data set
(Bryman, 2012). To use only those of the 85 articles that correspond to our main
research goal, the following exclusion criteria were used: (1) exclude journals that
include no references to the social pedagogy’s connection to practice and the
general benefits occurred by this connection, (2) to exclude studies referring to
teachers training and to the increase of their professionalism, which are the
majority of studies appearing, when one types on the Web the Keywords ‘teachers
training’, (3) to exclude the major number of studies that examine the history of
social pedagogy in different countries, which is irrelevant to our study.
To continue to literature review, we first analyse the term social pedagogy,
because when the discussion comes to what social pedagogy is, there is a great
misunderstanding, as it is a complex field. A field which tries to combine the
principles of social, psychological, educational, etc. sciences (Cameron & Moss,
2011), to prevent and fight mostly social problems (such as social exclusion), in
different spaces and ages (as schools of all levels, institutions of old age fostering,
supporting domes for youth, etc.). Social pedagogy doesn’t give prescriptions for

4
the solutions, but tries to deal holistically with the situation, with an emphasis on
strengthening human relationships and promoting the idea of how to
develop/promote a healthy way to deal with life, to gain a mental and
psychological balance, to become complete personalities, ready to stand on their
feet. That’s why, social pedagogues cooperate with all the factors that affect one's
life (such as the parents, the family, the topical residence, the doctors, etc.).
3. Literature review
3.1. Social pedagogy as a concept
The term pedagogy is derived from the Greek word ‘pais’, meaning child and the
word ‘agein’, meaning to bring up (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011). Τhe concept of
social pedagogy concerns the relationship between society and education and the
way one affects the other (Petrie, Boddy, Cameron, Wigfall & Simon, 2006).
According to ThemPRA (2019) some of the main foundations of social pedagogy
theory are the following: raise the feeling of empathy, emphasize the need for
protection of human rights, enable people to achieve self-autonomy and self –
reflection, to be able enough to change and improve their own lives and generally
speaking, to understand the enormous necessity for the protection of vulnerable
social groups. Moreover, taking into consideration Hämäläinen (2003) claim that
social pedagogy is not a strict teaching method, we understand that an education
system with a social pedagogical orientation does not only care for the strict
education and cognitive performance of their students, with strict teaching
prescriptions, but also pursues to educate all individuals related to the school
community (students, parents, teachers, topical society etc.) to strive for a better
world, for a better society, with less social discriminations (Pantazis, 2012).
Additionally, the drafters of the ‘Radisson Report’ (Social Education Trust, 2001,
pt. 4.1) provide a list of nine characteristics of Social Pedagogy. Some of these are:
social pedagogues/educators view a child’s situation holistically, education cares
for social competencies and morals values learning, putting in the center the
development of healthy human relations.
Through prosperity and learning, it aims at complete development and
integration of each individual, within his social context, considering as a given
that all human beings have the potential to be valuable and responsible members
of society, as long as society caters to their inclusion, rather than exclusion. That
is why social educators deal with a wide range of ages, from the first years of life
to old age, and social pedagogy can be applied to different contexts, such as early
childhood, family support, drug-addicted support, elderly support, teenagers
support, disability services, support for imprisoned, etc. with priority the active
participation of those involved (Petrie & Cameron, 2009).
Furthermore, according to Eichsteller and Bradt (2019), there are various reasons
why social pedagogy is suitable for educational and social practices, such as the
following: it gives attention to the enhancement of human relationships, believes
that every human being has capabilities and talents and should have the
opportunities to unwrap those, emphasizes dialogue and civilized
communication, strikes at human problems, such as poverty, offers a specific
framework that can be very helpful to a broad range of professionals, raises the

5
motivation of professionals. We should add here that the last reason is extremely
crucial for teachers’ jobs, as according to Carson and Chase (2009), teacher’s
motivation is an essential factor that affects and enforces classroom effectiveness.
To summarize the substance of all the above references, can be compacted in
Boddy, Cameron, Moss, Mooney, Petrie and Stathams (2005) following words:
‘’Social pedagogy is an approach: in which learning, care, health, general
wellbeing, and development are viewed as totally inseparable, a holistic
idea summed up in the pedagogical term ‘upbringing’. The pedagogue as
practitioner sees herself as a person in relationship with the child as a
whole person, supporting the child’s overall development’’ (Boddy et al,
2005, p. 3).
3.2. Social pedagogy’s Connection to Practice

As Hämäläinen (2003) claims we can see social pedagogy both as a practice and a
democratic philosophical approach. To understand the connection of social
pedagogy to practice we should bring to mind two metaphorical parallelisms of
social pedagogy, firstly as a tree and secondly as a diamond. According to
Eichsteller and Holthoff (2012) social pedagogy as a tree finds its roots in the
works of scientists in different scientific fields, such as education, philosophy,
sociology, and psychology. The trees flourishment depends on the gardeners
(social educators/pedagogues) who use many tools for this purpose (a person’s
well-being) such as teamwork, communication, etc. The Diamond Model
(Figure1) is another metaphor parallelism of social pedagogy. The image of the
diamond symbolizes the idea that there is a diamond within all of us, that we are
all precious and have a rich variety of knowledge, skills, and abilities. The
Diamond Model outlines four aims of social pedagogical practice: to enhance well-
being and happiness, to enable holistic learning, to develop relationships, and to
increase a sense of empowerment. These aims are brought to life through positive
experiences (Thempra, 2019; Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011).
Figure 1: The Diamond Model (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011)

Social pedagogy in practice offers a set of organized pedagogical actions that seek
to influence and change social and educational mechanisms (Petrie et al., 2006;
Hämäläinen, 2012; Stephens, 2013).

6
Taking into consideration the above literature review, at this point of our study,
we suggest some of the following application examples of social pedagogy in a
school classroom, such as:
a) Humanitarian action that promotes the development of students
emotional and social skills,
b) the fight of critical incidents (e.g. violence and victimization, racism in the
classroom) with the development of socio-educational programs, in
cooperation/collaboration with social institutions and special
scientists/experts,
c) the organization of experiential seminars for the parents about social
issues,
d) the participation in experiential socio-educational programs (topical or
international) carried out in schools, organized by the government, aiming
at highlighting the socio-pedagogical dimensions (of the many forms) of
the heterogeneity, the uniqueness and identity of each person (in
collaboration with other teachers/colleagues),
e) the organization of educational activities inside and outside the school,
f) the group meetings and events with parents (celebrations, etc.),
g) the student visits to various institutions (some Greek institutions are: the
Refugee Hospitality Centers, the Child's Smile, the SOS Villages, etc.) that
develop social pedagogical activity.
The application of the above actions requires teachers with emotional stability,
emotional abilities, and emotional intelligence in pedagogical interaction, as it is
emphasized by many studies. When the relationship between teachers and
students is charged with negative emotions, for various reasons, communication
is disrupted and students get disappointed (Konstantinou, 2004).
Moreover, the role of the modern teacher is demanding. Essentially, in terms of
the cognitive part of teaching, the teacher must help in the synthesis and analysis
of knowledge, expand students’ critical thinking, and their productivity. But most
important of all, the teacher must possess emotional intelligence, as according to
Rogers (1983) respect, empathy, and authenticity are the three basic elements of
communication with the student.
Similarly, Fontana (1994) and Brown (2004) argue a teacher must take on modern
roles as: • mediator between knowledge and the student, • humanist and
democrat, • counselor and discreet driver, • psychologist, sociologist, educator.
Moreover, Jacobs (2001), in a common context, believes that the human skills a
teacher should own, are divided into the following categories: A) Counseling
skills: 1. help others solve problems, 2. to build trust and be open with their fellow
human beings, 3. to give advice effectively, 4. help others better understand
themselves. B) Communication skills: 1. to present ideas with objective way, 2. to
present ideas and information comprehensively, 3. to manage the speech
accurately. C) Leadership skills: 1. to inspire confidence and respect in others, 2.
to organize effective groups, 3. to be able to cooperate with "difficult" people. D)
Educational skills:1. help others gain knowledge and different skills, 2. activates
others to present them.

7
To summarize, according to Anderberg (2020) the review shows the global

differences as it comes to the role of social pedagogues in schools (about their
missions, goals, status, roles, functions, tasks, activities). The central mission in
most countries is to fight the exclusion of pupil groups or individuals with
problems. Another frequent mission is the prevention of serious problems such as
bullying, violence, and drug use. Moreover, there is an orientation towards
upbringing with a democratic manner and active social participation, of all
students.
3.3. Teachers continuing training

At this point in the literature review, we find it necessary to refer to the meaning
of teachers’ continuing training. First of all, training is defined as:
“The set of measures and activities adopted and implemented to improve
and develop academic, practical and personal or professional knowledge,
skills, abilities, and interests of teachers during their career”
(Mavrogiorgos, 1996, p. 86).
Moreover, according to OECD (2010):
“These activities can be very heterogeneous: dissemination conferences,
workshops (preparation to new subject-matter content), school-based
activities (study groups, courses), personal teacher development
(individual activities outside of schools)” (OECD, 2010, p.7).
Additionally, according to Papadopoulou and Bagakis (2015), as it is mentioned
in Law 3879/2010 (The Development of Life-long Learning), a teacher’s training
can be evolved through:
“a) access to opportunities for continual professional development, b) the
creation of flexible learning paths, c) development of open education and
e-learning, d) branching out into non-formal and informal forms of
learning, e) use of new teaching and learning technologies from
educational and research institutes and other providers, f) creation of
networks for innovation at both a local and regional level, g) activities for
the development of all the educational staff, h) individualized programs
“any time and at any place” (Papadopoulou & Bagakis, 2015, p.427).
Many studies place importance to in-service training that can take place in the
school environment, as according to Mavrogiorgos (1999), the in-school training
is more reliable than the out-of-school training, because it meets teachers’ needs,
combines the theory with the practice, raises the school’s quality level and
contributes to the school collaboration with the other schools and with the field of
scientific research.
According to Eurydice (2019) formal continuing training of teachers of all levels
is usually done by expertized institutions (inspected by the government for their
quality) with high standards, at a national level, aiming at teachers’ professional
development, career evolution, acquisition of competencies and development of
capabilities to cope with change, difficulties and unpredictable situations during
their careers.

8
In summary, in Greece, according to Asimaki, Sakkoulis and Vergidis (2016),

Papagueli - Vouliouris (1999), Papastamatis and Panitsidou (2008), in-service
teacher training can be tacked in the following periods: a) 1880 - 1977: the
establishment of the “Didaskaleion”, a training institute, b) 1977 - 1992: the period
of professional teacher training schools for elementary and secondary teachers
called “SELDE-SELME’’, c) 1992 - 1995: the Regional Training Centres (known as
PEKs), d) 1995 - 2011: the "European" period, the implementation, under Law
2986/2002, of the Teacher Training Agency (known as OEPEK), which today is
replaced by the Institute of Education Policy (known as IEP).
3.4. The value of teachers’ continuing training

Especially nowadays, at the end of one’s studies, there is an enormous need for
lifelong learning, since the field of human knowledge is not static, but is in
dynamic development (Papadopoulou & Bagakis, 2015). Teachers’ professional
development should begin during their studies and continue during their life. The
continuing training of teachers should be characterized by flexibility and
adaptability, as new pedagogical and socio-cultural data are constantly emerging
and teachers should be upgraded. We argue that even if they have received a
quality initial teacher education, they need to be trained continually, to know how
to manage the difficulties and problems to which they are faced.
Therefore, it is beneficial for teachers to improve/update their skills, because
benefits are enormous according to the results of different researches. For
example, according to Ajokou (2013), in-service continuing training: 1) enforces
teachers Mental Health to be able to tolerate the disturbances that may occur in a
classroom, 2) broadens their social contacts as they have many chances to socialize
with other colleagues during their training, 3) grows the willingness to know
more about the profession, to catch up with the new and latest findings in
education, 4) gives opportunities for advancement on the job. Everybody wants
to get a better position, such as becoming headmasters, counselors etc. All these
positions are possible only for those who go on and strive to update through
continuing training.
Moreover, we embrace the point of view of Boudersa (2016) that teacher
continuing training and professional development should be democratic enough,
so as not to impose on the consolidation of teachers' perceptions and established
knowledge about a given teaching methodology. Teacher training and
professional development should aim at the fundamental change of teachers’
practices, which, in turn, will lead to the improvement of their educative
effectiveness.
Teachers at all levels of education need to be always trained if they are to improve
their practices in their classes. Such training programs will help teachers to
improve their knowledge of the subject they teach and the social skills they need
in the classroom. There is no doubt that teachers will benefit from professional
development only if that development contains activities that focus on high-
quality content. And those activities should be organized by scientists/experts,
during the training programs and courses, so that the teachers' demands get
satisfied and raise their willingness to keep walking on this long life- learning
path.

9
4. The results of the analysis

The results of the thematic analysis can be detected in the following points. First
of all, it seems that Greek teachers get some information about social pedagogy
theory and practice during their university studies, but in Greece we argue that
there is a crucial/substantial need for those programs to be expanded, as the
official number of those university studies, mentioned above (see part 1.
Introduction) is extremely poor.
Secondly, is of great importance for teachers to come up with those principles of

social pedagogy throughout their whole career, especially nowadays in modern
Greek society, where students face many social problems, the majority of which
occur due to the current economic crisis such as bullying, the poverty the economic
crisis brings, racism (due to cultural differences that refugees face), etc. That
importance is growing, if we consider that teachers attempt for a holistic
teaching/didactic approach, following social pedagogy’s principles, is reflected in
children’s ability for social and emotional development, for healthy relationships,
for achieving wellbeing and becoming complete citizens (see 3.1).
Thirdly, as the role of the modern teacher is demanding and as according to
Rogers (1983) it’s very important that teachers not only possess knowledge, but
emotional intelligence too (see 3.2) it seems to be a grave need to update and gain
more familiarity with the social pedagogy principles during their continuing
training and professional development and not only during their university
studies. This is because, according to Kyriakou, Stephens, Avramidis and Werlers
(2011) student teachers, although tend to be open-minded to new initiatives, they
often have second thoughts about how prepared they are to concur to school’s
progress and the application of innovative methods. In short, according to the
citation of the above bibliography social pedagogy theory and practice it’s an ideal
situation and an opportunity for all teachers to enhance their emotional and social
skills.
Moreover, considering the major responsibility of classroom teachers for
continuing training (as we mention above at 3.4), teachers, among other things,
throughout their training and professional development, should be or become
social pedagogues, since the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them
with the ability to deal with problems in the classroom (Eurydice, 2019).
Generally speaking, the main principles of social pedagogy can supply them with
the ability to contribute to the improvement of the Greek education system.
Especially in Greece, unfortunately, that education system: ‘’Is made to create
collegialities through "suppressive" actions and practices primarily attributed in the
range of assessment and school competition’’ (Kyridis, Papadakis, Tourtouras, &
Lytrivi, 2016, p. 12) and we agree with Kyridis, Christodoulou, Vamvakidou and
Paulidis-Korres (2015) who argue that: ‘’We need more holistic educational activities,
such as those that social pedagogy proposes, which are gentler than those of the formal
education system’’ (Vamvakidou & Paulidis-Korres, 2015, p.31).
At this point, we cannot skip the sad truth that in Greece there is a need to obtain
a wider social pedagogy network (composed of experts), and take as an example
the UK, where we find a wide social pedagogy network. Where, for instance,
somebody can meet the following: a) the ThemPra, which is a social pedagogical

10
enterprise, supporting the development of social pedagogy through scientific

actions (http://www.thempra.org.uk/), b) the Social Pedagogy Professional
Association-SPPA, which aims to support vulnerable social groups
(https://sppa-uk.org/) and c) the Social Pedagogy Development Network-
SPDN, which tries to unite the social pedagogues and organize relevant activities
(http://www.thempra.org.uk/spdn/).
5. Discussion and conclusion

In this current paper we stress the need for teachers to get acquainted with the
theory and practice of social pedagogy and attain consideration of the main
principles of social pedagogy, during their training, their journey of discovery,
because teachers are one of the three groups of adults involved in the education
of children (the other two groups are the family members and other professional
such as social workers, psychologists, etc.). Especially, teachers have the
potentiality to guide children to become complete citizens and integrated
personalities (Kyriakou, Avramidis, Stephens & Werler, 2011). Moreover, there is
a feeling, that more than ever in Greece, we need open-minded teachers who will
adopt and will be scientifically trained and able to apply social pedagogy in their
classrooms, and this can only be achieved, throughout their continuing training,
by expertized educators and trainers. Coming to the end of our study we can
summarize the substance of the above literature review and analysis, to the
argument that there is a diamond within all of us, we are all precious and have a
rich variety of knowledge, skills, and abilities (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011). This
is an encouraging aspect, that teachers should have in mind during their lifelong
learning path.
Finally, the present study has some important limitations, such as the lack of
interviews (or other research methodologies) conducted with Greek teachers, to
examine the way they think about social pedagogy and to examine if they feel
prepared for the direct practice of the main principles of social pedagogy in
education. We hope that these limitation, will be the trigger for further studies
and research.
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13

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 13-26, May 2020
Game-Based Learning Platform and its Effects on

Present Tense Mastery:
Evidence from an ESL Classroom
Mohd Iskandar Idris, Nur Ehsan Mohd Said and Kim Hua Tan
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM)
Bangi, 43600 Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6445-2725
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2891-327X
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3787-5006
Abstract. In the 21st century, gamified learning is found to be essential

for educators to assist students in achieving mastery of English
grammar because the English language proficiency of Asian students,
including Malaysians, remains at an unacceptable level. However, the
literature on the effects of gamification on the learning of English tenses
is somewhat limited. To address this issue, this study aims to examine
the effectiveness of Kahoot!, a game-based learning platform, in
reinforcing simple present tense verb learning amongst young English-
as-a-second-language (ESL) learners. A total of 31 Year 3 students (aged
9) at a national primary school in the central region of Peninsular
Malaysia were involved in the study. A one-group pre-test post-test
research design was employed with an intervention programme that
spanned four weeks. Results analysed using paired sample t-test
revealed that the performance of pupils in the post-test improved
significantly (M =5.61, SD=2.04) with the application of Kahoot! as
compared with that in the pre-test (M=3.35, SD=1.89). Discussion of the
main findings revealed that gamification, through its captivating
features, was responsible for lowering the learners’ affective filter
during grammar lessons and subsequently increasing their learning
motivation. The implications of the findings suggest that Kahoot! is a
relevant teaching tool for the current generation of learners and
educators may explore the possibilities which Kahoot! has to offer with
other grammatical components.
Keywords: gamification; grammar; Kahoot!; present tense; ESL
1. Introduction
The use of technology has been improving and increasing tremendously in the
Fourth Industrial Revolution to the extent of penetrating the educational field. In
Malaysia, the Education Ministry has proposed a 21st-century learning approach

14
to accomplish the main objective of the National Philosophy of Malaysian

Education, which is to produce a holistic individual through education (Ministry
of Education Malaysia, 2013). Students in Malaysia are exposed to
approximately 11 years to 13 years of formal English language education before
furthering their studies at the tertiary level. Nevertheless, a study conducted by
Singh et al. (2017) has indicated that most students still have problems with
mastering English grammar. Nearly 30% of the grammatical errors made by
diploma students in Malaysia involve the use of verb tenses, including present
tense verbs. In reality, students have been taught grammar since primary school,
yet they still struggle to form grammatical sentences (Darus & Kaladevi, 2009)
Stapa & Izahar, 2010) which are partly due to limited vocabulary in the language
(Misbah et al., 2017; Ang & Tan, 2018). Thus, this issue must be addressed
immediately.
In parallel with the existing trends in the Malaysian curriculum, the

incorporation of information and communications technology (ICT) in schools is
valuable. Learners are driven towards the relaxing atmosphere of learning with
the inclusion of ICT in teaching and learning (Azmi, 2017). Yunus (2018) claims
that educators are ‘forced’ to change their pedagogical practices in consideration
of ever-changing technology. The concept of gamification, which was introduced
by Pelling (2002), has accordingly resulted in the invention of interactive
applications, namely, Kahoot!, Socrative, Quizzes, Quizlet and Plickers. Kapp
(2012) defines gamification as the application of game-based mechanics,
aesthetics and game thinking for the purpose of captivating people which will,
in turn, motivate their action, promote active learning, and eventually solve
problems. It is also the process of transforming typical academic components
into gaming themes.
Researchers in different parts of the world report that gamification has shown
positive outcomes in aiding the motivation, engagement and enjoyment of
learners in learning for the past decades (Cheong et al., 2013; Denny, 2013; Dong
et al., 2012; Li et al., 2012, Tan & Tan 2020). Despite the extensive literature on
the use of Kahoot! to enhance English grammar learning, limited Malaysian
studies can be found that discuss how Kahoot! influences present tense verb
learning, especially amongst young English-as-a-second-language (ESL)
learners. Most of the studies were conducted abroad in either high school or
tertiary-level students. Thus, such research must be carried out with local
research participants.
Present tense verb learning is relatively difficult to be mastered by young ESL

learners because one may be confused as to when to add ‘s’ to verbs, mainly
when the grammar system of their native language does not require so. This rule
is somehow intertwined with plural forms, in which the letter ‘s’/‘es’ is needed
to be incorporated into nouns. The participants of this study are also found to be
facing this issue as indicated by their past performance through grammatical
mistakes of such nature in written assignments.

15
Various educational applications can be utilised by educators to transform

tedious and complicated parts of grammar learning into fun and relevant ones
for learners, particularly the young ones. The low memory retention of students
in learning present tense verbs should be considered. Rote learning, in which
students are given the rules of present tense verbs and asked to memorise them,
may be adopted. However, in most situations, students tend to be confused with
when to add ‘s’/’es’ to verbs. They can hardly differentiate between present
tense verbs and plural nouns. Hence, before deciding on the right method and
approach to teaching present tense verbs, educators should be aware and
comprehend that two types of memory exist, namely, declarative and
procedural memory.
Declarative memory refers to the ‘learning and storing of facts and events,
including arbitrary information’ (O’Grady, 2006). This type of memory is often
linked to a lexicon or mental dictionary, in which the mind works when the
learner can relate to the new knowledge obtained, including its meaning,
pronunciation and use. However, the information kept in this memory requires
one’s conscious awareness upon retrieval. By contrast, procedural memory
focuses on the use of a broad range of motor and cognitive skills, particularly the
ones involving sequencing (Pinker & Ullman, 2002). This memory type helps the
computations and symbol manipulation concerning grammar components, such
as syntax, nonlexical semantics, morphology and phonology. This memory runs
through unconsciousness. That is, learners may not be aware of and realise what
enables them to form or interpret sentences, especially in first language
acquisition. Declarative memory is involved in learning the grammar of a
second language. Here, educators must ensure that the lesson employed triggers
this part of mind in learning present tense verbs. Does the use of Kahoot!
reinforce the present tense verb learning of young ESL learners? This study aims
to examine the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in reinforcing present tense verb
learning amongst young ESL learners. The findings of this research are expected
to assist educators who are in the quest for a practical approach to teaching
grammar, mainly present tense verbs. The rest of this article is structured as
follows. Firstly, the literature reviews on Kahoot!, gamification and present tense
are presented. Then, the research methods and procedures used in this study are
described. Subsequently, the findings are discussed and summarised. Lastly,
implications, limitations and directions for future research are provided.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Kahoot! and Previous Studies
Digital games have gained recognition from many educators due to the
significant role of technology in language education. For example, Kahoot!,
which was developed in 2006 at the Norwegian University of Science and
Technology, is a popular game-based student response system. It aims to make
learning pleasurable and entertaining across all languages and subjects via a free
online game-based learning platform. Various digital devices can be used to
launch this learning platform. Kahoot! is versatile because it can be tailored to
accommodate the needs of learners. A good and stable Internet connection is
mandatory for this method to work effectively. The gaming experience is

16
presented by the embedded graphical and audio elements. These features have
the potential to promote motivation and learning among learners.
Kahoot! has become a popular online game used by educators as a stimulating

platform to check the understanding of learners and enhance their participation
in learning. It adopts gamification as a means to involve learners actively and
motivate them eventually. Gamified learning, such as Kahoot!, facilitates the
achievement of learners concerning the pre-test and post-test conducted (Bullard
& Anderson, 2014; Wichadee & Pattanapichet, 2018). Learners show improved
performance after the interventions due to their engagement in the games
(Poondej & Lerdpornkulrat, 2016). Learning through a fun environment
enhances the retention of the lesson learnt. These studies have revealed the
effectiveness of using online language games in improving the grammar skills of
learners. In another perspective of grammar learning, the outcomes from a
survey conducted by Zarzycka-Piskorz (2016) have revealed that 70% of the
participants feel motivated and inspired to learn grammar after having a session
with Kahoot!. Here, Kahoot! has a high potential to elevate the enthusiasm and
motivation of students to learn. Kahoot! has benefited learners of all ages since its
first debut.
Students must register at https://kahoot.it. A unique game PIN number is

given. Then, they have to key in the username of their choice (anonymous
feature). The activities on Kahoot! are real-time, and quizzes are presented on a
screen using an overhead projector. Students can monitor their progress or
scores right after the game. The total score for each question is 1,000 points. The
ratings they receive are based on how fast they answer the right item (Byrne,
2013). The overall number of scores gained by each player is displayed on the
screen at the end of the quiz.
2.2 Gamification
The notion of computer technologies has enabled other principles, such as
gamification, to emerge. According to Deterding et al. (2011), gamification or
gamified learning has been defined as the use of game design elements in
nongame settings to increase motivation and attention on a task. It also refers to
the integration of game elements in nongame ones to solve the task at hand
effectively (Khaleel et al. 2016). The difference between teaching through a
gamified pedagogical method and instruction via the use of authentic games,
which has been found to be a practical approach to teaching lessons, such as
grammar, must be considered (Tuan & Doan, 2010; Yolageldili & Arikan, 2011).
Gamification encourages grammar learning to be entertaining, enjoyable and
lasting because the game successfully delivers a meaningful context for
communicative grammar practice. Unlike teaching with games, gamified
instruction is the incorporation of gaming principles, and this method of
teaching and learning is earning popularity in the field of education (Caponeto,
Earp & Ott, 2014; Domíngues et al., 2013). Gamification in the language
classroom involves the dynamic participation of students, which gradually
offers a solid platform for learners to learn grammar effectively and positively in
ESL (Leaning, 2015). Students acquire more words and learn the right structures

17
of English when they are engaged in gamified learning. It promotes a

remarkable learning experience where students keep looking forward to learn
new words (Rao, 2014). A better version of the English language is offered on
online language games , other than engaging students in ESL learning (Mullins
& Sabherwal, 2018). Besides, students gain vocabularies in a difference way,
whereby they acquire more words based on online games, compared to the
chalk and talk method (Castaneda & Cho, 2016). These findings indicate that in
assisting grammar learning, gamification has high potential to be adopted.
Educators can generate situations which allow unconscious learning to occur
through games because the attention of learners is not on the language but on
the message itself (Cross, 2000). Learners eventually acquire the language
unconsciously, in the same manner, they learnt their first language because they
are focusing on the game as an activity. For this study, this element of
unconscious learning is appropriately observed. According to Hussein (2015),
gamification benefits learners through four key domains. Two out of the four
domains are closely related to young learners. Firstly, children perceive this
approach as entertaining and fun, thus reducing their affective filter and
maintaining consistent engagement. Secondly, gamification permits learners to
reflect upon their learning.
Young learners are said to have a short attention span. Within 10 min to 20 min
of the lesson, their minds wander off. They lose their interest and motivation
when dealing with grammar lessons due to the confusing rules and
memorisation. On the contrary, high levels of engagement and motivation can
be achieved with the elements of fun and competitiveness embedded in Kahoot!.
The outcomes from a study conducted by Zarzycka-Piskorz (2016) revealed that
70% of the participants became motivated to learn grammar after learning via
Kahoot!. The motivation is attributed to four reasons, namely, desire to win,
master own knowledge, play with others and determine the purpose of the
game, which include revising, checking and consolidating knowledge. Besides,
80% of the respondents believed that this application positively influenced their
learning motivation because they were well aware of its purposes, which were to
check, consolidate and review their knowledge on the content learnt.
Kahoot! is packed with the elements of gamification, such as leaderboards,

points, feedback, performance graphs and social element/community
collaboration (Flores, 2015). The ‘Leaderboard,’ as one of the main elements
embedded in Kahoot!, shows the rankings of game players based on their
accomplishment levels. The leaderboard, points and scores are closely related,
and Kahoot! has all these features. Learners are granted with points based on
their performance (Flores, 2015). A total of 1,000 points are offered for any
correct response answered in under 0.05 s. From this feature, extrinsic
motivation is evident, particularly when the students attempt to answer the
questions by themselves. The integration of technical elements, such as music,
graphics and colours, also helps retain the acceptance of Kahoot! amongst the
users.

18
Kahoot! also encourages learners to compete to be placed amongst the high

ranks, therefore making the learning experience fun and meaningful to them,
especially amongst nine-year-old children. This learning platform is convenient
for educators because it allows them to evaluate the progress of their pupils
formatively. It enables future intervention to be made because the data can be
made available right away. It also allows learners to continue trying to place
themselves on board with the lessons without feeling scared of making
themselves seem stupid. This condition is supported by the feature which only
displays the top three scorers in the final leaderboard. As a result, those who do
not perform well need not reveal their performance to others. These learners can
learn at their own speed without incurring any negative feelings. This situation
eventually contributes to meaningful learning.
2.3 Present Tense Verbs

Numerous scholars have defined and described the use and form of the simple
present tense. The simple present tense, also known as the present simple, is
considered the significant tense used in English to talk about things in general
(Murphy, 1998). It is not merely about the present. It is also used to express that
something happens repeatedly, all the time or in general. It is not about whether
an action is happening at the time of speaking. For instance, ‘Aminah goes to
school by bus’ and ‘The doctors treat patients in the hospital’.
On the contrary, to Murthy (2003), present-tense verbs are used to demonstrate

that action occurs at present. This definition is reflected in the sentence ‘She
speaks Arabic very well’. Similarly, Swan (2000) has indicated that such verbs
are used for permanent situations or actions that happen regularly or all the time
(not now). An example is ‘My mother goes to the market about twice a week.’ In
a different view, Azar (2006) has claimed that the simple present expresses
events or situations that usually happen, always, sometimes and habitually; they
happen now, have happened previously and perhaps will happen again.
The abovementioned definitions imply that the simple present tense refers to
events or actions which are always executed by a subject. It does not entail
impermanent time. It is meant to be used wherever and whenever. Few past
studies have been conducted on students’ mistakes or errors in using the simple
present tense.
The omission, misformation, misordering and addition errors are the types of
mistakes that students tend to commit in using the simple present tense.
Amongst all of the mistakes, misformation is the most common error made by
students (Siswoyo, 2016). In another similar study, omission errors have been
found as the frequent errors made by students (Masruddin, 2019). From these
studies, students are still struggling with present tense verb learning. Thus,
educators must find ways and methods to overcome this situation.

19
3. Methodology
This research employed a pre-experimental method (one-group pre-test–post-
test design). The data were collected exclusively from a comparison of pre-test
and post-test data. The study was conducted in a primary school in Puchong,
Selangor, where the main researcher is teaching. Convenient sampling was
considered based on the information of researchers on the population of interest,
the availability the sample and the objectives of the study. It involved
manipulating an independent variable without random assignment of
conditions or condition orders to participants.
The sample of this study consisted of 31 Year 3 pupils (male n=14; female n=17)
without any control group. All of them are nine years of age studying in the
same class. The total number of the participants was acceptable as a sample size
of 15 students is considered acceptable when implementing classroom research
(Dörnyei, 2007). The data were analysed quantitatively because the purpose of
this research was to measure the effect of Kahoot! on present tense verb learning.
The pre-test was administered at the beginning of the study. The final score in
the post-test would indicate the learning progress. It was used as the benchmark
to ascertain the effect of Kahoot! on the present tense verb learning of Year 3
pupils. The present tense verb test was the only instrument used for this
research and was given before and after the application of Kahoot!.
As a means to measure the internal consistency of the item, reliability analysis

was adhered using the IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23 software platform. The
split-half reliability test was used to measure the internal consistency. It is
commonly used for multiple-choice tests. The reliability of the instrument is
almost acceptable with a reading of 0.774 based on the standard rule of thumb
for interpreting split-half readings.
The intervention length was four weeks, which was equivalent to 12 contact
hours. A prominent psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885), concluded that
students forgot approximately 56% of what they learnt within one hour, 66%
forgot within one day, and 75% forgot within six days. Thus, he created ‘the
forgetting curve’. Current researchers still refer to this measure of how much
people forget. From this finding, students would have forgotten nearly all of the
pre-test questions and answers to replicate the same responses in the post-test
taken after four weeks (28 days). Here, the intervention length was sufficient
because the students would not have an opportunity to memorise or try to
remember the exact questions and answers in the pre-test. Any outcomes made
between the two tests are likely due to the influence of the intervention
programme.
3.1 Research Procedure

The research flow is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Research flow

PRE-TEST ON PRESENT KAHOOT! POST-TEST ON
TENSE VERBS SESSION PRESENT TENSE VERBS
RESPONDENTS X Y Z

20
3.2 Pre-Intervention
The researcher firstly selected the targeted verbs. Thirty common verbs were
chosen based on their standard frequencies in English language learning, as
stated in the Year 3 syllabus. They were then transferred into Kahoot!. An
appropriate image was inserted for each question to assist learning. The
researcher felt that exposing the nine-year-old pupils to more than 30 verbs may
lead to confusion and fatigue. Therefore, 30 common verbs, as shown in Table 2,
were selected to support the research aim and examine the effectiveness of using
Kahoot! in reinforcing present tense verb learning amongst the young ESL
learners.
Table 2: Targeted verbs
Ask Call Come Do Feel Get
Give Go Help Like Live Make
Play Put Run See Take Talk
Tell Think Use Want Work Wake
Eat Sleep Cycle Jump Drink Learn
At the initial stage, the pupils were administered with the pre-test, consisting of
10 multiple-choice questions. The researcher believed that the number of items
was sufficient due to the age and their level of English proficiency of the pupils.
The duration of the pre-test session was 30 min (equivalent to 1 period of
English lesson). The researcher was present to monitor the course closely and to
ensure that no one had a chance to copy from another classmate. The pupils
were not informed about the purpose of the test. Before the test, the researcher
gave them a short briefing by instructing them to read each question carefully,
underline the correct answer and write the answer in the blank.
3.3 Intervention
After the pre-test, the pupils had the first lesson about the rules of present tense
verbs and the introduction of all the targeted verbs. For future reference, they
were instructed to write down the wordlist in their exercise book. The pupils
were then familiarised to Kahoot!. The researcher also inserted a YouTube video
about present tense verbs to enhance learning and to attract the attention of the
learners. The quiz on present tense verbs was launched, and the pupils were
instructed to answer it in pairs and individually, as illustrated in Figure 1 and 2.
Figure 1: Kahoot! Interface

21
Figure 2: Kahoot! Session
3.4 Post-Intervention
The same questions were distributed in the post-test for the participants to
answer on the final day of the experiment. The duration of the post-test session
was 30 min (equivalent to 1 period of English lesson). The researcher was
present to monitor the course closely to ensure that no one had a chance to copy
from another pupil. Before the test, the researcher gave the pupils a short
briefing by instructing them to read each question carefully, underline the
correct answer and write the answer in the blank. The pupils were not informed
about the purpose of the test.
3.5 Data Analysis

The researcher marked all scripts. The marks scored by the respondents in the
pre-test and the post-test were tabulated. Next, a statistical analysis was
executed by recording the scores of the participants’ in both tests on the
statistical software, IBM SPSS Statistics Version 23. The paired sample t-test was
used to describe the difference in the mean before and after the use of Kahoot!.
The result from the data was crucial in verifying the effectiveness of Kahoot! in
reinforcing the respondents’ learning and understanding of English present
tense verbs.
4. Findings and Discussions

Ten multiple-choice questions were included in both tests, as mentioned in the
earlier section. The percentage was calculated for both tests to determine any
differences before moving on to the statistical analysis. The researcher must
identify any improvement in post-test scores in comparison with the pre-test
scores.
4.1 Research Question: Does the use of Kahoot! reinforce the present tense
verb learning of young ESL learners?
The data revealed that the value of sig (p) paired sample t-test was 0.000, which
was less than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. That is, their
scores increased after the treatment of Kahoot!. Besides, 22 respondents or 64.5%
managed to obtain at least five correct answers out of the ten questions in the
post-test compared with only 7 or 22.6% in the pre-test. This finding is shown in
Figure 3.

22
Pre-test vs Post-test Score

30
25
Number of students
20
15
10
0
Pre-test Post-test
Score < 50% Score > 50%
Figure 3: Comparison of result
The results of the pre-test and the post-test were keyed into SPSS Statistics
Version 23 to determine the mean, standard deviation, t- and significant values
for supporting the data. The outcomes for the abovementioned statistics are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Comparison of pre-test and post-test results
N Mean Std. Dev t-value Sig.
Pre-test score 31 3.35 1.889
−5.550 .000
Post-test score 31 5.61 2.044
A significant difference was observed between the scores of the pupils’ before
and after the learning session via Kahoot! with (t) 30 = −5.550, p <0.05. A
substantial change in the mean scores between the pre-test (mean = 3.35, s.d =
1.889) and the post-test (mean = 5.61, s.d = 2.044) was also found (t = −5.550, p =
.000). The result from this table revealed a difference in terms of the means for
the post-test. These statistics ascertained that the pupils’ performance was
improving over the treatment of Kahoot!. The value of sig (p) paired sample t-
test was 0.000, which was less than 0.05. The effect size using Cohen’s d was
large, that is, Cohen’s d = (5.61 − 3.35) / 1.968027 = 1.148. Based on the results of
the t-test and Cohen’s d, the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected. The statistical
analysis indicated a significant difference in terms of the performance of the
pupils after the use of Kahoot! in learning present tense verbs. The respondents
were able to reinforce their learning via Kahoot!. The results confirmed that
Kahoot! reinforced the present tense verb learning of young ESL learners.
The features embedded and the relevance of the application to young learners
could be related to the effectiveness of Kahoot! in reinforcing the respondents’
learning of present tense verbs; Kahoot! features the elements of gamification,

23
such as leaderboards, points, feedback, performance graphs and social

elements/community collaboration (Flores 2015). Bullard and Anderson (2014)
and Wichadee and Pattanapichet (2018) further stated that gamified learning,
such as Kahoot!, manages to improve the achievement of learners concerning the
pre-test and post-test carried out. Besides, Zarzycka-Piskorz (2016) determined
that Kahoot! could motivate learners to learn grammar. Concerning to the study
by Rao (2014), he states that the effectiveness of using games to improve
learners’ achievement, lies in the engagement of learners towards learning and
playing at the same time. Online language games are valuable to the 21st-
century learning as students are able to improve their grammar in ESL with the
assistance of the online language games (Mullins & Sabberwal, 2018; Leaning,
2015). Moreover, it can be said that students love something different in their
typical classroom setting. Their learning motivation will increase too (Castaneda
& Cho, 2016). This study also verified the statement made by Hussein (2015). He
stated that this accomplishment might also be driven by the lowered affective
filter triggered by the notion of gamification because learning grammar is
somehow distressing to most second language learners.
5. Conclusion
In the context of the present study, Kahoot! has been indicated to have a positive
effect on grammar learning, in which a significant difference exists between the
scores of the pupils before and after the learning session on the present tense,
leading to the discussion of several implications. The findings suggest that
gamification can enhance the teaching and learning experience and is thus, a
suitable tool for ESL lessons. It provides thought-provoking ideas into the
effectiveness of using Kahoot! in teaching grammar for young learners. Although
the findings cannot be generalised to the entire population, they offer an exciting
insight into the effectiveness of using Kahoot! in teaching grammar. Based on the
findings, the following recommendations are offered for future research. This
study serves as a starting point for subsequent research on different grammatical
items, particularly for young learners at the age of 7 or 8 with large sample size.
However, future studies may consider including a control group whenever
possible to reduce external threats and to strengthen the research design. The
study has also discussed infrastructure readiness as a main concern. A secure
and stable Internet connection is crucial to execute the lesson successfully. Every
school, either in rural or urban areas, should be well-equipped with a computer
laboratory/room to meet the demands of 21st-century learning. Kahoot! maybe
an inappropriate online learning platform for schools in rural areas due to poor
Internet connectivity and the lack of information and technology infrastructure.
Educators may further explore the possibilities which Kahoot! has to offer to deal
with 21st-century learners, but they should carefully develop the content of the
lessons in terms of the degree of difficulty and the nature of their students when
considering this method. While such recommendations are made, interested
parties must be aware that educators, learners and governments play a
significant role in generating conducive, contemporary and relevant learning
environments suited for the current generation.

24
6. Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to the administrators of SK Puchong for
allowing us to carry out the study, the Sponsorship Division, Ministry of
Education Malaysia for the scholarships awarded. Much thanks are also due to
the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia Grant
FRGS/1/2018/SS09/UKM/02/1.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 27-46, May 2020
Effectiveness and Stakeholders’ Perceptions of

the Integration of Automated E-Learning
Courses into Vocational Education Programmes
in Universities in Ukraine
Valentyna I. Bobrytska
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1742-0103
Tatyana D. Reva
Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3367-5931
Svitlana M. Protska
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9212-8700
Oksana M. Chkhalo
Bogomolets National Medical University, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8874-4674
Abstract. The purpose of this research was to identify whether the

integration of the automated vocational e-courses into vocational
education could bring the students to the same academic achievements as
the tutor-moderated ones, and whether the stakeholders of education
perceive the automation of e-learning positively or negatively, and what
impact factors triggered their perceptions. The baseline study used the e-
course evaluation checklist to assess the e-course structure and content
from eight randomly selected universities. Four hundred and four
students and thirty-one instructors participated in the baseline study, first
pilot, and core experiment. The instruments utilised to monitor the
variables in the pilots were as follows: the sampled students’ academic
records, a Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test, a Rasch Measurement Model,
and the Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire. The IBM SPSS Statistics
5.0.0.1. Software package was used to process the data drawn for the
above measurements. The above measurements were followed by the
focus group and nine education stakeholders’ perceptions analyses using
the Triangle Assessment Method. The study provided new evidence that
automated e-course delivery can lead to approximately the same
statistically significant improvements in the students’ vocational
competence, academic motivation, and learning styles proving that it

28
might be considered to be a feasible instructional tool. Additionally, it

suggested that the use of automated educational e-course assisted by a
virtual agent had been a more cost-efficient option.
Keywords: vocational education programme; e-courses automation;

vocational competence; academic motivation; learning styles
1. Introduction
The integration of the automated e-learning courses in the vocational education is
gradually becoming a preferred cost-efficient option for tertiary institutions
worldwide and in Ukraine, but an instructional challenge for the teachers
(Latchem, 2017; Diachenko et al., 2019; Katambur, 2019). This trend is consistent
with the fifth-generation distance education model (The Intelligent Flexible
Learning Model) that is featured with the tools of interactive, internet-based,
technology-mediated communication (Moller, Robison & Huett, 2012). The model
can provide the learners with the conventional-like quality of education for a
significantly lower cost (Mirrlees & Alvi, 2020). The greatest challenge for the
educators who have been recently forced to design and deliver the distance
courses is a struggle to create and work online learning environment caused by a
lack of computer skills. The teachers are supposed to apply more constructivists
pedagogies based on new tools, approaches, and methods (Iskander, Kapila &
Karim, 2010). Additionally, instructors are reluctant to shift to the use of the
distance learning models, especially automated ones, as this shift entails teachers
and institutions getting rid of traditional classroom instruction followed by losing
jobs by teachers (Dovbenko et al., 2020).
It is also a trend-driven innovation (CommLab India, 2020) that meets the
principles of the current educational policy of Ukraine (Bobrytska, 2015;
Bobrytska, 2017; Reva, 2017) and requirements associated with education
accessibility, affordability, and effectiveness (Chivu et al., 2018). Besides, it is
consistent with the ideas of both a new paradigm of 21st-century education
(Cunningham, 2019) and robotics-based education (Alimisis, 2020). Interestingly,
the recent developments in Speech and Language Technology (SLT), AuthorIT &
TutorIT technologies have made it possible to substitute a human-run learning
environment losing no instructional quality and ensuring high-cost effectiveness
(Delić et al., 2019; Cernak, Asaei & Hyafil, 2018; Scandura, 2010; Scandura, 2016).
The letter inspired this study and created a research gap as the study found
insufficient limits of information on the use of virtual tutor’s assistants in the
course delivered on the Moodle platform.
Literature review
The literature review found that theory, methods, quality assurance and
effectiveness issues of vocational education in universities in Ukraine are
thoroughly investigated and revealed (Bobrytska, 2015; Bobrytska, 2017) in terms
of reshaping and adjusting it to the international job market, and making it more
‘real life-friendly.’ (Tsymbaliuk, Shkoda & Artiushyna, 2019). The literature
review found an extensive body of research revealing the use of technology in
educational settings. The relevant and credible works show that there is the
relationship between the use of information communication technology (ICT) and

29
students’ academic performance, educational self-efficacy determined by the

ability to navigate in the flow of information, to acquire new knowledge, to self-
develop professionally (Bobrytska, 2015; Bobrytska & Protska, 2017; Bobrytska &
Protska, 2018; Chkhalo, n.d.; Saxena, 2017; Balali, Ahmadi, Tabatabaei & Hassani,
2018; Basri, Alandejani & Almadani, 2018).
The irruption of Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Artificial Linguistic Internet
Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.) gave rise to emerging breaking educational projects
(Smutny & Schreiberova, 2020; Laurillard, 2013; Holotescu, 2016; Garrett, 2017;
Fadhil & Villafiorita, 2017) based on the use of the Facebook Messenger (Smutny
& Schreiberova, 2020). Furthermore, educational projects to teach learners a
language are coming into practice. They are using a conversational chatbot
substituting a teacher and based on Computer Assisted Language Learning
(CALL) systems used as a media (Shawa, 2018). The chatbot can reproduce a
standardized dialogue by using a series of written or verbalised messages that can
substate the human teacher's lesson delivery. After such a class (a lecture or a
presentation, or a lab explainer) the chatbot can assign a student with a multiple-
choice test or quiz, immediately check it and forward the results to the teacher or
the course moderator. It reduces the teacher’s workload and helps the one to
engage students in the learning and collaboration process. A chatbot also can track
students’ information inquiries to be further used to update the content of the e-
course (Farkash, 2018).
Though this research problem is quite trendy, it is underrepresented in the
literature, specifically from a pedagogical perspective. Therefore, the purpose of
this research was to identify whether the integration of automated educational
courses into vocational education programmes in universities in Ukraine could be
effective and perceived positively by education stakeholders.
The research questions were as follows: 1) what delivery structure of the
vocational e-courses at universities are commonly used at universities in Ukraine;
2) whether that structure is appropriate to train students’ vocational competence;
3) how the automated educational e-courses integrated into vocational disciplines
influences students’ vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning
styles; 4) how the stakeholders of education perceive the automation of e-learning
and what factors trigger their perceptions.
2. Research methodology
The study attempted to answer the research questions in the course of the core
experiment that was proceeded by a baseline study and a pilot study. It was
divided into four stages to have used different designs and methods (see Fig. 1).
Research Design
A descriptive research design was employed to complete a baseline study, which
was the first stage of the research by utilising quantitative methods. A quasi-
experimental research design relying on pre-testing‒post-testing procedures was
utilised in the first pilot and the core experiment. The latter both relied on a mixed-
methods approach to monitor changes in the dependent variables and
perceptions. The fourth stage was analytical that used statistical methods to
process data, interpret the results, and draw conclusions. The sampled students’
vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles were the

30
dependent variables for the pilot study. The above-outlined variables were kept
under systematic review in the core experiment and perceptions of different
stakeholders were examined after completing the intervention. The perceptions
of automated educational e-course delivery were studied in the core experiment.
•Obtaning •Running the •E-course in •Data
First pilot
Core Experiment
Analytical stage
Baseline Study
consent from tutor- General processing

the Board of moderated e- Pedagogics •Drawing
Academics of courses at automation conclusions
the three •Monitoring
institutions to institutions the variables
run the study •Monitoring through pre-
•Examining the variables testing and
the e-courses through pre- post-testing
using a testing and •Studying the
checklist post-testing perceptions
•Drawing •Data analysis different
conclusions and stakeholders
interpretation of education
Figure 1: Abstract Research Design
Research Participants and Procedure

The baseline study was conducted at eight leading and highly-rated universities
in Ukraine from January to the end of May of 2018. Those were National
Pedagogical Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical
University (BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU), Kyiv National
Economic University (KNEU), Kyiv National University of Technologies and
Design (KNUTD), Kyiv National University of Construction and Architecture
(KNUCA), Lviv Polytechnic National University (LPNU), and V. N. Karazin
Kharkiv National University (KKNU). The consent for running the study was
obtained from the Institutional Scientific Review Boards of all universities prior
to the intervention.
The purpose of the study was to analyse scientific and methodological approaches
used to develop e-courses in different vocational tertiary schools, to examine
(mutually considered) best practices of organising and administrating online
component of the vocational training, and to specify the structure of e-courses
placed on the MOODLE platform. To meet the purpose of the study, two existing
online course checklists developed by Federation University (Australia) (n.d.) and
Winthrop University (USA) (n.d.) were adapted and refined for the use in this
study to evaluate the structure of the course and instructional methods. They were
chosen because they comply with Standards and Guidelines for Quality
Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG), Articles: 1.2
(Design and approval of programmes), 1.3 (Student-centred learning, teaching,
and assessment), 1.6 (Learning resources and student support) (ESG, 2015).
The first pilot lasted from September of 2018 to the end of January of 2019. It was
run at three randomly selected institutions, which were as follows: National
Pedagogical Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical

31
University (BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU). The purpose of

this part of the experiment was to identify how the revised and updated e-courses
impacted on the students’ vocational competence (comprising their abilities to
communicate to solve problems, obtain and use new information thinking
critically), academic motivation, and learning styles compared to conventional
course delivery. The e-courses in “Educational policy” (NPDU), “Analytical
Chemistry” (BNMU) and “General Pedagogy” (BGKU) were chosen for the
experiment for being specialism-related, for being 4 ETCS credits long and for
corresponding to the course design requirements developed in the online course
checklists for the baseline study.
The population of the students sampled for the first pilot experiment was 358
students seeking Master’s Degree in Education (Speciality ref. 01 “Education”),
Medicine (Speciality ref. 226 “Pharmacy, industrial pharmacy”) and Philology
(Speciality ref. 035 “Philology”). The students were recruited from the first and
the second semesters of the above programmes. This number was used to form
the experimental (EG) and control groups (CG) at each university. The
demographics of the groups were as follows: NPDU – 15 people in the EG and 15
people in the CG; BNMU ‒ 68 students in the EG and 68 students in the CG; BGKU
‒ 98 students in the EG and 99 students in the CG. 73% of the sampled students
were females aged between 22 and 24, and 27% of the participants were males of
the same age.
Core experiment procedure
At this stage, the study attempted to test the educational effectiveness of the
automated e-learning course and to examine the education stakeholders’
perceptions of it. This stage lasted from September of 2019 to the end of January
2020. Two IT Department specialists for National Pedagogical Drahomanov
University were involved in the automation of the “General Pedagogy” e-course.
The reason for the choice was that this course is in Pedagogics is compulsory for
Masters’ Degree students of all majors in Ukraine and these study outcomes could
be easily disseminated. Dialogflow chatbot (formerly known as API.ai) was
programmed to serve as a virtual tutor’s assistant in the course delivered on the
Moodle platform. The chatbot was expected to verbalise lectures, commonly used
instructions to engage the students into a learning process, give feedback, and
answer to FAQ, evaluate the students’ progress. Those were based on the database
of FAQ, solutions to typical issues that could arise in the learning process in the
pilot study. The content and structure of the automated course were identical to
those in the pilot study.
Sampling for the core experiment
A randomised sampling technique was used to form the EG and the CG to
participate in the core experiment. Forty-six students seeking Masters’ Degree in
Education National Pedagogical Drahomanov University volunteered and gave
informed consent to be involved in the study. Both groups were of the same
number of people – the EG counted 23 persons (15 female 18-19-year-olds and 8
male 18-19-year-olds) and the CG comprised 23 students (14 females aged 22-24
and 9 males aged 21-24). The groups were mutually homogeneous as the sampled
students were of the similar majors and from the same cohort (educational group).

32
Twelve volunteers (6 males and 5 females) from the EG were randomly hired for
the interview after the experiment.
Research instruments
The instruments used in the research were as follows: the e-course evaluation
checklist; the sampled students’ academic records (AR); a Criteria Cognitive
Aptitude Test (CCAT, n.d.); a Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) (Njiru, 2003);
Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ) (2005-2006; Kolb & Kolb, 2013). The
IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0.0.1. Software package was used to process the data drawn
for the above measurements. The focus group interview based on four open-
ended questions was administered to study the perceptions of both students and
tutors of the automated format of the course delivery. The interviews were
recorded and manually processed by three team members.
Focus group interview questions:
1) How did you feel about doing an automated course? Why?
2) What caused you to feel like that specifically? Why?
3) How did the course influence you in terms of your learning experience?
What were the benefits specifically?
4) Would you recommend your friends to buy an automated course? What fee
could be charged for such a course, in your view?
The Triangle Assessment Method (TAM) (Pérez-Rodríguez & Rojo-Alboreca,
2017) was applied to analyse education stakeholders’ perceptions. The reason for
choosing this method was the fact that it involves a comparison of trios rather
than pairs of elements that allows increasing the representativeness of the
analyses, reducing bias that might result from the repetitive judgements. Nine
volunteers (education stakeholders) were involved in the criterion weighting
procedure. Those criteria were as follows: convenience, cost-efficiency,
effectiveness, innovativeness, technological complicatedness. The education
stakeholders expressed their degree of uncertainty associated with each criterion
using the five-point scale from 1 meaning ‘relatively low degree of uncertainty’ to
5 referring to ‘total uncertainty’.
Instrument reliability
The checklist used in the baseline study consisted of 68 items distributed under
the headings as follows: 1) clear and consistent curriculum design and delivery;
2) clear objectives and outcomes; 4) the content is consistent to the objectives and
outcomes; 3) an interface design; 5) a difficulty progression-based structure; 6) a
teacher-student (student-teacher) support and communication provision; 7)
variety of strategies for content delivery and student engagement; 8) assessment.
Three statistics experts examined and made amendments to the questionnaire so
that criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity was ensured. Each item
was assigned a code. Before applied, it had been administered to three randomly
selected online courses. This was followed by the experts’ discussion of the results
and overall validity of the instrument. The interrater reliability was measured
using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). The obtained value for all
checklist scores was 0.68 (95% CI=0.59‒0.72). The internal reliability of the
checklist was measured utilising Cronbach’s alpha and ranged from 0.62 to 0.77
for eight universities. The Cronbach Alpha was used to measure the reliability of

33
Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire. The alpha coefficients were between .83 and
.86, which fits the estimated values to be higher than .81 (Kolb & Kolb, 2013).
The focus group interview relied on the strategy developed by Krueger and Casey
(2015). It used opening, introductory, transition, core, and ending questions. Three
statistics experts examined and made amendments to the questionnaire so that it
ensured criterion validity, construct validity, and face validity. Every interview
was recorded and transcribed. The coding procedure was performed to the
themes that have appeared from the interview. The IBM SPSS Statistics software
was used to process the responses. The Chi-square was utilised to analyse
qualitative data.
3. Results
The baseline study found that a common theoretical framework for the e-course
design at those universities was based on such approaches as systematic,
competency-based, personality-oriented, and task-based, which indicated the
dominance of practical orientation and personification in the organisation and
administration of the distance education process. The typical elements for the
MOODLE platform-based course structure at the above institutions were as
follows: a) information about the course (course overview) (the student finds a
course guide, a syllabus, the assessment criteria for completed tasks, etc.); b)
lectures (a student is provided access to both PDF document versions and
presentations); c) assignments for seminars (a student fulfils the assignment
themself and a tutor (a course-moderator) provides feedback electronically); d)
assignments for practical classes (a student fulfils the assignments themself and
get feedback from the tutor electronically); e) a block of self-study work; f) an
assessment block (tests are administered electronically and cover specific topics,
modules or the whole course) (see Fig. 2).
The structure of the e-course may vary depending on the specificity of teaching
methods used to deliver certain academic discipline and technological capabilities
of the information system of the institution. Recommendations, which were an
outcome of the baseline study, were used in three institutions to revise and
improve the existing e-courses. Those institutions were National Pedagogical
Drahomanov University (NPDU), Bogomolets National Medical University
(BNMU), Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University (BGKU). The automated educational
e-course was designed based on the above structure and was used in the first pilot
and core experiment.
At the first pilot stage, both the sampled students’ academic records (AR) and a
Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test (CCAT) were administered to assess students’
vocational competence. The academic motivation was measured by a Rasch
Measurement Model (RMM). The changes in students’ learning styles were
measured through Kolb’s Learning Style Questionnaire (LSQ). The results of the
measurements are presented in Table 1.

34
Course
Adding a course glossary is required
overview
Lectures Video content should be prerequisite
Assignments for Visualised data, infographics should be

seminars prerequisite
E-Course
Webinars, video and audio content (for
Structure Assignments for example, Analytical Chemistry) are
practical classes
recommended
Educational-pupose cloud services and

Self-study block
resources that are adised to be integrated
The continuous updating of test

questions to alow students to self-
control achevenets in diciplines is
Assessment block recommended; Note: for BNMU -
when "KROK"© licenced test is taken,
the originally developed assessment
system is used
Figure 2: The e-course structure with recommendations on improvements resulted

from the baseline study
Table 1: Mean values from AR, CCAT, RMM and LSQ measurements, Cronbach’s
alpha, t-test, and p values (in the EG and CG, before and after the educational
intervention)
Mean Alfa 𝑆𝐷 Test
Axis Group
B A B A B A 𝑡 𝑝
EG 7.73 9.32 .42 .57
AR 2.669 2.879 2.4371 0.0001
CG 7.59 8.81 .41 .48
EG 13.23 18.23 .47 .59
CCAT 2.157 2.313 1.5119 0.0029
CG 13.22 15.34 .47 .52
EG 15.16 17.43 .52 .77
RMM 2.557 2.699 1.3332 0.0015
CG 15.28 16.21 .52 .62
EG 12.43 15.36 .64 .74
LSQ 3.167 3.332 3.2367 0.0073
CG 12.38 13.98 .67 .72
Note: B ‒ Before the Educational Intervention; A ‒ After the Educational Intervention; AR
‒ academic records; CCAT ‒ Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test; RMM ‒ Rasch Measurement
Model; LSQ ‒ Learning Style Questionnaire.
As can be seen, the mean values from all measurements as well as Cronbach’s
Alpha figures improved, which indicated that the e-courses had triggered a more
significant change in the variables than the conventional learning mode. The 𝑝-
value of 0.001 for AR is statistically significant meaning that overall students’
academic performance is quite high.

35
To enhance the reliability of the study results, the three-level scale was developed
to assess the students’ vocational competence. The scale included “Elementary
level”, “Basic level”, and “Advanced level”. The measurements were
administered in both groups. The results are presented in Fig. 3.
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
NPDU BNMU BGKU
NPDU BNMU BGKU
before before before
after the after the post the
the the the
interventi interventi interventi
interventi interventi interventi
on on on
on on on
Elementary level 39.33% 25.72% 45.23% 28.42% 40.44% 27.92%
Basic level 49.14% 47.87% 41.14% 45.54% 47.54% 50.76%
Advanced level 11.53% 22.15% 13.63% 26.04% 12.02% 21.32%
Elementary level Basic level Advanced level
Figure 3: The assessment results of the students’ vocational competence using the
three-level scale
The data in Figure 3 indicated that due to the e-courses the students experienced
a positive change in their vocational competence. It implied that the educational
process, in general, in NPDU, BNMU, and BGKU improved as well. It was
statistically proved by the Pearson consistency criterion (χ²). It was found that the
difference between the groups before the experiment and after the experiment
was statistically significant (respectively 𝜒² = 3.43 and 𝜒² = 9.22). The mean
value of 𝜒 2 = 6.32 with 𝛼 = 0.05 and the figure for 𝑑𝑓 = 2.
The core experiment results
Overall, the results of measurement to have been administered after completion
of the automation of the “General Pedagogy” e-course at the stage of the core
experiment showed that both sampled groups (EG and CG) experience almost the
same change in variables as they had in the first pilot study. It implied that the
automated educational e-course could be as efficient as the tutor-moderated one.
The results that were drawn from AR, CCAT, RMM, and LSQ measurements
before and after completing the automated e-course presented in Table 2.

36
Table 2: Mean values from AR, CCAT, RMM and LSQ measurements, Cronbach’s
alpha, t-test, and p values (in the EG and CG, before and after completing the
automated e-course)
Mean Alfa 𝑆𝐷 Test
Axis Group
B A B A B A 𝑡 𝑝
EG 7.29 8.92 .41 .49
AR 2.548 2.835 2.1199 0.0003
CG 7.31 7.91 .43 .47
EG 12.15 17.93 .46 .55
CCAT 2.246 2.412 1.6712 0.0017
CG 12.18 14.94 .45 .54
EG 16.76 17.51 .54 .73
RMM 2.479 2.572 1.3592 0.0018
CG 16.81 15.87 .53 .68
EG 13.76 16.81 .61 .67
LSQ 3.254 3.412 3.5134 0.0032
CG 13.69 14.85 .63 .68
Note: B ‒ Before the Educational Intervention; A ‒ After the Educational Intervention; AR
‒ academic records; CCAT ‒ Criteria Cognitive Aptitude Test; RMM ‒ Rasch Measurement
Model; LSQ ‒ Learning Style Questionnaire.
The three-level-scale-based assessment results of the NPDU students’ vocational

competence are presented in Figure 4.
NPDU post the intervention
NPDU prior to the intervention
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00%

NPDU prior to the intervention NPDU post the intervention
Advanced level 9.48% 31.01%
Basic level 49.14% 43.71%
Elementary level 41.38% 25.28%
Advanced level Basic level Elementary level
Figure 4: The assessment results of the students’ vocational competence using the
three-level scale before and after completing the automated e-course
Figure 4 reveals that the change in the students’ vocational competence was even
more noteworthy that in the pilot study.
Table 3: Focus group interview results (EG students, 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝒅𝒇 = 𝟏)
#Q Responses Frequency, %
1 I felt comfortable 53
I felt engaged and guided personally through the course 35
I felt quite overloaded 12
2 I liked the opportunity to try out different learning 28
approaches

37
I liked the immediate feedback 17

The course was easy to follow and interesting 14
A course virtual assistant was really helpful to me 31
The course was flexible and interactive 11
Theoretical questions took much time to learn and were 9
diffusely formulated
3 I have improved my team-working skills 24
I have improved technology-mediated communication skills 36
I answer questions quicker 19
I have become more self-confidant as a learner 21
4 Of course, I would. The fee could be $5 to 10. 38
I’m not sure. 13
The course could be worth market value. 49
The above responses showed a generally positive perception of the chatbot-

assisted delivery of the e-course. The results of the triangle assessment method
presented in Fig. 5 relied on education stakeholders’ judgements on convenience,
cost-efficiency, effectiveness, innovativeness, technological complicatedness of
the automated e-course delivery. Those stakeholders were as follows: two
students, two teachers, three university representatives, and two representatives
of the students’ future professional field.
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
Technological
Convenience Cost-efficiency Effectiveness Innovativeness complicatedne
ss
Stakeholder 1 0.32 1.32 1.26 2.11 0.41
Stakeholder 2 1.15 1.13 1.47 2.14 0.62
Stakeholder 3 0.87 0.78 1.87 0.19 1.98
Stakeholder 4 0.23 0.82 1.56 0.24 2.21
Stakegolder 5 0.24 0.91 2.53 0.57 1.76
Stakeholder 6 0.37 1.28 2.57 0.64 1.91
Stakeholder 7 1.27 1.62 1.78 0.76 2.82
Stakeholder 8 1.19 1.32 1.75 0.79 2.67
Stakeholder 9 1.22 1.53 1.76 1.19 2.11
Figure 5: Distribution of the education stakeholders’ judgements on weighting the

criteria

38
As can be seen in Figure 5, the education stakeholders’ judgments appeared to be

quite dispersed for each criterion. However, they showed unanimity and low
level of hesitation in their judgements concerning convenience, effectiveness, and
innovativeness of the automated e-courses in the tertiary school settings. The
stakeholders’ views on the innovativeness of the automated learning were also
different ranging from students’ low level of uncertainty of judgments perception
of this delivery format to ‘relative lack of uncertainty of judgment’ among the
university representatives. The views on the technological complicatedness of
automation of the educational e-course also varied widely among the
stakeholders. Thus, the stakeholders seemed to be certain that the automated e-
course delivery was relatively convenient for students and teachers, cost-efficient
for the institution, effective as a means of instruction, though technologically
complex from the perspective of the institutional representatives and employers.
4. Discussion
The study tested and proved that the use of automated e-course assisted by a
virtual agent was feasible in terms of educational and instructional effectiveness,
convenience, innovativeness, and, especially, cost-efficiency. It was found in the
core experiment that the EG students experienced almost the same change in their
vocational competence, academic motivation, and learning styles after completing
the automated e-course as they did in the human-tutor moderated one. The results
of the measurements of AR, CCAT, RMM, and LSQ before and after the
educational intervention showed an average growth of 16% growth. This was
supported by the three-level-scale-based assessment and figures for responses of
the focus group students. The education stakeholders’ judgments were also
suggestive. They expressed consent regarding the convenience of the automated
education e-course for both students and teachers and its cost-efficiency for the
institutions. Their views are supported by the responses from the focus group
interview. Fifty-three percent of those interviewed stated that they felt
comfortable about the automated format of the course delivery and thirty-five
percent spoke positively about the way they had been engaged and guided
personally through the course.
The common interviewees’ quotes were:
[… It was more like a game to play for me. I was just supposed to go to
another level…]
[… no hypo-critics, no teacher dominance, no anyone to blame for my
failures or mistakes…]
[…flexible working hours, fewer students skipping the classes, easier and
simpler classroom management…]
[… I could take time to examine the topic and recheck my results…]
[… in the beginning, I suffered from the challenge, but after a while was
proud of myself for meeting it…]
With regard to cost-efficiency, the respondents stated that
[… it could be cheap - $5 to 10 could be charged for the whole course...]
[ … the automated course is, for sure, far cheaper than the classroom
learning…]
[…one-time money and time investment, can be included in the course-
library and sold …]

39
The core experiment results met the purpose of the study and complied with
previous research on methods of distance learning and teaching in HEIs, design
of materials for distance courses, automation of educational support, use of a
virtual assistant in the e-course, the use of smart technologies in vocational
training. The study is consistent with the theoretical concepts of distance teaching
of Burger (2015) stating that the students’ results in learning improve due to the
application of the individualised training approach and regular student
interactions. It goes in line with Kennepohl (2018), who reviewed best practices
and teaching tools used in higher e-education instruction, and concluded that
distance learning ‘create flexible and accessible learning environments
moving the emphasis from [memorising] the content to [fulfilling] activities.’
The study agrees with Ishii and Tamaki (2009), who evidentiated that the
automation of education had an effect on ‘educational psychology and
educational technology’. According to Smutny and Schreiberova (2020), chatbots
served a gamification tool that increased students’ learning engagement, and the
web sources guide providing links to certain learning content on the Internet.
The results obtained from the triangle method-based assessment comply with the
findings of Wasfy et al. (2013), who calculated that a human teacher hourly rate
varied between $30 to $100, and the automated course estimated cost was no more
than $10 to $50 dollars per course per student. Morales-Menendez, Ramírez-
Mendoza and Guevara (2020) in respect of cost-efficiency of automated learning
and teaching emphasised that the latter required the low investment and
operating costs. The research boosted the theory and methods of automation of
education (Ishii & Tamaki, 2009; Wasfy, 2013; Kennepohl, 2018; Diachenko et al.,
2019). It made a contribution to the literature on the integration of chatbots in the
vocational training process (Hajare et al., 2018; Diachenko et al., 2019; Smutny &
Schreiberova, 2020) and the use of smart technologies and AI in tertiary education
(Bobrytska, 2011; Zhu et al., 2016; Popenici & Kerr, 2017).
5. Conclusion
The study has contributed to the growing literature investigating the integration
of AI agents in the delivery of vocational e-courses. Specifically, we provided new
evidence that automated course delivery could lead to approximately the same
statistically significant improvements in students’ vocational competence,
academic motivation, and learning styles. This was supported by the results
drawn from students’ academic records, the criteria cognitive aptitude test, the
Rasch measurement model, and Kolb’s learning style questionnaire, before and
after the educational intervention which showed an average growth of 16%. It
suggests that this course delivery approach seems to be a feasible instructional
tool that employs a wider range of pedagogical options of engaging students into
learning. For example, the chatbot that was integrated into the automated e-
course encouraged students to solve educational problems through interaction
and collaboration, evaluated their progress, and stimulated them to increase their
academic performance and created an atmosphere of fun and enjoyment. At the
same time, it was found that the use of automated e-course assisted by a virtual
agent had been a more economical option. Moreover, it was generally positively
perceived by the education stakeholders involved in the assessment. However,
further research is needed in the assessment of written assignments by a chatbot.

40
6. Practical implications and research limitations

The major practical implication of the research is that it provides necessary
empirical data about trends in the automation of the educational e-learning
courses, the optimum or most appropriate delivery structure of the vocational e-
courses at universities. The study provides insights into the education
stakeholders’ perceptions of the automation of e-learning and specifies factors
triggering their views.
A second noteworthy implication of the research derives from the finding the
automated educational e-course could provide the students with the same
educational gains as the tutor-moderated ones but for a much lower cost for the
educational institution.
A third implication comes from the technological issues related to both the
computer infrastructure and instructors’ computer literacy, which are
prerequisites for the automation of the educational e-course.
There are several seeming limitations to the study that might cause
constructive criticism. First, it is one higher educational institution that
participated in the core experiment. Second, the number of sampled students to
have participated in experiments and gender issues. Third, the bias of the
members of the research team could be considered a limitation.
7. Acknowledgements
We warmly express gratitude to research team members and all people involved
in the automated e-course design so that this study could run smoothly.
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Appendix
DISTANCE COURSE EVALUATION CHECKLIST
Heading # Item
Clarity and 1 The course syllabus providing course objective and learning
consistency of outcomes is placed as PDF file.
curriculum 2 The course syllabus meets the ISTE Standards teacher
design and standards.
delivery 3 The course syllabus contains technical requirements for
accessing the materials.
4 The course syllabus provides information on expectations for
submitting assignments electronically such as file format or
resolution.
5 The course syllabus clearly explains the grading system and
policy.
6 The course syllabus provides information about the expected
involvement (attendance) for successful completion of the
course online.
7 The tutorial materials on how to start and how to navigate the
course flow are given at the beginning.
8 The course design complies with the requirements of the
National Framework of Qualifications.
9 The course complies with curriculum in the corresponding
discipline.
10 The course design complies with competency-based
approach.
Clarity of 11 The learning objectives and outcomes are concise.
objectives and 12 The learning objectives are challenging but achievable.
outcomes 13 The learning outcomes are measurable.
The criteria for assessment are clear and do not cause
14
misleading or confusion.
Consistency of 15 The learning objectives and outcomes are outlined before
the content to every module or unit or the class.
the objectives 16 The content of each module or unit or class corresponds the
and outcomes learning objectives.
17 Each module or unit or class is supposed to bring the students
to some measurable learning outcome.
18 The content is supported with evidence-based explanations.
Interface & 19 The “Start Here” area is present.
course content 20 The navigation is intuitive.
design 21 The calendar of due dates for the assignments is posted.
22 The copyright issues related to the materials are addressed.
Academic integrity and netiquette are addressed through
23
guidelines for the students.
The cross-cultural context of education is incorporated in the
24
course materials and bias free approach is ensured.
The content of the course is laid out and arranged in
25
manageable portions like modules or units or classes.
The brief overview of each module or unit or class including
26
objectives, activities and resources is provided.

45
Each module or unit or class is structured according to a

27
unified scheme.
Each module or unit or class includes video content,
28 assignments for seminar, assignments for practical classes,
self-study activities or research assignments.
Each module or unit or class includes uses backward design to
29 teach concepts and train skills that are related to both the
subject and the real world experiences.
30 Lectures are recorded using the talking head style.
The typical assignments for seminars are based on visualised
31
data, infographics.
32 Practical classes delivered through webinars are found.
The self-study block uses educational-purpose cloud services
33
and resources.
The links to supplemental software products are accessed
34
from the course page.
35 The course glossary is provided.
36 Learner support section is provided.
37 All training materials are well formatted.
The tutor’s/instructor’s contact details like their phone
38 number, Telegram or Viber or What’s up messengers, their
email address are provided.
All instructional materials that are posted can be opened using
39 free and accessible software with the links to access that
software or app.
Difficulty 40 The skills that are supposed to train are classified according to
progression- Bloom’s Taxonomy.
based structure 41 At the beginning of the course the assignments and activities
are of reproductive type. At the end of the course the ones are
aimed at generating content.
42 The principles of self-paced learning and self-directed learning
are found.
43 The course design and materials incorporate different levels of
mastery of the competencies.
A teacher- 44 The course builds learning community.
student 45 Weekly online group meetings or discussions are supposed.
(student- 46 The course uses gameplay design and mechanics to boost
teacher) teacher-student or student-teacher communication.
support and 47 A teacher-student (student-teacher) support and
communication communication is automated or semi-automated.
provision 48 The course tutor’s expectations concerning the quality of
student communications are clearly explained.
49 The course tutor supposes to respond students’ emails within
72 hours or less.
Variety of 50 A variety of teaching techniques and methods are used to
strategies for engage the student.
content delivery 51 Active learning environment is supposed to be created.
and student 52 Difficult terms and concepts are explained in more than one
engagement way.
53 The variety of online tools are used to deliver the course and
to facilitate students’ in understanding the content and
engagement.

46
54 Students learning styles are considered when they are

assigned with the activities.
55 Discussions, projects, simulations collaborative learning are
used to engage and motivate the students.
56 Students’ self-introduction, discussion postings with
responses, providing project feedback are used as
instructor(tutor)-learner communication strategy.
57 Group discussion postings, group projects, peer reviews are
used to maintain the learner-learner cooperation and
communication.
58 Essays, term papers, videos, self-assessments, readings are
used to engage students with content.
59 The dosing of study workload is considered.
Assessment 60 The module tests are found.
61 The progress tests are found.
62 Multiple types of assessments are frequently employed in the
run of the course.
63 The self-checklists for the assignments are found.
64 Self- and peer cross evaluation is used.
65 The course evaluation form is provided.
66 The instructor’s verbal or written feedback option is
included.
67 The summative assessment is ensured.
68 Assigning performance tasks is applied.

47

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 47-77, May 2020
Implementation of Problem-Based Learning

(PBL) Approach in Chemistry Instructional
with Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Treatment
Momo Rosbiono Kartamiharja, Wahyu Sopandi and Dini Anggraeni

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6345-7399
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1501-4064
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8164-8807
Abstract. This research aims to determine the effectiveness of the

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach implementation in chemistry
instructional with the context of tofu wastewater treatment. This
research used mixed methods with concurrent embedded research
strategies and pre-experiment one-group pretest-posttest design. The
subject of this study consisted of one chemistry teacher as a presenter,
three teachers as observers, and 34 Class XI students in a High School
in Bandung Indonesia. The instruments were lesson plan evaluation
format, student worksheet evaluation format, students’ skill and
attitude observation format with a content-validated rubric, and test
items with the reliability coefficient of Kuder Richardson of 0.73. The
research findings indicated that the PBL instructional planning
strategy was classified as very good in terms of formulating learning
outcomes, learning material compilation, and evaluation tools. The
compilation of learning media and instructional stages were in good
categories. Students’ performance displayed in all stages of PBL from
problem identification to problem-solving was categorized as good.
The results also showed that students’ learning outcomes in
understanding the concepts of tofu wastewater treatment increased
from 50 (the average pre-test score) to 85 (post-test). The increase in
learning outcomes was categorized medium with the N-gain score of
0.67. Based on these findings and results, it can be concluded that
instructional with the PBL approach can improve students’ learning
processes and outcomes in chemistry learning.
Keywords: instruction; PBL; planning strategy; instruction

implementation; tofu liquid waste treatment
1. Introduction
In the 21st-century, learning is intended to help humans have some skills,
namely 1) thinking skills, 2) work skills, 3) skills in the use of technology,

48
information and developing literacy, 4) social responsibility and competency

(Griffin & Care, 2015). Twenty-first-century skills can be obtained through
education. Education is a conscious and planned effort so that students actively
develop their potential (Depdiknas, 2003; Stivaktakis, 2017).
The sustainability of Indonesian education is accommodated by the

curriculum. The curriculum used is the 2013 curriculum with the principle of
learning in which students begin to find out and teachers are not the only
source of learning, meanwhile strengthening the use of scientific approaches
and communication information technology (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).
Therefore, an innovative learning approach that is formed through the flow of
constructivism is needed (Overton & Randles, 2013; Schell & Kaufman, 2015).
One learning approach that is following the learning principle above is the
Problem-Based Learning approach (Direktorat Pembinaan Sekolah Menengah
Atas, 2017). Problem-Based Learning (PBL) was introduced at Case W.
University School of Medicine in the United States around the 1950s (Üce &
Ateş, 2016). PBL has student-centered learning characteristics, where students
carry out learning independently, identify the problems they will be working
on and determine sources of information likes books, journals, internet, etc.
(Savery, 2006). PBL is also done based on scenarios and adjusted to realistic or
real problems which then makes students proficient in problem-solving and
group work (Gurses et al., 2015; Wijayanti & Wulandari, 2016). The PBL
approach has the characteristics of problem submission, an interdisciplinary
focus, official investigations, product production, as well as publication and
collaboration (Arends, 2012).
However, the use of PBL has not been optimized. The purpose of the PBL
approach still lacks in learning; although it is implemented, PBL syntaxes are
still not appropriate (Zulfaidhah, Palenewen & Hardoko, 2018). Tan Type, one
type of PBL, has 5 steps, namely, step (1) meeting the problem, step (2)
analyzing the problem and learning issues, step (3) discovery and reporting,
step (4) presenting solution and reflection, and step (5) summarizing,
integrating, and evaluating (Tan, 2003). The implementation of the PBL
approach provides positive results for students, including research results from
Aidoo, Pangaribuan and Pratiwi. In the research conducted by Aidoo, the
experimental group had a higher chemistry achievement (Aidoo, 2016) and
Pangaribuan (2016) found that students' mastery of concepts increased by
20.4%. In Pratiwi’s research, PBL was able to increase the percentage of
students which reached the minimum score on redox material by 81.25%
(Pratiwi, 2014). Viewed from the context of improving the quality of education,
PBL can be used to improve learning systems and improve the students’ ability
to solve problems (Sanjaya, 2006). Thus, learning with the PBL approach was
chosen by researchers because it was able to improve students’ performance
and understanding, help students understand problems in daily life, develop
students’ knowledge, help them to be responsible for their learning
(Wulandari, 2014).
To implement PBL, instructional planning is needed. Instructional planning is

a guide prepared by the teacher in the implementation of the learning process

49
(Sanjaya, 2015). Instructional implementation plans refer to the content

standards and preparation of instructional strategies, including the
development of lesson plans and preparation of media, learning resources,
evaluation tools, and learning scenarios (Depdikbud, No. 23, 2016). In the
chemistry syllabus, class XI high school students are required to master the
concept of the colloidal system material which is quite tricky for students. For
example, there are students' misconceptions about the colloidal system
material, including distinguishing colloids, the concept of colloid making, the
nature of colloids, and colloids in life. Besides, students experience
misconceptions in the sub-concept of coagulation and confused with dialysis
and adsorbs. Thus, colloidal system material is quite difficult for students to
understand, one of which is in the coagulation sub material (Dj, Fitri & Dewata,
2015).
In this research, the chosen context is the handling of tofu liquid waste because
it contains colloidal particles that can pollute the environment, such as
increasing turbidity. These problems can be solved by coagulation, which is to
coagulate colloidal particles into more extensive and deposited particles to
reduce turbidity (Ramadhani & Moesria, 2013; Septiana, 2014; Wulandari, 2014;
Sudarmo, 2017; Puspasari, 2017). These problems can be used as a context in
PBL learning and know-how they affect the mastery of students' concepts in
the concept of colloidal systems, the nature of colloids (coagulation), and the
context of tofu wastewater treatment by condensation.
Based on the explanation above, this study aims to:

1. Know the effectiveness of the planning strategy or the design of the
Problem-Based Learning approach in instructional chemistry in the
context of tofu wastewater treatment.
2. Know students’ performance in the process of implementing the Problem-
Based Learning approach in learning with the context of tofu wastewater
treatment.
3. Identify students’ learning outcomes after carrying out chemistry
instruction using the Problem-Based Learning approach with the context
of tofu wastewater treatment.
2. Methods
In this study, the method used is Mixed Methods, a research method that
combines quantitative methods with qualitative methods (Creswell, 2009). The
research strategy is Concurrent Embedded with the One Group Pretest-Posttest
research design, where one selected group is measured and observed before
and after treatment (Ary, 2010).
This research was conducted at a high school in Bandung, Indonesia. The

selected research subjects were one chemistry teacher as a presenter, three
chemistry teachers as the observers, and 34 students of Class XI Mathematics
and Science (Chemistry). Participants are students who have learned the
concept of the heterogeneous and homogeneous mixture, the concept of

50
solution, and the concept of the electrolyte solution. A description of the flow
in this study was explained as follows:
1. Preparation Stage
a. Identifying chemistry problems and chemistry learning which are quite
popular and can be solved through problem-based learning (PBL).
b. Analyzing Core Competency and Basic Competency according to
Curriculum 2013.
c. Conduct a PBL literature study.
d. Analyzing concepts, problems, and solutions to solve issues and
materials.
e. Making instructional tools (lesson plans and appendices).
f. Making an evaluation instrument that includes teacher performance
rubric, student worksheet evaluation sheet, attitude and performance
observation sheet, test items, and a validation sheet.
g. Validating learning tools and evaluation instruments, then revising if
there are improvements.
2. Implementation Stage
a. Pretest, to find out the initial abilities of students.
b. PBL treatment.
c. Posttest, to determine the learning outcomes of instructional using PBL.
3. Final Stage
a. Manging data of the pretest and posttest evaluation results in the form of
a written test.
b. Analyzing the results of research and discussion.
c. Make conclusions.
The four instruments used in this research were lesson plan evaluation format,
student worksheet evaluation format, students’ skill and attitude observation
format, and test items. The first three instruments were content validated by
chemistry education experts and the reliability test KR-20 (Kuder-Richardson-
20) was carried out on the fourth instrument with a value of 0.73 (high-
reliability category).
The lesson plan evaluation format was used to reveal the ability of chemistry
teachers in planning to learn using the PBL approach in the context of tofu
liquid waste management in high schools. The student worksheet evaluation
format was used to reveal the ability of high school students to carry out the
problem-solving stage for tofu liquid waste handling based on the PBL
instructional approach. Student attitude and performance observation sheets
were used to observe the attitudes and laboratory work skills of high school
students during PBL instruction in tofu liquid waste management. Test items
were used to reveal the basic concepts of colloid chemistry and the application
of high school students before (pre-test) and after (post-test) following PBL
learning in the treatment of tofu liquid waste.
The evaluation score for chemistry teachers and students during PBL
instruction in the management of tofu wastewater were categorized based on
the rules developed by Aqib (2009). The categories are divided into a very good

51
category which was given for scores ranging from 86 to 100, good category for
scores ranging from 71 to 85, average category for scores ranging from 56 to 70,
bad category for scores ranging from 41 to 55, and very bad category for scores
less than 40.
Data analysis of the pretest and posttest scores was performed with N-gain
which is used to determine the quality of student learning outcomes
improvement before and after learning. N-gain can be calculated using the
following formula:
S posttest − S pretest
N-gain = (Meltzer, 2002)
S max − S pretest
Then, the criteria for classifying N-gain results were High for N-gain ≥ 0.7;
Medium for 0.7 > N-gain ≥ 0.3; and Low for N-gain < 0.3
3. Results and Discussion

The findings of research and discussion include validation of the PBL planning
strategy, students’ performance in the process of implementing the PBL
approach, and student learning outcomes after carrying out chemistry
instruction using the PBL approach in the context of tofu wastewater treatment.
Planning Strategy of Problem-Based Learning Approach in Chemistry

Instruction with the Context of Tofu Wastewater Treatment
The PBL instructional planning strategy is structured in the Instructional
Implementation Plan component. Table 2 shows the evaluation in the PBL
instructional planning strategy in the context of tofu wastewater treatment.
Based on Table 1, instructional planning strategies on each component of the

lesson plan in Tan type PBL instructional show an average score of 92.6. This
means that the instructional planning strategy has met the evaluation criteria
with very good categories. The detailed explanation for each component is as
follows.
Table 1: PBL Instructional Planning Evaluation Score

The score of Score
the validator Average (Scale Standard Score
Components assessed
(Scale 0 – 4) Score 0-100) Deviation Criteria
1 2 3
Learning Outcomes 4 3 4 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG
Learning Materials 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG
Instructional 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG
Strategies
Media and Learning 2 4 4 3.3 82.5 1.2 G
Resources
Instructional Steps 3 3 4 3.3 82.5 0.6 G
Learning Evaluation 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG

52
The score of Score

the validator Average (Scale Standard Score
Components assessed
(Scale 0 – 4) Score 0-100) Deviation Criteria
1 2 3
Teaching Materials 3 4 4 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG
Student Worksheet 1 4 4 3 3.7 92.5 0.6 VG
Evaluation of Skills 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG
Evaluation of Attitude 4 4 4 4 100 0 VG
Average 3.7 93.9 0.4 VG

VG: Very Good
Learning Outcomes (LO)

Learning outcomes planning falls into the very good category (scored 90). This
indicates that LO is following the required criteria, including learning
outcomes that reveal students' words, competencies (cognitive domain,
psychomotor, and affective) with operational verbs, chemistry content,
learning conditions, and the level of quality performed (Uno, 2010). LO has
been prepared following the demands of achieving High Order Thinking Skills
(HOTS) which includes the ability to analyze, evaluate, and create (C4-C6).
HOTS also requires critical and evaluative thinking, decision-making, and
problem-solving (Widana, 2017). Students can obtain these higher-order
thinking skills through learning with the PBL approach.
The learning outcomes formulation below is following the Tan type PBL syntax
where learning outcomes 1 is described from Tan type PBL step 1. Learning
outcomes 2-5 is described from step 2 while learning outcomes 6 and 7 are
described from 3. In addition, learning outcomes 8 is the elaboration of step 4,
and learning outcomes 9 is the elaboration of step 5. Besides, the cognitive
learning outcomes formulation in learning with the PBL approach must include
higher-order thinking skills. Learning outcomes on instructional are shown in
Table 2.

53
Table 2: Learning Outcomes on PBL Instructional in the Context of Tofu

Wastewater Treatment
Steps of LO
Domain Level Learning Outcomes (LO)
PBL Tan No.
1. meeting Cognitive C2 Students can identify problems
the problem (identify) related to the context of tofu
wastewater treatment based on the
Affective A5 1 concept of colloidal systems and the
(creative) nature of colloids (coagulation) by
showing a creative attitude through
group discussion activities.
2. problem Cognitive C4 Students can analyze problems
analysis and (analyze) related to the context of tofu liquid
learning 2 waste by showing a creative attitude
issues Affective A5 through group discussion activities.
(creative)
Cognitive C6 Students can formulate problems
(formulate) related to the context of tofu liquid
3 waste by showing a critical attitude
Affective A5 through group discussion activities.
(Critical)
Cognitive C4 Students can explore solutions
(explore) related to the context of tofu liquid
4 waste by showing a creative attitude
Affective A5 through group discussion activities.
(creative)
Cognitive C6 Students can formulate appropriate
(formulate) solutions related to the context of tofu
5 liquid waste by showing a critical
Affective A5 attitude through group discussion
(critical) activities.
3. discovery Cognitive C6 Students can design experiments
and (design) related to the context of tofu waste by
reporting showing a cooperative attitude and
6
Affective A5 tolerance through group discussion
(cooperative and activities.
tolerance)
Psychomotor P3 Students can carry out experiments
(carry out) related to the context of tofu waste by
A5 7 showing a cooperative attitude
Affective through practicum activities and
(cooperative) group discussions.
4. solution Psychomotor P5 Students can present the results of
presentation (present) experiments related to the context of
and 8 tofu waste by showing
reflection Affective A5 communicative attitudes through
(communicative) presentations and group discussions.
5. overview, Cognitive C5 Students can evaluate solutions to
integration, (evaluate) problems related to the context of
and 9 tofu liquid waste by showing
evaluation Affective A5 communicative attitudes through
(communicative) presentations and group discussions.

54
Cognitive competencies that will be achieved through learning outcomes are

C2, C4, C5, and C6. There is one formulation of learning outcomes at cognitive
level C2 (understanding), two formulas at level C4 (analyzing), one method at
level C5 (evaluating), and three formulations at level C6 (creating). Thus,
learning outcomes that have been prepared following the demands of
achieving higher-order thinking skills or HOTS which must include the ability
to analyze, evaluate, and create. HOTS also requires critical and evaluative
thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving. Students can obtain these
higher-order thinking skills through learning with the PBL approach (Widana,
2017).
Learning Materials
The planning of learning materials belongs to a very good category (scored
100). This indicates that learning material has met the required criteria, such as
containing relevant prerequisite material and core material consisting of facts,
concepts, principles, and procedures (Depdikbud, No. 21, 2016). The selected
prerequisite material is following the materials needed before learning. Then,
the selected core material is following the required concepts for problem-
solving to be done.
Some prerequisite concepts needed in studying tofu wastewater treatment

were the definition of waste, homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture,
electrolyte solution, and a dispersion system (true solution, colloid, and
suspension). The core concepts developed in handling tofu wastewater were
turbid tofu liquid waste (factual knowledge), colloidal system, colloidal
properties (coagulation), and precipitation reaction as conceptual knowledge.
Another core concept was tofu coagulation tofu liquid waste experiment with
tamarind coagulant as procedural knowledge.
Instructional Strategies
The planning of instructional strategies falls into the very good category
(scored 100). This indicates that the instructional strategy is following the
required criteria, such as containing models, approaches, and learning
methods. Therefore, the application of learning methods can realize the
learning process so that students can achieve learning outcomes that have been
planned (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016). PBL steps used is a modified Tan type PBL
syntax, where the syntax is no longer only refers to the final results obtained by
students. Still, it refers to the process by students to get the final results
following the demands of the 2013 chemistry curriculum. Instructional models,
instructional approaches, and instructional methods in instructional strategies
are considered to be following the Tan type PBL learning plan.
Media and Learning Resources

The planning of media and learning resources falls into a good category (scored
83.2). This indicates that the media and learning resources are following the
required criteria, such as learning media that are used function as a tool for the
delivery of learning materials and learning resources in the form of books and
other learning resources that have been relevant (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).

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The media used are PowerPoint Templates (PPt) of tofu liquid waste handling
and worksheets. Those learning media are easy to use and can help students to
understand the learning material. Then, the learning resources used can help
students to find and determine solutions to problems for handling tofu liquid
waste.
Instructional Steps
The planning of instructional steps formulated by chemistry teachers falls into
a good category (scored 83.2). This indicates that the instructional steps are
following the required criteria, such as student-centered, includes three
activities (introduction, core, and closing), shows the expected achievement of
LO, and the time allocated is in accordance with the LO that need to be achieved
(Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).
Instructional is designed for four meetings, each requires 2 x 45 minutes. The

first meeting is designed to present step 1 (identifying problems) and step 2
(analyzing and formulating problems) of the Tan type PBL stages. The second
meeting is designed to offer step 3 (designing problem-solution). While step 4
(implementing problem solution) is presented in the third meeting and step 5
(presenting, reporting, evaluating, and reflecting) is in the fourth meeting.
In the introduction activities, there are several steps, namely, 1) preparing

students psychologically and physically by greeting students, praying and
asking how students are doing, 2) giving apperception by asking questions that
link previous knowledge with the material to be learned, 3) motivating
students by providing phenomena in daily life related to teaching material, 4)
explaining learning objectives or essential competencies to be achieved from
learning and 5) explaining learning objectives or essential skills to be obtained
from education. All introduction stages are illustrated in the learning steps in
the lesson plan above (Depdikbud, No. 22, 2016).
After the introduction is the core activity which is carried out following the 5
steps of Tan type PBL. The description of the core activities with the Tan type
PBL step will be discussed in the following paragraphs. The core activities at
the first meeting are learning using step 1 and step 2, namely, students identify
between tofu liquid and solid waste that can be harmful to the environment.
After recognizing the problem that can emerge from the tofu wastewater,
students are guided to formulate one issue that will need a solution.
In the second meeting, students carry out learning using step 3 namely,
students design solutions to problems by determining one solution to be
employed and followed by designing experiments to solve problems with the
specified solutions.
Learning using step 4 is applied in the third meeting. Students implement

solutions to problems or solve problems through experiments from previous
experimental designs. The results of applying this problem help students to
find out whether the solution is used correctly and whether problem-solving is
successful.

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The core activity in the fourth meeting employs step 5 namely, students present
(report), evaluate, and reflect on problem-solving. Students report the results
of attempted problem solving through a presentation, then conduct an
evaluation and reflection on the resolution that has been applied.
After the core activities are finished, it ends with the closing activity. The steps
in the closing activity are evaluating the series of learning activities along with
the results obtained, providing feedback on the learning process and results,
and informing the plans for further learning activities (Tan, 2003; Depdikbud,
No. 22, 2016).
Learning Evaluation
Planning for learning evaluation falls into the very good category (scored 100).
This indicates that the learning evaluation is following the required criteria,
such as learning evaluation carried out at the end of the learning process which
includes the evaluation of attitude, skills, and knowledge, as well as the
evaluation methods and tools used are relevant to the aspects of attitudes,
skills, and experience (Depdikbud, No. 23, 2016).
Teaching Materials
The planning of teaching materials belongs to a very good category (91.6). This
indicates that the teaching material has met the required criteria, such as self-
instructional, self-contained, stand-alone, and user-friendly. Self-instructional
means that teaching material can be useful and used by students individually
and autonomous means teaching material that is compiled contains all content
or theory of subjects grouped in one competency unit and a dissertation with
sub-competencies. While stand-alone means that the teaching material that has
been prepared can stand alone and does not need support from other teaching
materials because the teaching material already includes all required subject
matter. Last, user-friendly means that teaching material that has been prepared
is easy to use by students through simple language as well as the easy and
general term (Lestari, 2013).
Student Worksheet
Worksheet planning falls into the very good category (91.6). This indicates that
the worksheets are following the primary elements required, such as a title,
competencies or learning outcomes-oriented, supporting information (such as
articles) availability, tasks or work steps availability, and reports that must be
done (Prastowo, 2011). The spreadsheets that have been prepared refer to
learning outcomes, subject matter, and Tan PBL steps. Thus, the questions in
the spreadsheet can guide students to achieve learning outcomes following the
PBL learning stages and can help students to solve the problem of handling
tofu liquid waste (Li & Du, 2015).
Skill Evaluation
Planning for the skill evaluation falls into the very good category (scored 100).
This indicates that skill evaluation is following the required criteria, such as the
skill evaluation used to measure the achievement following competencies or

57
learning outcomes. The skill evaluation requires students to demonstrate

specific learning outcomes, as well as instruments used in the form of checklists
or rating scales (Ditjenpendas, 2015). The skills that emerge are students able to
carry out experiments and present the results of operations, and these skills are
must-have skills in the 21st century where students are required to have good
work and communication skills (Griffin & Care, 2015). Thus, through learning
with the PBL approach can help students to hone these skills.
Attitude Evaluation
Attitude evaluation planning falls into the very good category (scored 100).
This indicates that the attitude evaluation is following the required criteria in
which the evaluation is in line with the formulation of learning outcomes with
the evaluation technique that is suitable for attitude evaluation (Ditjenpendas,
2015). Attitudes that are expected to arise are creative, critical, cooperative,
tolerance, and communicative attitudes which are also skills that students
must-have in the 21st century (Griffin & Care, 2015). Thus, learning with the
PBL approach can help students to hone these attitudes.
Students’ Performance in the Process of Implementing Problem-Based

Learning Approaches with the Context of Tofu Wastewater Treatment
Students’ performance evaluation is assessed using the worksheet. In the
learning implementation, students are divided into six groups, so that the
evaluation of students’ performance is carried out for each group.
Step 1: Identifying Problems

In this step, students would be faced with problems. The problems that arise
would act as a stimulus to build and expand the realistic context that students
might face in the future (Tan, 2003). The following Table 3 shows the average
grade of students in step 1: identifying problems.
Table 3: Students’ Grades in Step 1: Identifying Problems

Group Score
1 83.3
2 91.7
3 91.7
4 91.7
5 91.7
6 83.3
Average score/standard 88.9/(4.3)
deviation
Based on Table 3, groups 1 and 6 scored 83.3 in the good category, groups 2, 3,
4, and 5 scored 91.7 with a very good category. The average score of students
in the step of identifying problems is 88.9, meaning that students can identify
problems very well. Therefore, it can be stated that the performance of students
in the step of identifying problems is classified as very good.

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Step 2: Analyzing and Formulating Problems

In the step of analyzing and formulating questions, students will analyze and
develop one issue related to tofu wastewater treatment that will be sought for
resolution. Students discuss the issues that arise and find information from
various sources, then determine one problem statement that will be asked for
resolution (Tan, 2003).
Table 4 below shows the average grade of students in step 2: analyzing and
formulating problems.
Table 4: Students’ Grades in Step 2: Analyzing Problems
Group Score
1 75
2 75
3 75
4 75
5 100
6 75
Average score/standard 79.2/10.2
deviation
Based on Table 4, groups 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 scored 75 in the good category, while

group 5 scored 100 with a very good category. The average score of the group
in the step of analyzing and formulating problems is 79.2, meaning that
students can analyze and develop questions properly. So it can be concluded
that the students’ performance in the step of analyzing and formulating
questions is classified as useful.
Step 3: Designing Problem Solutions
After obtaining a problem statement, students will design a problem solution.

At this stage, students find solutions to problem-solving, then students are
guided to formulate problem-solving strategies from the solutions obtained,
finally, students in their groups report the problem-solving findings (Tan, 2003;
Lin, Taiwan, Liang, 2014). The following Table 5 shows the students’ average
grade in step 3: designing problem solutions.
Table 5: Students’ Grades in Step 3: Designing Problem Solutions
Group Score
1 84.8
2 97
3 88
4 91
5 91
6 97
Average/standard deviation 91.5/4.9

59
Based on Table 4, group 1 scored 84.8 with the good category. Group 3 scored
88 with a very good grade, groups 4 and 5 scored 91 with the very good
category, while groups 2 and 6 scored 97 with the very good grade. The average
score of the group in the step of designing problem solutions is 91.5, meaning
that students can create problem solutions very well. So it can be concluded
that the students’ performance in the design step of problem solutions is
classified as very good.
Step 4: Implementing Solution

After formulating the problem solution and designing a test for problem-
solving, the next step is implementing the problem solution. At this stage,
students will conduct tests to solve problems that are carried out based on test
designs that have been made by students.
In this step, students are asked to answer six items, the answers to which are
poured into LKS-3. In the first item, students are asked to make a table of test
results, in items number 2-4, students are asked to explain the material and
ways used to solve problems. In contrast, items number 5 and 6 ask students to
explain the working principle of the method used for problem-solving.
All items asked in these LKS-3 were:

Item 1: Based on the experiments that you have done, make a table of observations of
tests that you have done! (Write the data before and after treatment)
Item 2: What materials are used in handling tofu wastewater?
Item 3: What is the substance called for handling tofu wastewater? What are the
ingredients?
Item 4: Handling of tofu liquid waste is based on one of the concepts of colloidal nature,
what is the method called? Explain!
Item 5: What is the working principle used for handling this liquid waste? Explain!
Item 6: How does tamarind coagulate colloidal particles in tofu wastewater? Write
down their chemical reaction!
Table 6 below is an example of students’ authentic answers to the six items.

Their answers are still in Indonesian. Therefore, the researchers translate
students’ answers into English in order to be easily understood.
Table 6: Authentic students’ answers to the Items in LKS-3

Items
Authentic Students’ Answers
Number
1 Group 4
2 Group 2

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Items
Authentic Students’ Answers
Number
3 Group 1
4 Group 6
5 Group 5
6 Group 4
Table 7 below summarizes the answers of each group to each of the items in the
student worksheet-3 (LKS-3)
Table 7: Students’ Answers to item 1 in LKS-3

Item 1: Based on the experiments that you have done, make a table of observations
of tests that you have done! (Write data before and after treatment)
Groups The Answer
Observation
No. Treatment of waste
turbidity precipitation
before the addition
1 turbid no precipitation
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of tamarind
after the addition of there is
turbidity level
2 tamarind precipitation
decreases (clearer)
(white)
Based on Table 7, each group discusses their findings, then writes the results of
the test in tabular form. The maximum score for item number 1 is 4, with four
keywords of “turbid”, “no precipitation”, “turbidity level decreases”, and
“white precipitation”. All groups answered correctly and obtained a score of 4
by mentioning the four expected keywords.

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Just like the answer given to item 1, all groups gave the same answer to item 2,
that the chemical used to handle tofu liquid waste was tamarind seed powder.
The maximum score for item number 2 is 1, with one keyword, namely
tamarind seed powder. It turns out that all answers in each group are correct.
Likewise, all groups give the same answer to item 3, where the chemical
terminology given to tamarind seed powder is called "coagulant", the material
“functions to coagulate or precipitate colloids in tofu wastewater”. The
maximum score for item number 3 is 3, with three keywords, namely
Coagulant: its function is to thicken the colloids particle in tofu liquid waste.
It turns out that all answers in each group are correct.
Two types of answers are given to item 4. Students in groups 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6

answer, “the coagulation is the process of deposition or agglomeration of
colloidal particles.” The answer from group 4 is more complete, where
“coagulation was interpreted as the process of deposition or clumping of
colloidal particles through mixing colloids with chemicals that have different
electrical charges or by adding electrolytes”. The maximum score for item
number 4 is 4, with four keywords, namely “The method used is coagulation
which is the process of enlarging the size of colloidal particles (coagulation of
colloidal particles) by coagulants.” It turns out that all groups got a score of 3
because they could only put forward the three expected keywords.
Three types of answers are given to item 5, in which group 1 answers, “when
the negative charge from colloids mixes with the positive charge from the
electrolyte, a precipitation reaction occurs”. The answer from groups 2, 3, 5,
and 6 is that when colloids are mixed into the electrolyte, the negative charge
of the colloid will be bound by the positive ion charge of the electrolyte so that
the charge becomes neutral and causes deposition (coagulation). The answer of
group 4 stated that the meeting of the negative charge from the colloid and the
positive charge from the electrolyte makes the charge neutral and precipitation
occur. The maximum score for item number 5 is 6, with six keywords, namely
“The working principle used is coagulation in the presence of electrolytes,
that is if negatively charged colloids are mixed with an electrolyte solution,
then the positive ions from the electrolyte solution will be attracted by
negatively charged colloids, so the charge becomes neutral and causes
coagulation or settles.” Based on these criteria, groups 1 and 4 get a score of 4
because they can express four principles, while groups 2, 3, 5, and 6 get a score
of 5 because they can learn the 5 required criteria.
Four types of answers are given to item 6. The answer of group 1 is stated as
follows
Negatively charged colloids mixed with positive electrolytes Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+
produce a precipitating reaction:
2OH-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Ca (OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ)
2OH-(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Mg(OH)2(s) + H2O(Ɩ)
3OH-(aq) + Fe3+(aq) + H2O(Ɩ) → Fe(OH)3(s) + H2O(Ɩ)

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Groups 2, 4, and 5 answer that

The ions from tamarind Ca2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+ are drawn by negative colloids (OH-)
from tofu liquid waste, so that the charge will become neutral and form large lumps
and then precipitate. The chemical equation is:
Groups 3 states that

The negative-charged colloid (tofu water waste) is mixed into the electrolyte solution,
the ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, and Fe3+ contained in the tamarind seeds will be pulled
by the colloidal negative charge so that the charge becomes neutral. As a result, the
tofu liquid waste particles settle.
Groups 6 provide answers that

The reaction equation is as follows:
The maximum score for item number 6 is 8, with eight keywords as follows:
In the tamarind seeds contained metal ions Ca 2+, Mg2+ and Fe3+,
and tofu liquid waste are negatively charged colloid.
Negative colloids from tofu liquid waste will attract positive
ions from the tamarind seed solution so that the charge will
become neutral and form large lumps and then settle. The
equation for the reaction that occurs between Ca 2+, Mg2+, and Fe3+
ions, and OH- ions from negative colloids from tofu wastewater is
as follows:
Based on these criteria, group 1 gets a score of 6, groups 2, 4, and 5 get a score
of 8, group 3 gets a score of 8, while group 6 gets a score of 4.
The following Table 8 shows the average grade of students in step 4:

implementing the problem solution. Based on table 8, group 6 scored 77 in the
good category. Group 1 scored 80.8 in the good category, group 4 composed
88.5 in the very good grade category, and groups 2, 3, and 5 scored 92.3 in the
very good category. The average score of the group in the step of implementing
the solution is 87.2, meaning that students can implement solutions to problems
well. Therefore, students’ performance in the step of implementing the problem
solution is quite good.

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Table 8: Students’ Grades in Step 4: Implementing Problem Solutions
Group Score
1 80.8
2 92.3
3 92.3
4 88.5
5 92.3
6 77
Average score/standard deviation 87.2/6.7
Step 5: Presenting (Reporting), Evaluating and Reflecting Problem

Resolution
In this step, students will present the results of problem-solving and then the
teacher will clarify or confirm the problem solving offered by students. Besides,
teachers will also confirm students' questions or doubts about solving
problems to avoid misconceptions. Each group members also evaluate how
they, as students, become problem solvers, independent students, and team
members (Tan, 2003; Machika & Abrahams, 2014). Table 9 below shows the
average grade of students in step 5: presenting (reporting) evaluating and
reflecting problem-solving.
Table 9: Students’ Score in Step 5: Presenting (Reporting) Evaluating and

Reflecting Problem Resolution
Group Score
1 70.7
2 85.4
3 80.5
4 83.0
5 75.6
6 70.7
Based on table 9, groups 1 and 6 scored 70.7 with sufficient category, group 5
scored 75.6 with good category, group 3 scored 80.5 with good category, groups
4 and 5 scored 83 and 85.4 respectively with a good category. The average score
of the group in the step of presenting (reporting), evaluating, and reflecting a
problem solution is 77.7, meaning that students do well in this category. So it
can be concluded that the students’ performance in the step of presenting
(reporting), evaluating, and reflecting on problem-solving classified as useful.
The following Table 10 shows the average score obtained by students in each
learning step with the Tan type PBL approach.
Table 10: Students’ Score in Step 1 - Step 5 Tan Type PBL Approach
Step Score
1 88.9
2 79.1
3 91.5

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4 87.2
5 77.7
Table 10 shows the average score of students’ performance in each learning step
with Tan type PBL is 84.9 which belongs to a good category. So that students’
performance in implementing the PBL approach in learning with the context of
tofu wastewater treatment can be classified in the good category.
Students’ Learning Outcomes after Carrying Out Chemistry Instructional

Using Problem-Based Learning Approach in the Context of Tofu Wastewater
Management
Learning outcomes are divided into three categories, namely cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor domains (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Thus, the
evaluation of learning outcomes was carried out in all three fields with the
following explanation:
Students’ Learning Outcomes on Cognitive Aspects

Students’ cognitive learning outcomes (knowledge) are measured from the
results of students' pretest and posttest (appendix). The pretest and posttest
questions given are the same, the issues consist of eight items regarding the
meaning of tofu wastewater treatment in the form of multiple-choice questions.
The basic chemistry and technical concepts of tofu wastewater treatment that
are tested include the type of tofu waste, the stages of making tofu, the
formulation of the problem for investigating tofu waste handling, tofu liquid
waste handling by coagulation, the chemistry principle of adding alum or
tamarind into tofu liquid waste, chemical calculations, and steps of handling
tofu liquid waste.
Figure 1 below shows the results of the pretest regarding the context of tofu
wastewater treatment.
100
90
80
Pretest Value
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
PD5
PD12
PD19
PD26
PD33
PD1
PD2
PD3
PD4
PD6
PD7
PD8
PD9
PD10
PD11
PD13
PD14
PD15
PD16
PD17
PD18
PD20
PD21
PD22
PD23
PD24
PD25
PD27
PD28
PD29
PD30
PD31
PD32
PD34
Student Code
Figure 1: Students’ Pretest Score in the Context of Tofu Liquid Waste Management
Students’ pretest learning outcomes are still classified as a low category
because there are still many who have not yet reached the minimum score of
75. The average students’ pretest score in the context of tofu liquid waste

65
handling is 50 which belongs to less or low category. The implementation of

the pretest aims to find out students' fundamental knowledge of the material
to be learned.
After the pretest, students are given treatment by giving knowledge about how
to handle tofu liquid waste using Tan's PBL approach. Instruction is carried out
four times, in the last meeting, posttest was held to find out students’ learning
outcomes in the context of tofu liquid waste handling with Tan type PBL
approach. Figure 2 below shows a graph of students' post-test scores.
100
90
80
Posttest Value
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
PD6
PD29
PD1
PD2
PD3
PD4
PD5
PD7
PD8
PD9
PD10
PD11
PD12
PD13
PD14
PD15
PD16
PD17
PD18
PD19
PD20
PD21
PD22
PD23
PD24
PD25
PD26
PD27
PD28
PD30
PD31
PD32
PD33
PD34
Student Code
Figure 2: Students’ Posttest Score in the Context of Tofu Liquid Waste

Management
Based on Figure 2, students’ posttest results are higher when compared to

pretest results. Overall, there is an increase in students’ learning outcomes,
wherein the posttest results there are 97% of students who have achieved
minimum scores (75), with an average posttest score of 85. 3 For more details,
the comparison of the pretest and posttest scores is illustrated in Figure 3
below.
100
90
80
70
60
Value
50
40
30
20
10
0
PD8
PD31
PD1
PD2
PD3
PD4
PD5
PD6
PD7
PD9
PD10
PD11
PD12
PD13
PD14
PD15
PD16
PD17
PD18
PD19
PD20
PD21
PD22
PD23
PD24
PD25
PD26
PD27
PD28
PD29
PD30
PD32
PD33
PD34
Pretest Posttest Student Code
Figure 3: Comparison of Students’ Pretest and Posttest Score in the Context of

Handling the Tofu Liquid Waste
Based on Figure 3, there is an increase in students' cognitive learning outcomes

after carrying out learning with the PBL approach. The growth shows that
students understand the learning material easier when using the PBL
approach.

66
The improvement of students’ learning outcomes before (pretest) and after

learning (posttest) was tested with N-gain using Microsoft Excel 2016. This test
is used to find out how the influence of the PBL approach on improving
students’ cognitive learning outcomes after learning.
Based on the test results obtained, the average score of N-gain of the students’
learning outcomes is 0.67, and there is an increase in students’ learning
outcomes between pretest and posttest with the medium category. Thus, it can
be concluded that learning with the Tan type problem-based learning (PBL)
approach can improve students’ cognitive learning outcomes. Therefore, the
quality of understanding of the chemical concepts in PBL can be achieved well
when the teacher functions as a facilitator (Isa et al., 2015; Li & Chen, 2018).
Students’ Learning Outcomes on Affective Aspects

The evaluation of students’ learning outcomes on affective (attitude) and
psychomotor (skills) is carried out by the teacher to the group of students
during the learning process using the attitude and skill observation sheet
instrument. The attitudes and skills observed are based on 21st-century skills
needed by students, including thinking skills and skills in the use of
technology, information, and literacy (Griffin & Care, 2015). The attitudes
observed are creative, critical, cooperative, tolerant, and communicative, while
the observed skills are the students' skills when conducting experiments. Thus,
the belief that arises from PBL learning demands the empowerment of
combinatorial thinking following Hidayati et al. (2019).
Table 11 shows the indicators of competency assessed.
Table 11: Indicators of Competency in Attitude Aspects being Assessed

Attitude Aspects
Evaluation Criteria
Assessed
1. Finding and detailing the adverse effects of tofu solid and
liquid waste
2. Finding ideas about problems related to the context of tofu
liquid waste management
Creativity 3. Looking for problem-solving solutions associated with the
meaning of tofu wastewater treatment from various
references
4. Finding several problem-solving solutions related to the
context of tofu wastewater treatment
1. Determining which waste is dangerous and will be dealt
with and resolved (between liquid waste and solid waste)
2. Determining a formulation of the problem related to the
context of handling tofu wastewater to be resolved
3. Comparing the predicted solutions to issues that can be
Critical used to treat tofu liquid waste
4. Determining one tofu liquid waste management solution
that is suitable for solving the problem from the results of
the investigation

67
1. Actively involved in designing experiments on tofu liquid

waste management
2. Finding a way to overcome differences of opinion in
designing experiments on tofu liquid waste management
Cooperation
3. Actively involved in conducting experiments on tofu liquid
waste management
4. Conducting experimental tasks in handling tofu wastewater
according to the agreement made
1. Listening to the opinions of friends of the group without
interrupting the conversation when giving ideas about the
design of the experiment in handling tofu liquid waste
2. Receiving advice from friends when designing an
Tolerance experiment in treating tofu wastewater
3. Appreciating the inappropriate views of group friends
when designing experiments on treating tofu wastewater
4. Accepting if getting criticism about ideas when designing
experiments dealing with tofu liquid waste
1. Presenting the results of tofu wastewater treatment
experiments verbally
2. Providing opinions and suggestions to other groups
regarding the results of the tofu liquid waste treatment
experiment
3. Delivering orally the results of the evaluation of problem
Communicative
solutions related to the context of tofu liquid waste
handling
4. Being active in the Question and Answer activity, both in
presenting the results of experiments and in evaluating
problem solutions related to the meaning of tofu
wastewater treatment
Table 12 shows the average score of attitude for each group of students.
Table 12: Results of Evaluation of Students’ Attitude Aspect s

Attitudes Aspects Assessed Average
Group Creativity Critical Cooperation Tolerance Communicative
1 75 100 100 100 75 90
2 75 100 100 100 100 95
3 75 100 100 100 100 95
4 75 100 100 100 75 90
5 100 100 100 100 100 100
6 100 100 100 100 75 95
Average/StDev 83.3/12.9 100/0.0 100/0.0 100/0.0 87.5/13.7 94.2/3.8
Category G VG VG VG VG VG
G = Good; VG = Very Good
Based on Table 12, groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 scored 75 with good category, while
groups 5 and 6 scored 100 with a very good category. This means that groups
1, 2, 3, and 4 have been able to think creatively to find and elaborate the
negative impacts of solid and tofu liquid waste. Besides, they are able to find
solutions to problems related to the context of handling tofu liquid waste and
wastewater treatment. However, the group has not been able to find the idea

68
for the problem related to the meaning of tofu wastewater treatment

completely. As for groups 5 and 6, they have been able to do all the indicators
for creative attitude.
In the critical attitude evaluation, all groups received a score of 100 with a very
good category. Meaning that all groups were able to think critically to
determine which waste is dangerous and would be dealt with and resolved
(between liquid waste and solid waste). Besides, they were also able to find one
formulation of the problem related to the context of tofu liquid waste
management. Finally, they can compare some of the predicted problem
solutions that can be used for tofu liquid waste treatment and determine a fluid
tofu waste management solution that is suitable for problem-solving.
In the evaluation of cooperation attitude, all groups received a score of 100 with
a very good category. Meaning that all groups were able to work together to be
actively involved in designing a trial for tofu wastewater treatment. In
addition, they can also look for ways to overcome differences of opinion in
designing a trial for tofu wastewater treatment and were actively engaged in
conducting experiments in handling tofu liquid waste. Finally, they were able
to conduct experimental tasks in handling tofu liquid waste following the
agreements made.
In the evaluation of tolerance, all groups received a score of 100 with a very
good category. Meaning that all groups were able to tolerate each other among
fellow students in the group or with other groups. Students can listen to group
peers' opinions without interrupting when giving ideas about the design of the
experiment. They can accept the views of groupmates, value inappropriate
opinions from group friends, and take criticism of their ideas when designing
experiments on liquid waste treatment tofu.
In the communicative attitude evaluation, groups 1, 4, and 6 scored 75 with a

good category, while groups 2, 3, and 5 scored 100 with the very good category.
This means that groups 1, 4, and 6 have been able to present verbally. They
were also able to present the results of the tofu wastewater treatment
experiment verbally as well as providing opinions and suggestions to other
groups regarding the results of the tofu liquid waste treatment experiment. In
addition, they can verbally submit the evaluation results of problem solutions
related to the context of tofu liquid waste handling. The group has not been
able to be active in the question and answer activities, both in presenting the
results of the experiment and in evaluating problem solutions related to the
context of tofu liquid waste management. As for groups 2, 3, and 5, they have
been able to do well in all indicators for communicative attitudes.
The average score of students’ attitudes in the implementation of learning is

94.2, with a very good category. Thus, students’ learning outcomes on aspects
of view can be classified in the very good category. Then, the score of students’
learning outcomes in aspects of skills is 92.7 while students’ learning outcomes
in aspects of expertise included in the category are very good.

69
Students’ Learning Outcomes on Psychomotor Aspects

The psychomotor aspect to be evaluated is the students’ skill when conducting
experiments and presenting the results of operations. The evaluation of skills
is carried out by the teacher to the student group by using the instrument
observation sheet. The following Table 13 shows the results of the skills
evaluation for each group of students.
Table 13: Results of the Skills Evaluation

Psychomotor Group Score
Aspects Evaluation Criteria
1 2 3 4 5 6
Assessed
Prepare Check the integrity of the
equipment 3 3 3 3 3 3
equipment
Prepare Check the completeness of
the chemicals 3 3 3 3 3 3
chemicals
Prepare 500 mg tamarind
3 3 3 3 3 3
seed powder appropriately
Measure 20 mL of distilled
water with a measuring 3 3 2 3 2 2
Preparing
glass
coagulant seeds
Separate the solid tamarind
of tamarind
powder which is insoluble
with teabag paper, and put 3 3 3 3 2 3
the filtrate into another
beaker.
Preparing tofu Measure 50 mL of tofu
liquid waste liquid waste with a 3 3 3 3 3 3
measuring glass
Mixing the Stir the mixture of tofu
coagulant of liquid waste and tamarind
tamarind seeds seed solution with a
2 3 3 2 3 2
with tofu liquid magnetic stirrer for 1 minute
waste (500 rpm), and 2 minutes
(100 rpm)
Leave the mixture for
3 3 3 3 3 3
stirring for 30 minutes
Record the observations in
the observation table 3 3 3 3 3 3
Tidy up the Wash the equipment used 2 2 3 2 3 3

equipment and Return the equipment that
chemicals has been used to its original 3 3 3 3 3 3
place
Clean the laboratory table
2 2 3 3 2 2
that has been used
Dispose the experimental
results in the container 3 3 3 3 3 3
provided
Present reports on the
3 3 3 3 3 3
results of operations

70
Psychomotor Group Score

Aspects Evaluation Criteria
1 2 3 4 5 6
Assessed
Present a report following predetermined
on the results of formats
an experiment Actively involved in-class
2 2 2 2 2 1
discussion
Present, answer and ask
3 3 3 3 3 3
questions politely
Total score 44 45 46 45 44 43
Score (Scale 100) 91.7 93.8 95.8 93.8 91.7 89.6

Average 92.7
Category VG VG VG VG VG VG
VG: Very Good
Based on Table 13, group 1 scored 91.7 with a very good grade, meaning that
group 1 has fulfilled the indicators of skills aspects very well. Even so, group 1
did not do the stirring as they should, not optimal when washing tools and
cleaning the laboratory table. Group 1 presented the results of the experiment
following the format, quite actively involved in the discussion, and polite when
giving the results of the analysis.
Group 2 scored 93.8 with a very good category, meaning group 2 has fulfilled
the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 2 was not optimal when
washing tools and cleaning laboratory tables. Then, group 2 presented the
results of the experiment following the format, quite actively involved in the
discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.
Group 3 scored 95.8 with a very good category, meaning group 3 has fulfilled
the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 3 did not measure aqua
distillation using a measuring cup carefully. Then, group 3 presented the
results of the experiment according to the format, quite actively involved in the
discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.
Group 4 scored 93.8 with a very good category, meaning group 4 has met the
skill aspect indicator very well. Even so, group 4 did not do the stirring as they
should and was not optimal when washing the appliance. Then, group 4
presented the results of the experiment according to the format, quite actively
involved in the discussion, and polite when giving the results of the analysis.
Group 5 scored 91.7 with a very good category, meaning that group 5 has
fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 5 did not take
measurements of the aqua distillation using a measuring cup carefully, did not
separate the solids of tamarind seed powder, which did not dissolve with
teabag paper correctly and was not optimal when cleaning the laboratory table.
Then, group 5 presented the results of the experiment following the format,
quite actively involved in the discussion and polite when giving the results of
the analysis.

71
Group 6 scored 89.6 with a very good category, meaning that group 6 has
fulfilled the skill aspect indicators very well. Even so, group 6 did not take
measurements of the aqua distillation using a measuring cup carefully, did not
do the stirring as they should, and was not optimal when cleaning the
laboratory table. Then, group 6 presented the results of the experiment
according to the format, and was polite when giving the results of the test, but
was less active in the discussion activities.
The average score of students in the element of skills is 92.7 which means that
students’ learning outcomes on the aspect of skills when conducting
experiments and presenting the results of operations on tofu wastewater
treatment with Tan type PBL approach belongs to the very good category.
Thus, the equipment of chemical analysis is becoming more modern, so the
involvement of technology in learning chemistry must be a concern to be
integrated so that instructional becomes engaging (JrCrews, 2017).
4. Conclusion
This research developed problem-based learning by taking the context of tofu
wastewater treatment. This mixed methods research explored how the quality
of the planning of problem-based learning, students’ performance in
implementing steps of problem-based learning, and the effect of problem-
based learning on cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learning outcomes.
The results of this study and their discussion show that problem-based learning
in the context of tofu wastewater treatment can improve the quality of
processes and students’ learning outcomes in chemistry subjects. This research
proved that the learning outcomes of students’ cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor aspects can be improved through problem-solving activities that
are close to students' daily lives. In this study, problem-based learning in the
context of tofu wastewater treatment applied the concept of chemistry essence
about colloids. In contrast to chemistry instruction in general, problem-based
learning requires students to simultaneously master the basic concepts of
colloids and at the same time apply them in solving the problem of handling
tofu liquid waste. In planning this problem-based learning, teachers and
students trace information on handling tofu wastewater that is feasible in the
industry. To obtain the feasibility of work procedures on an instruction scale,
the teacher performs an optimization test in the laboratory. By conducting
optimization tests in the laboratory, there are still difficulties for most teachers
in schools, given the lack of cultural attitude and scientific culture as well as
the limited availability of chemistry laboratory facilities in schools. From the
time allocation used, this problem-based learning in handling tofu wastewater
requires 4 meetings (2 x 45 minutes each). The amount of time allocation is quite
a lot to study the overall colloidal material in which the curriculum is only 6
meetings. Thus, problem-based learning by taking the context of tofu
wastewater treatment will be difficult to be implemented by teachers in
general. This happens because the teacher will find it difficult to manage the
time for students to learn all the colloidal material. Therefore, further research
is needed so that problem-based learning by taking the context of tofu

72
wastewater treatment can be carried out in a shorter time allocation while still
providing the same quality of learning processes and outcomes.
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APPENDIX
TEST ITEMS
1. The tofu making process may produce solid waste and liquid waste which
have a negative impact on the environment. Solid waste can pollute the soil,
where the soil gets dirty and creates an unpleasant odor. While tofu liquid
waste is usually discharged directly into the river so that it pollutes the river,
such as increasing water turbidity, increasing contamination of viruses and
bacteria, reducing the level of dissolved oxygen in the water, and affecting
the water ecosystem.
Based on the above reading, the waste with a higher negative impact on the
environment is ....
A. tofu solid waste because it can pollute the soil, increase virus and
bacterial contaminants, and cause unpleasant odors
B. tofu solid waste because it can pollute the soil, reduce oxygen levels in
the air, and cause unpleasant odors
C. tofu liquid waste because it can reduce water turbidity, reduce oxygen
levels in the air, and cause unpleasant odors
D. tofu liquid waste because it can increase turbidity, increase
contamination of viruses and bacteria, and reduce levels of dissolved
oxygen in the water
E. both tofu wastes have the same level of pollution
2. Consider the following stages of the tofu making process:
washing soybean filtering soybean

soaking
winnowing coagulate soybean
soybean porridge
soybean juice
The tofu making process will produce several types of waste, based on your
analysis, waste that has more potential to pollute the environment is ...
A. soybean skin from winnowing soy
B. soybean wash water
C. soaking water from soybean
D. tofu pulp from filtering soybean porridge
E. water from coagulating soybean juice

76
3. A student tries to analyze tofu liquid waste. The waste has turbid physical
characteristics, turbidity can occur due to the presence of colloidal particles
in the tofu liquid waste. This liquid waste is usually directly discharged into
water such as rivers without prior handling so that it can pollute the river.
The most appropriate formulation of the problem if you want to research
tofu liquid waste so as not to pollute the river is ...
A. What will happen to humans if they consume river water that is
contaminated with tofu liquid waste?
B. What are the physical characteristics of river water that has been polluted
by tofu liquid waste?
C. How do you deal with the turbidity of tofu liquid waste due to the
presence of colloidal particles in tofu liquid waste?
D. Why does tofu liquid waste contain colloid particles?
E. How to recognize the characteristics of colloidal particles present in tofu
liquid waste and other wastes?
4. Tofu liquid waste contains colloidal particles which can cause turbidity so it
must be handled first before being discharged into water. The way to
handle tofu liquid waste through the coagulation process is ....
A. filtering colloidal particles
B. enlarging the size of colloidal particles
C. absorbing charge by the surface of colloidal particles
D. maintaining colloidal stability
E. absorbing static electricity charges by colloidal particles
5. One way to handle tofu liquid waste is to add alum. The purpose of adding
alum is to ...
A. eliminate odor in tofu liquid waste
B. make the temperature of tofu liquid waste become room temperature
C. kill bacteria in tofu liquid waste
D. coagulate colloidal particles in tofu liquid waste
E. make tofu liquid waste immediately drinkable
6. In addition to alum, tofu liquid waste management can be done by using

natural ingredients, such as tamarind. Tamarind has positively charged
metal ions, while tofu liquid waste is a negative colloid. In what ways do
tamarind seeds and alum handle the tofu liquid waste?
A. Coagulation with the presence of electrolytes
B. Coagulation by mixing different colloid loads
C. Filtration of negative colloids with positive ions
D. Adsorption of positive charges by colloids
E. Negative colloidal electrophoresis towards the pole of the positive
electric charge

77
7. Following are the steps for handling tofu liquid waste with tamarind:
1) Put 50 mL of tofu liquid waste into a 100 mL beaker.
2) Mix the mixture of tofu liquid waste and tamarind seed powder using a
magnetic stirrer for 1 minute (500 rpm) or 2 minutes (100 rpm).
3) Put the tamarind seed solution into a beaker containing tofu liquid
waste
4) Weigh the 500 mg tamarind seed powder and add 20 mL of distilled
water.
The correct arrangement for handling tofu liquid waste with tamarind is ...
A. 1-2-3-4
B. 1-3-2-4
C. 1-3-2-4
D. 1-4-2-3
E. 1-4-3-2
8. A student takes a sample of 50 mL of tofu liquid waste to be handled using

tamarind seeds and moringa seeds. So that the following results are
obtained:
Tamarind Seed Decrease in Moringa Seed Decrease in

Content Turbidity (%) Content Turbidity (%)
250 mg / 50 70.59 250 mg / 50 64.91

mL tofu liquid mL tofu liquid
waste waste
500 mg / 50 76.47 500 mg / 50 66.67
mL tofu liquid mL tofu liquid
waste waste
Based on the table, the most effective coagulants and their content are ...
A. 250 mg of tamarind seeds / 50 mL of tofu liquid waste

B. 500 mg tamarind seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste
C. 250 mg moringa seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste
D. 500 mg moringa seeds / 50 mL tofu liquid waste
E. tamarind seeds are not more effective than moringa seeds

78

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 78-98, May 2020
Ready or Not: The Experiences of Novice

Academic Heads in School Leadership
Gilbert S. Arrieta
Philippine Normal University
Manila, Philippines
Don Bosco Technical Institute
Makati City, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2490-3330
Inero V. Ancho
Philippine Normal University
Manila, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3893-037X
Abstract. The decision to accept a leadership role will always require

reflection and discernment. The power, authority, privileges, and benefits
attached to it are enticing, but the duties and responsibilities make a
person step back and think about it. When no one else is qualified to lead,
tenure and performance become the bases of appointment. Despite
lacking the required credentials, particularly educational qualifications,
one receives the promotion as academic head because he/she is the most
senior among the teachers. This study aims to explore and find out the
experiences of novice academic heads in leading and managing their
teachers. It identified the challenges and struggles, including their
learning experiences and realizations as new academic heads. Using the
phenomenological method, seven new learning area heads (less than two
years of experience) from a private sectarian school in the National
Capital Region, Philippines were observed for six months and
interviewed separately. The study found out that the novice academic
heads considered paperwork, culture, processes and procedures,
expectations of superiors, and supervision of teacher as primary
challenges. To handle these challenges, they regularly consulted their
supervisors and their former academic leaders mentored some of them.
They also engaged themselves in professional and personal development
to enhance their leadership competence. Having a succession plan will
integrate the induction, leadership, and mentoring programs for future
academic heads.
Keywords: educational leadership; novice academic heads; leadership

training; readiness of academic heads

79
1. Introduction
“The greatest leaders are the reluctant ones who lead because they realize that no
one else seems willing to step up.” These words of Orrin Woodward, a leadership
expert, and speaker, and a successful entrepreneur, speak about the truth in taking
leadership roles. Some rank-and-file employees will undoubtedly doubt their
capability to lead a group of people and an organization. There are reluctant
leaders in different organizations either in business or education. These are
individuals who can lead, but they choose not to lead because they do not see
themselves in a leadership situation. In most cases, the decision to lead is in their
subconscious (Winston, 2017).
The decision to accept a leadership role will always require reflection and
discernment. The power, authority, privileges, and benefits attached to it are
enticing but the duties and responsibilities make a person step back and think
about it. When no one else is qualified to lead, tenure and performance become
the bases of promotion. Despite lacking the required credentials, particularly
educational qualifications, one gets the promotion because he/she is the most
senior among the teachers. In most cases, that leaves him/her with no other choice
but to accept the offer. Some are even being forced to take leadership
responsibilities because there are no other qualified candidates. Seniority is a
traditional basis of appointment because it seems that most tenured may be the
best choice.
Schools can be vulnerable to this, particularly the private schools due to the
exodus of teachers to public schools where career opportunities and salaries are
better. Commissioner for Higher Education (CHED) Chairman De Vera
underscored this point and said that one of the issues encountered by private
colleges and universities today is the migration of their excellent faculty to state
colleges and universities. The reason is the inability to pay them higher salaries.
In the last two years, this had been a serious concern as reported to CHED. The
state colleges and universities have created new faculty items, and the
Department of Education (DepEd) opened teacher items since the implementation
of K-12. Because of this, many teachers are transferring to government educational
institutions. There is a significant number of teachers who have transferred, and
are moving to the public schools (Manila Bulletin, 2018).
DepEd Secretary Briones also pointed out the migration of private school students
and teachers to the public schools. Initially, the phenomenon was only of students
due to various reasons. Lately, private school teachers are transferring to public
schools because of higher salaries and other benefits (Manila Bulletin, 2018). With
this reality, tenured teachers in private schools decrease due to retirement and
preference for a better opportunity in other educational institutions. A significant
number of new teachers are hired yearly, including those who have not taken the
licensure examination for teachers. When few tenured teachers are left, the bench
for leadership candidates become shallow. There will be few or no other
candidates for the supervisory position except the most senior. The most senior
may have been with the school for only three or four years, but he/she may
receive an offer to become an academic leader. Some may have been with the

80
school for ten years but never had the chance to take leadership roles. Just to fill
the vacancy, he/she will be forced to accept the appointment despite lacking the
needed qualifications, particularly educational qualifications, and experience. In
those few years as a faculty member in the institution, it is doubtful that he/she
was prepared for future leadership roles. When the term of office of the current
academic heads ended, only a few have the required tenure and educational
qualifications. Worst, there were no qualified teachers who can be the next
academic head. In school year 2018-2019 and 2019-2020, there were nine teachers
appointed as academic heads. Two are former academic heads while seven are
novice academic heads. Having nine newly academic heads in the high school
department in the last two years can be considered an unusual reality most
especially since there was no change in the higher leadership.
With the given circumstances, the study aims to explore and find out the
experiences of novice academic heads in leading and managing their teachers. It
identified the challenges and struggles, including their learning experiences and
realizations as new academic heads. From the data gathered, it will provide a basis
for school administration in creating a program that will prepare and develop
teachers for leadership roles in the future.
The following are the research questions for this study :

1. What are the challenges that novice academic heads encountered in
leading the teachers?
2. How did the novice academic heads handle the leadership challenges and
responsibilities?
3. What kind of preparation and training on leadership that novice academic
heads need?
Challenges of Novice Academic Heads

After obtaining their license to teach, teachers set their sight on a career in
education and may end becoming an educational leader. Transitioning from
classroom teaching to school leadership tasks is usually not an easy process.
Though many, particularly those who are not in the field of education will think
that it is a natural progression for teachers to become academic leaders, researches
show that novice academic heads face many challenges in the transition.
Classroom teaching and school leadership are two different but complementary
domains in education. A classroom teacher who is offered a leadership role may
not immediately accept the appointment due to various reasons.
Being an unattractive job, teachers hesitate to take school leadership roles.

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries are
facing a less number of applications for principal positions. There are countries
finding difficulty in having suitable candidates. The number of applicants has
considerably declined over the years. Researches indicate that negative images
attached to the position, particularly overburdened roles, working conditions,

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inadequate salaries, and rewards, including lack of preparation and training are
the top reasons for becoming uninterested to apply. In several countries, assistant
principals and teachers don’t show interest to a higher leadership position due to
small additional reward that is not commensurate with the workload and duties.
The younger generation of school leaders show a lack of interest in the
principalship because of increased stress and work overload (Pont, Nusche &
Moorman, 2011).
Promotion to leadership positions are always accompanied by challenges,

including issues. A novice educational leader will encounter challenges in the
transition. Any transition may be smooth or challenging that can be attributed to
different factors. The factors that contributed to difficult transitions included
strained interpersonal relations, poor plant maintenance, and lack of teacher
support and buy-in. Factors contributing to smooth transitions included
cooperative staff, working systems already in place at the schools, and familiarity
with the system. The new principals reported several challenges while in their
new roles, ranging from teacher lateness to student misbehavior. However, the
two challenges that emerged as most significant were interpersonal relations and
plant maintenance. The other relatively significant challenge reported was a lack
of teacher buy-in for the vision of the respective principals (Van Jaarsveld, Mentz
& Challens, 2015).
Another study revealed another challenge, particularly in rural district schools

which is on culture. Some participants struggled with the specific context of the
rural school. This challenge entails more preparation since many participants had
no experience in a rural setting. Unaware of the culture and characteristics of the
rural school, including stakeholders who have a sense of ownership in the school,
novice principals had to contend with the community. Such challenges could have
been avoided if they have a clearer understanding of rural education (Edwards,
2016). In the Philippines, personal challenges are encountered by novice school
heads who are members of religious congregations. They are appointed as
principals out of obedience from their superiors even without knowledge and
experience in managing schools. During their three-year term, they enroll in
graduate school for a degree in educational leadership to equip themselves with
theories (De Guzman, 2007). As they juggle school leadership tasks and graduate
studies, many are not able to complete their master’s degree. There is pressure to
qualify themselves since they lacked the required educational qualifications
particularly a master’s degree. Due to the duties and responsibilities of being a
school head, they are not able to earn the degree. In a teacher university that offers
educational leadership and management in the graduate school, the number of
graduates continue to be few. It was concluded that graduate students need more
commitment and grit to complete their graduate studies (Zulieta, Sudarsana,
Arrieta & Ancho, 2020). In another study, it showed how principals face the gaps
between theory, policy, and practice but there are few kinds of research conducted
on these dynamics. Ethical leadership is emphasized in leadership training in the
Philippines due to the presence of corruption and nepotism in its culture. The
preparation for the challenges that principals will face should include sensitivity
to the culture (Sutherland & Brooks, 2013).

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A study on novice rural principals revealed that eight themes emerged on the
challenges they encountered namely supervision of staff, sense of isolation, work-
life balance, the role of the superintendent, changing school boards, legacy of the
predecessor, demands of the community, and board succession planning. Five of
the eight themes are already found in the literature related to this study. These
eight themes all impacted on the novice rural principals and their sense of success
or failure in those critical first two years of the principalship. To the novice
principals, no challenge was considered a big obstacle. However, when multiple
challenges pile up, they are overwhelmed by the volume of work. Some
participants felt supported because of the mentors and effective networking.
Unfortunately, others felt that they were alone in dealing with the demands of
their new responsibility (Edwards, 2016). Another study found out that novice
principals were “shocked” as they transitioned into their new roles. The sense of
bigger responsibility was tremendous and contributed to the other problems in
being a principal namely task volume, diversity, and unpredictability. The
“shock” and conditions to the transition either lessened or made the level of
practice problems they faced (Spillane & Lee, 2013).
Despite the challenges they encountered, novice academic heads found ways to
handle the issues. A study revealed that school headteachers experienced
loneliness and isolation, particularly during the first month of their appointment.
However, they managed their isolation through various approaches like having
informal discussions with teachers to get to know them more. Moreover, the
academic heads shared experiences and created an open environment for
interaction with their teachers (Tahir, Thakib, Hamzah, Said & Musah, 2016).
The challenges encountered by novice academic leaders appear to be very

overwhelming and difficult, but manageable if the proper preparations are
provided. Researches revealed that novice academic leaders suggested programs
that will assist future academic administrators before assuming the new role.
Preparing for the Leadership Challenge

School leadership is a challenging and demanding academic work that requires
serious preparation. Novice and experienced academic leaders identified the
challenges, and proposed programs to address them. To prepare for these
challenges, become more confident in taking the new task, leadership training
should be provided to novice academic leaders. Getting the right people for the
principalship matters, including how they are trained for the position. New
principals had acknowledged their lack of formal preparation but coped through
in-service training and learnings from experience. Due to minimal preparation
they received, the more they became apprehensive in assuming the new role
(Thody, Papanaoum, Johansson & Pashiardis, 2007).
Quality school leadership is what every educational institution desire,

particularly as it looks forward to the challenges of leadership. It is essential for
school improvement as the leadership workforce is aging and close to retirement.
With this concern, many schools in different countries provide leadership training
for novice academic leaders, but they are optional. Such programs will assist in

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shaping initial school leadership practices and create networks where leaders can
share their concerns. Moreover, it should provide an understanding and balance
between theoretical and practical knowledge, including self-study (Schleicher,
2012).
Based on experience, new principals are left to sink or swim in their new tasks. In
most cases, they are presumed to be prepared to have completed their graduate
studies or a university training program. They get a few directions, insincere
encouragement, or sporadic practical tip. However, this kind of attitude is
changing because of the realization of having a shortage of high-quality school
leaders. In recruiting promising school leaders, nurturing comes after their
recruitment (Lashway, 2003).
The area that some participants struggled with and believed more preparation
should be done was the specific context of the rural school. Many participants had
no experience in a rural setting, either as a student themselves or as a teacher.
They were unaware of the unique culture and characteristics of the rural school,
including the sense of ownership parents, had towards the school, the role and
status long-serving staff members had in the school and with the parents, and the
seemingly blurred line between school and community. The mistakes or
challenges some of the participants faced could have been avoided with a more
detailed understanding of rural education (Edwards, 2016).
Whether in an urban or rural area, the dynamics of school leadership change.

School leadership continues to evolve. The idea of growing school leadership
entails that tasks in the school, including the qualities required to do them
effectively are clear and understood. In every school, there is a variety of level of
leadership that involves different degrees of complexity and accountability.
Learning area head, discipline coordinator, headteacher, and assistant principal
are some of the different levels of school leadership (West-Burnham, 2004).
Adapting to the dynamics of school leadership today, academic heads suggested
solutions to the challenges they encountered to prepare future academic leaders
in handling similar issues. Four major solutions are recommended to overcome
isolation in the leadership task namely continuous discussions with other
teachers, attitude change among novice headteachers, establishing a network with
other academic heads, and strengthening teamwork. The ability to adapt oneself
to their fellow teachers will assist in the performance of one’s duties. Notably,
communication with the other members of the school community, particularly the
academic heads, teachers, and non-teaching is important to ensure the effective
dissemination of information. Through formal and informal meetings, novice
academic heads can interact, exchange ideas, give comments, and
recommendations leading to the development of the school community (Tahir,
Thakib, Hamzah, Said & Musah, 2016).
Researches on leadership succession and preparation often mention the

importance of mentorship. Every incoming academic leader needs mentorship
from senior academic heads, particularly in the beginning years. They need
support and guidance from experienced academic leaders, specifically in

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developing required skills like effective communication with teachers, time

management, and supervision of instruction to become effective academic
leaders. Hence, preparing new academic leaders like principals becomes an
integral component of effective school systems. Effective and well-prepared
mentoring programs, which provide an appropriate match between mentors and
mentees, are essential to assist new principals, and other academic heads (Gumus
2019).
It cannot be assumed that newly appointed academic leaders or principals have

all the skills and competencies to lead their schools successfully. The job is
considered lonely and intimidating, but it can be resolved through an effective
mentoring program. Having competent and experienced mentors will guide the
new academic heads employing structured, reflective activities and experiences.
(Holloway, 2004). This is evident when new headteachers validated that
mentoring had enhanced significantly their professional values as middle school
managers. Through this, a culture of knowledge sharing was born that gave them
more confidence and improved their practical knowledge on educational
leadership (Tahir, Haruzuan, Said, Daud, Vazhathodi & Khan, 2015).
The provision of effective mentoring programs is supported by the study of the

Southern Regional Education Board in Atlanta, USA. It was explained that
mentoring programs give initial credentialing to aspiring principals by asking
them to demonstrate mastery of competencies before credible mentors. However,
reality shows that many new academic leaders are left to “learn on the job.” They
plan and design programs without the guidance of their successful peers.
Considering the increasing amount of accountability, the training for principals
or any academic leader should not be a “sink-or-swim” approach. Preparing
future or new academic leaders is not about cutting corners, but a tedious process
to enable them to grow. Quality school leaders result in quality schools. They
work hard to get the job done and lead the school to its vision. Poorly prepared
school leaders remain in the system and hinder the growth of the school. Hence,
the mentoring program must be a rigorous and challenging internship supervised
by experts in educational leadership (Board, S. R. E. 2009).
Aside from mentorship, senior and novice school leaders propose an induction
program for newly appointed academic heads. Different forms of induction
programs are provided by the United States, Australia, Hungary, and Denmark
to ensure the readiness of the incoming academic leaders. Only 18% of academic
leaders felt prepared when they assumed office.
Succession Planning
In the past, succession planning was not given much attention for leaders just
looked for a replacement to vacant supervisory positions. With the emerging
discussions, researches, and theories on leadership, succession planning started
to gain ground and taken seriously by organizational leaders. Seeing its value, it
is introduced as a significant plan that will impact leadership sustainability and
realization of the vision of the organization. With the traditional perception that
leaders will stay in power until they retire beginning to diminish rapidly, the term

85
of office for leadership positions is being observed. It is now becoming part of the
organizational culture where change is expected and a new set of leaders will
come.
One of the specific practices that organizations and management development

professionals must execute to effectively build their leadership pipeline is to
establish a supportive organizational culture through active CEO and senior
management participation in development programs and performance appraisal
and reward systems that reinforce managerial engagement (Groves, 2007).
Succession management requires substantial ongoing organizational
commitment across all levels of the business implementation. A key component
for effectiveness was identified as having support for the process not only at the
highest levels but also down the line. In particular, senior management must be
prepared to provide support and development opportunities for staff identified
as high potential (Taylor & McGraw, 2004). For advancement leaders to think
strategically about career pathing and succession planning, they must start by
building the base of internal talent. Developing a culture within an advancement
division that nurtures the individual contributor as much as it values future
managers is a critical step. If there is a culture of leadership development,
employees may opt to commit and reciprocate the organization (Croteau & Wolk,
2010).
From these researches, it suggests that incoming academic leaders will face
various challenges, but they can be handled given the essential preparation and
training. The development of the educational institution mainly depends on the
quality of school leaders. Therefore, the competence and relational skills of
academic leaders should be developed through the leadership preparation
programs of the school.
3. Methodology
The method used in this study is phenomenology. It is an approach to qualitative
research that focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular
group. The fundamental goal of the approach is to arrive at a description of the
nature of the particular phenomenon (Creswell, 2014). In the last two years, seven
new learning area heads from a private sectarian school in the National Capital
Region, Philippines were observed for six months and interviewed separately.
Three have been with the school for three or four years while four for at least eight
years. The researchers were participant- observers and one of them is a member
of the management team. The participants are not under the supervision of the
researchers.
Experts in educational management and school administrators validate the

research questions. The following items were asked: (1) When the appointment
as a learning area head was offered to you, did you immediately accept it? Why?
(2) Were you prepared to be the learning area head when you were appointed?
Why? (3) What were the challenges that you encountered in your first year as an
academic head? How did you manage or handle the challenges? (4) Based on your

86
experience, what preparation and training should be given to the new learning
heads before and after their appointment?
Coding was used to analyze the data were analyzed by coding. In coding, the
researcher organizes data collected into segments and assigns a word or phrase to
them as labels (Creswell, 2014). Before the study, the researchers sought
permission from the school administrators and the participants. The participation
of the seven new learning area heads was voluntary, and their responses will not
affect their status or performance. No name would be mentioned including the
school where the study was conducted.

If teaching entails a four-year college education, including pre-service training, it
is also important that teachers who are future academic heads must be prepared
for school leadership responsibilities. Their experiences and performance are
basic premises for more serious roles, but there are significant preparations
needed for supervisory positions. The discussions that follow are presented based
on the research problems.
1. What are the challenges that novice academic heads encountered in leading
the teachers?
When the seven novice academic heads were asked if they were prepared for the
supervisory responsibility, no one said that he/she was ready for the new
educational role. One participant received the information that he/she would be
the next academic head after two academic years. However, he/she was surprised
that the appointment came a year earlier. He/She accepted the position but not
without any doubts about his/her competence. Another participant said that
he/she was ready but not without serious doubts considering that he/she is the
most senior in the group of teachers. However, the other five participants said that
they were reluctant to accept the appointment because they were not prepared for
such a role. They felt that they did not have time to be ready because the offer
came too soon. But two participants said that he/she eventually accepted it
because he/she considered it as a challenge. One of the participants shared:
“It happened when the principal summoned me to his office sometime
March or April of 2019. I did not have any idea that the appointment
would be offered to me. Honestly, I was quite hesitant, for I was not
prepared for it. I felt that I have focused my training in developing my
skills to be a subject and content expert.” P5 Q1 A1
Their reluctance to accept the appointment may be attributed to the demographics

shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Demographics of the participants

Age Years of Tenure in the school Educational
Teaching Qualifications
Experience
Participant 1 25 5 5 Master’s degree
(second most senior) (on-going)
(third most senior) (on-going)
(most senior) (on-going)
(most senior) (completed)
Four of the participants are relatively young in terms of age, experience, and
tenure in the institution. Six of the participants believed that seniority played a
significant factor in their appointment. One participant pointed out that:
“I was appointed because there were no other tenured teachers to lead the
area. Practically, all teachers in the area are probationary.” P6 Q1 A1
Promotion based on seniority is an old-fashioned way of promoting employees

which may not necessarily mean loyalty or excellent performance. But some
organizations still consider this as an important criterion for promotion or
appointment. Seniority-based promotion may be outmoded but it is perceived to
be a fair basis than merit-based systems. While understanding that seniority
systems contribute to organizational justice is important, without the ability to
evaluate employees who have specific knowledge, achievements, and abilities,
the organization is simply required to take the next most senior person. Although
perceived as fair among employees, it poses organizational and management
challenges (Carter, 2017). Ironically, competency is found to be the predictor
variable that contributes to the highest variation score in occupational stress.
Organizations are advised to use competency as the first consideration for
promotion criteria. At the same time, other criteria must be seriously looked into
such as leadership, performance, and seniority. Seniority should be given the least
consideration because it has a weak relationship with organizational performance
(Yaw, 2017).
These factors might be considered affecting the novice academic heads

particularly in their first year of supervisory work. Based on observation, the
participants showed enthusiasm in their new responsibility but were tentative in
their actions. They are very careful in dealing with the teachers under their
supervision. During management team meetings, they were attentively listening
in the discussion and clarifying essential matters. They also appeared anxious
about pressing issues and concerns because they have to figure out how to handle

88
them. In terms of dealing with the teachers, they were more careful, particularly
in responding to their comments. They said that in most cases, they do not
respond immediately to their questions unless there is a clear directive from the
administration. Despite being reluctant to accept the appointment, the
participants eventually assumed the position and encountered the challenges as
new academic heads that are found in Table 2.
Table 2. Challenges in the first year as academic head

Main Challenges Specific Challenges
Paperwork No evident turnover of documents
Knowledge on how to do paper works
Culture Working habits of the teachers
Attitude of teachers
Processes and Procedures Knowledge about policies and procedures
Expectations of Superiors Fulfilling duties and responsibilities as academic
head
Meeting expectations of superiors
Supervising Teachers Handling teacher’s behaviors and attitudes
Paperwork
The four participants shared that this is the first challenge that they have
encountered. Being teachers with no leadership experience and have not been
prepared for the position, they had a difficult time adjusting to the paperwork
that the work requires. They have been overwhelmed by the volume of
documents to be reviewed and prepared. One of the participants said:
“I feel prepared for the responsibilities, but I'm not quite competent in
creating documents.” P1 Q2 A2
The issue on paperwork was also the finding of in their study on novice school
leaders. Considered as the most significant challenge and category that came out
in the study, paperwork refers to the writing of reports and documentation.
Making the job more stressful, the information had to be managed rapidly like
communication, documentation, and electronic reports. (Beam, Claxton & Smith,
2016). In their study, paperwork refers to desk work done by academic heads
which include forms, paper records, documentation, and other electronic records.
The meaning of paperwork is similar to the responses of the participants.
Culture
Over time, people in the organization develop habits that most of the time become
the norm. When a new leader comes in, they find it difficult to change, even the
practices are bad. A new leader will deal with this kind of challenge as he/she
begins fulfilling that role. Two participants shared that they replaced academic
heads who have been in the institution for more than thirty (30) years and as
academic heads for more than six (6) years. As young and new leaders of the area,
that is a daunting task that they have to face. One participant shared that two
teachers in the area were his/her former teachers whom he/she considered as his
role models. He/She added that alone is already a challenge. The two participants
explained further that these former academic heads had established specific
procedures and relationships that are considered to be the culture of the area. An

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article explains organizational culture as an observable, consistent patterns of

behavior. In the words of the great philosopher Aristotle “We are what we
repeatedly do.” This opinion hoists habits or repeated behavior as the center of
culture and reduces people’s beliefs, feelings, or ideas. One’s attention is focused
on the influences that form the behavior in organizations. It highlights some
important questions about culture on structure, processes, and incentives,
including culture as simply behavioral outputs (Watkins, 2013). As a challenge,
one participant said:
“I consider the habit of the area as a challenge. It is difficult to break the
practices created by the previous learning area head. I chose to change the
bad habit of the faculty one at a time.” P1 Q2 A2
To be able to create change in a school environment, the new academic head

should be able to earn the trust and confidence of the teachers. To build the school
as an educational community that enables individual human development
through cooperation and inclusion, trust should be the main foundation. Trust is
one of the essential values in educational leadership that gives confidence and
establishes a stronghold for safe development (Dorczak, 2014).
Processes and Procedures

In any leadership transition, the turnover of responsibilities is essential. The
participants unanimously experienced difficulty in adjusting to the new
responsibility because of the absence of orientation on their new responsibility.
The appointment came a few months before they assumed responsibility as an
academic head. A participant shared that:
“It would be the decision-making process. That was the time when we
purchased new computer units and fabricated computer tables. Since I
don’t have a background on how to deal with the suppliers and the
materials needed, it was not easy for me to deal with those situations.”
P3 Q2 A2
Another participant said:

“There are a lot of learning area head tasks that I am not aware of before,
that if the training was given ahead of time, the adjustment would be
much easier. However, as time pass by, step by step, I learned to adapt to
the said position and somehow, impose an authority in our area.”
P2 Q2 A2
A research study revealed similar results on the absence of orientation and other
similar activities for incoming learning area heads. The participants shared that
there was no mentoring, orientation, clear transition, and turnover of
responsibilities that made it difficult for them as new academic heads to adjust to
their new responsibility. They had to find their way and learn from experience to
become confident academic heads. It is recommended that an induction program
might be provided for incoming and newly appointed academic leaders which
includes leadership training, mentoring, transition protocols, orientation, and
turnover (Arrieta, 2020).

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Expectations of Superiors
When new appointments are out, there are expectations from teachers and more
particularly the immediate superiors who recommended and appointed them.
There are also expectations to bring about change and improvement in the area.
The participants felt that they have to live with the manageable expectations from
all teachers and academic leaders. One participant shared:
“As a new learning area head, there are many expectations, particularly
in changes in practices and outputs of the area at the end of the school
year.” P4 Q2 A2
Newly appointed academic heads are expected from them by their immediate
heads. Learning area heads are identified as middle leaders and curriculum
leaders. Hence, they are expected to perform tasks such as planning learning
programs, leading in curriculum development, maintaining policies and
procedures, and meeting the quality assurance and compliance requirements
(Basset, 2016).
Supervising Teachers
Handling student’s behavior is different from supervising teachers. Novice
academic heads consider managing teachers a challenge because they have
different mindsets, attitudes, and behavior. They are in search of the appropriate
strategy in leading them most especially that the teachers. A participant shared:
“Handling fellow teachers is both an objective and a personal business, to
me. Perhaps, one needs to be holistically grown to lessen the hassle of
guiding and leading people of the same profession, with utmost
professionalism and empathy at the same time.” P7 Q3 A3
As instructional leaders, academic heads should be able to direct and influence

the teachers to become better educators. They are expected to create a school
climate that will nurture teachers and recognize them as potential leaders.
(SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2014). It is also part of their responsibility to develop and
nurture relationships with their teachers and to deal constructively with conflicts.
Moreover, they are expected to develop their subordinates’ competencies and
enhance performance by panning effective development activities. However, it
remains a challenge as the new academic heads find the right approach in dealing
with different teachers with different personalities and needs. They have to read
books and articles about managing and communicating with subordinates and be
mentored by experienced school leaders.
2. How did the novice academic heads handle the leadership challenges and
responsibilities?
Handling leadership challenges bring out the best in every newly appointed
academic head. He/She has to find ways to deal with them. The seven
participants shared that they regularly consult their former academic head and
immediate superior for guidance and assistance. Some past academic heads took
the initiative to mentor them, which they appreciate. A participant said:
"Whenever there are learning area head tasks that I am not aware of doing,
it's a good thing that my former area head is willing to help me and give
me advice on what to do in particular situations. His vast experience in

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different positions that he gained throughout his career helped me in terms

of my decision-making.” P2 Q3 A3

“In decision-making, I am thankful for the cooperation and
understanding of my previous academic head. He was always there to
answer my queries.” P3 Q3 A3
Based on observation, the seven participants often ask clarificatory questions

during the management meeting. They listen attentively in the discussions,
particularly to senior academic heads. Likewise, they regularly ask their
immediate head for advice and guidance, most especially on area issues and
concerns. Some said that they received mentorship from their former academic
leaders and other academic heads who are always available to listen and give
suggestions. Having supportive academic leaders and senior teachers is very
helpful in carrying out their tasks as new academic heads.
Ironically, a study revealed that one out of five novice school heads shared that
support from superiors was lacking. Though they wanted to seek guidance from
academic authorities, they opted not to seek help for it might be taken as a sign of
weakness. Moreover, asking for assistance might put their appointment at risk. It
was explicitly indicated that novice academic leaders need guidance from their
supervisors. During the focus group discussion, they expressed their strategies in
handling the challenges, but the support came more from informal than formal
sources. Instead of being supported through the prescriptive procedures, they did
their reflective processes (Beam, Claxton & Smith, 2016).
Other new academic heads decided to engage in professional development by

taking graduate studies and reading books on educational leadership. Having no
preparation for the leadership role, they have to study and lead their teachers at
the same time. One participant said:
“Another way to manage the challenge is by keeping myself abreast of the
different pedagogy that is suited as a learning area head.” P6 Q3 A3
Another participant shared:

“The first remarkable challenge is finding the right approach to dealing
with different teachers with different personalities and needs. I read books
and articles about managing and communicating with subordinates and
the like.” P5 Q3 A3
Leadership requires adaptability and flexibility. The challenge is to be able to

relate with others more meaningfully adapt their styles to changing circumstances
and highlights the need for leadership development that enhances flexibility in
leadership styles and strategies. Hence, the leadership training of future leaders
should be relevant and responsive to the signs of the times. Unfortunately, leaders
have been assigned to a position that they have not been prepared for (Hallinger,
2011). What these new academic heads are doing insofar as developing their
leadership competencies is the right thing to do. But this should have been

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provided to them before the appointment. Taking professional development as a

personal endeavor is a great start to become an effective leader.
3. What kind of preparation and training on leadership that novice academic

heads need?
All participants emphasized the importance of preparation before any promotion
of teachers to an academic head position. Having been in the classroom for several
years does not prepare a teacher completely for supervisory responsibilities for
that is a different area in education. Certainly, experiences in classroom teaching
will help, but a future school leader should undergo leadership training and may
include on-the-job training. Young educators and academic leaders are facing
incomparable challenges. They have to deal with accountability for student
performance, providing for different student populations, parents doubting
public education, implementing intricate policies on special education, and other
things that are too many to mention. Yet, these young educators and leaders, who
are highly motivated, still need to acquire the skills that come basically from
experience (Rooney, 2008).
The participants presented their suggestions on how future academic heads can
be prepared based on their experiences and the challenges they encountered in
their first year as an academic head. Table 3 shows the challenges and the
programs that will prepare future academic leaders for leadership responsibility.
Table 3. Programs Addressing the Challenges of Novice Academic Heads
Programs Challenges
Induction Program Paperwork
• Turnover of documents Processes and Procedures
• Orientation
Mentoring Culture
Processes and Procedures
Leadership Training Expectations of Superiors
Culture
Succession Planning Readiness of academic heads
Supervision of Teachers
Induction Program
Proper turnover of responsibilities, most especially the documents is essential
between the outgoing and incoming heads. This point is the concern of all
participants for there was no proper orientation and transition from one academic
head to another. Incoming academic leaders have to be provided sufficient time
to prepare for the new task. There should also be an orientation on their duties
and responsibilities including the policies and procedures. The induction
program that the administration can create will assist incoming heads in
becoming competent and people-centered leaders. One participant suggested:
“Proper turnover of documents and other related files is very much
important. Leadership and management training/workshop and proper
orientation of the responsibilities.” P4 Q4 A4

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The importance of mentoring and induction is included in The Kansas

Educational Leadership Institute (KELI). KELI is a partnership of government
agencies and professional organizations that provides induction and mentoring
to new academic leaders in the state of Kansas, USA. In building leaders in their
district, KELI, as a state model, makes support available to new school principals
and assistant principals by assigning senior and skilled principals in the
mentoring and induction programs (Liang & Augustine-Shaw, 2016). In a study
about succession planning, the importance of the induction program as an
important undertaking of administration for new academic leaders came out.
Furthermore, it pointed out that with the absence of an induction program,
leadership training, mentoring, transition protocols, orientation, and turnover to
incoming and newly appointed academic heads should be provided (Arrieta,
2020).
Mentoring
Though a mentoring may be included in the induction program, the participants
unanimously suggested that new academic heads should be mentored before and
after the appointment, particularly in the first year. One participant shared that
he was fortunate to be mentored by his former head, who happens to be his former
teacher. He was very grateful for he learned a lot from him. However, mentoring
should be true to all. It can only happen if there is a mentoring program for all
incoming and new academic heads. Based on observation, particularly during and
after management team meetings, the new academic leaders sought clarification
on the matters discussed. When asked about what they conferred with the senior
academic leaders, they confirmed and sought advice on specific agenda in the
meeting before communicating the information to the teachers.
As a preparatory program for novice school heads, this is observed by a significant

number of educational institutions. Education leaders provide mentoring and
coaching which are considered professional development practices. Such practice
involves a professional education leader guiding a new academic leader in a
mutually enriching engagement that fosters learning and development. The
established relationship is based on mutual trust, openness, and respect (Liang et
al., 2016). Similarly, a study found out that it is better to have candidates for
leadership positions coached long before their official appointment. Through
mentoring, a supportive relationship will be established that will prove helpful
during the induction years, particularly with a mentor (Beam, Claxton & Smith,
2016).
Leadership Training
Frequently, teachers are perceived to be leaders, but not all teachers have
leadership competencies and skills. In leading an academic area, it will require
not only teaching experience but also preparation for supervisory roles. The
transition from leading students to leading teachers is not like transferring from
one class to another. Therefore, leadership training for incoming and new
academic heads is imperative to be able to manage the teachers and perform one’s
role as an academic head more effectively. A participant stated:

94
“Leadership and management training/workshop and proper orientation

of the responsibilities are needed so that new heads will not be at a lost.”
P2 Q4 A4
Successful school leadership in Singapore, they found out that principals train
potential teachers to be future school heads. In their leadership succession plans,
there were conscious efforts by the principals in building the leadership capacity
of their teachers (Wang, Gurr & Drysdale, 2015). The principals provided various
opportunities to middle managers, particularly in taking more work
responsibilities for them to have more exposure to lead. The absence of a training
and development program for future leaders will make them ill-prepared for the
duties. In another study, the training and development of future school leaders
were found to be very essential. The findings pointed out that a critical component
of succession management and planning is the development of aspiring leaders.
Hence, future leaders may not be able to do their tasks effectively if they will not
be subjected to appropriate, reflective, and meaningful training and development
(Zepeda, Bengtson & Parylo, 2011).
School leadership training and preparation should include the development of

knowledge and competence of 21st-century educational leaders. The Competency
Framework for Southeast Asian School Heads (2014) developed by SEAMEO
INNOTECH identifies strategic thinking and innovation, instructional leadership,
personal excellence, stakeholders’ engagement, and managerial leadership as
essential domains in developing today’s future leaders. Effective principals and
middle academic supervisors enhance the creation of a school environment
conducive to learning and enhancing a synergy in the school community. As an
instructional leader, the principal must be able to observe and analyze instruction
with precision focusing on the 21st-century skills of teachers. He/She must be able
to define clear steps for improving what they observe and analyze. Collaborative
analysis of practice should become a central part of leadership towards
developing a school culture that promotes personal and professional relationships
and promotes learners’ culture of hard work, responsibility, and success (Llagas,
Corpuz & Bilbao, 2016).
In terms of readiness for leadership roles, taking graduate studies help in

enhancing leadership competencies. Future leaders who had taken graduate-level
courses in educational administration showed more readiness to address
problems of practice than those who have not taken graduate-level courses in
educational administration. Also, current leaders who have served as assistant
heads showed more readiness to address problems of practice that those who
have not served as assistant heads. A key recommendation was that the Ghana
Education Service should consider including in the requirement to become a high
school head a graduate-level courses in educational administration and
experience as assistant head. (Amakyi, 2017). The present system of promotion
does not favor the appointment of prepared school leaders. It found out that there
is a need for leadership preparation as a prerequisite for participants in the
application for academic headships, and also for those who are already holding a
leadership position (Delgado, 2015).

95
Succession Planning
The leadership pipeline of every school must be filled with future leaders who
have been identified based on the educational qualifications, experience, and
performance. When the term of office ends, the succeeding academic head is
prepared and confident to take the leadership responsibility. Therefore, the school
must have a succession plan. It is inevitable for business and school organizations
to have succession planning for the realization of its vision mission. Experts have
come up with definitions of succession planning and the emphasis zeroes in on
leadership sustainability. An American expert on human resource management
said that succession planning is a systematic approach to ensuring leadership
continuity within an organization by recruiting or encouraging individual
employee growth and development (Haroski, 2012).
A participant suggested:
“The school must have a succession plan, so prospect or promising
teachers would be properly groomed by their immediate heads before their
appointment. The school must also let the teachers know about this plan,
so they would be able to prepare themselves by aligning their training or
any professional development plan with the path the school or
administrators/school heads want them to take.” P5 Q4 A4

“There must be a succession plan, and also an orientation with regards to
the different paper works that a learning area head will face along the
way.” P6 Q4 A4
Succession planning must be done and implemented in schools as an

organization. Each school must have a succession plan for sustainability and
continuity. School systems cannot leave leadership development to chance. There
must be leadership development plans in schools with specific and interrelated
components (Hall, 2008). However, several studies revealed that it is not given
priority. Traditional policies are not anymore helpful in preparing school
administrators due to the changing educational environment that they face. An
important method in investing in human capital is through the development of a
succession plan which will build a list of qualified candidates for leadership
positions as the district anticipates the need before it becomes urgent. It also found
out that every district must be fully invested in developing and supporting school
leaders to avoid discontinuity and disruption including burnout and frustration
(Hanover Research, 2014).
5. Conclusions
The study found out that the novice academic heads considered paperwork,
culture, processes and procedures, and expectations of superiors as primary
challenges. To handle these challenges, they regularly consulted their superiors,
and their former academic heads mentored some of them. During meetings, they
clarified the information, issues, and concerns so that it will be accurate when they
communicate them to their teachers. With all these challenges and experiences,
they suggested that incoming and new academic heads be provided with

96
leadership training, orientation, and mentoring for them to carry out their duties
and responsibilities more effectively. Based on the findings of this study, it can be
concluded that novice heads who are ill-equipped with the needed leadership
training and preparation found it challenging to perform their supervisory duties
and responsibilities. Also, orientation on duties and responsibilities, including
policies and procedures for incoming and new academic heads is necessary for a
better transition from classroom teacher to an academic leader. These programs
can be put into one program – a succession plan. It is also worthy to note that
knowledge and competence in preparing reports and documents are essential for
academic heads. Novice heads that get support from their immediate head and
fellow academic leaders need mentoring before and during the first year as
academic head, and personal and professional relationship with the teachers is a
primary concern of academic leaders when they assume office.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 99-124, May 2020
Action Research in Hadith Literacy: A Reflection

of Hadith Learning in the Digital Age
Tedi Supriyadi*
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Bandung, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0307-1958
J. Julia, Ani Nur Aeni and Elan Sumarna

Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia
Bandung, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0249-0264
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3593-1732
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8960-2299
Abstract. When the internet has become the main reference source for
academics and students in completing their assignments, critical
attitudes towards information accessed via the internet, especially about
hadith are often ignored. Critical attitude is needed to ensure the
authenticity of a hadith because its discourse has a level of quality, be it
sahih hadith (authentic, accepted) or da'if (rejected). Along with the
development of internet technology, many false hadiths are circulating
on the internet. Therefore, adequate literacy skills in reading and tracing
the authenticity of a hadith are needed. This research provides examples
of the results of collaborative team work to improve hadith literacy.
Action Research Design was chosen to find solutions to problems
through critical reflection in the process of learning Al-Qur’an. The
Action Research procedures were combined with the Kern’s 3R model
namely Responding, Revising, and Reflecting. This study involved 398
students as research participants at one of the higher education
institutions in West Java, Indonesia. This research resulted in several
findings: 1) Six steps were taken to improve hadith literacy, namely the
formulation of learning objectives, selection of media, update of the
knowledge of hadith, understanding the learning media, application of
learning media, and evaluation. 2) Two applications were used as
learning media in improving hadith literacy, namely the science of hadith
and the Ensiklopedi Hadits Kitab 9 Imam (EHK9I, Encyclopedia of Hadith
in the book of 9 Imams). 3) The reflective actions and the integration of
the two applications showed an increase in three aspects of literacy
namely data literacy (54.33%), technological literacy (63.07%), and
human literacy related to narration of the hadith (93.59%). It can be
*Corresponding Author: Tedi Supriyadi, Email: tedisupriyadi@upi.edu

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concluded that the steps taken by utilizing the two applications as

learning media can improve the participants’ ability to trace and
determine the authenticity of a hadith.
Keywords: literacy; hadith; digital native; action research; takhrij hadith
1. Introduction
One guiding principle the millennials must have in studying Islam or any
scientific work on Islam is to use information from original and reliable sources
(Alkhatib, Monem & Shaalan, 2017; Karim & Hazmi, 2005; Luthfi, Suryana &
Basari, 2018). In the study of hadith, it is compulsory to refer to the original
primary reference sources namely the books of hadith by the ulama. Works that
are often used as references and recommended in hadith discussions are known
as kutub sittah or the six hadith books and some even call them as kutubu tis'ah or
the nine books of hadith (Mohamad & Mohamad, 2017; Suliaman & Yaakob,
2019; Suliaman et al., 2018).
Along with the presence of internet technology as a communication tool and

information provider, this principle is in fact often ignored. The internet has
become the main reference source for academics and students in completing
their assignments (Karim & Hazmi, 2005). In addition, the development of
internet technology has made the millennials rely more on social media as a tool
to get information such as Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp groups, and
so on (Wahyuningsih, 2019).
Ironically, obtaining the information on hadith from the internet or social media
is not accompanied by a critical attitude to differentiate which hadith is authentic.
Students need to have the ability to investigate shahih hadith through the
following criteria: a. Sanadnya continued (iitishal al-sanad); b. The narrator is fair
("adalat al-rawi); c. The narrator is dhabit (dhabth al-rawi); d. Avoiding the syadz
("adam al-syadz); e. Avoid illat ("adam" illat). As an example, the millennial
generation rarely crosschecks the hadith quotations spread in the cyberspace
with the books of hadith. Checking on the books of hadith is important to test
whether or not a person’s arguments are strong when discussing Islamic topics.
Quoting Al-Qur'an or hadith is a rhetorical strategy to build arguments on all
topics (Boutz, Benninger & Lancaster, 2019).
Conducting a hadith cross-check as a manifestation of a critical attitude towards

hadith information is oriented on to two things. First is whether the hadith quoted
or used in the argument is in the books of the hadith or not. Second, the quality of
the hadith used as an argument in the topic. The hadith discourse is always
confronted with the degree of quality of a hadith. Analysis is required to
conclude whether a hadith, as the footing, is accepted or rejected (Najeeb, 2014;
Najiyah, Susanti, Riana & Wahyudi, 2017). The activity of searching the hadith
and revealing the quality of a hadith is called takhrij hadith (Hidayat, 2018;
Qomarullah, 2016).
The critical attitude embodied through the takhrij hadith is a necessity for the
millennials who have an interest in Islamic topics. This is important because the

101
spread of false hadith continues to increase via the internet or social media and
has become a new threat that must be seriously eradicated by Muslims living in
this digital world (Usman A.H, 2018). Therefore, insight, skills and high
motivation are needed to carry it out as an effort to prevent false hadith from
circulating online as to filter information related to the hadith. Therefore, ones’
understanding and practice of Islam should have strong legislation foundation.
The reason for this is that the hadith is a fundamental source of Islamic teachings
after Al-Qur'an (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014; Najeeb, 2014).
Based on the problems, this study aims at analyzing the steps of action in
improving the takhrij hadith ability of the millennial generation based on
information technology. The limitations of this study are formulated in the
questions: “How are the steps to increase takhrij hadith ability for the millennial
generation?” and “What information technology can improve the takhrij hadith
ability for the millennial generation?”. In specific, this study hypothesized that
the utilization of Encyclopedia of Hadith in the book of 9 Imams (hereinafter
abbreviated as EHK91) that the students’ critical thinking ability on hadith
circulated on the internet can be developed.
2. Theoretical Framework
The hadith is the words and deeds of the prophet Muhammad (Baraka & Dalloul,
2014; Najeeb, 2014). Not only that, it is also defined as his provisions, agreements
and ideals(Al-Fadli, 2011; Ali, 2013; Brown, 2017; Kamali, 2014). In the
perspective of Islam, the hadith is an important tool in understanding Al-Qur'an
as the first and foremost source of Islamic teachings (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014),
hence the hadith is the second source of Islamic teachings after Al-Qur'an
(Najeeb, 2014; Najiyah et al., 2017).
There are two parts in a hadith. The first part is the original content (narration) or
matan, (‫المتن‬.) The second part is the string of narrators who conveyed the
narration, or isnad ( ‫) إسناد‬. Isnad is the list narrators who were listed
chronologically (the person who a narrator heard the hadith from), traced back
until the first Hadith narrator of the matan and the matan itself (Azmi & Badia,
2010). For about 15 centuries, Muslims were relying on isnad to differentiate
hadiths that are accepted (Sahih) and rejected (Da’if). The scholars of Hadith assess
them using the isnad and the narrators making the string (Najeeb, 2014).
Therefore, in the science of hadith, a research on isnad is Hadith essential. To find
out the authenticity of a hadith, Hadithhadith scholars adhere to defined steps of
isnad. The steps are believed to be traditional (Baraka & Dalloul, 2014).
A frequently used reference in the investigation of hadith is the “six books called
kutubu sittaah”, namely Sahih Al-Bukhari, Sahih Muslim, Sunan Abu Daud,
Sunan Al Tirmidzi, Sunan Ibnu Majah and Sunan Al Nasa'i (Najeeb, 2014). Most
of the hadith experts believe that if a hadith alleged to be based on the Prophet is
found in the canonical hadith collection, especially in Sahih Bukhari and Muslim,
then the hadith is definitely sourced from the Prophet (Masrur, 2007). However,
in contrast to most hadith experts, G.H.A. Juynboll (1935-2010 AD) with his
common link theory, as revealed by Arifah (2019) and Masrur (2007), although a

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hadith has been recorded in al-kutub al-sittah, the hadith does not necessarily come
from the Prophet. This indicates that to know the authenticity of the hadith two
stages are required. The first is to trace the hadith in the canonical books and the
second is to analyze the series of isnad to determine the quality by the methods
established by the ulama. In the science of hadith, this is known as the takhrij
hadith (Hidayat, 2018; Qomarullah, 2016; Suliaman et al., 2018).
The above steps are linked to one's literacy skills. Literacy is not limited to
reading and writing activities but is also related to the demand to understand
information critically and analytically (UNESCO, 2003). The advances in
information technology and the internet which result in abundant digital
information resources demand people to have digital literacy capabilities,
namely special abilities in using digital information (Miftah, Rizal & Anwar,
2016).
So far, there have been many efforts in studying the hadith, for example the
multimedia-based Aplikasi Seratus Satu Hadis tentang Budi Luhur (A Hundred and
One Hadith on Highest Virtue Application) which was developed by Diki
Silviadi. However, the purpose of the application was to assist students in
memorizing hadith (Tresnawati, Satria & Silviadi, 2016). In addition, its features
and contents are not representative enough to explore the quality of the hadith.
Rakhmah (2016) wrote an article on the making of E-Hadits, a Java Eclipse based
smartphone application. She mentioned that the weaknesses of the application
were that contents and features were still limited and did not lead to providing
information about isnad as an important aspect in tracing the authenticity of the
hadith (Najeeb, 2014).
The Perpustakaan Shamela application is one of the most helpful systems in

learning hadith (Ghozali, 2017; Najeeb, 2014). This application helps investigating
the “narrator chain” and provides accurate information about matan and isnad,
as well as provides information on all important details about the narrators.
However, this application is not automatically able to judge the quality and all
parts of the digital library use Arabic.
Another application that is quite representative in studying the hadith in terms of

information on both matan and isnad, which are important elements in the hadith
(Azmi & bin Badia, 2010; Baraka & Dalloul, 2014; Najeeb, 2014), is the Ensiklopedi
Hadits Kitab 9 Imam (hereinafter abbreviated as EHK9I, Encyclopedia of Hadith in
the book of 9 Imams) developed by Lidwa Pustaka. This application is equipped
with punctuation marks and translations, and it is a digitalized version of the 9
books of hadith and other features that support the ease of learning the hadith.
These works show a fairly high interest in studying the science of hadith and
strive to utilize new techniques to present them in an application as a learning
medium. This research is focused on the pedagogic aspect as an effort to
improve students’ ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith using available
information technology as a learning medium.

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3. Method
3.1. Design
This research employs Action Research (AR) design because AR seeks to explore
problems to find solutions (Creswell, 2002). This is in line with the problem of
students’ critical attitudes in receiving, reviewing, and understanding hadith
information as a source of Islamic teachings. In addition, AR provides vast space
for researchers to find new innovations to make changes suitable to conditions
and needs (Darwis, 2016). The exclusive characteristic of AR is that the users can
make improvements and solve problems (Bozkus & Bayrak, 2019; Greenwood &
Levin, 2006).
In line with the above, AR is popular among researchers to solve problems in the
pedagogic field. Several examples of research using AR are J. Julia research titled
Technology Literacy and Student Practice: Lecturing Critical Evaluation Skills (Julia &
Isrokatun, 2019), Niemi (2018) titled Five Approaches to Pedagogical Action Research
and Edwards-Groves and Kemmis (2016) titled Pedagogy, Education, and Praxis:
Understanding New Forms of Intersubjectivity through Action Research and Practice
Theory. This current article’s authors have implemented AR in their research
(Suherman, Supriyadi, & Cukarso, 2019; Supriyadi & Julia, 2019; Supriyadi,
Julia, & Iswara, 2019; Supriyadi, Julia, Iswara & Aeni, 2019). In addition, this
research design can be used as an effort to understand self-practice to enable
improvements in every action taken (Kemmis & McTaggart, 2005; Kemmis,
McTaggart & Nixon, 2013; McTaggart, 1994). Using AR, the researcher can apply
the planning, implementation, and reflection on every research step (McTaggart,
1996).
In specific, the distinctive feature of AR is the principle of collaboration in

conducting research (Bruce, Flynn & Stagg-Peterson, 2011; Creswell, 2002;
Ferguson-Patrick, 2007; Jaipal & Figg, 2011; Leeman, van Koeven & Schaafsma,
2018; Somekh, 2010). In the collaborative action research in the field of
education, there is cooperation between the teachers, or between the teachers
and the researchers (Messiou, 2019; Zech, Gause-Vega, Bray, Secules &
Goldman, 2000). This research, therefore, involved several parties. .
3.2. Research Participant and Site

The participants of this research were students at one of the public higher
education institutions taking Islamic religious education course. There were 398
students consisting of 127 males and 271 females in one batch in three study
programs. The participants were from several regions in Indonesia namely West
Java, Central Java, Jakarta, and West Nusa Tenggara. The sampling technique
was purposive sampling in which the researcher determined the sample with
certain considerations and criteria in accordance with the objectives of the study.
The consideration was that every Muslim is required to understand and practice
the hadith. The sample criteria are students who were taking Islamic education
courses. In addition, the participants were in the digital native criteria.
According to Prensky, (2001) one of the initiators of the digital natives
generation theory, digital natives have the characteristics of being born in the
1980s and thereafter, being born in the digital technology environment.

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Considering the collaborative features of AR, this research involved several

other parties. They were lecturers and the religious-based students’ activity unit.
The researchers as lecturers of Islamic religious education course collaborated
with peers who also teach the course. One lecturer had a special expertise in the
field of hadith. In addition, the researchers also collaborated with one of the
student activity units in the religious field to be involved in a series of actions
taken.
3.3. Research Procedure

The procedure in this research combined the steps in AR design with the theory
developed by Kern (Kern, 2000) in improving literacy known as the 3R, namely
Responding, Revising, and Reflecting. Responding involves two parties, namely
lecturers and learners, and they have a reciprocal relationship. Simply put, this
first R, Responding, is an attempt to portray the problem of student literacy
skills in hadith learning and to map students’ initial abilities in hadith literacy.
This stage is the pre-action analysis. The second R, Revision, includes various
activities in designing improvement efforts based on problems found in the, the
media used, and the improvements made in learning. The third R, Reflecting, is
similar to evaluation, which is the process of evaluating what has been done,
what was seen, and what was felt during the learning or it is called the post-
action analysis.
The above 3R procedure showed a reciprocal relationship between the lecturers

and the students. In the first R, Responding, the students responded to the given
task of reading, tracing, and analyzing the hadith; while the lecturers responded
by providing feedback to help the students reach a certain level of accuracy. In
the second R. Revision, Hadith Insight Test was done to measure their
knowledge about hadith by the lecturers and performed by the students. In the
third R, Reflecting, the lecturers evaluated the results of the first two Rs; while
the students were asked about what was seen, and what was felt during the
learning.
3.4. Data Collection

The data were collected by means of surveys, observations, and semi-structured
interviews. The survey used the scale from Likert and Guttman (Allen &
Seaman, 2007; Widhiarso, 2011) and was distributed using Google Documents.
In today digital era, Google Documents has become a profitable and easy-to-use
survey tool (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Brigham, 2014; Chiu, Cheng & Wu, 2016; Lin,
Chang, Hou & Wu, 2016; Travis, 2010; Widhiarso, 2011). Therefore, the research
instrument used consisted of observation guidelines, interview guidelines, and
questionnaires (Appendix 1).
3.5. Development of Literacy Indicators

To measure the participants’ level of literacy in the field of hadith, a rubric was
formulated. This rubric is a development of the three aspects of literacy ability as
stated by Furqon (2018). The developed indicators were related to the aspects of
human literacy and the narrators of the hadith, and we expect that the students
could at least master 75% of the indicators listed in Table 1. This was necessary
because tracing the authenticity of a hadith is inseparable from its history and

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credibility of the narrators of the hadith (Karim & Hazmi, 2005; Najeeb, 2014).
The development is described in the following Table 1.
Table 1. Hadith Literacy Rubric

No Literacy Description Indicator Target
Aspect
1 Hadith Data The ability to read, 1. Able to find and collect 75%
Literacy analyze and make thematic hadiths.
conclusions of 2. Able to distinguish elements
thinking based on of the hadith (matan and isnad).
obtained data and 3. Able to mention the
information (big source/primary book related
data) to a hadith.
4. Able to express the content of
a hadith according to the
explanation of ulama.
2 Hadith Ability to 1. Able to utilize information 75%
Technology understand technology in studying hadith.
Literacy machines and 2. Able to search for and choose
technology information technology
applications, and do related to the hadith
work using appropriately
technology-based 3. Able to understand the
products features in the hadith
information technology being
used
3 Human Communication 1. Able to express the quality of 75 %
Literacy skills, collaboration, a hadith accompanied by the
related to critical thinking, narrator's narration analysis.
the creativity and 2. Able to respond to a hadith
Narrator of innovation related that is used as a basis for
Hadith to the hadith someone
narrators
4.1. Pre-Action Analysis

At this stage, issues related to the participants’ ability in the field of literacy were
explored. This step was done to obtain an overview of the participants’ initial
ability in the field of hadith based on the developed indicators. The indicators
were (1) data literacy, which is the ability to trace a number of hadiths on certain
topics, (2) technology literacy, which is the media and methods used in tracing
the hadith, and (3) human literacy, which is the ability to analyze the quality of
the hadith through the study of narrators of hadith.
To measure the 398 research participants, a number of tests in the form of

questions with the topic of shalat (prayer) were given. This topic was chosen
because shalat is the most fundamental ritual obligation for a Muslim. In general,
shalat is defined as reciting (the prayers), supplicating, and strengthening the

106
relationship with God (Parvez, 2016). Therefore, the practice of shalat for a
Muslim must surely follow the examples and teachings of prophet Muhammad
SAW in both his readings and movements, as in the words of the Prophet
Muhammad SAW “Pray you as you see me pray” (Al Asqalani, 2007). The
participants were tested whether they could search information about the hadith
in accordance with the specified topic, to find out the media that they used for
searching the information and how they find assess the hadith’s authenticity. The
test results can be seen in the following Table 2:
Table 2. Results of Hadith Literacy Pretest

No Literacy Description Indicator Percentage
Aspect (%)
1 Hadith Data The ability to a) Able to find and collect 100%
Literacy read, analyze thematic hadiths.
and make b) Able to distinguish elements 24.6%
conclusions of of the hadith (matan and isnad).
thinking based c) Able to mention the
on obtained source/primary book related 24.6%
data and to a hadith.
information d) Able to express the content of 17.6%
(big data) a hadith according to the
2 Hadith Ability to a) Able to utilize information 100%
Literacy machines and b) Able to search for and choose
technology information technology 3%
applications, related to the hadith
and do work appropriately
using c) Able to understand the 2.3%
technology- features in the hadith
based products information technology being
used
3 Human Communication a) Able to express the quality of 2.3%
Literacy skills, a hadith accompanied by the
related to collaboration, narrator's narration analysis.
the critical b) Able to respond to a hadith
Narrator of thinking, that is used as a basis for 1.8%
Hadith creativity and someone
innovation
related to the
hadith narrators
n= 398 participants
Table 2 presents that in the aspect of data literacy; only 1 indicator was able to be
represented by all participants as 398 (100%) participants were able to collect the
hadiths thematically. For the second and the third indicators, only 98 (24.6%), and
the fourth indicator only 70 (17.59%) participants were able to represent their
abilities. This means that from several indicators, only one indicator from the
aspect of data literacy was able to be represented by more than 80% of the

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participants and other indicators were below 80%. Thus, the participants’ ability
on the other indicators in data literacy was still weak.
In the aspect of technology literacy as shown in Table 2, 398 (100%) participants

represented the ability to use information technology in tracing and collecting
hadiths related to the topic of shalat. Furthermore, based on this information, all
of them were surveyed to explore what kind of information technology they
used in searching and gathering hadiths related to the topic of prayer. The survey
results are as follows. There were 322 (80.90%) participants who used blogs, 25
(6.28%) used Twitter, 39 (9.80%) used Facebook, and 12 (3.2%) used hadith
applications. It can be seen that in the aspect of technological literacy, only 12
(3.2%) participants showed the ability to search for and choose information
technology that is relevant to the hadith.
Furthermore, to find out what applications they used in tracing the hadith, semi-
structured interviews were carried out with the 12 participants who claimed to
use the hadith applications. The question was, "What application did you use to
trace the hadith?"
From the results of the semi-structured interviews, three participants (24%) used
the Maktabah Syamilah software, four (33.3%) used the Jawami'ul Kalim
software, and five (41.67%) used the EHK9I software. Based on the answers, a
follow-up question was asked, “Do you understand the function of each feature
available in the application?” Nine participants (75%)responded that they
understood it and three (24%) participants did not understand it, especially the
softwares in Arabic, namely Jawami'ul Kalim and Maktabah Syamilah.
Therefore, in the aspect of technological literacy, only 9 participants (2.26%)
understood the features of the application they used.
In the aspect of human literacy as shown in Table 2, nine (2.26%) participants

showed the ability of indicator 1 namely expressing the quality of a hadith. The
reason for this was assumed that the information technology they used
presented information related to the quality of a hadith. Meanwhile, 389 (97.74%)
did not show this ability because the information sources they used were less
relevant. As for the second indicator in the aspect of human literacy, seven
(1.76%) participants were able to represent the ability to respond to the hadith
raised by his friend when presenting the results of his assignment.
Based on that test results, the ability to distinguish the elements of the hadith as
in the second indicator in the aspect of literacy and the ability to determine the
quality of the hadith as in the first indicator in the aspect of human literacy, it
was suspected that the participants’ insight about the science of hadith has not
been evenly distributed. Therefore, the extent of experience and insight that the
participants gained about hadith were explored by using a survey.
The results showed that 398 (100%) participants claimed to have studied the
science of hadith. A total of 300 (75.4) participants stated that they learned lessons
about hadith in school and 278 (69.8%) participants received hadith lessons
outside of school. Regarding question number 3, the participants experience in
studying hadith was explored by conducting semi-structured interviews with 3

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participants. The question asked was “Where did you get hadith lessons other
than school?” Participant 1 answered “from pesantren (Islamic boarding school).”
Participant 2 from Islamic study groups in their neighborhood and four
participants answered “from parents at home.”
In addition to exploring about the participants’ experience in studying the hadith,

there was also a survey to explore the extent of insight they had gained from the
experience of studying the hadith in the participants’ perspectives. The survey
results above show a gap with the results of the test as shown in Table 2,
especially in question no. 2, a number of 365 (91.70%) people stated that they
understood the elements in a hadith while the test results showed the ability to
distinguish elements of hadith namely matan and sanad only amounted 98
(24.62%) people. Furthermore, in question no. 3, a number of 351 (88.19%) stated
that they understood the distribution of hadith in terms of quality, but the test
results that showed the ability to express the quality of a hadith were only 9
(2.26%) people. However, this survey results are a recognition form of the ability
of the particpant’s own perspective, but the test evidence shows different results.
Therefore, the test results in Table 2 become a reference for us as a portrait of the
participant’s initial ability in hadith literacy.
Based on the information from question 1 on the understanding of the basics in

hadith learning which are the terminology and division, it was suspected that
there was a disparity of understanding among the participants because in the
hadith discourse there are also terms such as hadith, sunnah, khabar and atsar
(Nasr, 2013; Nirwana, 2012; Suryadi, 2011). Therefore, a number of tests were
administered in the form of questions to measure whether the subjets had an
understanding of the terminology of hadith and its divisions. The test results
showed that 124 (31.15%) participants had an understanding which is different
from the participants’ claim as in Table 2 that 323 (81.15%) participants
understood the terminology and types of hadith. It can be concluded that the
participants’ insight related to the science of hadith needs to be improved.
4.2. Pre-Action Evaluation

The results of the pre-action analysis implied that the participants’ literacy in
hadith was still very minimal and needed to be improved. This can be seen from
the data on the average percentage obtained in each aspect of literacy. The
percentages were added up and divided by the number of indicators in each
aspect.
The data literacy was 41.71%, technological literacy was 35.09%, and human
literacy was 2.01%, which were assessed using indicators presented in Table 1.
This means that the participants’ hadith literacy was very minimal, especially in
the problem of human literacy, which was to determine the authenticity of a
hadith through the study of the narrators of the hadith.
In addition to the above aspects, the literacy on appropriate and representative

technology in finding hadith information also needed to be strengthened because
the participants tended to rely more on social media and blogs that are not
representative in providing hadith information. This indicated that they have not

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been able to choose the right information technology in accessing hadith

information. Likewise, the data literacy also needed to be strengthened because
data literacy is not only the ability to collect hadiths but also relates to their
insights about the science of hadith.
In the pre-action stage the average number of participants who were able to
represent hadith literacy in each aspect was below 50%. Through the focus group
discussions, target number of participants capable of representing the literacy
ability of hadiths would be raised at a minimum of 75%.
4.3. Action Implementation

To achieve the target, the steps to improve the hadith literacy were structured.
The steps referred to Kern's (2000) theory, namely Responding, Revising and
Reflecting (3R). The first R, Responding, was implemented in the pre-action
stage by capturing the participants’ initial abilities in hadith literacy. Therefore,
in the action stage, the second R (Revision) was implemented, which includes
various activities in designing improvement efforts based on the problems,
starting from the planning, the media used, and the implementation of
improvements in learning.
4.3.1. Step 1. Formulation of Hadith Learning Objectives

At this stage, the lesson plans to improve the literacy of the participants in
tracing the authenticity of the hadith were made. Tracing the authenticity of a
hadith is closely related to the ability to perform the takhrij hadith. Hence, the
learning objectives made referred to the objectives of the takhrij hadith namely:
a. Identifying the place of hadith by referring to its fundamental source
b. Identifying narrators of hadith by assessing their position from the view
of al-Jarh wa al-Ta‘dil, a systematic approach to criticize the position of the
narrator
c. Stating sanad (chain of narrators of hadith) related to their connection and
matan (narrative content).
d. Determining the authenticity of a hadith, namely sahih (acceptable), hasan
(good), da`if (weak) or maudu’ (fabricated or false).
e. Recognizing the status and reliability of the hadith and its category based
on sanad and also matan (Al-Rajan, 2018; Qomarullah, 2016; Zulkipli et al.,
2017).
4.3.2. Step 2. Selection of Hadith Learning Media

To achieve the learning objectives associated with the characteristics of the
participants as digital natives attached to the world of internet technology, it is
necessary to use media that can facilitate the characteristics of the participants
and the purpose of learning. Therefore, the learning media is a necessity in the
learning process (Gillen, Staarman, Littleton, Mercer & Twiner 2, 2007; Peppler
& Kafai, 2007; Salomon & Clark, 1977; Willett, 2007). Based on the results of
focus group discussions, at least 10 characteristics were needed to achieve the
takhrij hadith learning objectives. The characteristics are as follows:
1. Presenting the hadith source
2. Presenting the position of the hadith in the book and chapter
3. Presenting the sanad chain information

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4. Presenting the matan (hadith content)

5. Presenting the sanad hadith reinforcement for another sanad hadith and the
similarity of matan (Syawahid and Mutaba‘at)
6. Presenting the narrator’s biography
7. Presenting the type of hadith based on sanad
8. Presenting the type of hadith based on matan
9. Presenting the law of the hadith
10. Presenting the Indonesian translation
Based on the 10 criteria, existing hadith learning media were analyzed. The
media were those applications that had been used by the 12 participants in the
pre-action stage and relevant learning media that had not been used by the
participants. At least five applications were reviewed with reference to the 10
criteria. The results of the review are presented in the following Table 3:
Table 3. Results of Hadith Learning Media Analysis

Application
Ensiklopedi Maktabah Jawa Mawsu‘A Al-

No Criteria Hadits Syamilah mi’ul h al- Kutub
Kitab 9 Version 3 Kalim Hadith al- al-Tis‘ah
Imam Nabawi
al-Syarif
1 Presenting the hadith ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
source
2 Presenting the position ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
of the hadith in the
book and chapter
3 Presenting the sanad ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
chain information
4 Presenting the matan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
(hadith content)
5 Presenting the sanad ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓
hadith reinforcement
for another sanad hadith
(syawahid and
mutaba‘at)
6 Presenting the narrator ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓
biography
7 Presenting the type of ✓ ✓ ✓ X ✓
hadith based on sanad
8 Presenting the type of ✓ ✓ ✓ X X
hadith based on matan
9 Presenting the law of ✓ X ✓ ✓ ✓
hadith
10 Presenting the ✓ X X X X
Indonesian translation
Based on the table, out of the 5 available applications, only the EHK9I meets the
established criteria. Therefore, the media used in the effort to improve the
participants’ ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith was the EHK9I
application. Additionally, for practical purposes, the application used was the
mobile phone version because almost all of the participants had a smart phone.

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The EHK9I application is an application designed by Lidwa Centralka. It

contains several features including:
1. Available on Android, iOS and Windows
2. Contains 62,000 hadith from 9 prominent imams.
3. Presents highlights, notes, share, and copy hadith
4. Presents the related hadith complete with degrees
5. Presents the narrators' information complete with statistics
6. Presents thematic collections of hadith and types of hadith
7. Contains a search engine feature to search by hadith number or hadith
text.
In addition to the features, there were several information presented in every

hadith display as in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The display of Hadith EHK9I Application
The display of the hadith in this application provided the following information:
1. The number of hadith sequence from a book
2. The quality or degree of a hadith (hadith law)
3. Isnad information
4. Hadith text to ease reading
5. The translation of Arabic texts that help to understand the hadith text
6. Several hadiths that are relevant to the hadiths in display
In addition to using the EHK9I application, the Android-based e-book
application, Ulumul Hadith, was utilized to strengthen the participants’
knowledge related to the science of hadith.
This application was designed by Az-Zikr Studio. It presents information related

to concepts in the study of hadith science in terms of the meaning of the hadith,
division of the hadith, types of hadith, elements of a hadith, and so on.

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Thus, there were two applications to be used in an effort to improve literacy

skills in tracing the hadith. However, this research is focused on the EHK9I
application, and the second application was an enrichment to support the
participants’ understanding and skills in carrying out the takhrij hadith.
4.3.3. Step 3. Update of Hadith Insight using Ulumul Hadits Application

In this step, a number of materials related to the science of hadith were given to
the participants classically. The participants were instructed to search and
download the application and then install it.
In advance, the features available in the application were explained. The Ulumul
Hadits application provided a number of materials that include the terminology
of the hadith, the scope of the hadith study, elements of the hadith, and the types
and quality of the hadith. The provision of material was done in three meetings.
In each meeting the participants received a task to review the content of the
material in the application to be discussed in the next meeting.
After providing the materials, all participants were tested by asking them
several questions to measure their knowledge about hadith through Hadith
Insight Test. The result is presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Hadith Insight Test Results

Scoring Aspect Number Percentage
Understand the meaning and types of hadith 398 100
Differentiate matan dan sanad 381 95.72
Understand the classification of hadith by its quality and 383 96.23
requirements
Table 4 shows that the participants’ level of mastery of the science of hadith.
Based on the three assessment indicators, there were a number of improvements.
In terms of the hadith terminology, 398 (100%) participants showed
understanding in the post-test which means there was an increase of 68.85%
from 124 (31.15%) participants. In the second assessment aspect, 381 (95.72%)
participants showed the ability to distinguish the matan and sanad of hadith.
Compared to the test results in Table 2, which was 98 (24.62%) participants,
there was an increase of 283 (71.1%) participants. Furthermore, in the aspect of
understanding the classification of the hadith and the requirements, 383 (96.23%)
participants showed the ability. The test results in Table 2 only showed 9 (2.26%)
thus it increased by 374 (93.96%) participants.
The test results above are the barometer of the theoretical mastery of hadith
science. Therefore, to ensure that the participants’ theoretical mastery was
applicable, it was necessary to prove their ability by practicing the takhrij hadith.
The practice required a representative media which was the EHK9I application.
Therefore, the participants needed to have and understand how the application
works.

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4.3.4. Step 4. Understanding the EHK9I Application

The participants were instructed to download the EHK9I application from
https://store.lidwa.com. Android, iOS, and Windows versions were available
and the participants chose a version suitable with the facilities they had. From
their observations, they chose to download the Windows version because all
participants were Windows-based users.
After they downloaded the application, they were guided throughout the
installation process. Shortly after the installation, there was an offer to upgrade
to the pro version. After they received explanation about the different features in
the free and paid versions, they were suggested to upgrade to the pro version
with the consequence of paying the subscription to get the full features.
After making sure that all participants had installed the application in the pro
version, all the features in the application were explained covering how to use
the application and the operational steps based on the criteria as in Table 3. After
these stages, a survey was administered to explore the participants’ perceptions
towards the EHK91 application. The survey result is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Participants’ Perception towards EHK9I

No. Statement SD D RD A SA
1 The EHK9I application grows my 332 66
motivation to learn more about hadith.
2 The EHK9I application is very easy to 380 18
understand and practical to use.
3 The EHK9I application is economical 392 6
compared to buying printed books
Note: SD (Strongly Disagree), D(Disagree), RD (Rather Disagree), A (Agree), and SA
(Strongly Agree)
Table 5 above showed that the participants stating that the EHK9I application
fostered their motivation to explore the hadith. Moreover, EHK9I was very easy
to understand and practical to use at an economic price compared to the price
for having printed books so that it was affordable for all students.
4.3.5. Step 5: Applying EHK9I in Takhrij Hadith Process

The participants were guided to explore a hadith, in this case a hadith about
reading al-Fatihah in shalat. There are several phases taken in this step.
a. Exploring Hadith Text Using EHK9I
The participants were instructed to open the EHK9I application. They were
instructed to enter keywords. In entering keywords, they can search for them
based on meaning, number, or hadith text. In terms of searching the hadith related
to Surah Al-Fatihah, the keywords entered were “Al-Fatihah” or “Fatihatul
Kitab”. Using this search engine facility, the participants could also easily track
the existence of the hadiths that are scattered online to find out the position of the
hadith in the canonical books. The method used was by copying the hadith that
was on the internet, then pasting it in the search bar, and it would appear
whether or not the text of the hadith existed in the nine books book of hadith.

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b. Identifying Sanad and Matan

After entering the keywords, the display will appear as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Display of Hadith related to Surah Al-Fatihah in the EHK9I Application
From the display, the participants were instructed to identify which ones were
included as matan and sanad in the series of hadiths and to review hadith that
were relevant to the ones displayed. After that, they were instructed to identify
the similarities and differences between the matan and sanad, between the hadith
being studied and the hadith that are considered relevant in the application.
c. Analyzing and Assessing the Narrator in the Jarh Wa Ta’dil Framework

After analyzing sanad and rawi, the participants were instructed to analyze the
narrators of the hadith and explore information about the assessment of the
narrators according to ulama jarh wa ta'dil. By clicking on number 3 as shown in
the Figure 1, the biography of the narrator is presented, the number of hadith
narrated and in any book, as well as the assessment of the ulama jarh wa ta'dil
about the narrator. For example, in the hadith there was a narrator named
Ahmad bin Amru bin Abdullah bin Amru as-Sarh. Then the information
obtained from the narrator in the EHK9I application is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Display of the Narrator’s Information

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d. Determining the Authenticity of the Hadith Using the Application

To determine the law or the quality of a hadith, the participants clicked no. 2 in
Figure 1. Then the information related to the quality of the hadith was presented.
By knowing the quality of the hadith, the participants could determine how
reliable the hadith was in relation to its implementation as explained in the
science of hadith.
4.3.6. Step 6: Learning Evaluation

After all of the steps and process conducted, this was the last step to portray the
participants’ hadith literacy skills related in the post-action. The participants
were assigned to analyze the hadith around the topic of shalat. Then they were
instructed to answer a number of questions related to the hadiths they were
studying. The assessment was developed indicators presented in Table 1. By
comparing the results of the pre-test as shown in Figure 1 and the results of the
post-test, the evaluation of the practice of the takhrij hadith using EHK9I is
described in Table 6.
Table 6. Hadiths Practice Evaluation Results Using EHK91

No Literacy Description Indicator Percentage
Aspect
1 Hadith Data The ability to a) Able to find and collect 100%
Literacy read, analyze thematic hadiths.
and make b) Able to distinguish elements 96%
conclusions of of the hadith (matan and
thinking based isnad).
on obtained c) Able to mention the 96%
data and source/primary book related
information to a hadith. 92.2%
(big data) d) Able to express the content
of a hadith according to the
2 Hadith Ability to a) Able to utilize information 100%
Technology understand technology in studying
Literacy machines and hadith.
technology b) Able to search for and 97%
applications, choose information
and do work technology related to the
using hadith appropriately 94.4%
technology- c) Able to understand the
based products features in the hadith
information technology
being used
3 Human Communication a) Able to express the quality 96.2%
Literacy skills, of a hadith accompanied by
related to collaboration, the narrator's narration
the critical analysis.
Narrator of thinking, b) Able to respond to a hadith 95%
Hadith creativity and that is used as a basis for
innovation someone

116
Table 6 shows that by using the EHK9I resulted in an increase in the

participants’ ability to trace the authenticity of hadith in several indicators on
each aspect used as the barometer of the hadith literacy skill.
4.4. Post-Action Evaluation

This stage is the implementation of the third R or Reflecting, which is evaluating
the whole set of actions carried out in the research activities. This final stage was
to gain an overview of the extent to which improvements had been achieved in
solving the research problems. The learning results illustrated the fact that with
the selection of appropriate learning media, the use of the Ulumul Hadith
application and EHK9I was the appropriate solution to improve the participants’
ability to trace the authenticity of a hadith (takhrij hadith). The increase occurred
in line with the increasing literacy skills which included three aspects namely
data literacy, technological literacy, and human literacy, which were assessed
using indicators presented in Table 1. As an illustration of this improvement, a
comparison between the hadith literacy in the pre-test and post-test stages is
presented.
Pre Test Post Test

98.16
96.04
95.60
41.71
35.09
2.01
HADITH DATA LITERACY HADITH TECHNOLOGY HUMAN LITERACY RELATED

LITERACY TO THE NARRATOR OF
HADITH
Figure 4. Comparison of Pre-Test and Post-Test Results of Hadith Literacy Skill
Figure 4 depicts that in the aspect of data literacy, the participants’ ability was at
47.71% in the pre-test and then increased to 96.04% in the post-test. This means
that in the aspect of data literacy, an increase of 54.33% were gained. In the
aspect of technological literacy, the participants were at 35.09%, and it increased
to 98.16% in the post-test. this means that in the aspect of technological literacy
an increase in capability is 63.07%. In the human literacy aspect, the participants’
ability increased to 95.6% from 2.01%. This means that in the aspect of human
literacy, an increase of 93.58% occurred. Thus, the use of Ulumul Hadith and
EHK9I applications could improve the participants’ hadith literacy.
5. Discussion
The ability to perform takhrij hadith is closely related to one’s literacy skills in the
field of hadith. Literacy is not limited to reading and writing but it is also related
to the demand to understand information critically and analytically (UNESCO,

117
2003). For the millennials who live in a digital era, special abilities are needed in
using information in digital format, namely digital literacy (Miftah et al., 2016).
Digital literacy is very important to have because someone's misunderstanding
in the digital world opens up opportunities for various abuses of digital media
that occur at the personal, social, and national levels (Pratiwi & Pritanova, 2017).
Therefore, literacy skills are must be possessed in the face of the 21st century
(Antoro, 2017, p. 5).
In facing the Industrial Revolution 4.0 or the era of disruption, "new literacy" is
needed in addition to old literacy. Old literature includes the competence of
read-write-count. Whereas, new literacy includes data literacy, technological
literacy, and human literacy. Data literacy is related to the ability to read,
analyze and make conclusions of thinking based on data and information (big
data) obtained. Technology literacy is related to the ability to understand how
machines work. Application of technology and technology-based work of
products to get maximum results. Human literacy is related to communication
skills, collaboration, critical thinking, creative and innovative (Furqon, 2018).
It can be understood that the literacy of the hadith in the 4.0 era is not only
limited to the activities of reading and writing the hadith and analyzing the
quality of the hadith. Rather, it includes data literacy, technology literacy, and
human literacy. Data literacy is related to the ability to read, analyze, and make
conclusions of thinking based on data and information (big data). Technology
literacy is related to the ability to understand how machines work and
technology applications, and to work using technology products to obtain
maximum results. Human literacy is related to communication skills,
collaboration, critical thinking, creativity, and innovation (Furqon, 2018).
The lack of hadith literacy skills in the information technology era affect
vulnerable people in which they can be exposed to radical ideology. The internet
or social media have become media for radicals and terrorists to propagate their
radical narratives in the name of religion (Sulfikar, 2019). The internet makes it
possible to spread information quickly, with little risk, and inexpensively to a
variety of constituents, from potential recruits to potential partners in terrorist
organizations (Seib & Janbek, 2010). The results of Golose's research revealed
that the efforts made by terrorist groups in the cyber world include 9P namely,
Propaganda, Perekrutan (Recruitment), Pelatihan (Training), Penyediaan Logistik
(Logistics Provision), Pembentukan paramiliter secara melawan hukum (Formation
of unlawful paramilitaries), Perencanaan (Planning), Pelaksanaan serangan teroris
(Conducting terrorist attacks), Persembunyian (Hiding), and Pendanaan (Funding)
(Golose, 2015, p. 31).
That is why literacy skill is a social function of a person in using his literacy to
contribute to the community (Keefe & Copeland, 2011). The development of
someone's literacy will be effective if done in a community context. This means
that one's literacy ability is not only focused on improving cognitive abilities and
processing information (Webber & Johnston, 2000) but also utilizing it in the
context of community development (Nuswantara & Savitri, 2018).

118
6. Conclusion
This research has shown the fact that the implementation of the Kern's (Kern,
2000) model of Responding, Revising and Reflecting in this research succeeded
in showing an increase in the participants’ literacy skills in the field of hadith.
The increase could be seen in several aspects of literacy, namely in data literacy
by 54.33%, technological literacy by 63.07%, and human literacy related to
narration of the hadith by 93.59%. These improvements indicated that the
participants; literacy skills exceeded the target set by 75%. In post-action, the
data literacy was resented at 96.04%, technology literacy at 98.16% and human
literacy related to narration of hadith at 95.60%. The increase is inseparable from
the steps taken in the Revising phase, which produced six reflective action steps
including the selection of Ulumul Hadith and EHK9I as the learning media.
Using these applications in the learning process, the problems that occurred in
the hadith learning process could be minimized. In addition, the application
helped growing student’s critical attitude in receiving hadith information in the
cyberspace. They can validate the hadiths that are spread in cyberspace or in
social media. The limitation of this study is that it only covers participants in the
West Java region of Indonesia. The same problem in learning hadith can occur for
academics outside the region and even in other countries. Therefore, it is
recommended the application be translated into various languages and
conducted in different regional-cultural areas.
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Appendix 1
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 1
Indicator Development of Literacy Aspect

No Literacy Description Indicator
Aspect
1 Hadith Data The ability to read, 5. Able to find and collect thematic
Literacy analyze and make hadiths.
conclusions of 6. Able to distinguish elements of the
thinking based on hadith (matan and isnad).
obtained data and 7. Able to mention the
information (big source/primary book related to a
data) hadith.
8. Able to express the content of a
hadith according to the explanation
of ulama.
2 Hadith Ability to 4. Able to utilize information
Literacy machines and 5. Able to search for and choose
technology information technology related to
applications, and do the hadith appropriately
work using 6. Able to understand the features in
technology-based the hadith information technology
products being used
3 Human Communication 3. Able to express the quality of a
Literacy related skills, collaboration, hadith accompanied by the
to the Narrator critical thinking, narrator's narration analysis.
of Hadith creativity and 4. Able to respond to a hadith that is
innovation related to used as a basis for someone
the hadith narrators
Questions Items on a Test
No Questions
1 Find one hadith related to shalat.
2 From the answer of question no 1, mark which one is rawi and sanad.
3 From the answer of question no 1, what is the source of that hadith?
4 Explain the content of that hadith according to one ulama.
5 Do you use information and technology or application in finding the hadith? If
so, what is the application you use?
6 If you’re using IT or software application, do you know how to operate it?
7 Does the use of IT help you to learn hadith?
8 From the answer of question no 1, how is the quality of that hadith?
9 Comment on your friend’s cited by a peer, seen from the quality and content.

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Survey
No Questions on Literacy Aspect
1 Have you ever studied the science of hadith?
2 Have you ever received lessons about hadith in school?
3 Have you ever received lessons about hadith outside of school?
4 Have you sufficiently understood the terminilogy of hadith and kinds of hadith?
5 Have you sufficiently understood the elements that a hadith must have?
6 Have you sufficiently understood the division of hadiths by their quality and
requirements?
Hadith Insight Test
No Questions on Literacy Aspect
1 Mention aspects related to hadith.
2 From the hadith you cited, which one is sanad and matan?
3 How about its hadith classification seen from the quality and the characteristics?
Survey on the EHK9I
No. Statement SD D RD A SA
1 The EHK9I application grows my
motivation to learn more about hadith.
2 The EHK9I application is very easy to
understand and practical to use.
3 The EHK9I application is economical
compared to buying printed books
Note:
SD= Strongly Disagree
D= Disagree
RD= Rather Disagree
A= Agree
SA= Strongly Agree

125

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 125-140, May 2020
Perception of TPET Lecturers’ on the Effect of

Global Partnerships in Developing Students’
Career Human Capital
James Edomwonyi Edokpolor

Benson Idahosa University
Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8085-9696
Vero Iyalekhue Abusomwan

University of Lagos
Yaba, Lagos State, Nigeria
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7950-7052
Abstract. This study plans to look at the perception of TPET (technical

and professional education and training) lecturers on the effect of global
partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. A structured
questionnaire approved by four lecturers was administered to a sample
of 158 TPET lecturers, which was randomly selected across universities in
South-South Nigeria. The reliability coefficient utilizing the Cronbach
alpha was α=.89. A quantitative approach was used in the study by using
standard deviation to assess the degree to which participants’ responses
were clustered around the mean. A one-sample t-test was also used to
find the difference in scores between global partnerships and its effects in
developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial
career and lifelong learning tasks. The results indicated that global
partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and
abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks
based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The analysis of hypotheses 1 and 2
demonstrated that global partnerships do not have a significant effect on
the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. These findings have
some practical implications for all major stakeholders of TPET such as the
government, families, international donor agencies, and employers.
Keywords: entrepreneurial career tasks; expertise and abilities; global

partnerships; lifelong learning tasks; professional education; technical
training

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1. Introduction
Around the world, technical and professional education and training (TPET) has
been described as any skills-oriented programs that consolidate all learning
experiences, which is intended to equip recipients with expertise and abilities to
engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks. Under this broad
definition, technical education and training, career and technical education,
technical and vocational education, vocational and technical education, technical
and vocational education and training, apprenticeship training, and
entrepreneurship training, offered in formal and non-formal settings, are usually
classified as TPET. The major goals of TPET are to equip recipients with expertise
and abilities to become gainfully employed, as well as, to engage in lifelong
learning tasks after graduation (Wenstrom, Uusiautti & Maatta, 2018). Despite
these broad goals, TPET students still possessed the inadequate human capital
(hereafter referred to as expertise and abilities) to engage in entrepreneurial career
and lifelong learning tasks confidently. The inadequate expertise and abilities
possessed by TPET students may have contributed to the increasing rates of
unemployment, underemployment, and school dropouts.
In Nigeria, unemployment and all other social burden rates as of late is quite high
and on the increase. For instance, in Nigeria, four out of every ten persons under
the age of 35 are unemployed (Busson, 2020). Unemployment rates in Nigeria in
the second quarter of 2018 was 22.70% and increased to 23.10% in the third quarter
of 2018, and youth unemployment rates was 36.5% (National Bureau of Statistics,
2018). Unemployment rates in Nigeria increased from 10.6 % in 2012 to 22.6 % in
2018, with an annual growth rate of 16.02% (World Data Atlas, 2018).
Unemployment rates in Nigeria are on the increase with underemployment rates
at the same time (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2017). For instance,
underemployment rates within the age range of 15 and 34 in the third quarter of
2017 was 52.6% and increased to 55.4% in the third quarter of 2018 (National
Bureau of Statistics, 2018).
Equally documented in the literature is the increasing rates of dropout among

students. For instance, Edokpolor (2018) called attention concerning TPET
students’ low self-confidence toward lifelong learning. Edokpolor and Dumbiri
(2019) added that the reason for the increasing rate of students’ dropout could
attribute to the inadequate provision of tangible and intangible resources, which
appear to hinder the acquisition of essential expertise and abilities needed to
engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks. It implies that most TPET
students were trained with little or no instructional resources, which could affect
the development of expertise and abilities to venture into entrepreneurial and
lifelong learning tasks upon graduation.
TPET programs in Nigeria are neither supporting the quest to achieve the 2030
sustainable development goals (SDGs) nor capable of equipping students with
relevant expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong
learning tasks. The fulfilling of the 2030 SDGs and the acquisition of necessary
expertise and abilities among students require the active cooperation of all
relevant stakeholders across the world. The need for global partnerships in

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developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career

and lifelong learning tasks has been documented in the United Nations and the
Federal Republic of Nigeria vision 2030 sustainable development document.
The United Nations (2017) in its 2030 sustainable development document had
stipulated that Goal 4 aimed to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education
and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” (p. 5). The document also
remarked that Goal 8 aimed to “promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable
economic growth, full and productive employment, and decent work for all” (p.
7). The document further points out that Goal 17 aimed to “strengthen the means
of implementation and revitalization of the Global Partnerships for Sustainable
Development” (p. 11).
The SDGs mentioned the need to promote entrepreneurial career and lifelong
learning opportunities for all, and the degree to which global partnerships
influence the realization of these goals. Stakeholders cooperation worldwide has
been described as global partnerships (Paula, Khan, & Stuart, 2015), multi-
stakeholder partnerships (Okitasari, Dahiya, & Takemoto, 2018), or public,
private, civil society partnerships (Storeng & de Bengy, 2018). In this current
study, global partnerships are more utilized. Global partnerships emerge as a
strategic model for mobilizing and pooling core complementary competencies,
capabilities, resources, and networks to support the realization of 2030 SDGs. The
rising interest in global partnerships as a strategic model for cooperation has been
understood as a response to failure of the government to meet her obligations of
providing adequate financial resources and firm policy to support the realization
of 2030 SDGs. TPETs that are well-implemented through global partnerships
could help in equipping students with the expertise and abilities needed to engage
in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks upon graduation.
Global partnerships for education were identified and used by the UNESCO
(2015) and the World Economic Forum (WEF, 2012) to provide a clear sense of the
relationship between those actors in the public, private and civil society sectors
for pooling and mobilizing resources to expand and improve quality education.
To WEF, global partnerships for education is a strategic model of cooperation in
which actors from the private sector, civil society sector, and public sector bring
together expertise and resources to achieve the set goals and objectives of TPET.
This type of partnership which involves the collaboration of all significant
stakeholders can be established for pooling and mobilizing resources, for
exchange of expertise, or for developing befitting infrastructures. Global
partnerships for education are generally organized around a particular point or
set of objectives. In particular, the broad objectives of partnership arrangements
between TPET providers, international donor agencies, government, and
employers are to provide opportunities for students’ to possess the expertise and
abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks.
The overriding goals of global partnerships for education are to reduce the rates
of unemployment and school dropout among young youths. However, each
partner has their specific roles in the partnerships arrangement. For example,

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TPET providers should help in providing an enabling environment for

instructional delivery. The TPET providers should also help to provide better
career paths and positive learning experiences for students. These potential roles
should help TPET providers to change employers’ attitudes about the quality of
graduates and respond to employers’ needs. Employers should help to deliver
training to staff, provide opportunities for teachers to regularly upgrade and
update themselves through workplace experiences, provide opportunities for
students and trainees to have industrial work experiences, address the skills gap
and build a larger workforce through the creation of a pool of apprentices.
Employers should also help in providing opportunities for students to have
equivalent access to the most current innovation and technology utilized on the
industry floors and for the teachers and mentors themselves to make the ground
on current industrial practices.
International donor agencies should help in funding TPET researchers and

advocacies, develop national TPET policies and strategies, support capacity
building in the TPET sector, identify and implement best practices. Moreover,
they can help in establishing major conditions for developing students’ expertise
and abilities, by optimizing physical facilities, procure instructional resources;
and ensure equal access to quality TPETs. They should also help in developing
instructional content and upgrading skills, by strengthening curriculum content
and teacher training, build 21st-century skills for employability and foster
effective TPET management, by developing funding mechanisms and promoting
results-oriented management. The government should help in investing in TPET,
mobilize the private sector actors to be involved in TPET management, provide
legislative backing for TPET policies, monitor performance, evaluate TPET
effectiveness and apply corrective measures accordingly.
Other forms of partnerships include, students industrial work experience

schemes, work-study, teaching practice, internships, and work visits, where
private sector actors’ partner with TPET institutions to develop students’
expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning
tasks. Private sector actors can also partner with TPET institutions for the
management of resources, development of curriculum, mentoring of students,
donation, and maintenance of facilities for developing students’ expertise and
abilities (Adewuyi & Okemakinde, 2013). The effort of private sector actors to
partner with TPET institutions is not capable enough to equip students with
expertise and abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong
learning tasks upon graduation. The reason is that private sector actors and TPET
institutions cannot manage the TPET programs alone because of its resource-
intensive nature. However, there is a need for extensive partnerships that involves
all major stakeholders of TPET, rather than partnerships between private sector
actors and TPET institutions alone.
The main purpose of the present study, therefore, is to examine the perception of
TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ career
human capital in South-South Nigerian Universities. The specific objectives of the
study were to: (1) investigate the effect of global partnerships in developing

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students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based

on TPET lecturers’ perception, and (2) ascertain the effect of global partnerships
in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks
based on TPET lecturers’ perception. To achieve these specific objectives, this
research was further composed as follows. First, an applied framework was
developed, followed by discussions of the methodologies utilized in carrying out
in the research. Second, the information gathered from the respondents were
analyzed, and the outcomes were discussed. Third, the research impediments
were spotted out. Fourth, the research implications were discussed. Lastly, the
conclusion emerging from the research outcomes were consistently drawn.
2. Conceptual Framework
The authors’ supported this study with a theoretical model (see Figure 1) to
understand the effect of global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and
abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks based on
TPET lecturers' perception. The underlying assumption of this present study is
that high-quality cooperation among stakeholders of TPET could help in pooling
both tangible and intangible resources, which would equip students with
expertise and abilities needed to venture into entrepreneurial and lifelong
learning tasks. This assumption has been propounded by the interdependence
theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), the stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1984), the social
exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Emerson, 1976; Homans, 1958), the network theory
(Granovetter, 1973; Burt, 1976), the collaborative empowerment theory (Perkins &
Zimmerman, 1995), and the collaboration advantage theory (Huxham, 1993).
However, the present study does not examine the perceptions of TPET lecturers
on the effect of global partnerships in pooling resources for effective teaching and
learning. Although, the Edokpolor and Imafidon’s article published in
Technology Education and Training-Based Journal in 2019 has helped to assess
the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the influence of global partnerships in
pooling resources for instructional delivery and execution of projects.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model of the Study
2.1 Global Partnerships

Global partnerships have been acquainted with the connection that unites wide
scope of public, private, and civil society sector actors (European Commission,
2020). Reid, Hayes, and Stibbe (2014) stipulated that global partnerships involve

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business and non-profit civil society organizations working in partnerships with

government agencies and official development agencies. Stibbe, Reid, and Gilbert
(2018) described global partnerships as a model of development cooperation in
which actors from the private and public sectors bring together core
complementary capabilities, expertise, and resources for achieving
developmental goals and objectives. This signifies that global partnerships could
help in achieving the developmental goals and objectives of promoting
employment and lifelong learning opportunities for all Nigerian citizens.
According to United Nations (2016), the concept of global partnerships entail a

reciprocal obligation and mutual accountability and transparency, including
either voluntary or contractual relationship; the sharing of investment (financially
and otherwise), reputational risks (rather than a one-dimensional transfer of risk
to the private sector actors), and joint responsibility in the design and execution
of developmental goals. A critical look at the conceptual clarification showed that
global partnerships have been implemented for advocacy, exchange of expertise,
pooling and mobilization of resources and, or developing new ways of
constructing or providing befitting infrastructure and services for achieving
sustainable developmental plans. The International Fund for Agricultural
Development (2018) stated that partnerships among all stakeholders around the
world involve a complementary initiative that can provide expertise, synergies,
resources, capabilities, or responses to needs. These needs expected to achieve
through partnerships among the public, the private, and the civil society actors
include the development of expertise and abilities to seize entrepreneurial and
lifelong learning opportunities among TPET students in Nigeria.
2.2 Entrepreneurial Human Capital

Entrepreneurship has been described as the usage of critical and advantageous
thoughts into an effective business undertaking (Barringer & Ireland, 2013). The
ideas conceived by individuals can help to identify entrepreneurial opportunities
and turn critical and advantageous thought into practice (Acs, 2010). Human
capital, on the other hand, can be seen as the expertise and abilities acquired by
individuals. In other words, it has been viewed as the expertise and abilities of
individuals that are developed via education and experience (Becker, 1975). The
expertise and abilities of individuals acquired through education and experience
would allow individuals to pursue entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks
upon graduation confidently. The concept of human capital involves the
development of expertise and abilities that are specific to entrepreneurial and
lifelong learning tasks and not easily inimitable and substitutable, which influence
substantial competitive advantage (Barney, 1991). Therefore, the concept of
human capital is referred to as the expertise and abilities acquired by students as
one of the contributing factors to venture into entrepreneurial career and lifelong
learning activities confidently immediately after graduation.
Accordingly, entrepreneurial human capital can be described as the expertise and

abilities required to take part in entrepreneurial tasks (Edokpolor & Chukwuedo,
2018). However, this type of human capital can be measured via items, such as
prior knowledge of markets, ways to serve markets, and customer problems

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(Shepherd & Patzelt, 2018). As such, partnerships among TPET providers, private
organizations and international donor agencies can provide the chance for
students to access practical learning environment that would equip them with
expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial careers confidently.
2.3 Lifelong Learning Human Capital

The conceptual meaning of lifelong learning has gained much research interests
in education (Chukwuedo, 2019). Lifelong learning can be referred to as a wide
range of consistent learning activities that individuals are engaged in throughout
their life for the aim of improving knowledge, skills, and competencies for
professional career or development (Quinn & Sinclair, 2016). The European
Commission (2001) defined lifelong learning as all learning assignments
attempted all through life, with the point of developing expertise, abilities, and
skill inside an individual, community, social, and additionally business-related
viewpoint. Brookfield (1983) defined long-lasting learning as a viable activity, not
a political method, in which grown-up individuals learn all through the formative
phases of adulthood in the light of life emergencies, for the inborn delight of
learning, and explicit activity purposes. McMahon, Patton, and Tatham (2008)
recognized that the broad targets of long-lasting learning were to guarantee that
prior education and training provide a sound foundation for further learning, and
that open doors for learning in adulthood are accessible to everybody.
Accordingly, lifelong learning human capital has been defined as the knowledge
and skills that motivate individuals to engage in learning throughout their life
(Edokpolor & Chukwuedo, 2018). Lifelong learning human capital can be
measured via items, such as critical thinking and problem solving, desirability
and feasibility, initiative and discipline, flexibility and adaptability, self-direction
and regulation, social and cross-cultural, creativity and innovation, ICT literacy,
collaboration and teamwork, and learning to learn. As such, partnerships among
TPET providers, private organizations and international donor agencies can
provide the chance for students to access practical learning environment that
would equip them with expertise and abilities needed to engage in lifelong
learning confidently.
2.4 Global Partnerships, Entrepreneurial Career, and Lifelong Learning

The problems and challenges of how to improve the quality of the TPET program
to respond to the skills needed by students to pursue an entrepreneurial career
and lifelong learning confidently seem to be a common concern to major
stakeholders worldwide. Many authors argued that there is a gap between the
skills needed to pursue career tasks and the skills acquired at the end of TPET
(Deutsche Investitions, 2016). Skills gap seems to have a direct impact on the
increasing unemployment rates and every other social problem. It is unexpected
because these skills should have been developed during studies as they are
needed by students to confidently venture into an entrepreneurial career and
lifelong learning tasks upon graduation (Jaschik, 2015). However, this skills
mismatch has been addressed via collaborative partnerships among major
stakeholders of TPET across the globe (Ferns, Dawson & Howitt, 2019).

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The study conducted by Andre and Barnes (2010) highlighted the importance of
industry and donor agencies involved in program design as imperative to the
success of the program. This implies that multinational companies, like, UNs
agencies, International Financial Institutions, and civil society organizations have
to take an active involvement in the management of TPET programs to produce
the kind of graduates who would be equipped with the expertise and abilities to
engage in entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks. Different authors have also
reaffirmed the importance of industries and international donor agencies working
closely with TPET institutions to provide opportunities for students to access the
most current innovations and technologies used in factories and for teachers to
have an immediate encounter on current practices (Ferns, Dawson & Howitt,
2019). Global partnerships also aim to strengthen the TPET systems, especially in
developing countries like Nigeria that increase entrepreneurial career and lifelong
learning opportunities (Global Partnership for Education, 2019).
3. Research Methodology
The respondents were 158 TPET lecturers from South-South Nigerian
Universities. A self-constructed questionnaire was developed from the literature
and was reviewed as an instrument for the collection of data. The instrument was
a four-point scale, ranging from 1 (low degree) to 4 (greater degree). The
instrument consists of 18 items, where eight items measure the perceptions of
TPET lecturers on the effect of global partnerships in developing TPET students’
expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks. The remaining 10
items measure the perceptions of TPET lecturers on the effect of global
partnerships in developing TPET students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
lifelong learning tasks. Four lecturers verified the content of the instrument. Two
of them were from measurement and evaluation, and the two others were from
TPET disciplines. The authors analyzed the responses of 30 lecturers, which were
not part of the study sample, to determine the instrument reliability. The results
of analyzed responses showed that the instrument for data collection was reliable,
with a Cronbach alpha coefficient value of α=.89.
Data was analyzed using the mean, standard deviation, and one sample t-test
statistics. Mean values were used to answer the research questions, standard
deviation was used to determine the degree to which TPET lecturers’ responses
were clustered around or deviated from the mean and one-sample t-test was used
to test the null hypotheses at .05 level of significance. A mean score equivalent to,
or greater than 2.50 implied that TPET lecturers’ consent to a high degree with the
questionnaire items; and mean scores under 2.50 implied that TPET lecturers
differ to a high degree with the corresponding questionnaire items. Also, the
standard deviation values between .00 and .96 suggest that TPET lecturers’
reactions are exceptionally close, which implies that their answers were clustered
around the mean. The p-value were used in making choices on the null
hypotheses. If the p-value is not equivalent to the critical value (0.05), the null
hypothesis will be dismissed, on the chance that the value (p) is higher than 0.05,
the null hypothesis will not be dismissed.

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4. Results
The information gathered from the respondents were analyzed and presented in
Tables 1 to 4.
Research Question 1: What is the perception of TPET lecturers on the effect of

global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
entrepreneurial career tasks?
Table 1: The Mean and Standard Deviations of TPET Lecturers’ Perception on

the Effects of Global Partnerships in Developing Students’ Expertise and Abilities to
Engage in Entrepreneurial Career Tasks
S/N Statements M SD Remark

To what degree does:
1. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ expertise and 3.70 .61 GD
abilities for the creation of new products and services.
abilities for the improvement of new products and services.
abilities for the management of organizational resources.
abilities for risk-taking.
abilities for the sale of goods and services.
abilities to understand customer needs.
abilities to understand how a particular market operates.
abilities to understand how technologies can be packaged to meet a particular
market needs.
Cluster 3.42 .41 GD
Note. N = 158, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations
The outcomes of the information presented in Table 1 demonstrated that eight

items, with sequential number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 had the mean values that ran
from 3.26 to 3.70, and the comparing standard deviation values ran from .41 to .95.
The mean values infer that global partnerships could influence the development
of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based
on TPET lecturers’ perception. The corresponding standard deviation values
indicated that global partnerships would influence the development of students’
expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET
lecturers’ perception.

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Research Question 2: What is the perception of TPET lecturers on the effect of

global partnerships in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
lifelong learning tasks?
Table 2: The Mean and Standard Deviations of TPET Lecturers’ Perception on

the Effects of Global Partnerships in Developing TPET Students’ Expertise and
Abilities to Engage in Lifelong Learning Tasks
S/N Statements M SD Remark

To what degree does:
9. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ critical thinking 3.56 .80 GD
and problem-solving skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
10. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ desirability and 3.32 .85 GD
feasibility skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
11. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ initiative and self- 3.41 .69 GD
discipline skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
12. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ flexibility and 3.38 .85 GD
adaptability skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
13. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ self-direction and 3.37 .86 GD
self-regulation skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
14. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ social and cross- 3.35 .90 GD
cultural skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
15. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ creativity and 3.34 .93 GD
innovation skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
16. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ ICT literacy and 3.18 .90 GD
numeracy skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
17. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ collaboration and 3.18 .90 GD
teamwork skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
18. The global partnerships help in developing TPET students’ learning to learn 3.48 .87 GD
skills to engage in learning throughout their lifetime.
Cluster 3.36 .47 GD
Note. N = 158, M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations
The outcomes of the information presented in Table 2 indicated that ten items,
with sequential number 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 had the mean values
that ran from 3.18 to 3.56, and the comparing standard deviation values ran from
.69 to .93. The mean values infer that global partnerships could influence the
development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning
tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The corresponding standard deviation
values indicated that global partnerships influence the development of students’
expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’
perception.

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Research Hypothesis 1: Global partnerships do not have a significant effect on the

development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in entrepreneurial
career tasks.
Table 3: T-Test of the Difference between Global Partnerships and its Effects on the
Development of Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Entrepreneurial Career
Tasks
Variables N M SD TV MD df t p Decision
Global
Partnerships and 158 3.419 .414 2.50 .919 157 27.896 .000 Ns
Entrepreneurial
Human Capital
Note. M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations, TV = Test Value, MD = Mean Difference, p >
.001
Table 3 demonstrated that the mean scores concerning the degree to which global
partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to
engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception are
3.419, and the comparing standard deviations value is .414. The Table
demonstrated that the test value is 2.50, the mean difference is .919, t-statistic is
27.896 at df of 157, and the value-p (.000) is lower than the significant alpha value
(.05); along these lines, the hypothetical speculation was dismissed. Therefore, the
results of the hypothesis demonstrated that global partnerships do not
significantly influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to
engage in entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception.
Research Hypothesis 2: Global partnerships do not have a significant effect on the

tasks.
Table 4: T-Test of the Difference between Global Partnerships and its Effects
on the Development of Students’ Expertise and Abilities to Engage in Lifelong
Learning tasks
Variables N M SD TV MD df t p Decision
Global
Partnerships and 158 3.356 .473 2.50 .856 157 22.749 .000 Ns
Lifelong Learning
Human Capital
Note. M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviations, TV = Test Value, MD = Mean Difference, p >
.001
Table 4 demonstrated that the mean scores concerning the degree to which global
partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities to
engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception are 3.356,
and the comparing standard deviations value is .473. The Table demonstrated that
the test value is 2.50, the mean difference is .856, t-statistic is 22.749 at df of 157,
and the value-p (.000) is lower than the significant alpha value (.05); along these
lines, the hypothetical speculation were dismissed. Therefore, the results of the
hypothesis demonstrated that global partnerships do not significantly influence

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the development of students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning

tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception.
5. Discussion
The present study specifically aims to provide empirical evidence on the degree
to which global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and
abilities needed to engage in entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks
based on TPET lecturers’ perception. Analysis of the research question 1 indicated
that global partnerships could help in developing students’ expertise and abilities
to engage in entrepreneurial career task based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The
hypothesis demonstrated that there is a discrepancy between global partnerships
and its effect on developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in
entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. This finding
does not agree with the proposition of collaborative empowerment theory which
assumed that partnerships involve the collaboration of all major stakeholders to
achieve the goals of education (Batson, 2004; Porter-O’Grady, Hawkins, & Parker,
1997). The finding does not agree with the assumption of stakeholder theory,
which proposed that if TPET providers adopt a relationship among all major
stakeholders, then TPET providers have a better chance to achieve set goals
(Freeman, 1984). Conversely, when principles that relate to the concept of
partnerships is incorporated into TPET programs, providers of the programs can
be empowered to achieve the set objectives of TPET programs.
The analysis of research question 2 indicated that global partnerships could help
in developing students’ expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks
based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The hypothesis indicated that there is a
discrepancy between global partnerships and its effect on developing students’
expertise and abilities to engage in lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’
perception. This finding is not in agreement with network theory which proposes
that networks can help the students to decide in participating in lifelong learning
tasks by providing resources through partnerships (Desjardins & Schuller, 2007).
The finding is not also in support of assumption of the collaborative advantage
theory. This theory states that to get the real advantage of alliances, something
(e.g., lifelong learning) needs to be achieved. TPET institutions acting alone cannot
achieve much (Huxham, 1993). The finding is not also in agreement with the
assertions of some authors (Bryson, Crosby & Stone, 2015; Ospina & Foldy, 2015)
that global partnerships could help to address precarious situations (e.g.,
unemployment, poverty, insecurity, underemployment, or students’ dropout)
facing developing countries.
6. Limitations
This study has provided empirical evidence concerning the degree to which
global partnerships influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities
needed to venture into entrepreneurial and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET
lecturers’ perception. First, due to the data that were collected via the non-
experimental method (or descriptive survey-based design), a causal induction
could not be made in the investigation. Therefore, the authors of the present
research recommend that experimental studies should be conducted by
researchers to assist in providing better results. Second, due to the sample size of

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participants (N=158), which was drawn from a single institution (federal)

university, caution should be exercised when generalizing the results of the study.
Therefore, the authors of the present study recommended that further studies
should aim to consider the inclusion of proportionally representative samples that
cut across all geopolitical zones (e.g., North-Central, North-West, North-East,
South-West, and South-East) to ensure that all federal universities in Nigeria were
represented in the study. Third, due to the homogenous nature of the participants
in the study, which involves TPET lecturers’ only, caution should be exercised
when generalizing results, especially to lecturers in other academic disciplines.
Thus, the authors recommend that researchers should embark on further studies
that would employ all categories of lecturers from other educational-based
disciplines.
7. Implications
As posited in the introduction, focus has not been placed on the study of global
partnerships and its effect on developing students’ expertise and abilities needed
to engage in entrepreneurial careers and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET
lecturers’ perception. The outcomes of this research, therefore, have great
implications for stakeholders of TPET. First, the analysis showed that global
partnerships can influence the development of students’ expertise and abilities
needed to venture into entrepreneurial career tasks based on TPET lecturers’
perception. It would be beneficial for all major stakeholders of TPET to collaborate
to develop students’ expertise and abilities to pursue entrepreneurial career tasks.
Second, the analysis showed that global partnerships can influence the
tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. Therefore, it would be beneficial for all
relevant stakeholders of TPET to cooperate to develop students’ expertise and
abilities needed to engage in lifelong learning tasks. If these recommendations are
implemented adequately, they would help in realizing the set goals and objectives
of the TPET programs, especially in Nigeria.
8. Conclusion
The study aims to provide empirical evidence concerning the degree to which
global partnerships could influence the development of students’ expertise and
abilities to pursue an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on
TPET lecturers’ perception. The research questions revealed that global
partnerships have positive effects on the development of students’ expertise and
abilities needed to pursue an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks
based on TPET lecturers’ perception. The hypotheses demonstrated that global
partnerships do not have significant effects on the development of students’
expertise and abilities to engage in an entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning
tasks based on TPET lecturers’ perception. Therefore, the authors concluded that
there is a discrepancy between global partnerships and its effect on the
development of students’ expertise and abilities needed to engage in
entrepreneurial career and lifelong learning tasks based on TPET lecturers’
perception.

138
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 141-152, May 2020
Development of the Innovative Smart Orbital

(ISO) Medium to Improve the Cognitive Skills on
the Heat Transfer Concept
Firmanul Catur Wibowo*, Esmar Budi and Lari Andres Sanjaya

Department of Physics Education
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9632-6061
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7960-0839
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2642-1909
Dina Rahmi Darman

Department of Physics Education
Universitas Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4602-2657
Mohamad Syarif Sumantri and Dinas Kurnia Robby

Faculty of Education
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2862-9826
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2041-0571
Abstract. Learning media can enhance the learning process and can
enhance cognitive skills. This research aims to use the Innovative Smart
Orbital (ISO) approach to improve the cognitive skills on the concept of
heat transfer. ISO is a new development medium which is a modification
of the snakes and ladders games. An experimental class and a control
class were used in this study. The experimental class learning is done
using inquiry with ISO. In the control class, learning is done using inquiry
only. Three hundred and four (304) students from 10 classes took part in
this study. A purposive sampling technique was used to select them. The
posttest score of cognitive skills of students before learning was 18.2 with
an ideal score of 60. The posttest score of cognitive skills of students after
learning was 49.5. The man normalized gain score <g> of the
experimental class was 0.44. Using the ISO medium led to a moderate
increase in cognitive skills on the heat transfer concept.
Keywords: Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO); medium; cognitive skills; heat

transfer concept
* Corresponding author: Firmanul Catur Wibowo, email: fcwibowo@unj.ac.id

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1. Introduction
Science is dynamic and moves along with its times and technology (Shinn &
Joerges, 2002). Science develops as an effort to adjust to the demands and needs
of the increasingly complex educational field. Education continues to be
developed and continues to be fostered in the face of rapid world competition that
prioritizes technology as the basis for the development of increasingly quality
education (Wibowo, et a., 2019 & Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). The application of the
Education Unit Level Curriculum requires an increase in the role of students in
each learning activity (Morales-Martinez et al., 2018). The position of the student
who was previously the object of learning has now turned to the subject of
learning (Herro & Quigley, 2016). The curriculum requires junior and middle high
school Physics teachers to be creative. For example, in preparing a syllabus, which
is in accordance with the conditions of the student situation or location (regional).
Learning is a process that is based on a change in a person (Gan, Menkhoff &

Smith, 2015; Al Said, Du, Al Khatib, Romanowski & Barham, 2019). Changes in
learning outcomes can be shown in various forms such as changes in knowledge,
understanding, attitudes and behavior, skills and habits that exist in individuals
who learn (Wehn & Montalvo, 2018; Darman et al., 2019). Learning outcomes are
the results of student learning activities that illustrate the skills or mastery of
teaching materials (Shadiev, Hwang, Huang & Liu, 2017). The learning outcomes
are usually expressed by test scores or numbers given by the teacher.
Interesting learning media can increase student interest in learning a subject

matter. Learning media can provide real experiences that stimulate one's own
activities for learning (Chotimah, Bernard & Wulandari, 2018; Wibowo et al.,
2016). Games can be a learning tool that is played to motivate and change attitudes
(Mustamin, Ahmad, Jasruddin, Syam & Fitriani, 2019). Games related to
education support the understanding of concepts (Alsawaier, 2018; Arango-
Lopez, Ceron Valdivieso, Collazos, Gutierrez & Moreira, 2018). Learning media
are tools, methods, techniques, which are used in order to make communication
more effective and to increase interactions between teachers and students in the
learning process at school (Kariippanon, Cliff, Lancaster, Okely & Parrish, 2017;
Sun & Wu, 2016).
Learning media can enhance the learning process and can also enhance learning
outcomes (tom Dieck, Jung 7, tom Dieck, 2018; Hong et al., 2016). The function of
learning media can arouse motivation and stimulate learning activities and even
bring psychological influence on students (Wijekumar et al., 2019; Graham et al.,
2017). Factors that must be considered in the selection of instructional media
include: rational (it must make sense and be easy to understand), scientific (it must
be used in accordance with reason and scientific principles), economical
(affordable to schools, students and teachers), practical & efficient (it is easily
available and is appropriate for its use) and functional (it is useful for learning).
A game is a contest between players who interact with each other by following
certain rules to achieve certain goals. As a learning aid, games have many
advantages, including: it is a fun and entertaining activity to do, it allows for

143
active participation from students to learn, so learning is not only one way, it is
flexible, meaning that it can adjust to the situation and they generally require little
effort to do. However, there are also some disadvantages to use games are
learning aids. Sometimes, they may be quite complex to understand and may
require a lot of time to explain. Moreover, there are often educational materials
that would be very challenging to explain via games. Students who do not
understand the rules of the games can create difficulties for the teacher and other
students.
Physics is one subject that is of particular concern to both teachers and students.
This subject is considered difficult because it deals with complex formulas and
complex materials. This makes the students' interest to study Physics decrease.
Heat transfer is one subject in Physics which is considered to be very difficult. This
topic requires more effort to understand compared to other topics. However, to
improve students' understanding in learning heat material and heat transfer
concepts, a smart and fun Physics learning media must be introduced. Innovative
Smart Orbital (ISO) consists of three words. This media is considered innovative
because it is a novel way of using the snakes and ladders game in the teaching of
Physics concepts. The media is smart which means that it is expected to facilitate
learning so that students can learn in smarter ways which are more interesting
and engaging. And orbital means that this learning media has an expanded
trajectory similar to the orbital paths of starts and planets. The cognitive skills of
students in this study is an increase in learning outcomes from the mean
normalized gain score <g> before and after learning. Thus, the purpose of this
research is the development of ISO, which is an Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO)
medium to improve the cognitive skills of students on the concept of heat transfer.
2. Research Methodology
An experimental class and a control class have been used in this study. The
population of this research is VII grade students at the Middle School in Semarang
City, Indonesia. The sample for this research was 304 students from 10 classes,
who were selected using a purposive sampling technique. The sample in this
study was selected by using the random sampling cluster technique, which
consist of taking two classes randomly from the population with the condition
that the population is homogeneous. One class acts as an experimental class and
the other class becomes the control class. After the homogeneity test was carried
out. It turned out that the population was homogeneous, so the next step was to
draw the sample.
An initial analysis was conducted to find out whether these two classes were
similar. After finding out the condition of the two classes, a homogeneity test was
performed. The design of this study uses the static class comparison pattern,
which is to see the differences in the results of the posttest between the
experimental class and the control class as presented in Table 1.

144
Table 1. Research Design
Class Number Pretest Treatment Posttest
Experimental 5 Test Inquiry with ISO Test
Control 5 Test Inquiry Test
Total Class 10
In the experimental class, with a total of 5 classes, the learning stages were
preceded by a pretest and then learning was carried out by the Inquiry approach
together with the ISO media method. A posttest was also carried out. Whereas in
the control class, with a total of 5 classes, the learning stages were preceded by a
pretest and then learning was carried out by the Inquiry approach without the
ISO media. A posttest was also carried out.
3. Results
Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) is a learning media that is smart and fun, and
which is in the form of a star or orbit travel. The ISO game is a modification of the
snakes and ladders game. These modifications are found in the game board, dice
and rules of the game. The ISO media is used when the teacher has finished
explaining a subject or chapter in relevant Physics topics. The use of this media
aims to improve the cognitive skills of students on the concept of heat transfer.
3.1 Innovative Smart Orbital (ISO) Board

A Smart Orbital Board is a square board game with a size of 40 x 40 cm. This board
game consists of 49 boxes which are of the same size. Each box has a picture that
has a specific purpose. The box contained in the Orbital Well consists of 5 bonus
images, 5 penalty images, 3 pictures containing concepts, 3 pictures containing
knowledge (memories), 3 images containing understanding, 3 images containing
applications, 3 images containing analysis, 3 images containing synthesis and 3
images containing evaluation.
The astronaut plans to carry out a mission to the lunar planet and is on a smooth
journey. Suddenly the aircraft's engine is broken and falls off, as far as 20 miles
from the landing point. The NASA astronauts survives and are not injured, but
the spaceship is heavily damaged. The astronauts are faced with the problem of
how to re-join the aircraft.
The step to be taken by NASA astronauts is to walk 20 miles to the planned

landing point. At the landing site, they can contact the operator of the aircraft to
send a rescue aircraft. Before walking for 20 miles, the astronaut examined the
plane that was badly damaged. The examination aims to find items that can be
carried as provisions on the way. It turns out that there are 10 types of goods that
are still intact and can be used. These ten items are 5 useful items and 5 less useful
items based on importance and needs. These ten items are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2: Items on the ISO Board

No Types of uses Types of goods Reason
1 The main tool of life breathing is that

Oxygen tube there is no air on the moon.
2 The main life tool after air for body
Clean water metabolism.
Useful
3 The main directions and nothing else.
Moon Map
4 To make a living for a while until a

Food certain period.
5 The main communication tools.
Solar FM radio
6 Perhaps the eruption can be used as a

Pistol FN-45 body thrust.
7 Cannot be drunk because you need water
Milk Powder and air to dissolve it.
Less Useful
8 Heater The surface of the moon on the bright
side is already hot, so it is not needed.
9 Not useful because the magnetic field of
Magnetic the moon is different from the earth.
10 Compass Not useful because in the month there is
Matches no air (oxygen) on the moon.
Source: Human Synergy, Michigan, USA (Wibowo, 2010)
Helpful goods in ISO function as a rise in score through an orbit with a blue
circular shape, as shown in Figure 1. Less useful goods in ISO function as a
reduction in score through the orbit in a red circular shape, as shown in Figure 1.
An orbital board consist of 49 boxes, each of which has different function. The
orbital board consists of several components namely the start box [Box 1], the
material (bonus, punishment and Physics concepts) boxes, the finish box [Box 49],
the ISO frame board and the orbit or the path that must be taken to reach the
destination, as shown in Figure 1.
The use of ISO media in the learning process is clarify the presentation of the
message so that it is not too verbal (in the form of mere written or oral words).
The ISO media is able to overcome the limitations of learning space because
learning can be done from anywhere. It can also help to overcome students'
passive attitudes. It also inculcates a sense of responsibility as they have the
feeling that they are leading a NASA mission to the moon. The ISO learning media
can be used as a channel of communication between the teacher and students so
that the teaching objectives are achieved. However, it is very time-consuming to
create such media for each topic. Moreover, some students have difficulties to
follow the rules of the game.

146
Figure 1. ISO Board
3.2 Smart Dice

Smart dice are cube-shaped dice and there is a measurement unit on each surface,
as shown in Figure 2(a) and 2(b). A common dice has numbers or dots on its
surfaces. The unit found on each surface of a smart dice shows the value (or range)
of the steps that must be taken. The smart dice are made of wood or rubber.
Kilo
(k)
103
Figure 2. Smart dice design
3.3 Orbital Well

The Orbital Well is a tool that is made of paper and consists of a hollow cylinder,
as shown in Figure 3(a) and 3(b). In the Orbital Well game, there is an image that
contains bonuses, penalties, concepts and Physics materials. During the game, the
orbital well is placed next to the ISO board with the state of the orbital well
standing parallel to the ISO board. The orbital well is a function to take water or
oil. An orbital well is also a tool that contains concepts, materials and answers to
problems. If the player cannot answer the question contained in the face of a
cylindrical orbital well, then the player can take answers from the inside of the
well.

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(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Orbital Well front view and (b) Orbital Well back view
3.4 Smart Orbital game rules

The rules of the game in ISO are almost the same as the rules of the snakes and
ladders game. The rules of the ISO game are as follows:
a. Games are played by 2 to 5 players and players determine the order of play.
b. Players who get first place roll the dice and play first.
c. The first player runs the astronauts into the box corresponding to the Physics
unit obtained when throwing the smart dice. For example, in an ISO game, the
player is considered an astronaut. If the player throws a smart dice and gets a
kilo (103), then the astronaut will walk forward 3 steps on the ISO board.
Likewise, if an astronaut throws a smart dice and gets a Mega (106), he will
move forward 6 steps.
d. After stopping at the box corresponding to the Physics unit number, the player
is presented with concepts, questions, bonuses that must be worked on.
e. If the player lands on a cell where he must answer the question on the face of
the cylindrical orbital well, but cannot answer it, then he can take the help of
the answers contained on the inside of the well. This is possible when the
player has been unable to answer a question twice.
f. After the first player finishes, then the second player continues in accordance
with the sequence.
g. If the player gets a bonus, it will go through the ascending orbital trajectory
and has the right to roll the dice again. A bonus is obtained if the player can
answer the questions provided on the face of the orbital well.
h. If the player gets a penalty, for example, if he cannot answer the question on
the face of the orbital well tube, then he will go down the orbit and he will lose
the right to roll the dice on the next turn. The player loses the opportunity only
once and can resume the ISO game again after another player has has his turn.
i. If an astronaut stops in an empty box, then the player can take a break, followed
by the next sequence of astronauts to roll the smart dice.
j. The player is declared the winner if he has reached the landing point on the
moon which is No. 49 on the ISO board.

148

The use of ISO media in learning can increase students’ interest, creativity and
level of activity in the classroom. Each student has different characteristics in
terms of their capacity to capture and understand the materials that are presented
to them. The midterm test scores in semester I of 2019/2020 from the Natural
Sciences class VII were used in this study. The results are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Comparison of Middle Semester Deuteronomy (MSD) Data with Learning

Outcomes of Experimental and Control Classes
Class Indicator MSD Cognitive Skill

Students 28 28
The highest score 92 76
Lowest Value 40 43
Control Class
Mean 69 62
Variance 12.75 10.53
Standard Deviation 3.57 3.24
Students 29 29
The highest score 90 83
Experimental Lowest Value 32 60
Class Mean 63.41 74
Variance 11.14 6.23
Standard Deviation 3.33 2.50
From Table 3, we can see that the mean MSD score in the experimental group was
63.41 before ISO was used. After using ISO as a Physics learning media, the score
rose to 74. Thus, the use of ISO media as a learning media in the experimental
class positively affected the learning process.
Table 4: Test Results Normality Test Posttest Value
Class 2 count 2 Table Criteria
Experimental Class 6.82 7.81 Normal
Control Class 7.74 7.81 Normal
A normality test has been carried out to find out whether the data is normally
distributed or not. A normality test is also conducted to determine whether to
use parametric statistics or nonparametric statistics. In the normality test, the
formula used is the Chi-Square test. Population criteria are homogeneous if
the calculated value for 2 is smaller or equal to the 2 table-value. From Table
4, we can see that 2 count for each data is smaller than 2 table values. Thus,
the data is normally distributed and therefore parametric statistics must be
used. If the sample in this study is declared normal based on the calculation
with the normality test, then the calculation of the increase in cognitive skills
is then performed as shown in Figure 4.

149
60.0
49.5
50.0
44.1 44.1
40.0
34.6
30.0
20.0 18.2
14.3
10.0
0.0
Pretest Posttest <g>
ExperimentalClass
Exsperiment Class ControlClass
Control Class
Figure 4. Pretest Score, Posttest Score and Normalized gain score <g> Cognitive Skill
Figure 4 shows the pretest scores, the posttest test scores and the normalized gain
score scores <g> cognitive skill by students after applying inquiry with ISO for
Physics learning. The posttest experiment class score of cognitive skills of students
before learning was 18.2 from the ideal score of 60. The score of the posttest of
cognitive skill of students after learning was 49.5 from the ideal score of 60. The
normalized gain score <g> of the experimental class was 0.44. This falls in the
medium increase category (Hake, 1999).
The posttest score of the control class was 14.3 while the score of the posttest was
44.1. The normalized gain score <g> of the experimental class was 0.34. This falls
in the low increase category (Hake, 1999). The results of this study are in line with
research conducted by Alsawaier (2018). Thus, the use of ISO media as a learning
medium can influence the value of cognitive skills in the experimental class
compared to the control class. Based on the data presented in Figure 4, the use of
ISO as a Physics learning media on the subject of heat and heat transfer can affect
cognitive skills. This effect is in the form of increased learning outcomes. The
value of the MSD I class in the experimental group has increased from 63.41 to 74
after using ISO as a Physics learning media. Learning media also provides
experiences that are not easily obtained through other materials and makes the of
learning deeper. The ISO game makes students able to learn while playing.
During games, students feel motivated (Syawaluddin et al., 2020). Students
actively participate in learning as it is not one-way. Instructional media is very
supportive of students in their memory and understanding (Talarico, Kraha, Self
& Boals, 2019). Every learning activity is emphasized to facilitate students in
understanding the subject matter. The media acts as a transfer that transmits
messages from the sender to the recipient of the message (information receiver).
This message is a Physics concept that has been studied and is repeated using
media.

150
Learning in the control group using the lecture method produced different results.
From Table 2, we can see that students experience a decrease in learning
outcomes. The value of MSD I has been reduced from 69 to 62. This decrease is
caused by students in the control group not understanding the materials because
they were based on traditional lectures only. The students were not motivated in
learning Physics in the classroom. Many feel sleepy when following lessons in this
way, although the session may be interspersed with questions and answers. Only
certain students remain fully active during the whole duration of a class session.
Therefore, the use of instructional media can arouse motivation and stimulate
learning activities and even have some positive influences on student psychology
(Wijekumar et al., 2019; Graham, Kiuhara, Harris & Fishman, 2017). Learning in
the control group has decreased. This is due to the difference in the use of the
questions used at MSD I and the questions at the posttest. This difference occurs
because some students have difficulty answering questions in the form of
descriptions as students are accustomed to multiple choice questions.
Application of ISO as a media of learning Physics can improve comprehension

and memory. The ability to remember and understand material can have a
positive impact on learning outcomes. The ability of students to improve learning
outcomes is influenced by motivation (Aşıksoy & Özdamlı 2016). Motivation is
what trains students' memory and understanding. One of the powers possessed
by humans is memory. Memory can be trained through reading and
memorization. The teacher functions as a facilitator for learning activities in the
experimental group. The teacher's role is to provide direction and guidance to
students to find their own concepts. Conclusions material that has been studied is
made jointly by students and the teacher gives emphasis. The existence of student
activity can improve student understanding so that the learning outcomes.
5. Conclusion
Learning media can enhance the learning process and can enhance the cognitive
skills of students. A moderate increase in scores was achieved in the cognitive
skills on the concept of heat transfer for the experimental class compared with the
control class. However, the use of learning media such as ISO (Innovative Smart
Orbital) can increase students’ interest in the learning of Physics concepts. Based
on this research, our recommendation is as follows: use appropriate games to
teach difficult concepts while recognizing that there are certain concepts that can
be difficult to learn via this approach and identify students who may not
appreciate this style of learning so that alternative solutions could be devised in
such situations. This research was limited to the teaching of heat transfer concept
in the Physics subject. Thus, there is a broad range of research that can still be
done in this field. For example, other researchers may use the ISO approach to
teach other subjects. Student motivation, independence and critical thinking skills
may also be studied in more depth.

151
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7

Appendix
Cognitive Skills Test

(60 Question)
1. Phase transition that releases heat in the diagram below is ….

1 2
Solid Liquid Gas
3 4
a. 1 and 2
b. 2 and 3
c. 3 and 4
d. 1 and 4
2. A solid substance weighing 25 grams is heated. The heat graph for the temperature is
depicted in the following figure
Temperature
(oC)
D
420
B C
320
Calor (J)
A 900 1500 1800

The melting point of the solid is .... oC
a. 0 c. 320
b. 120 d. 420
3. A piece of bread is placed under an electric burner that is burning red to make toast
Burner
Bread
How does the heat energy reach bread?

a. only conduction
b. conduction and convection only
c. convection and radiation alone
d. radiation alone
4. The flask prevents heat transfer by:

1. Radiation 3. Conduction
2. Convection
The correct statement is ....
a. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3
b. 1 and 2 d. 1, 2 and 3
5. Air must be allowed to circulate freely around the back of a refrigerator. Why is that?
a. To prevent conduction
b. To help convection
c. To help evaporation
d. To prevent radiation
6. The form of energy that moves due to temperature differences is ...
a. Calories c. Heat
b. Radiation d. Conduction
7. One kilocalorie is equivalent to ...
a. 0,45 x 103 joule c. 42 x 103 joule
b. 4,2 x 103 joule d. 420 x 103 joule
8. An object if given heat will experience ...
a. change in form and mass of matter
b. changes in size and mass of substances
c. changes in temperature and size of substances
d. changes in temperature and form of substances
9. The heat energy absorbed by a substance depends on the factors below, except ...
a. The mass of substances c. The size of the substance
b. Type of substance d. Temperature rise
10. The heat unit in the International System (SI) is ...
a. calories c. joules
b. kilocalories d. Kwh
11. If an object with a different temperature is touched, then ...
a. heat flows from a low temperature object to a high temperature object
b. heat flows from high temperature objects to low temperature objects
c. Low-temperature objects release heat
d. High-temperature objects have a temperature increase
12. Aluminum beams have a mass of 0.4 kg experiencing a temperature increase from
20oC to 40oC. if the heat type is 900J/kgoC, then the heat received by aluminum is ...
a. 560 joule c. 7200 joule
b. 1800 joule d. 3600 joule
13. Known heat type of water 4200 J/kgoC, if 84000 J heat is given into 5 kg of water, the
temperature of the water will increase by ... oC
a. 1 c. 3
b. 2 d. 4
14. Iron with a mass of 4 kg is heated from 20 oC to 70oC. if it is known that the heat type
of iron is 460J/kgoC, the energy needed is ...
a. 9.200 J c. 92.200 J
b. 32.300 J d. 394.000 J
15. The water is raised in temperature of 20oC to 60oC which has a heat capacity of 4200
J/kgoC requires as much heat as 840,000 J, then the mass of water is ...
a. 50 kg c. 0,5 kg
b. 5 kg d. 0,05 kg
16. Heat of 21,000 joules of given to 5kg of water with 4,200 J/kg oC type heat. the
temperature rise is ...
a. 1oC c. 10 oC
b. 5oC d. 25oC
17. To raise the temperature of sea water to 1oC, it needs 3900 joules of heat. If the type of
seawater is 3.9 x 103 J/kgoC, the mass of sea water is ...
a. 100 kg c. 1 kg
b. 10 kg d. 0,1 kg
18. Aluminium heat 0.21 kcal / kgoC, this means ....
a. heat of 1 kcal is needed to raise the temperature of aluminum by 1 oC
b. heat of 1 kcal is needed to raise 0.21 kg, aluminum temperature of 1 oC
c. heat of 0.21 kcal is needed to raise the aluminum temperature by 1 oC
d. heat of 0.21 kcal is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of aluminum by 1 oC
19. A piece of iron and a piece of aluminium with the same mass are given the same heat,
it turns out that the temperature rise of the two substances is different. The difference
in temperature rise is caused by ...
a. Different types of heat
b. different density
c. the density is different
d. different specific gravity
20. When alcohol is dropped on the skin of the hands, the hands will feel cold, because ...
a. alcohol seeps into the skin
b. alcohol releases heat into our skin
c. alcohol evaporates while giving heat to our skin
d. alcohol evaporates after absorbing heat from our skin
21. To cook 4 kg of ice at its melting point, as much as 13.28 x 105 J. heat energy is needed…
a. 3,32 x 10 5 J/kg c. 4,2 x 105 J/kg
b. 3,33 x 10 5J/kg d. 42 x 10 6 J/kg
22. 5 kg of water is heated from 0oC to 100oC so that it boils and evaporates. If the water
vapor is 2.3 x 106 J/kg, the heat needed to evaporate is ...
a. 11,6 x 106 J c. 13,6 x 106 J
b. 12,6 x 106 J d. 14,6 x 106 J
23. In accordance with problem number 19, the heat of the melting solid is ...
a. 24 x 10 3 J/kg c. 60 x 10 3 J/kg
b. 36 x 10 3 J/kg d. 72 x 10 3 J/kg
24. One way to speed up evaporation is ....
a. Minimize the evaporation field
b. Minimize solution crystals
c. Increase the temperature
d. Add pressure to the surface
25. Azas Black states that ....
a. the amount of heat released is smaller than the amount of heat received
b. the amount of heat released is greater than the amount of heat received
c. the amount of heat released is the same as the amount of heat received
d. heat flows from an object with a low temperature to an object with a high
temperature
26. If the temperature of the water whose mass is 200 grams is increased from 20 oC to
100oC, then the heat needed is .... (heat type water 1 cal/goC)
a. 4 kkal c. 20 kkal
b. 16 kkal d. 24 kkal
27. A piece of iron has a mass of 0.2 kg and a specific heat of 0.11 kcal / kg oC. If the
temperature drops from 75oC to 25oC then a lot of heat is released ...
a. 0.22 kcal c. 1.10 kcal
b. 0.55 kcal d. 1.65 kcal
28. Dry air is very easy to suck water vapor. Therefore, by flowing dry air over the surface
of the liquid which evaporates, the evaporation process ...
a. not happening c. slowed down
b. accelerated d. late
29. From the following statement the truth is ...
a. The boiling point of pure water is higher than the boiling point of salt water at the
same pressure
b. The boiling point of pure water is the same as the boiling point of salt water at the
same pressure
c. At 1 pressure the boiling point of pure water is lower than salt water
d. At 1 pressure the boiling point of pure water is higher than salt water
30. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point is needed as much
heat ........ ... If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg.
a. 50 cal c. 150 cal
b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal
31. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point requires as much
heat as if ... If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg.
b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal
32. To convert 0.5 kg of water into water vapor all at its boiling point requires as much
heat as ........ If the heat of water evaporation is 100 cal/kg.
b. 1000 cal d. 200 cal
33. Statements relating to changes in the boiling point of water are correct ....
a. Cooking water in the mountains boils faster because the air pressure is less than 1
atmosphere
b. Cooking water in the mountains boils more slowly because the air pressure is less
than 1 atmosphere
c. Cooking water on the beach with the mountains will boil together
d. Mamasak water on the beach will boil faster because the air pressure is 1
atmosphere
34. Energy of 160 calories is given to a piece of ice, if the ice melts all at its melting point.
What is the mass of ice if the ice melt is 80 cal/kg ....
a. 0,2 Kg c. 20 Kg
b. 2 Kg d. 240 Kg
35. A piece of aluminum whose mass is 200 grams is heated to a temperature of 80 oC,
then immediately dropped into a vessel containing 100 grams of water at 20 oC. Ignore
heat exchange for the container and the surrounding environment. Calculate the final
temperature of the mixture when thermal equilibrium is reached ... (Aluminum heat
type 900 J/kgoC and water 4200 J/kgoC).
a. 30oC c. 36oC
b. 34oC d. 38oC
36. How much heat must a heater give to heat 2 kg of water at 100 oC? (known for water
vapor of 2260 kJ / kg)
a. 1130 kJ c. 4,520 kJ
b. 4520 kJ d. 11,30 kJ
37. Metal is much easier to conduct heat compared to other solids because ....
a. in metals there are many free electrons
b. the particles in the metal are denser
c. the particles in the metal are more tenuous
d. smoother metal surface
38. Metal is much easier to conduct heat compared to other solids because ....
a. in metals there are many free electrons
b. the particles in the metal are denser
c. the particles in the metal are more tenuous
d. smoother metal surface
39. If black and white clothes are dried together, black clothes will dry faster than white
clothes because of the black colour….
a. absorbs a lot of heat
b. slightly radiating heat
c. emits a lot of heat
d. absorbs a little heat
40. The statements below are true, except ....
a. air flow in the chimney is heat transfer, by convection
b. heat transfer at the end of a heated iron bar, by radiation
c. transfer of heated water in the kettle, by convection
d. heat transfer at the end of a heated copper rod, by conduction
41. 200 grams of lead sample at 110oC were put into a calorimeter containing 300 grams
of water at 18oC. if the heat type of lead is 140 J / kgoC and the heat type of water is
4200 J / kgoC, the final temperature of the mixture when the thermal balance is
reached is ....
a. 10oC c. 20oC
b. 15oC d. 25oC
42. A piece of ice is put into a vessel then heated. Ice turns into water. When constantly
heated, the water boils and evaporates. What are your conclusions about the
relationship between heat and changing forms of matter?
a. melting and yawning requires heat
b. yawn and condense requires heat
c. freezes and melts releasing heat
d. melting and condensing releases heat
43. In a lighted room, our bodies feel warm. There we get heat from the lamp by means
of convection and radiation. The following factors cause it, except ...
a. heat emitted from lights in all directions
b. heat can move without intermediates
c. air flow occurs in the room
d. the air is good enough to spread the heat
44. Data:
1. Boil water over the embers
2. Walking on a hot afternoon
3. Heats the end of the metal on the ember
4. Stay near a campfire
Which is the heat transfer by radiation is a number ....
a. 4 c. 2
b. 3 d. 1
45. Below are examples of changing forms that we often find in everyday life:
1. Water turns to ice 3. Candles melt when heated
2. Water turns to steam 4. Ice turns to water
Which one is included in the melting event ...
a. 1 and 2 c. 3 and 1
b. 2 and 3 d. 3 and 4
46. Rini treats guests who come to her house on a hot afternoon with ice syrup placed
on the glass jug in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Figure 2
After a while, Rini saw water points appearing on the outside of the teapot wall.
Figure 2. Where did the water come from? And why are the water dots on the outside
of the teapot?
a. From the liquid in the glass, because the drink inside the glass pitcher can
penetrate the outer wall of the teapot.
b. From the condensation of air at the border on the outside of the glass teapot,
because the temperature of the air decreases the water points will arise
c. From the condensation of air at the border on the outside of the glass pitcher,
because the temperature of the air rises there will be points of water
d. From the evaporation of air at the border on the outside of the glass pitcher,
because the temperature of the air decreases there will be points of water
47. Pay the figure changes in form below
Solid
Liquid Gas
Changes in the form of substances that release heat in the diagram are ....
a. 1, 3, and 6 c. 1, 4, and 6
b. 2, 3, and 6 d. 2, 3, and 5
48. Two types of heat sources are usually available at the Science Laboratory, namely
electric heating plates and burners. Didi plans a study to test which of these heat
sources heats water faster. He poured 200 mL of water into the same two containers
and recorded the initial temperature of the water in each container. Where should
Didi place the thermometer to read the thermometer properly during the study?
a. c.
b. d.
49. Based on question No. 47, Didi uses the results of his research to draw a graph as
shown below.
Temperatura (o C)
O: Bunsen burner
X: Electric Heating Plates
Heat (Q)
Based on the information in the graph above, which heat source can heat up water
faster?
a. Bunsen burner
b. Electric Heating Plates
c. Bunsen burners and electric heating plates are just as fast
d. Not both
50. The picture below shows two blocks of ice placed in two containers. The second ice
beam was put in a plastic filled with air.
Ice Block 1 Ice Block 2 wrapped in plastic

Which block of ice will melt more slowly?
a. Ice block 1, because plastic retains heat from the ice out into the environment
b. Ice beam 2, because the plastic holds the heat from the ice out into the environment
c. Ice Block 1, because plastic absorbs heat from ice
d. Ice block 2, because plastic gives heat from ice
51. Several substances with the same mass, heated for 2 minutes at a joint temperature
of 27 ° C. Obtained data as follows:
Substance type Area (m2) Length (m) Final temperature (° C) ∆T (oC)
Iron 0,01 0.5 32 5
Copper 0,01 0.5 36 9
Silver 0,01 0.5 42 15
Based on the above data it can be said ...

a. Iron absorbs more heat than copper and silver
b. Copper absorbs more heat than iron and silver
c. Silver absorbs more heat than iron and copper
d. Copper conducts little heat
52. Heat can move by conduction, convection and radiation.
Consider the following question!
1. Conduction is the transfer of heat through intermediates accompanied by the transfer
of particles
2. Convection is the transfer of heat through an intermediate accompanied by the
transfer of particles
3. Radiation is heat transfer without the need for intermediates
The correct statement about heat transfer is a number ...
a. 1 and 2 c. 1 and 3
b. 2 and 3 d. 1, 2 and 3
53. Most cooking utensils are made of aluminum. What properties does aluminum have
that are used for cooking equipment?
a. conduct heat c. generate heat
b. absorb heat d. inhibits heat
54. The following events that show heat transfer by conduction are ....
a. house ventilation
b. heating up the electric iron
c. melting polar ice caps
d. radiating sunlight to the earth
55. Pay attention to the following factors!
1. solid 3. gas
2. liquid 4. vacuum
Factors that affect heat transfer by convection are ....
a. 1 and 2 c. 2 and 4
b. 2 and 3 d. 1 and 3
56. If the black cloth and white cloth are dried together, the black cloth dries faster than the
white cloth because ....
a. Black cloth absorbs more heat than white cloth
b. Black cloth releases heat less than white cloth
c. Black cloth emits less heat than white cloth
d. Black cloth absorbs and releases heat
57. Thermos prevent heat transfer by:
a. 1. radiation 3. conduction
b. 2. convection
The correct statement is ...
a. 1 and 3 c. 2 and 3
b. 1 and 2 d. all right
58. Solid objects such as metals cannot produce heat by convection, because ...
a. The number of particles making up solids is very large
b. the particles in the solid are close together
c. The particles in the solid material are held firmly in place
d. The particles always move randomly
59. Look at the picture of the open fire below!
3
2
4
1
Every position around the fire will receive heat, at which position the heat received
is due to radiation ...
a. 1 and 2 c. 2 and 3
b. 2 and 3 d. 1 and 4
60. You don't feel too hot when you hold your fingers close next to the candle flame, but
you will immediately feel very hot when you hold your fingers close to the candle
flame. This happened because ...
a. air convection flow occurs from the top of the flame continues to the side
b. air convection flow occurs from various directions to the fire
c. air convection flow occurs from the side of the flame continues upward
d. radiant heat from the candle flame occurs mostly upward
153

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 153-166, May 2020
Junior High School Students' Experiences of

High Technology Based Learning in Indonesia
Supardi Supardi
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3642-1029
Enung Hasanah
Universitas Ahmad Dahlan
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4899-7789
Abstract. This study aims to understand the meaning of high technology

utilization in learning for early adolescents. High-Technology Based
Learning (HTBL) is for a phenomenon in every country today. However,
the side effects of the use of high technology in education are troubling,
especially for early adolescent junior high school students, who are still
labile. This article tries to explore the meaning of HTBL in junior high
school in Yogyakarta. The researchers used a phenomenological
approach in collecting the data in this study in line with the idea that the
people who understand the meaning of an experience are themselves, the
subject of the phenomenon. Participants were chosen using purposive
sampling with the following criteria: junior high school students, 11-13
years old, living in Yogyakarta and experiencing HTBL at school. The
results of the research show that for junior high school students: 1) HTBL
is more fun and more accessible; 2) adult guidance is necessary as a means
of raising self-awareness. We suggest collaboration between parents and
teachers in the implementation of all HTBL processes at school and home
since they play significant roles in the use of HTBL for students.
Keywords: high-tech; adolescents; phenomenology
1. Introduction
High-tech or high technology is the newest, most advanced technology that can
be found today (Cortright & Mayer, 2001). In the era of industry 4.0 (Vuksanović,
Vešić & Korčok, 2016; Erboz, 2017), society is very familiar with high-tech. The
most advanced technology that can be found today is Information Technology
(IT) that has affected many aspects of human life and it has succeeded in changing
today's education paradigm (Vivekananthamoorthy, Shanmuganathan &
Sharmila, 2009; Newell, 2014), so that it incorporates technology more fully. This

154
new paradigm needs a responsive mechanism that is different from those of the
past (Tomoziiab & Topală, 2014) organizationally and individually, to achieve
holistic, innovative, and sustainable solutions (Morrar, Rabeh & Arman, Husam,
2017). In the context of education, the organizations and individuals referred to in
this paper are the schools, school's management, government, society, parents,
and students.
In developing countries such as Indonesia, society has begun to utilize IT

extensively in daily life. This is illustrated by the data which indicate that
Indonesians use the internet for an average of almost eight hours a day (Kemp,
2020). Unfortunately, the development of the educational system in its new digital
direction is still in its early stages, and use of digital IT has not yet penetrated
every layer of education in every region evenly. There are some well-advanced
regions such as Yogyakarta, Jakarta, and Bali. However, some regions do not yet
utilize high-tech. These regions are categorized as 3T [Terpinggir, Terdalam,
Terluar, or marginalized, deepest, outermost] regions. Hasthoro & Ambarwati
(2016) stated that a marginalized region is defined based on the social condition,
economy, culture, and the area, which are below other regions in terms of a variety
of measures. These 3T regions include 26 provinces and 142 cities.
The distinct differences in the social conditions of different regions in Indonesia

(Daerobi & Suyono, 2019) is a serious matter for the Indonesian government.
Moreover, it relates to the uneven development of science and technology that has
resulted in uneven development of human resources, which directly affects
national development. Therefore, the Indonesian government is trying to
structure, equalize, and improve the quality of education, including educational
policy by implementing HTBL in the regions. Unfortunately, the transition of the
educational model from manual to digital form in schools in particular regions in
Indonesia raises some problems. Besides the lack of facilities, the attitude of
students toward high-tech and digital communication devices or gadgets is still
worrying. Most junior high school students in Indonesia are in their early
adolescent period (Papini, Farmer, Clark, Micka & Barnett, 1990; Malin, Indrawati
Liauw & Damon, 2017). People think that early adolescents still consider
entertainment to be the primary function and purpose of high-tech and gadgets.
This perception has raised fears among parents regarding the adverse effects of
technology for their children (Hollingworth, Mansaray, Allen & Rose, 2011; Hind,
2017). Therefore, many parents in Indonesia are reluctant to support the
utilization of high-tech at school and home.
Schools, as the catalyst for education (Hammer, 2016), need to find strategies that
can synergize the potential of children, parents' support, and the school (Ainscow,
Muijs, Daniel & West, 2006), especially in terms of the use of IT in learning. The
trajectory towards its use is aimed at improving the quality of education in line
with the demands of the time. It is necessary to understand that education is not
a generic concept; it is part of the process of life, wherein there is a realization that
it is essential to pay attention to values for the sake of the sustainability of
individuals or communities through experiences (Dewey, 1963; Chambliss, 2003).

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Therefore, adults should be willing to listen to adolescents concerning the use of

high-tech in learning based on adolescents' experiences of HTBL implementation.
The utilization of high technology in learning is proven to improve the academic

competences of students (Basri, Alandejani & Almadani, 2018); however, the
impact of the implementation of HTBL for junior high school students in
developing countries has not yet been clearly understood. This article aims to
explore the meaning of HTBL experienced by early adolescents in a developing
country to fill about a gap in our understanding of this issue. The researchers hope
the results of this research can be used as a supplementary source of knowledge
for parents and teachers. It is hoped that the research will help teachers and
parents in deciding on how to use high-tech in the process of learning at school
and home for junior high school students, especially for students in a developing
country such as Indonesia.
2. Research Problem
The development of the educational system in a new digital direction in Indonesia
is still in its early stages. In contrast, the digital roles of modern information
technology have not yet penetrated every layer of education in every region
evenly because there are differences in the development of each region. There are
some well-advanced regions such as Yogyakarta, Jakarta, and Bali. However,
some regions do not yet make much use of high-tech. These regions are
categorized as 3T [Terpinggir, Terdalam, Terluar, or marginalized, deepest,
outermost] regions. Thus, students across Indonesia have not had the same
opportunities in terms of utilizing information technology in learning. Some of
them are already familiar with HTBL while many of them have not encountered
it at all. Of the various problems that exist, this research focused on exploring how
junior high school students interpret their experiences of HTBL. We hypothesize
that junior high school students in Indonesia have positive impressions of the use
of HTBL in their learning processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the
HTBL experiences of junior high school students in Indonesia. The research
question is: How do junior high school students interpret their experiences of
HTBL?
In this research, there is no intimate relationship between the researchers and the
participants. There is only a professional relationship between the researchers and
their sample participants. The role of the researchers is solely to collect data
through individual in-depth interviews and analyze the data according to a pre-
established framework. As lecturers and researchers in Indonesia, the researchers
chose this topic because they felt responsible for participating in building a
civilization through research relating to education. This empirical research is a
part of comprehensive analysis that focuses on the psychological readiness of
middle school students to use high technology in learning, with a particular focus
on the use of gadgets compared to the use of PCs in developing countries. To
measure the level of psychological readiness of students, data were needed
relating to the meaning given to such technology in the minds of students.
Therefore, the initial step undertaken by the researcher was to conduct qualitative
empirical research in order to explore the data in depth.

156
3. Research Design
The research followed a qualitative research (Creswell, 2009; Creswell & Creswell,
2013), using a phenomenological perspective (Moustakas, 1994; Wolff, 2012). The
phenomenological perspective always perceives the essence of the data’s meaning
to come from the first-person perspective, obtained from dialog. In this context,
students are the people who experience the process of HTBL. Hence, they are the
most knowledgeable people to inform on the meaning for them of experiencing
IT-based learning and to identify the effects on their lives.
The researchers obtained information about children in junior high school from
the management of Kampung [hamlet] Joho, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Later, the
obtained information was followed up by visiting the Joho mothers' community
activity and asking the parents whose children were at their junior high school
and had IT implemented in the classroom. In Joho hamlet, 11 children were
attending junior high school and already using IT in their classes. After obtaining
the names of the students, researchers visited the parents of the children to ask for
permission to interview their children, handing out a letter stating that all the
participants' private data would be kept confidential. Out of the 11 children whom
researchers asked, only seven children were willing to be interviewed and given
permission to be participants in the research.
The research was approved by the Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta and the school
where the participants study. Additionally, we were granted permission by the
participants' parents through written informed consent to secure the participants'
confidential data. We also assured participants that their identities in the study
would be altered to codes to protect their privacy.
4. Instrument and Procedures

The data source in this research was the experiences of junior high school students
in Yogyakarta, whose school conducts HTBL, mainly in IT-based learning. The
participants in this research were seven students, three boys, and four girls. To
determine the number of data sources in this research, the researchers referred to
Langdridge (2007), who stated that for qualitative research, 3-7 participants is
sufficient because each participant will give plenty of data.
The researchers obtained the data for this research through in-depth individual
interviews at each participant's home. Each participant was interviewed once for
45-60 minutes. Researchers summarized the results of each interview and
rechecked the interview results with each participant before analyzing and
publishing them to ensure the validity of the data. Besides that, the researchers
also performed a second interview with some of the participants to crosscheck
any unclear data. A phenomenological study, usually but not always, is a
qualitative research project designed to better understand individual experiences
of a phenomenon. Therefore, open questions are suitable to elicit more
understanding of particular topics rather than trying to define or identify the
cause of a phenomenon (Langdridge, 2007; Moustakas, 1994).

157
The interview guide comprises two main questions, given below:

1) Please tell us about your experience of HTBL, whether using PCs or gadgets.
Could you tell us more about that?
2) Please tell us about your feelings when experiencing HTBL using PCs or
gadgets or laptops. Could you tell us more about that?
The data analysis technique used in this research was modified phenomenological
data analysis by Moustakas (Moustakas, 1994: 119-152; Zeeck, 2012: 39; Shosha,
2012: 34-41), which consists of six steps of data analysis, as follows: 1.) researcher
conducts transcription; 2.) identifying all relevant data; 3.) reducing
transcendental phenomenology; 4.) the invariant constituent which is the unique
quality from the prominent experience of each participant is identified and all of
them are arranged into themes that may point to general themes for every
participant; 5.) validating the invariant constituent; 6.) arranging the individuals'
structural description. Then the data are described using individual textural
description (ITD) to develop a composite description of the essence of all of the
participants’ experiences.
5. Findings
From the result of the interviews with seven junior high school students in
Yogyakarta, the researchers found some themes relevant to the meaning of IT
implementation in the process of learning. The themes are: 1.) HTBL keeps me
awake; 2.) using computers in learning has to be focused, using gadgets is much
more fun; 3.) I know that I have to be self-controlled (in using gadgets), but still,
it is hard to do. Below are the individual textural descriptions of early adolescents'
experiences.
Theme 1: HTBL keeps me awake.

The participants stated that learning using gadgets is fun. One of the things which
they identified as fun when using high-tech was that they felt that learning using
high-tech was more interesting than just listening to a lecture. Besides that, they
felt more comfortable about obtaining the learning materials that were being
studied. The statements of P1 as follows:
"At my school, not all teachers can use high-tech. Some teachers just speak
in all the classes. Well then, I get bored..., when students get sleepy, we are
scolded, but they just keep talking by themselves in front of the class. That's
the old ones, hehe, as old as my mom. However, the young teachers are fun
when teaching..., moreover when we are permitted to use our gadgets... (A
little pause) ... When using gadgets in learning, it's more fun. I don't get
sleepy... Hehe... We can also do some other stuff with it. My friends are just
the same. While studying, they watch pictures of some artists or peek at
social media" (P1, Line 9-17).
The feeling of fun when using gadgets or high-tech in the learning setting was
also felt by P2. The notion can be seen in the statement of P2 as follows:
"There is a prohibition of bringing gadgets at my school, except for
particular days when it is a must to bring one, a gadget or laptop for
learning. Outside those particular schedules, we are prohibited from
bringing any gadgets. Sometimes when my parents couldn't pick me up,

158
well, we had to bring the gadget; therefore, we must entrust our gadget to
be kept by the class's teacher. It is fun for learning using high-tech. We can
find many things: is it something around me, in the other regions, or even
something outside the country? Also, I can watch Instagram, just a brief
surf, so I don't get caught by the teacher hehe (smiling)... The gist is, it is
fun. Sometimes I also get serious when studying; there are many questions
asked by the teacher, and every answer can be found with high-tech. I like to
find it at brainly.com. Every lesson is there; it's totally different from the
manual style of learning. Always having speech lectures, it's boring.
Actually, sometimes I also take a chance to watch social media while in the
class when we’re using gadgets (blushing)" (P2, Line 12-19).
P5 also described their feelings which of fun when learning using high-tech.
Moreover, exams using android have already been implemented at their school.
For P5, learning using high-tech can increase the motivation to study, also the
motivation to socialize on the internet.
"Well, we are happy to use high-tech and gadgets. Every matter learned is
in high-tech. We also don't need to write manually, just search on the
internet, copy, paste... done. When the exams are coming, it's simpler, right.
The results of the exams can be seen immediately; there is no need to be
wondering any more about the result. Nevertheless, not everything must be
using high-tech, some still are done manually; for example, math. We still
have to write and count manually. If we don't learn how to count, then how
it would be?" (P5, Line 17-24).
In another statement, P5 also explained:

"In the process of learning, using high-tech, I became motivated to study.
Everything got simple. Besides that, I can also make more friends on the
internet. However, my social media accounts still can be seen by my parents,
so I'm not freely playing on the internet. My parents know all the passwords
of my accounts, even my android password too" (P5, Line 29-33).
P7 also made a similar statement to the other participants. P7 admitted that

learning with gadgets gave them different impressions compared to the
traditional learning process, which they usually experienced. Below is P7’s
statement that shows a change of perception about learning when experiencing
learning with high-tech.
"I felt happy because the learning at school right now is more fun compared
to when I was at elementary school. Now, I can often use the smartphone
and the internet for learning. I don't need to keep listening to teachers'
lectures, but I also can look for learning materials on the internet by myself.
It is more fun and interesting" (P7, Line 24-29).
Theme 2: Using computers in learning has to be focused, using gadgets is much

more fun.
The participants stated that learning using gadgets also involves many
distractions in the process of education. They become distracted and play on social
media while learning. It is different for students who are using PCs or laptops.
They are more focused on the lesson rather than trying to steal some time to surf
social media.

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P1 explicitly explained the process of learning and their attitude towards the use
of gadgets compared to laptops or PCs. P1 admitted that the use of gadgets
distracts them from being focused on the study. It is too tempting to use gadgets
for other things besides learning. Below is P1’s statement which illustrates this:
"Sometimes, the teachers ask me to bring gadgets or laptops for learning at
school. From what I experienced, using the gadget is much simpler and
easier to carry, and it's also easier to be played with. Even though I didn't
have any intention to play, sometimes my friends ask me to play with them,
stealthily playing games together in the class" (P1, Line 25-29).
Despite studying at a different school to P1, P3 said something similar regarding

the use of gadgets and laptops or PCs. Below is P3's statement regarding a
comparison of using computers and gadgets in learning.
"Well, compared to using gadgets, I became more focused when learning
using a laptop because we can't haphazardly open any application. The
teacher also can watch what we do in the class. However, using the gadget
is simpler; many apps can be used and downloaded" (P3, Line 16-18).
P4 also stated that students are more comfortable using gadgets than computers.
However, in terms of the success of the learning, they admitted that using
computers makes them more focused. They also like gadgets more than laptops
because they are less complicated and more comfortable to carry. In contrast, a
laptop is quite heavy. Below is one of P4's statements comparing laptops and
devices:
"I like to use the gadget more; it's easier to use and to carry. If using a laptop,
even if it also high-tech, sometimes the WIFI at school is turned off or not
reaching our class, it's bothering. There is also a case, hmmm... If I want to
open social media, I would likely be scolded by the teacher; they can properly
see what we do. We can't also download new apps. So, when there is a time
that we must bring a device, I prefer bringing my gadget. A laptop is heavy,
but in terms of learning, it's better to use a laptop. There is a smaller chance
of deviating by playing on social media because we are being watched. At
home, too, I am restricted in terms of using gadgets, but it is okay to use the
PC. My mom said that it is better for my eyes" (P4, Line 27-33).
Theme 3: I know that I have to be self-controlled, but still, it is hard to do.

Early adolescents are aware that they ought to be self-controlled so that they do
not misuse gadgets. However, they still find this hard. The desire to exist and
communicate with their friends through social media is a major factor that leads
to the misuse of gadgets. Some students see gadgets as mere entertainment for
playing on social media or games; hence they are unable to control themselves.
The participants admitted that the temptation to use the technology in unhealthy
ways does not have a positive effect on their self-development and is caused by
an impulse to want to be the same as their friends. They do not want to be left
behind by their friends. They were afraid of being regarded as an unsocial person.
Therefore, even if the school prohibits students from bringing gadgets except
occasionally, students still sneakily bring their gadgets for the sake of socializing
with their friends.

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P2 admitted that they had been addicted to their gadget since junior high school.
P2 loved to surf the internet with gadgets, watching videos on YouTube and any
other apps. Below is P2’s statement:
"My mom has been prohibiting me from playing with HP (Handphone). I
didn't get a chance to play it. However, since junior high school, the school
often asks us to bring gadgets with us… Because of that, I got encouraged
to explore the gadget more. I like to watch videos, social media, chatting with
my friends, and many more" (P2, Line 25-28).
P5 also felt in a similar way to P2. They often could not be self-controlled when
using high technology. They would rather play with the gadget than study with
it. The following is one of the participant’s statements regarding this issue:
"Well, for me, my mom and dad want me to study, my teachers also want
me to study through this gadget, not playing. I am often told that I ought to
manage my time. There is also an agreement between my parents concerning
the time I can use the gadget and me, I learned to conduct self-control, but
still, I can't. It's hard to do... I also need something to play, need
entertainment, playing games with my friends, or just watching videos on
the internet. I also need those so I can make friends" (P5, Line 78-82).
Another participant also spoke about the process of learning self-control and time
management in using gadgets. P7 explained:
"I often get scolded when playing gadgets. I can't play too long, except for
browsing learning materials. However, sometimes, I still tried to steal some
occasions. My friends play it (gadget). I want to do the same” (P7, Line 32-
34).
6. Discussion
The results show that students experience a positive impact from IT-based
learning. However, early adolescents also realized that high technology has been
affecting them negatively. Based on Moustakas (1994), the researchers conducted
further data analysis of the data from the entire group of individual textural
descriptions, which then developed into a composite description. The meaning
and the invariant themes from every participant were intricately identified to
obtain a focused image of the entire group's overall experience.
IT-based learning is more comfortable and more fun for early adolescents.
Minimizing drowsiness and being more comfortable finding study materials were
the two most prominent factors that adolescents identified in the use of HTBL.
This is in line with Vasallo and Warren (2018) who showed that the use of
computers can be extremely helpful for students in developing their skills in
particular academic subjects. The use of modern devices such as smartphones,
tablets, or gadgets offers various advantages in learning (Disterer & Kleiner, 2014).
Technology could be a factor in academic achievement and motivation to stay
longer at school (Harris, Al-Bataineh & Al-Bateineh, 2016). The use of high-tech
for junior high school students is more likely to be interpreted as a positive thing
in the learning environment. For junior high school students who tend to have a
high desire to play, HTBL becomes a medium through which to cope with their
boredom (Raja & Nagasubramani, 2018).

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The statements of the participants about their experiences of HTBL at school

demonstrate that the participants considered the use of high-tech to be more
comfortable and more fun. This indicates that early adolescents are in a transition
period in which they want everything to be fun for them (Swartz & Wilde, 2012;
Emmons, 2012). Parents and teachers need to respond to this situation wisely in
the context of early adolescent students' education. Besides providing a safe high-
tech environment (Hogan & Strasburger, 2018), teachers and parents need to
improve their communication skills appropriately to understand what
adolescents desire from their parents and teachers. In such a context, behavior
related to high-tech utilization would become more directed and positive (Ardies,
De Maeyer, Gijbels & van Keulen, 2014).
The enthusiastic responses of the participants regarding HTBL demonstrate that,

fundamentally, technology was considered to be a medium that can relieve the
psychological burden of students. This is because it minimizes the need for
students to keep listening to teachers’ lectures intensively. It also allows them to
actively gather learning materials independently. This should be encouraged by
teachers and parents because junior high school children fundamentally have the
potential to become independent learners.
Adults' guidance is more important than their control over the usage of IT.
The revealed facts showed that the participants regarded gadgets and high-tech
merely as entertainment. Hence, they admitted to trying to steal some time to
open non-learning sites during learning sessions. This matter needs to be
addressed by parents and teachers. Gadgets with internet access have the
potential to be misused by adolescents. For example, adolescents could access
content with violence and pornography. The misuse of gadgets can have a
negative effect on children's and adolescents' psychological development (Flood,
2009). Therefore, the use of gadgets by early adolescents needs to be accompanied
by guidance from parents.
Awareness raised among early adolescents on HTBL may result in self-directed

behavioral control. This corresponds with the idea of Hommel and Wiers (2017),
that the congruity between actions and understanding of humans in terms of
ethical codes is an effect of their perception arising from the match between their
intention and actions. For students who regard gadgets as mere entertainment,
the school needs to come up with a solution by utilizing computers (PCs or
laptops) rather than gadgets. Some studies support this finding, demonstrating
that gadgets result in more unexpected distractions in the process of learning in
comparison with computers (Langmia & Glass, 2014; Ugur & Koç, 2015).
Therefore, schools need to develop educational strategies to increase students'
awareness about the importance of HTBL and its advantages in the future.
The data gathered in the interviews reflect facts, knowledge, and the experiences
of the participants regarding the phenomenon; these adolescents' perspectives
may differ from adult thinking on the same issue. The data offer novel information
regarding HTBL for early adolescents. It is hoped that the research will help
schools and teachers to understand more about the most appropriate HTBL
and/or IT-based learning methods for early adolescents (Li, Snow & White, 2015).

162
The findings from this research demonstrate that parents and teachers face a
challenge in terms of providing guidance to junior high school students, who are
also early adolescents, about the dangers of the misuse of gadgets and high-tech
to prevent them from experiencing the negative effects of technology. Guidance
can come in the form of advice and role models, and also when early adolescents
internalize religious and moral values, and social values in their daily lives.
Teachers and parents should be adapting to changes in technology. Technological

advances easily change the behaviors and perspectives of adolescents because
children adapt quickly to technology (Gaidhani, Arora & Sharma, 2019). Teachers
and parents tend to be slower in adapting to technological advances (McDaniel &
Radesky, 2017). Therefore, it is not surprising if, between parents and children,
there is always a generation gap that makes it difficult for them to connect. Based
on this notion, teachers and parents who already have a particular lifestyle and
have already adopted a mindset towards technology need to make a serious effort
to escalate their adaptability to be able to accompany their children in the process
of the technology revolution. Technology is like two sides of a coin. There are
beneficial and adverse impacts on the growth of adolescents. Therefore, teachers
and parents should be able to increase the positive impacts and reduce the
negative impacts of technology by strengthening their own skills and competency
in terms of technology (Mundy, Kupczynski & Kee, 2012).
7. Conclusion
High-tech contains various educational instruments needed to support students'
educational processes (Gudanescu, 2010). However, it is necessary to adjust the
use of a variety of technology according to the psychological development of
students. Teachers and parents need to realize that, in the digital era, the
utilization of high-tech is a certainty because it is a basic necessity to adapt to the
changing times. Parents and teachers must give more space to adolescents. It is
more important for teachers and parents to guide adolescents (Laitonjam & Singh,
2014) to enable them to manage themselves in a health way. This research shows
that gadgets, as an example of high-tech, have more negative effects than various
other high-tech devices. Therefore, schools need to elaborate on regulations that
direct the use of technology besides gadgets, to prevent the learning tasks from
becoming a cover for being dependent on gadgets. This approach also needs the
support of parents in its execution, as parents must always be prepared for
changes in the world of education. In this context, collaboration between parents
and schools is essential, whether in terms of the planning or implementation of
approaches. Collaboration is necessary because, in addition to an understanding
of the negative and positive effects in the implementation of HTBL, gadgets are
also continuously in use both at school and at home by adolescents.
8. Limitations of the Research

This study involved qualitative research that was intensely influenced by the
participants' cultural environment. Thus, the results of the study cannot be
generalized. However, the results can be used by researchers, parents, and
teachers operating in similar contexts.

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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 167-185, May 2020
Factors that Influence Learning Strategy Use

among Senior High School Economics Students
in Ghana: A Quantitative Approach
Anthony Akwesi Owusu

University of Cape Coast, Ghana
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6880-094X
Cosmas Cobbold
University of Cape Coast, Ghana
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9342-0084
Abstract. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that

influence Senior High School (SHS) economics students’ use of learning
strategies. We conducted the study using 668 final year economics
students drawn from 24 public and private SHSs in the Central Region of
Ghana. A questionnaire was used to collect data, which was analyzed
using multiple regression analysis. The results showed that learning style
and teaching method influence students’ choice of cognitive learning
strategies. Also, learning styles, teaching method, motivation to study the
subject, and student-status significantly influence students’ use of
metacognitive strategies. Finally, the study showed that learning style,
teaching method, motivation, student-status, and school-type
significantly explain variability in resource management learning
strategies of Economics students. The study, therefore, suggested that
teachers should adopt practices that actively engage students in a class.
Also, teachers, heads, and parents of students should motivate students
to develop an interest in studying economics. Also, the study
recommended that government and school authorities should formulate
and implement policies that provide similar learning opportunities for
day and boarding students since all students irrespective of their status,
require equal opportunities to unearth their learning potentials. Finally,
based on the findings, a conceptual model was developed to enhance
learner autonomy through the use of metacognitive strategies.
Keywords: teaching method; learning styles; motivation; student-status;

school-type; learning strategies
1. Introduction
Studies aimed at discovering factors that determine the learning strategy
preference of students are critical, not only to the learning success of students but

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also to the teaching effectiveness of teachers. As a fact, school learning success is

not solely dependent on the kind of teaching that takes place in the classroom, but
mostly dependent on the dominant strategies that students use to cope with the
enormous demands of learning. The term learning strategies, as used in this work,
refers to practices that students use to learn (Krish, Zubaidah & Pakrudin, 2019).
There are three types of learning strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, and
resource management learning strategies), which this study used. The purpose of
using cognitive strategies is often to achieve a particular goal, whereas
metacognitive strategy use aims to ensure that the cognitive goal has been
reached. Cognitive strategies use helps learners to recall information easily and
successfully. These include repetition, organising, summarising meaning,
guessing meaning from context, using imagery for memorisation. In contrast,
metacognitive strategies occur either before or after cognitive strategies and are
sometimes termed to as “learning to learn” While students use cognitive strategies
on the materials they learn, metacognitive strategies use the knowledge of
cognitive procedures to adjust the learning process (Saks & Leijen, 2018).
Metacognitive strategies involve processes like planning for learning, monitoring,
self-directing evaluating how well one is achieving their learning objective. People
have described metacognitive strategies as things which allow learners to control
their own cognition by coordinating the learning process through arranging,
planning, and evaluating. Metacognitive strategies are important for successful
learning.
Certain defined factors influence students’ use of these learning strategies.

Studies on learning strategies have shown that students are more successful in
accomplishing academic tasks when they acknowledge and use higher-order
metacognitive learning strategies (Dunlosky, Katherine, Marsh, Mitchell &
Willingham, 2013). Metacognitive learning strategies have proven to have a high
positive effect on learning (Säälik, 2015; Tuncer & Kaysi, 2013). Learning strategies
enable students to gather new information and retain their existing knowledge
(Khamkhien, 2010). Research has shown that inappropriate use of learning
strategies account for low performance among students (Alimirzaloo, 2016). Also,
learning strategy use explains students’ performance discrepancies (e.g. Khonbi
& Mohammadi, 2015; Säälik, 2015). Very related to learning strategies is the
concept of self-regulated learning (Gambo & Shakir, 2019), which has been under
robust investigation culminating in the development of various constructs or
models and theories (Usher & Schunk, 2017). Students use a repertoire of learning
strategies to regulate their learning. But the big question is, ‘what factors
predispose students to the use of a particular learning strategy? Few researchers
have researched in this area in a bid to understand the issues therein (Hsiao, &
Oxford, 2002). For instance, Bergin (2019) found learning background, as a factor
tied to self-regulation, motivation, and the use of learning strategies. A year later,
Oxford (1989) in a correlation study, found a robust association between an
individual’s use of learning strategies and their individual and school factors.
Tamada (1996) on his part, in a correlation study found that the teaching method,
proficiency level, gender, learning styles, and motivation to learn influenced
learning strategy use among the students. In a recent study to investigate
variations in the use of strategies, Alnujaidi (2017) and Wang (2014) found that
internal factors (that is learners’ age, intelligence, personality and cognitive style)

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and external factors (teachers’ teaching approaches and materials) are factors that
influenced learners’ use of language learning strategies. These studies, which
researchers conducted outside Ghana in language education, excluded factors
such as student-status, and school-type, which are critical variables that could
influence students’ learning strategy choice. The extent to which these factors
might apply in the Ghanaian background was the focus of the current study.
The purpose of this study was, therefore to examine, using a quantitative

approach, the factors that influence learning strategy use among SHS economics
students in Ghana. The aim was to determine how individual student factors (sex,
learning style), motivation, and school factors (teaching method, school-type, and
student-status) predict a particular learning strategy use to developing a
framework, to enhance the teaching and learning of SHS economics, given its
important role in the socio-economic transformation of countries. Effective
teaching of economics at the SHS level guarantees students’ ability to apply
economic concepts and principles to everyday life thus, ensuring the nurturing of
responsible citizens that work to fulfil their civic responsibilities (Owusu, 2018).
2. Conceptual Framework
The Biggs (1985) model of meta learning underpins the study. Biggs established
the connection between the learning environment and student learning in a
presage, procedure, and the production stage. He denoted prior learning, as a
presage factor, which he explained as reflecting the entry characteristics of
students in the learning situation. Some of these factors include prior knowledge,
capabilities, favourite ways of learning with hopes of accomplishment. The
process stage emerges initially due to the interface between teaching and learning,
producing the development of students’ preconceptions, notions, and
anticipations. Their discernments give focus to their reactions at this stage. The
product stage denotes the consequences of student learning as a result of their
learning approaches (Karatas, 2017; Raoofi et al., 2012). In effect, the model sought
to explain the student and the teaching background (school) factors that mediate
the learning process. The model was not, however explicit on the learning
approaches at the product level. This study adapted the model and included only
teaching method in the school factors, thus, excluding the curriculum, the
classroom climate and assessment. In place of these, this study added student-
status and school-type, which are related to boarding/day school education in
Ghana. Also, the student factors in this study were student learning styles,
motivation, and sex (Zhang, 2018). We maintained the three stages of the model
but denoted the first and second stages as input and through-put instead of the
presage and process in the original model. Figures 1 and 2 respectively present
diagrammatic representation of the original Biggs (1985) model and the model
authors adapted for the study.

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Figure 1: A model of meta learning (Biggs, 1985, p. 192).
Figure 2: A hypothesised conceptual framework of the study (Authors’ Adapted

Construct, 2018)

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Research hypothesis
The study sought to test these theories:
1. H0: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors
(teaching method, school-type, and student status) do not significantly
predispose economics students to the use of cognitive learning strategy.
Hi: student factors (sex, learning style, motivation) and school factors
predispose economics students to the use of cognitive learning strategy.
predispose economics students to the use of metacognitive learning strategy.
predispose economics students to the use of metacognitive learning strategy.
predispose economics students to the use of resource management learning
strategy.
predispose economics students to the use of resource management learning
strategy.
Mathematical Model Specification

LSI = β0 + β1XI + ɛI (1)
Where LSi is the learning strategy, measured in terms of learning strategy adjusted
for error; Xi the determinant of learning strategy of an economics student I,
measured, as their out-of-the-class way of learning; ɛI is the error term, measured
as other factors that determine learning strategy. Mathematically, β0 and β1 are the
coefficients of elasticity for determinants. For this study, determinant (XI) is a
function of teaching method.
LSI = β0 + β1Teachmei + β2MotiI + β3LstyleI + β4StdsexI + β5SchtypeI +

β6Studentstatusi + ɛI (2)
Where Teahmei represents teaching method of economics teachers as an

economics student I experiences in the classroom. Teaching method variable is
measured as a dummy with 1 representing teacher-centred method and 0
representing student-centred method. Again, MotI from the function represents
motivation to study economics by an economics student I. We measured
motivation also as a dummy variable. We coded 1 for extrinsic and coded 0 for
intrinsic motivation. Lstylei, from the function, represents the learning styles of
an economics student I. We measured them as a dummy variable with 0 coding
for visual learner; 1 for auditory; and 2 for kinaesthetic learner. We nominated
StudentsexI to be sex of an economics student I, and we gave code 1 to female
while we gave code 0 to male. From the function, SchtypeI represented the school
type, which was a categorical variable. We gave I coding to private school whereas
0 coding denoted public school. Lastly, we represented student-status of an
economics student I with Studentstatusi. We gave code 1 to day students while

172
code 0 symbolised boarder/hosteller). The LSI (learning strategy) had a normal

distribution. There, there was no need to take the logarithm of the LS to make the
residuals normal. The model posits that teachers’ teaching practices (methods)
influence the learning strategies students adopt. Also, their motivation to study
economics, the learning styles they choose in learning, their sex the school-type,
and the school status influence the learning strategies they use. The linear function
describes the relationship between the explanatory and criterion variables in the
form y = c + MX where M is the slope or the gradient of the line telling us the rate
of change of the endogenous variable y per unit change of the exogenous variable
x. The constant c gives the value of y if x is assumed zero (y-intercept).
3. Methods
The study sought to examine the school and individual student factors that
influence learning strategy choice among SHS economics students. The study
used the descriptive survey design, as the most appropriate plan. The
questionnaire is available in the Appendix. In a survey, the investigator selects a
group of respondents, collects data, and then analyses the data to test theories
(Loeb, Dynarski, McFarland, Morris, Reardon & Reber, 2017). The choice of the
plan enabled the researchers to test the hypotheses on how individual student and
school factors influence students’ learning strategy use among economics
students. The project also provided the researchers with an opportunity to
investigate the phenomenon of learning strategy use, giving background data
about the issue in question, as well as providing clarifications. Besides, it allowed
the researchers to gather and analyse large volumes of data for purposes of
establishing patterns and finding the relationships between and among variables
(Boone & Noltemeyer, 2017).
The target population for the study comprised 6,911 final (third) year SHS
Economics students for the 2017/2018 academic year from both government and
private schools in the Central Region. We chose final year students because we
deemed them to have had enough experiences in economics education. Of the
number, we sampled 688 using a multi-stage sampling procedure. First, we
divided the population of schools into two groups (public = 53 schools and private
= 19 schools). Second, we selected 34% of the public and private schools in each
group. As a result, we obtained 18 public and six (6) private schools form the
proportionate sampling procedure. Third, the researchers used a stratified
random sampling technique based on sex (male/female) to select 30 students in
each participating school (15 boys and 15 girls). The sampling procedure helped
us to obtain an equal number of boys and girls for the study.
4. Results and Discussions

The study sought to test three theories on how school and individual student
factors influence cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management learning
strategy. For this reason, the researchers ran a regression analysis. However, to
avoid erroneous interpretations and conclusions, researchers ran post-estimation
tests to meet all the regression requirements.

173
Normality Test
We conducted a normality test on student learning strategies using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test for normality to check if it met the
underlying assumption for multiple regression analysis. The test showed: D(95) =
0.06, p = 0.341 > 0.05 for cognitive strategy; D(95) = 0.08, p = 0.217 > 0.05 for
metacognitive strategy; and D(95) = 0.80, p = 0.192 > 0.05 for resource
management strategy. Since in all three outcome variables, the p values were
greater than the chosen alpha level (0.05) researchers failed to reject the null
hypothesis (that the explanatory variables did not influence the criterion variable).
We concluded that the data was normally distributed. Table 1 shows the results
on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov and the Shapiro-Wilk tests of normality for learning
strategy choice of economics students.
Table 1: The Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk test for normality of student

learning strategies
Kolmogorov-Smirnov Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.
COGNITIVE .25 95 .246 .062 95 .341
METACOGNITIVE .091 95 .102 .082 95 .217
RESOURCE MGT. .006 95 .432 .75 95 .192
Prior to running a multiple regression test, the researchers ran post estimation
tests on the heteroskedasticity, multicollinearity, and the model specification.
These tests did not violate the assumptions for running multiple regression test.
The results from Table 2 shows that the data is homoscedastic and that, the
variance of the dependent variable (either cognitive, metacognitive, or resource
management strategy) is not dependent on the independent variables (sex,
learning styles, teaching method etc.). Also, Table 2 shows that there is no
multicollinearity among independent variables. The assurance with this result is
that the correlations between the independent variables are not too high to lose
their predictive power in variations of the dependent variables. We provided
separate explanations relating to each of the models in Table 2.
Table 2: The homoskedasticity, model specification, and multicollinearity

assumptions for multiple regression
MODEL Homoskedasticity Model Specification Multicollinearity
Model 1 chi2(1) = 3.75 F(3, 657) = 1.21 Mean VIF =1.17
Prob > chi2 = .0529 Prob > F = 0.3054
Model 2 chi2(1) = 1.75 F(3, 657) = 3.82 Mean VIF = 1.17
Prob > chi2 = .1860 Prob > F = 0.0098
Model 3 chi2(1) = 3.1 F(3, 655) = 2.01 Mean VIF = 1.20
Prob > chi2 = .075 Prob > F = 0.1107
Table 2 shows the results on the homoskedasticity test for the three models. We
used the Breusch-Pagan / Cook-Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity under the
null hypothesis that there is a constant variance. We obtained a p-value of 0.0529
> 0.05 for model 1, showing homoscedasticity. We used the same procedure for
model 2 and 3, which also yielded p-values of 0.1860 > 0.05 and 0.075 > 0.05
respectively, showing the homoscedasticity data. Again, we ran the Ramsey reset

174
test of the fitted values and model 1 showed, Prob > F = 0.3054. By this, the test
gave an assurance that the model was well specified. So, researchers concluded
on the null hypothesis that there is no problem of omitted variable bias. We
followed the same procedure to obtain values for models 2 and 3, which also
showed Prob > F = 0.0098 and Prob > F = 0.1107 respectively, giving the assurance
that the models were well specified. Lastly, we ran the multicollinearity test using
the Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) on the three models. Model 1 showed that the
Mean-Variance Inflation Factor (Mean VIF=1.17) < 10, therefore, model 1 was
devoid of multicollinearity. We used the same procedure for models 2 and 3,
which yielded mean VIF of 1.17 (< 10) and Mean VIF of 1.20 (< 10) respectively,
suggesting that the models were devoid of multicollinearity. Table 3 shows the
results on the regression analyses.
Table 3: Regression analysis on how the predictor variables influence the criterion
Explanatory Vari Cognitive Metacognitive Resource Mgt
Learning styles (base=auditory)
Visual 0.309*** 0.418*** 0.253***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Kinaesthetic 0.222*** 0.178*** 0.169***
(0.000) (0.006) (0.005)
Teaching method (base=student-centred)
Teacher-centred 0.018*** -0.008** 0.112**
(0.000) (0.025) (0.020)
Motivation (base=extrinsic)
Intrinsic Motiv. 0.096 0.213*** 0.192***
(0.175) (0.002) (0.008)
Sex (base=male)
Female 0.033 0.071 -0.048
(0.452) (0.140) (0.281)
Student-status (base=boarding/hosteller)
Day student 0.014 -0.119** -0.144***
(0.766) (0.017) (0.002)
School-type (base=public)
Private school -0.020 -0.073 -0.129***
(0.642) (0.129) (0.005)
_cons 2.282*** 2.241*** 1.882***
(0.000) (0.000) (0.000)
Number of obs = 668 668 668
F( 9, 658) = 11.84 8.37 9.34
Prob > F = 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
R-squared = 0.0816 0.0901 0.1393
Adj R-squared = 0.0718 0.0804 0.1276
n= 668 668 668
P-values in parentheses * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01; where: Vari = Variable;
Mgt = Management; Moti = Motivation; Adj R-squared = Adjusted R-squared; n =
Sample size; Obs = Observations; cons = Constant.

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Factors Influencing the use of Cognitive Learning Strategies

The aim if this study is to investigate how the explanatory variables predispose or
influence students’ use of cognitive learning strategies. Some of the cognitive
learning strategies include repeating learnt materials, taking verbatim notes,
commit to memory learnt stuff, among others. Others involve students reciting
learnt concepts, solving past questions, outlining of economics materials, and
categorising economics materials from different sources to make learning easier.
The rest include relating learnt materials to real-life and arranging thoughts and
thinking about possible alternatives to solving economics problems. From Table
3, it is clear that a visual learner’s use of cognitive learning strategy increases by
0.309 more than auditory learners, ceteris paribus meaning that visual learners use
cognitive learning strategies more than auditory learners. The result is statistically
significant at one percent, indicating the relevance of this variation. From Table 3,
we can observe that compared to an auditory learner, a kinaesthetic learner’s use
of cognitive learning strategy increased more by 0.222, significant at one percent.
Regarding teaching method, when the teacher uses the student-centred method,
students’ use of cognitive learning strategy increases by 0.018 (all other things
being equal) compared to a case where the teacher uses teacher-centred approach.
This outcome was statistically significant at one percent, indicating the relevance
of the variation. This outcome supports a suggestion by Pennell (2018) and
McGoldrick (2011) that teachers should use cooperative learning exercises (the
student-centred method) to allow less capable learners learn from their more
skilful counterparts. Also, the result shows that teachers’ teaching practice plays
a vital role in nurturing students’ cognitive learning strategy use (Omer, 2019).
Students’ tactical action also connects to the teachers’ methods by which they
promote students’ use of a particular learning strategy in different situations.
On motivation, when students are intrinsically motivated, their use of cognitive

learning strategy increases by 0.096 more compared to when they are extrinsically
motivated, but this is not statistically significant. Shim and Ryan (2019) suggest
that in motivation, the environmental issues that affect students’ learning goals
could relate broadly to households, peers, community, culture, ethnic, among
others. Again, compared to a male student, a female student’s cognitive learning
strategy increases more by 0.033, but this is not statistically significant. Though
the result is not significant, the positive correlation coefficient shows that females
are by accident predisposed to use of more cognitive learning strategies than
males.
Lastly, it is clear that compared to a boarder/hosteller (student-status), a day

student’s use of cognitive learning strategy increased by 0.014 higher than their
counterpart in the boarding or hostel, ceteris paribus. However, this is not
statistically significant. The result, however, not substantial, seems to contrast one
of the three ideologies fundamental to Vygotsky’s social development theory,
which Wink and Putney (2002) echoed. Day students do not usually have people
to interact with and to consult for help. To overcome this challenge; they increase
their cognitive strategy use.

176
Also, compared to a student in a government school, (type of school) a private

school student’s use of cognitive learning strategies was lower by 0.020 than a
student in the government school, ceteris paribus. However, the result is not
statistically significant. By inference, students in government schools are more
predisposed to using cognitive learning strategies than their counterparts in
private schools. This result lends credence to the fact that learning background is
a critical factor linked to self-regulation, motivation, and learning strategy use
(Bergin, 2019). From the analysis, it is clear that learning styles and teaching
practices explain differences in students’ cognitive learning strategy use. The
adjusted r square score of 0.0718 shows that teaching practices and learning styles
account for nearly 7% variation in students’ use of cognitive learning strategies.
Factors Influencing the Use of Metacognitive Learning Strategies

In Table 3, it is evident that a visual learner’s use of metacognitive learning
strategy increased by 0.418 higher than an auditory learner, holding constant, all
other factors in the model significant at one percent. Again, a kinaesthetic learner’s
use of metacognitive strategy increased by 0.178 compared to an auditory learner,
and this variation is statistically significant at one percent. The inference is that
both the visual and the kinaesthetic learners use more metacognitive learning
strategies than auditory learners.
Further, students’ use of metacognitive learning strategy increased more by 0.008

when the teacher used the student-centred method than when he/she used the
teacher-centred method. By implication, for teachers to develop metacognitive
learning strategies in students; they have to use the student-centred practices in
teaching economics for the simple reason that this method predisposes students
to the use of metacognitive learning strategies. The finding concurs with what
Owusu (2018) said concerning the suggestion Vygotsky suggestion made that
teachers should use cooperative learning exercises to allow able learners to help
less able ones. Also, the finding shows that, teachers have several ways to enhance
metacognitive self-regulation and use of cognitive learning strategies (Omer,
2019). Through the classroom demonstrations, support, and the use of coaching,
Jucks and Brummernhenrich, (2016) stated that teachers can help students
develop cognitive self-regulation.
Again, intrinsically motivated students increased their metacognitive learning

strategy use more by 0.213 than extrinsically motivated students at one percent
statistical significance. By inference, intrinsically motivated students are
predisposed to using more metacognitive learning strategies than extrinsically
motivated students. Again, a female student will increase her use of
metacognitive learning strategy by 0.071 more than a male counterpart, all things
being equal though this outcome is not statistically significant. The correlation
coefficient shows that females use more metacognitive learning strategies than
males though this result is due to chance. Lastly, it is clear that compared to a
boarder/hosteller, a day student’s use of metacognitive learning strategy
decreased by 0.119 lower than their boarding or hostel counterpart, ceteris paribus,
statistically significant at five percent. By inference, boarding/hostel students are
predisposed to using metacognitive learning strategies than their day-student
counterparts. Perhaps, this is naturally so because boarding/hostellers

177
understand the need to take advantage of their learning environment, work extra
hard to ‘out-perform’ their perceived less privileged colleague day students. Also,
compared to students in public schools, private school students decreased their
use of metacognitive learning strategy by 0.073 than students in government
schools, ‘ceteris paribus’ though this was not statistically significant. By inference,
students in government schools were more likely to be predisposed to using
metacognitive learning strategies than students in private schools. From the
results, it is clear that learning styles, teaching practices, motivation, and student-
status substantially explain about 8% variations in students’ cognitive learning
strategy use.
Factors Influencing the use of Resource Management Learning Strategies

From Table 3, it is clear that a visual learner’s use of resource management
learning strategy increased by 0.253 higher than an auditory learner. These are all
statistically significant, implying that the differences between the two groups are
relevant. Furthermore, a kinaesthetic learner’s use of resource management
strategy increased more by 0.169 compared to an auditory learner and this is also
statistically significant at one percent. By deduction, both the visual and the
kinaesthetic learners were more predisposed to using resource management
learning strategies than auditory learners. Also, students’ use of resource
management strategies increased more by 0.112 when the teacher uses the
student-centred method compared to when the teacher uses the teacher-centred
method. The result is also significant at five percent, indicating the relevance of
the variation. By inference, teachers could develop a taste to use resource
management learning strategies in students when they adopt the student-centred
method of teaching. From the previous results, it is evident that four explanatory
variables (learning styles, teaching practices, motivation, and student-status)
account for about 9% variations in students’ use of metacognitive learning
strategies.
Further, an intrinsically motivated student’s use of resource management

learning strategies increased by 0.192 more, ceteris paribus compared to an
extrinsically motivated student, and this result is statistically significant.
However, compared to a male, a female student’s use of resource management
strategy decreased by 0.048, implying that male students were more predisposed
to using resource management learning strategies than female students. However,
the result was not statistically significant. Lastly, compared to a boarder/hosteller,
a day student’s use of resource management learning strategy increased by 0.144
higher than their boarding or hostel counterpart, ceteris paribus and this is
statistically significant at one percent. However, compared to a student in a
government school, a student in a private school decreased their use of resource
management learning strategy by 0.129 than a student in a government school,
ceteris paribus, statistically substantial at one percent. By inference, students in
government schools are more predisposed to using resource management
learning strategies than their counterparts in private schools. Learning styles,
teaching practices, motivation, student-status, and school-type explain almost
13% variations in students’ use of resource management learning strategies. From
the findings, we developed a conceptual model that we intend to use to train
autonomous SHS Economics students, as shown in Figure 3.

178
Figure 3: A model towards the training of autonomous SHS economics students.

Source: Authors, 2019
Explanations of the Model

The model seeks to explain that for a country to produce autonomous, self-
directed economics teachers must use the existing student-centred methods in line
with student learning styles, to maintain a supportive relationship in the class.
When this is achieved, students will be intrinsically motivated to study using
metacognitive strategies, thereby nullifying the adverse effects of their status
(either as a day-student, a boarding student or a hosteller). Consequently, when
students use metacognitive strategies, they will master the learning skills of
planning, monitoring, and self-regulation, which are necessary for achieving
learning autonomy.
5. Conclusion
The focus of this research was to establish factors that stimulate students’ use of a
particular learning strategy. Studies have found several factors to affect the
learning strategy use of students. These factors, the current study has shown, are
from individual student ones (sex, learning styles, and motivation) and
environmental ones (teaching method, school- type, and student-status).
Leveraging on these factors through apt teaching and learning policies and
programmes will enhance the learning of economics. The teaching method that
teachers use is crucial for learning success because it contributes positively to
students’ use of cognitive, metacognitive, and resource management learning
strategies. However, as the literature has shown, teachers and school authorities
may succeed in their bid to enhance learning if they focus on the factors that
stimulate the use of metacognitive strategies. These critical factors include
teaching methods, learning styles, and student motivation Shih (n.d.).
Additionally, teaching methods, learning styles, student motivation, student
status, and school-type encourage students’ use of resource management learning
strategies. Leveraging on the factors predisposing students to the use of
metacognitive learning strategies through the formulation of appropriate policies
and programmes enhance the learning of economics and ensure that instruction
in the subject produces self-directed, autonomous learners.

179
Recommendations for Policy

1. The study has shown that teacher-centred practices increase students’
cognitive learning strategy use. Therefore, government policy should make
teacher participation in In-service Training and Workshops mandatory and
tied to promotions so that teachers understand the need to continually update
their teaching skills and understand the need to use the student-centred ways.
2. The government should address the infrastructural challenges of schools. It
should work to provide appropriate instructional materials for teachers to
help them adopt proper teaching practices.
3. The government of Ghana should, through the Ghana Education Service,
provide instructional support (IS) for schools. The personnel to ensure the
instructional support, should have backgrounds in counseling, social work,
and psychology so that to provide career, socio-emotional support and other
counselling services to SHS students in the various schools across the country.
The personnel could give guidance services to students on their learning style,
thereby improving their academic well-being.
4. Since motivation predisposes students to the use of metacognitive learning
strategies, the government of Ghana should commence a national debate on
actions schools, parents, and communities can take to motivate students to
learn, persevere, and succeed in school and even after school.
5. The study showed that student-status influenced the use of resource
management learning strategy. Therefore, government policy on day and
boarding schools must ensure that there is parity and fairness in the resource
distribution to boarding and day students.
6. School-type influenced resource management learning strategies, which has
implications for policies on the establishment of schools. Government policy
should press for enforcement of laws concerning the establishment of private
schools to ensure that these schools have the minimum infrastructure to run.
The Ministry of Education should resource the Ghana Education Service (GES)
well to clamp down on unlicensed private schools whose owners operate with
repugnant school infrastructure and without authorization.
Recommendations for Practice

1. Teachers should attend seminars/workshops on modern teaching practices to
apprise themselves with the skills of actively engaging students in the class.
2. Teachers should use the student-centred learning practices such as
collaborative practices to keep students actively involved during lessons since
the teacher-centred methods only lead to learning by rote.
3. Teachers must make efforts to know their students and their learning styles.
The teacher should leverage this data (in the classroom) to adopt teaching
practices that are harmonious with students’ learning styles.
4. Teachers should trust the capabilities and competences of their students. They
should lay stress on effort over innate ability and praise students when they
master new skills or knowledge. For instance, kinaesthetic learners best
understand concepts and data through tactile representations. Therefore, the
teacher must provide them with opportunities for hands-on activities.
5. The recommendations have cost implications for teachers and schools.
Therefore, government must resource teachers and the various senior high
schools to enable them deliver on their mandate.

180
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Appendix
Questionnaire for Students

Introduction
The purpose of this questionnaire is to investigate the factors that influence
learning strategy use among Senior High School Economics students in Ghana
using a quantitative approach There are no correct or incorrect responses.
Researchers are only interested in your personal point of view. All responses to
this questionnaire are completely confidential and will be used for research
purposes only. Please, kindly be as candid as possible in your responses.
Thank you.
SECTION 1
Biographic Data of Students
Please tell us about your background with a Tick in the appropriate box
1. School Type: Public [ ] Private [ ]
2. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
3. Student Status: Boarder/Hosteller [ ] Day [ ]
4. Please, tick one of the boxes to indicate why you study economics:
a. Career/employment purpose [ ]
b. Parental advice [ ]
c. Interest in the subject [ ]
d. Obliged to because of my programme choice [ ]
5. Based on your response in 4, what is your motivation for studying economics?
Intrinsic [ ] Extrinsic [ ]
Hint: responses for ‘c’ is intrinsic while responses for’ a’, ‘b’, and ‘d’ are extrinsic
SECTION 2
METHODS TEACHERS USE TO TEACH ECONOMICS
Kindly indicate by choosing one of the options how frequently your Economics
teacher engages in the following activities. The items are measured on a five-point
scale ranging from ‘Always =4 to Never =0. The key for measuring the items are
provided below:
Always [4] Often [3] Sometimes [2] Rarely [1] Never [0]
1. My teacher engages us actively by using self-directed

learning while he/she only assumes the role of a 4 3 2 1 0
facilitator
2. The tasks my teacher assigns us require analytical
4 3 2 1 0
thinking, and problem-solving
3. My teacher helps us to learn economics concepts
through brainstorming and he/she ensures a non- 4 3 2 1 0
threatening atmosphere for learning
4. My teacher makes us narrate our personal experiences
4 3 2 1 0
through discussions in economics
5. Teacher uses lecture and does all the talking in class 4 3 2 1 0
In all, how would you describe your teacher’s teaching method?
Student-centred [ ] teacher-centred [ ]

183
SECTION 3
STUDENTS’ LEARNING STYLES
Students learn in many different ways. For example, some students learn mainly
with their eyes (visual learners) or with their ears (auditory learners); some others
prefer to learn by experience and/or by “hands-on” tasks (kinaestheitc learners).
This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) in which
you learn best. Read the statement and indicate whether you agree or disagree
with it by circling the appropriate number using the key provided below.
Strongly Agree [3] Undecided [2] Disagree [1] Strongly

Agree [4] Disagree [0]
1. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the 4 3 2 1 0

Board
2. When I read instructions, I remember them better 4 3 2 1 0
3. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to 4 3 2 1 0
Lectures
4. When the teacher gives me instructions, I understand 4 3 2 1 0
better
5. I remember things I hear in class better than things I 4 3 2 1 0
read
6. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture 4 3 2 1 0
7. I learn better in class when I listen to someone 4 3 2 1 0
8. When I do things in class, I learn better 4 3 2 1 0
9. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments 4 3 2 1 0
10. I understand things better in class when I participate in 4 3 2 1 0
role-playing
11. I learn best in class when I can participate in related 4 3 2 1 0
activities
Now, carefully read the statements and indicate by ticking the appropriate
AGREE box to show your preferred (dominant) learning style. Ticking a box
implies that you agree with the statements indicated.
Learning styles Agree

1. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the board.
2. When I read instructions, I remember them better.
3. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to lectures.
4. When the teacher gives me instructions I understand
better.
5. I remember things I hear in class better than things I read.
6. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.
7. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.
8. When I do things in class, I learn better.
9. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.
10. I understand things better in class when I participate in role-
playing.
11. I learn best in class when I can participate in related activities.

184
SECTION 4
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Kindly indicate by choosing one of the options how true the following statements
are about you. The items are measured on a five-point scale ranging from ‘Very
true of me =4 to Never true of me =0 and you are expected to choose only one
option under each question. The key for measuring the items are provided below:
Very true of sometimes Neutral Rarely true of Never true of me

me [4] of me [3] [2] me [1] [0]
1. I often repeat materials I have learnt aloud 4 3 2 1 0

2. I copy every learnt material in economics and selectively 4 3 2 1 0
take verbatim notes when learning
3. I memorise key words to remind me of important 4 3 2 1 0
concepts learnt
4. In learning, I underline most important parts of concepts 4 3 2 1 0
5. I recite items learnt in economics in order to activate 4 3 2 1 0
information in my working memory
6. In studying economics, I pull together information from 4 3 2 1 0
different sources, such as textbook readings and
discussions
7. I try to relate ideas in economics to those in Math and 4 3 2 1 0
other subjects whenever possible to better learn
economics
8. I relate economics materials learnt to what I already know 4 3 2 1 0
9. As a tactics for learning economics, I paraphrase and 4 3 2 1 0
summarise main ideas
10. To enhance what I learn in economics, I answer a lot of 4 3 2 1 0
past questions
11. In studying economics, I deliberately outline the 4 3 2 1 0
materials to help me organise my thoughts in order to
build connections
12. I make use of simple charts, tables, and diagrams in order 4 3 2 1 0
to organise my thoughts better in economics
13. I select the main ideas in economics materials consciously 4 3 2 1 0
connect them through summary through charts and
diagrams
14. Whenever I read or hear an assertion or conclusion in an 4 3 2 1 0
economics class, I organise my thought and think about
possible alternatives
15. I set learning goals in learning economics 4 3 2 1 0
16. I quickly read all materials learnt and out of it, I generate 4 3 2 1 0
questions on my own
17. During each term, I develop study plan to which I follow 4 3 2 1 0
religiously
18. I have a well defined schedule for learning economics 4 3 2 1 0
19. I intentionally always check myself to ensure that I have 4 3 2 1 0
comprehended every concept in economics

185
20. I track my attention rate as I learn materials in economics 4 3 2 1 0

21. I self-test the questions I am able to generate on my own 4 3 2 1 0
as a devise of learning economics
22. I usually use test-taking strategies in learning economics 4 3 2 1 0
23. I review my test-taking tactics often to ensure learning 4 3 2 1 0
progress in economics
24. I seek out information in economics on my own when 4 3 2 1 0
there is a need to do so
25. I persist at difficult concepts ( such as national income 4 3 2 1 0
computation) and tasks and devise strategies to master
them I am able regulate my thoughts, feelings, and
actions and manage these to learning of economics
26. I draw on my previous learning experiences to build a 4 3 2 1 0
range of beliefs that aid my learning
27. I study in line with the economics syllabus requirements 4 3 2 1 0
28. I make good use of my study time for economics 4 3 2 1 0
29. I find it hard to stick to a study schedule 4 3 2 1 0
30. I find that I don't spend very much time on economics 4 3 2 1 0
because of other activities
31. I keep designated learning outlets clean and pleasant for 4 3 2 1 0
learning
32. I entreat my colleagues not to create nuisance at learning 4 3 2 1 0
centres
33. I prefer to study in a quiet atmosphere than in a noisy one 4 3 2 1 0
34. I put in my best to realize the desire to accomplish my 4 3 2 1 0
study goals
35. I feel so lazy or bored when I am studying for economics 4 3 2 1 0
such that I quit before I finish what I planned to do I learn
hard to do well in economics even if I do not like the
topics we are taught
36. When some topics prove difficult, I give up and only 4 3 2 1 0
study the easy parts
37. Even economics materials to be learnt become 4 3 2 1 0
38. uninteresting, I still manage to keep learning it till 4 3 2 1 0
mastery is attained
39. In studying economics, I try to explain concepts to a 4 3 2 1 0
colleague or a friend as way of retaining the facts
40. I study economics through group discussions of learning 4 3 2 1 0
experiences with other colleagues in my class
41. Even if I have trouble grasping some economic concepts, 4 3 2 1 0
I do not seek help from any one
42. I regularly ask my teacher to or a colleague (out of the 4 3 2 1 0
class) to clarify concepts I do not understand well
43. I feel shy approaching a colleague of the opposite sex to 4 3 2 1 0
help clarify complex economics concepts to me
Thank you for your cooperation.

186

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 186-199, May 2020
Teachers’ Efforts in Understanding the Factual,

Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive
Assessment Using the Revised 2013 Curriculum
Hermayawati
Universitas Mercu Buana Yogyakarta
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2860-6322
Abstract. This paper aims at analysing the efforts of forty teachers of the
Madrasah Tsanawiyah School in Indonesia in understanding the Revised
2013 Curriculum (RC-13), particularly on how to implement the Factual,
Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) knowledge
dimensions in assessments. This case study was carried out using the
lecturing, discussion and implementation (LDI) approach to understand
the RC-13 conceptually, discuss teachers’ problems and implement
assessments using FCPM. The results of an in-depth observation and data
analysis indicated that 30 out of 40 participants gained a better
understanding on the RC-13 concept. They are now in a better position to
know what should be done to prepare their RC-based instructional
programs and they are conceptually able to implement the RC-13, except
for the metacognitive dimension. The ten other teachers are still having
some difficulties with FCPM as they did not have real classes such as
Guidance Counselling, Sport and Health, and Scouting teachers. The
results imply that teachers must be proactively trained to continually
update their knowledge, particularly on curriculum development so that
the quality of education can be improved.
Keywords: Revised 2013 curriculum; LDI; FCPM
1. Introduction
Secondary education in Indonesia has been currently implementing higher-order
thinking skills (HOTS) in their curriculum to improve learning. This affects the
teachers who were previously more focused on implementing lower-order
thinking skills (LOTS) (Abdullah et al., 2016; Seman et. al., 2017; Ahmad, 2018;
Mohan, 2019). LOTS and HOTS are the levels of thinking skills suggested by
Bloom in 1956 and which came to be known as the Bloom's Taxonomy (Bloom,
1956). Bloom’s Taxonomy is an ordering of cognitive skills, while a taxonomy is a
form of classification.
©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) is a concept which distinguishes critical

thinking skills from low-order learning outcomes which are achieved through
sequential memorizing while HOTS involves synthesizing, analyzing, reasoning,
comprehending, application, and evaluation (Watson, 2019). Such a concept
develops students’ capacities in analyzing, evaluating, and creating through their
Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and Metacognitive (FCPM) thinking capacities.
The launch of the 2013 Curriculum 2013, which has been revised three times in
2017, has confused many primary and secondary teachers, both in understanding
its content and its implementation (Suyanto, 2017; Hermayawati, 2017; Palupi,
2018). As a result, many teachers pro-actively requested their institutions to guide
them on its implementation of RC-13 and its revisions. Ironically, the institutions
also did not seem to fully understand both the content and its implementation.
According to the Minister of Education and Culture (2013), RC-13 is a dynamic

document, i.e., it could be interpreted and developed by the needs, situations, and
conditions of the learners and the schools. The curriculum had been successfully
revised three times, namely in 2014, 2016 and 2017. Various changes were made,
starting from the concept of the curriculum, the books used, and the regulations
related to its implementation. However, until this project was carried out, the
existence of curriculum revisions did not fully socialize among secondary level
teachers, especially in understanding and applying the factual, conceptual,
procedural, and metacognitive (FCPM) dimensions of knowledge (Marlina et al.,
2017). Such a condition confused the teachers especially in its implementation
(Hermayawati, 2017). Teachers needeed more drilling and practice in designing
and implementing lesson plans (Roza et al., 2017; Ekawati, 2017). There is a lack
of monitoring and training conducted by the government and the school itself
(Ramdani & Pangestu, 2017).
The revision of the 2013 Curriculum (C-13) into the 2017 version (RC-13) was
supported by the Minister of Education and Culture Regulations (MECR),
Number: 54 of 2013 (Graduates Competency Standards for Primary and
Secondary Education Units), 64 of 2013 (Content Standards for Primary and
Secondary Education Units), Number 65 of 2013 (Process Standards for Units
Basic and Secondary Education), Number 66 of 2013 (Educational Assessment
Standards), and Number 104 of 2014 (Learning Outcomes Evaluation by
Educators on Primary and Secondary Education). Learning models in the C-13
include cooperative learning, contextual teaching and learning (CTL), discovery
learning, task-based learning, project-based learning and problem-based learning
(Kemendikbud, 2013). Even though the Minister of Education and Culture had
synchronized both the C-13 and its revisions in various schools through training,
there were still many schools where teachers were still having much difficulties
to cope with these changes. This case was also evidenced from the teachers’
statements in several secondary schools who did not understand the nature of the
C-13 such that they are still using the previous Curriculum, which is known as the
2006 Education Unit Level Curriculum (EULC) (Barratt-Pugh, 2015;
Hermayawati, 2017).

188
Training that was provided to teachers was limited to the introduction level. The
training only reached the stage of knowing and not preparing teachers to
implement the curriculum (Ekawati, 2017). The main problem in implementation
the C-13 are the lack of teachers’ capability in implementing authentic
assessments. They need more drilling exercises to practice on designing and
implementing teaching programs (Roza et al., 2017; Suyanto, 2017). However,
little research has been conducted to examine how teachers implement a new
curriculum, particularly concerning the literacy curriculum at the lower level of
primary schools, in the Indonesian context (Barratt-Pugh, 2015). Other findings
indicated that teachers faced several challenges in teaching and learning for
HOTS. The challenges were in the aspects of teaching and learning (Seman, et al.,
2017). The findings also showed that the level of knowledge and practice of the
assessment aspect was the weakest. Also, there was a relationship between the
level of knowledge and practice of HOTS (Abdullah, et al., 2016). These issues
need solutions through the Direct Teaching Model, which fosters a learning
environment characterized by teacher-directed learning and a high level of
teacher-student interaction (Mohan, 2019). Another solution that may solve the
problems faced by the teachers is the need to closely mentor them regarding the
implementation of C-13. They must be taught how to write lesson plans, how to
adopt a scientific approach to problem-solving, what the different models of
learning, and how to assess student learning outcomes (Gunawan, 2017).
Although previous studies have conducted teacher training regarding the

implementation of HOTS, as demanded by the currently used curriculum, there
has been no study regarding the implementation of FCPM needed by the
secondary school teachers, that was conducted through training as well as
workshops. Considering such problems, this paper is intended to provide
enlightenment regarding the understanding of the revised curriculum content,
especially the 2017 revised edition (RC-13) implemented at a Madrasah
Tsanawiyah (MTs). This Islamic junior high school is located in Magelang
Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia whose teachers were involved as the research
participants. The understanding of the RC-13 was concerned with the content of
the concept and its practical implementation, particularly in designing the lesson
plans and its assessments. Slightly different from the C-13, the RC-13 involves
aspects of developing learning through new the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural,
and Metacognitive (FCPM) knowledge dimensions, as demanded by the
authorized educational institutions.
This study was conducted with forty junior high school teachers who had
difficulties to implement the RC-13 guidelines. This study investigated the
following: (1) what type of method or approach should be used to gain teachers’
understanding on the RC-13 Curriculum concept; (2) assessment of the capacity
of teachers to prepare their curriculum-based instructional programs; (3)
monitoring teachers’ efficacy in implementing the RC-13 consistently, including
conducting appropriate assessments. In this study, it was assumed that those
three data could be obtained through LDI (Lecturing, Discussion, and
Implementation) procedures.

189
In the RC-13, an assessment must involve Factual, Conceptual, Procedural, and

Metacognitive (FCPM) question to keep its quality, as suggested by Krathwohl et
al. (2002). The first three categories were included in the original classification,
while the fourth one, namely the Metacognitive aspect was added later.
Metacognitive involves knowledge about cognition in general as well as
awareness of and knowledge about one’s cognition. It has both educational and
psychological benefits and helps students’ to be more knowledgeable and
responsible for their cognition (Pintrich, 2002).
FCPM knowledge dimensions in this study were introduced to the teachers who
were treated as the research participants through a Needs Analysis, Teaching and
Actuating Assessment (NATA) procedure. This project employed such a
procedure for the pursuit of the teachers’ ability in implementing the FCPM both
conceptually and practically within the use of both Lower-Order and Higher-
Order Thinking Skills (LOTS and HOTS) as demanded in the FCPM
implementation. By doing so, it was assumed that the teachers’ FCPM capacities
implementation would affect their students’ learning achievements.
2. Research Method
This project employed a Single Case Study (SCS) that was carried out at an Islamic
Junior High School located at Magelang Regency, Middle Java, Indonesia.
Conceptually, a Single Case Study (SCS) is established when the researcher wants
to study, for example, a person or a group of people in detail (Yin, 2009). In this
case, the researcher also may investigate old theoretical relationships and explore
the new ones. This aims at making a more careful study (Gustafson, 2017). It also
can provide a viable alternative to large group studies such as randomized clinical
trials. Single case studies involve repeated measures, and manipulation of an
independent variable (Lobo et al., 2017). It is different from a multiple case study
(MCS), where the researcher studies multiple cases to understand the similarities
and differences between the cases (Yin, 2009). This study employed SCS for it only
involved a certain location of Islamic secondary school, the so-called Madrasah
Tsanawiyah (MTs), which is situated at Magelang Regency, Middle Java,
Indonesia. The author was invited as an instructor in the training and workshop
initiated by this MTs School as many teachers, including the principal, were
having difficulties with the implementation of the Revised 2013 Curriculum,
particularly on how to implement the FCPM dimensions in their teaching
programs. Thus, the researcher functioned as the main instrument for data
collection through an in-depth observation of the training and workshop.
Data collected on the in-depth observations on teachers' training and workshops

regarding the concept and implementation of the RC-2013 were recorded and
analysed. The activities particularly focused on Bloom's revised cognitive
domains and the Factual, Conceptual, Procedural and Metacognitive (FCPM)
knowledge dimensions. The training method was carried out in an intensive and
comprehensive LDI (lecturing, discussions, and implementation) procedure by
involving 40 teachers from various subjects. The program was also attended by
the Head of the Education and Culture of Magelang District. As an illustration,
Figure 1 describes the stages of the LDI procedure conducted in this project.

190
3. Implementation on how to conduct

NATA (Needs Analysis, Teaching, and
Actuating Assessment) for Teaching
Program Design
2. Discussion on the CIE (Concept,

Implementation and Evaluation)
related to their teaching issues
1. Lecturing on CIE (for Needs Analysis on

teachers-Revised Bloom's Taxonomy: LOTS,
HOTS, and FCPM)
Figure 1. Research Procedure
Lecturing stage
The lecture was conducted at the same time or in an integrated way with the
discussion and implementation stages sequentially. Lecturing was performed to
find the depth of teachers' acquisition level both towards the original C-13 and its
revision of RC-13. This activity functioned as a data resource collection of their
needs (that included their deficiencies, wants and necessities) concerning LOTS,
HOTS and FCPM. These results could be used as the basis of developing further
procedures for the discussion and implementation stages. The lecture content
included the concept, implementation, and evaluation (CIE) of the RC-13. CIE was
delivered orally (questions-answers or stimulus-response). The lectured materials
were around the concepts of both C-13 and RC-13, in which its content and its
assessment were delivered primarily by employing FCPM knowledge
dimensions. In this stage participants’ performance was observed and assessed by
using the Carnegie Mellon Oral Communication Scoring Rubrics. Table 1 shows
the scoring rubrics employed to assess the participant’s performance in the LDI
procedures. These were inspired by Huba and Freed (2000).
Discussion stage.
In this case, CIE was also employed in five prior topics that were delivered in the
forms of structured questions, which were distributed to be discussed in groups.
The topics were similar to the lectured materials related to the RC-13 content, the
primary content differences, LOTS and HOTS, FCPM knowledge dimensions and
its implementation for each. The discussion was conducted in groups by
considering both the number of the participants and the limited available time in
this study. The forty teachers with the various subject matter fields were divided
into five groups. Each group consisted of eight teachers. Each group was assigned
a topic to discuss. This stage aimed to obtain certainty about the level of teachers'
understanding of various explanations delivered at the lecturing stage.

191
Table 1: Scoring rubrics for assessing participants performance simplified from

Carnegie Mellon oral communication scoring rubrics (Huba and Freed, 2000)
Components 3-Sophisticated/ 2-Competent/ 1-Not yet Competent/
Good Fair Poor
Organization Presentation is clear, Presentation is generally Organization is
logical, and organized. clear and well haphazard; listener can
Listener can follow the organized. A few minor follow presentation only
line of reasoning. points that maybe with effort. Arguments
confusing. are not clear.
Style Speaker is comfortable Presenter seems slightly Presenter seems
in front of the group uncomfortable at times, uncomfortable and can
and can be heard by and audience be heard only if listener
all. occasionally has trouble is very attentive. Much
hearing him/her. of the information is
read.
Use of Communication aids Communication aids Communication aids are
communication enhance presentation. contribute to the quality poorly prepared or used
aids of the presentation. inappropriately.
Depth of Speaker provides For the most part, Explanations of concepts
content accurate and complete explanations of concepts and/or theories are
explanations of key and theories are inaccurate or
concepts and theories, accurate and complete. incomplete.
drawing on relevant No significant errors are Some information is
literature. Information made. accurate but the listener
(names, facts, etc.) must determine what
included in the information is reliable.
presentation is
consistently accurate.
Use of Sentences are Sentences are complete Listeners can follow
language complete and and grammatical for the presentation, but they
grammatical. They most part. They flow are distracted by some
flow together easily. together easily. With grammatical errors and
Words are well- some exceptions, words use of slang. Oral
chosen; they express are well-chosen and language and/or body
the intended precise. language includes some
meaning precisely. identifiable bias. Some
Both oral language listeners will be
and body language are offended.
free from bias.
Responsiveness Consistently clarifies, Generally responsive to Responds to questions
to the audience restates, and responds Audience questions and inadequately. Body
to questions. needs. Misses some language reveals a
Summarizes when opportunities for reluctance to interact
needed. Body interaction. Body with audience.
language reflects language reflects some
comfort interacting discomfort interacting
with the audience. with audience.
Implementation Stage
The next stage after the discussion was the implementation of the RC-13 on each
of the subjects taught. The class was kept in groups of eight persons. However,
they were grouped based on the similarity of their teaching subject. They were

192
only 10 subjects contained in the RC-13. However, some schools added subjects
that were needed to cater for healthcare, scouting, information technology and
local content. Each group was asked to implement the concepts they just discussed
to practice formulating the design of each teaching program with samples of
teaching materials. This activity was monitored by the school principal and the
Head of the Education and Culture department of Magelang District. They were
then requested to submit their works to the Head of the Education and Culture
department as evidence for the activity. All of these activities were then analyzed
descriptively and provided relevant data for this research.
Figure 2: RC-13 Program of MTs referring to the Ministry of Education

and Culture Regulation No. 35/2018 (Kami Madrasah, 2019)
Figure 2 (which is in Bahasa Indonesia) shows that there are 14 subjects in the
Implementation Stage, namely: (1) Religion Education, (2) Pancasila and Civic
Education, (3) Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language), (4) Mathematics, (5)
Natural Sciences, (6) Social Sciences, (7) English, (8) Cultural and Arts, (9) Physical
Education, Sports, and Health, (10) Handy-Craft, (11) Informatics, (12) Scouts, (13)
Local Content (Javanese Language) subjects, and (14) School Health Centre and
Juvenile Red Cross. There are 5 teachers who teach each subject. They teach from
the first to the third year. All of the in-depth observations conducted during the
LDI stages were compiled as the research findings. Figure 3 describes the LDI
stages procedure for the data collection technique and its analysis.
Figure 3: LDI stages procedure for data collection technique and its analysis

193
3. Findings
There were three objective in this project, namely: (a) increasing the teacher's
ability to understand the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC-13) concept (through
lecturing); (b) increases teachers' ability to deduce what needs to be done to
prepare their RC-13-based instructional programs (performed through
discussion); and (c) enhances teacher's ability to implement the current
curriculum consistently across schools (performed through implementation). The
results of the LDI (Lecturing, Discussion, and Implementation) stages and the in-
depth structured observations are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Lecturing stage of concept, implementation, and evaluation (CIE)

Number of Teachers Who Understood the
Lecturing Materials Content
Concepts
#
Delivered Subjects
Conceptual Implementation Evaluation
Understanding
C-13: The What, Why and
1 40 38 40
How?
RC-13: The difference between
2 40 31 35
RC-13 and C-13.
Bloom’s Taxonomy and its
3 40 34 35
revision (Anderson et al., 2002).
4 FCPM knowledge dimensions. 40 34 21
LOTS versus HOTS: The What,
5 40 35 31
Why and How?
Firstly, the result of the Lecturing Stage indicated that all teachers relatively
understood the concepts of the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC-13). They were able
to answer the questions embedded in the training materials. But when they were
also asked on how they implemented the FCPM knowledge dimensions related
to their subject matters field, many teachers were not able to answer. Similarly, in
answering the instructor's questions and in finding the examples on how to
evaluate their students using FCPM, LOTS and HOTS, there were respectively
only 21 and 31 teachers who were able to respond to the questions correctly. The
remaining, in each case, responded only to the tutorial questions addressed to
them. This case occurred mainly because ten teachers did not teach classically but
they carried out their duties outdoors such modules as Guidance and Counselling,
Sports Physical Education and Health, Scouts, and Juvenile Red Cross Education.
Secondly, the result of the Discussion Stage showed that there were two groups
who achieved a ‘very good understanding’, two groups reached ‘good
understanding’ and the remaining one group got ‘fairly/average understanding’
levels. Such achievement levels were obtained through the presentation of the
assigned materials and in responding to all the problems' queries addressed by
the other groups. Table 3 illustrates the structured questions that were distributed
for discussion to each group of eight teachers.

194
Table 3: Structured questions assignment to discuss and perform in groups

Structured Questions Content to Discuss 5 groups of Discussion
#
and Perform 8 persons Results Level
Explanation of the C-13 concept: definition/s,
Group 1
reasons to implement it and Procedure/s to
1 Discussion Very Good
deliver it by examples based on the teachers
Material
teaching subjects.
Explanation of the difference between RC-13
Group 2
and C-13 conceptually, including the
2 Discussion Good
definition, reasons to implement it and
Material
procedures to deliver.
Explanation of the concept of Bloom’s Group 3
3 Taxonomy and its revision (Anderson et al., Discussion Very Good
2000) Material
Explanations on the concept of FCPM Group 4
4 knowledge dimensions for learning Discussion Fair/Average
assessment. Material
Explanation of the concept of LOTS versus Group 5
5 HOTS: The What, Why and How? Discussion Good
Material
Thirdly, the result of the Implementation Stage revealed the teachers' ability in
implementing the FCPM in their teaching assessments that were designed for
their students. In this stage, teachers were invited to design assessment items by
considering the use of FCPM in their learners’ tasks items. The aim was to develop
their learners HOTS skills based on each of the subject matters that they were
assigned to teach. The results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Structured observations on how to implement FCPM in the TeachingProgram

Observable FCPM Knowledge Dimensions Number of Teachers’
Grp.
Teachers’ Understandability
No. Factual Conceptual Procedural Metacognitive Acquisition Level
1 ++ ++ ++ √ 8 Very Good
2 ++ ++ √ √ 6 Fair
3 ++ ++ + √ 7 Good
4 ++ ++ √ √ 7 Good
5 ++ ++ + - 3 Fair
Note: A double plus sign (++) means a very good understanding; a single plus (+) sign
means a good understanding; a tick sign (√) means a fair/average understanding; a single
dash sign (-) means a poor understanding and a single cross sign (x) means a very poor
understanding.
The ‘fair’ score category was mostly obtained by those who did not understand
how to implement FCPM, particularly the Metacognitive dimension, such as the
GC (Guidance and Counselling), Drawing, Religion, Art and Culture subjects.
They still found it difficult to implement such a curriculum because they did not

195
have teaching hours in class. A similar trend was found for Physical Education
(Sport) and Health teachers. Also, there were ten teachers who were still confused
with the process and evaluation of learning particularly with the metacognitive
dimension.
Even though most participants seemed relatively confident in implementing the

FCPM knowledge dimensions (orally), many of them revealed that they were still
doubtful for the problems that may arise during their teaching. Such worries
appeared mainly due to low-ability students. It was difficult for the teachers to
design assessment to enhance the cognitive domain and the HOTS skills of such
students. Moreover, they also felt doubtful in enhancing their students'
Metacognitive capacity.
Table 5: Teachers’ ability in implementing the knowledge and the cognitive process
dimensions for their assessments
The The Cognitive Process Dimension

Grp.
Knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6
No.
Dimension Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual + + + + + +
Conceptual + + + + + +
1
Procedural + + + + + +
Metacognitive √ √ √ √ √ x
Factual + + + + + +
2
Procedural + + + + + +
Factual + + + + + +
3
Procedural + + √ √ √ √
Factual + + + + + +
4
Procedural √ √ √ √ √ x
Factual + + + + + +
5
Procedural √ √ √ √ √ x
Note: (++) means a very good understanding; (+) means a good understanding; (√) means
a fair/average understanding, a (-) means a poor understanding and an x means a very
poor understanding.

196
Table 5 describes the teachers' ability in implementing their assessments by

applying both the cognitive domain and the FCPM knowledge dimensions, in
which the teaching process embedded the students' LOTS and HOTS capacities in
an integrated way. The results showed that most of the teachers were able to apply
the integrated cognitive aspects and FC (Factual and Conceptual) knowledge
dimensions in their teaching. However, ten teachers were still confused, for they
did not have any traditional lecture-type classes for carrying out their jobs. In
other words, their duties were mainly carried outdoors. Nevertheless, they were
also demanded to implement such a current curriculum since there was no
exception for anyone category of subjects or teachers.
4. Discussion
Curriculum characteristics, including the Revised 2013 Curriculum (RC-13) are
conceptually designed with due regard to theoretical and juridical aspects.
Theoretical aspects refer to the concept of subjects or fields of teaching and
learning. The juridical aspect refers to the applicable law when the curriculum
was designed and implemented in schools. The concept of subjects refers to
functionalism and cognitive theories and constructivist theories of learning. The
learning process must also access the concept of mixed education (eclectic),
namely the philosophy of the reconstructionist theory, essentialism and
progressivism (Kemendikbud, 2017).
The juridical foundation of the 2013 Curriculum (C-13) design is Law No. 20/2003
on the National Education System (NES), National Education Objectives (NEO),
and Government Regulation No. 19/2005 on the Standards of National Education
(SNE). The foundation requires understanding and implementation of relevant
stakeholders regarding factual, procedural, conceptual, and metacognitive
(FCPM) learning at the Madrasah Tsanawiyah (MTs) schoolteachers. The ability
of teachers to prepare instructional programs based on the RC-13 was inseparable
from giving questions, as a means of checking students' understanding of the
material to be studied.
In line with the education system, the 2013 Curriculum (C-13)-based assessment
concept is legally based on the: (1) Minister of Education and Culture Regulation
No. 3/2017 on the Assessment of Learning Outcomes by the Government
(through National Examination) and Assessment of Learning Outcomes by
Education Units (through National Standard School Exams refers to Graduates
Competency Standards; (2) Regulation of the Minister of Education and Culture
No. 23/2016 on Educational Assessment Standards. RC-13 has been intended to
develop the learning process and its evaluation by referring to the revision of the
well-known and well-accepted Bloom's Taxonomy. Conceptually, the six
cognitive domains must be implemented in an integrated way together with the
four FCPM knowledge dimensions. King et al. (2016) argued that those
knowledge dimensions are activated when individuals encounter unfamiliar
problems, uncertainties, questions, or dilemmas.

197
Successful applications of the skills result in explanations, decisions,

performances, and products that are valid within the context of the available
knowledge and experiences. This promotes continued growth in the quality of
education and other intellectual skills. However, it is still not easy for teachers to
implement these guidelines, especially in the procedural and metacognitive
dimensions. There is a need for teacher training related to preparation for
designing at the C4, C5, and C6 (including the HOTS) levels according to the NSO
(National Science Olympiad) test items. This will improve student performance
and also affect the implementation of the teaching and learning process.
5. Conclusion
Even after the four dimensions of factual, conceptual, procedural and
metacognitive knowledge were carried, some of the teachers were still confused
in their implementation, both in the learning process and their evaluation. Even
though they had been involved in training, many are them are still unable to
practice it in their classrooms. Most test items designed by teachers only cover
factual and conceptual Knowledge. Teachers rarely include procedural and
metacognitive knowledge in their assessments. The training of teachers should be
related to understanding concepts, implementation, and evaluation of learning by
employing the rules of both the cognitive domain and knowledge dimensions.
This study only touches a very small fraction of the total number of teachers. The
results of this study imply that the continuity of partnerships between schools and
FTTE (Faculty of Teachers Training and Education) graduates as teacher
providers should be carried out proactively and continually to improve the
quality of education. The quality of education imparted to teachers will have an
impact on improving the quality of the Indonesian human resources. Therefore,
it is recommended that the FTTE should work closely with schools in order to
provide continuous professional development programmes to teachers on a
regular basis so that they can be trained in relevant aspects of teaching and
learning. Teachers always need to remain up to date so that the quality of
imparted education can be maintained.
6. Limitations and further studies

The limitation of this study was that only a single institution was involved for it
was a single case study (SCS) with forty teachers of different subjects. The
researcher also functions as the training instructor at the request of Madrasah
Tsanawiyah (an Islamic Junior High School) “Ma'arif” Magelang, Middle-Java,
Indonesia. Further studies on the teachers’ FCPM actualization is needed for
improvement in the quality of teaching.
7. Acknowledgements
This study is a collaboration between the Research and Community Service Board
of UMBY and one of the Islamic secondary schools located in Magelang Regency,
Middle Java, Indonesia. The author would like to thank everyone who helped her
to complete this study.

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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 200-216, May 2020
The Impact of Specialty, Sex, Qualification, and

Experience on Teachers’ Assessment Literacy at
Saudi Higher Education
Sabria Salama Jawhar

Applied and Educational Linguistics
King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1799-8888
Ahmad M. Subahi*
Medical Physics
King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2032-2993
Abstract. The importance of assessment literacy (AL) among teachers at

all educational levels has been of interest for a considerable period.
Literature has shown the increasing research surrounding the
importance of AL knowledge and its impact on students' performance.
This paper examines the level of assessment literacy among instructors
on a Saudi higher education university preparatory program. It uses
a/the Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory (CALI), developed by
Mertler and Campbell (2005), and a demographic questionnaire to
investigate the AL level. It also looks at the impact of factors such as
specialty (i.e., subject department), sex, academic qualification, and
years of teaching experience on the AL level. The subjects of the study
included 54 English and Basic Sciences teachers on the preparatory
program. The study found that the level of AL among the participants
was inadequate (mean=17). However, there was no significant
difference found among the participants when it came to sex,
qualifications, or years of experience. The subject department, on the
other hand, was found to be a factor that impacted the level of AL. The
study concludes with some recommendations related to increasing
assessment literacy among in-service teachers and, more importantly, it
highlights the importance of contextual factors when evaluating
assessment literacy.
Keywords: assessment literacy; higher education, gender; teaching

experience
*Both authors have contributed equally in this work.

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1. Introduction
Assessment is a critical aspect of the education process, and researchers have
placed it at the heart of the teaching and learning process. It is one of the most
important tools through which teachers can evaluate their students’ yearlong
work. Moreover, it is the only scheme through which teachers are able to see the
impact and efficiency of their teaching approaches. Consequently, classroom
assessment literacy (CAL) is essential for teachers, not only so they can prepare
the students to deal with the end of the semester exams but also so they can
carry out their classroom-based assessment and make informed decisions
regarding their students’ achievements. Researchers (e.g., Earl & Katz, 2006)
associate assessment with the promotion of learning and improvement of the
students' performance during the year.
According to the reviewed literature, the problem is that many teachers get
involved in academic activities related to students' assessment and,
consequently, their achievement, without possessing the necessary knowledge
for it (DeLuca, 2012; Lam, 2015). Given the rising prevalence of CAL, there is a
pressing need for educational institutions, which are built on a system that puts
formative assessment at the heart of the teaching and learning process, to
emphasize assessment literacy (AL) to their staff. Also, they need to understand
the consequences of a deficiency in such essential knowledge. Malone (2013)
emphasized the mutual relationship between teaching and assessment, adding
that they inform each other, and that assessment literacy affects the quality of
education. Valencia (2002) argued that though teachers use assessment to gather
evidence from their classrooms regarding their students’ achievements and their
teaching practices, they are still not able to use that information to make an
instructional decision. Some teachers cannot understand the implications of the
results they obtain through their students’ assessment (Rogier, 2014). A closer
look at the literature review shows that, despite the importance given to
assessment literacy among teachers, it is still under-researched in many
educational contexts. Saudi higher education is one of those contexts where
there is a scarcity of conducted research papers investigating assessment literacy
among teachers.
This study is an addition to the body of work investigating the level of

classroom assessment literacy at the higher education level. However, it focuses
on the impact of factors such as subject department (referred to as specialty), sex,
teachers’ qualification level, and years of teaching experience (referred to as
experience) with a specific focus on assessment literacy. It also highlights the
importance of context when evaluating assessment literacy among teachers. In
other words, the paper provides proof that teachers’ theoretical knowledge
about assessment is not necessarily reflected in their actual practice. The context
where assessment is carried out, we argue, is more important than general
theoretical knowledge. This is not to undermine theoretical knowledge. On the
contrary, it is a call for an expansion of the instrument(s) through which AL is
evaluated to include context-specific elements (Inbar-Lourie & Levi, 2020). It is
crucial to mention here that the terms ‘classroom assessment literacy’ and
‘assessment literacy’ are used interchangeably throughout this paper.

202
2. The importance of the study

There has been some sustainable research activity in teachers’ assessment
literacy and its impact on the teaching and learning process. As a result, several
instruments have been developed to assess and understand the nature of this
knowledge and how it can be enlisted under the construct of AL. The efforts of
most research groups have been concentrated on conceptualizing AL and
determining what aspects might be considered as crucial knowledge or skills for
the teacher to be considered assessment literate. Others focused on the factors
that affect the level of AL among pre-and in-service teachers.
To date, the number of studies that have looked at this concept is still limited
and context-specific. Saudi Arabia, going through massive reform that has
touched upon a variety of different aspects of life, has placed education at the
heart of the country's transformation plan, with billions of dollars of funding
being invested in the education sector. In addition, the country is counting on
education to help reduce its dependence on oil as the primary source of income.
With this emphasis on education comes the recognition of the importance of

assessment and the teachers’ ability to design tests while, at the same time,
understand the implications of educational outcomes. As far as the researchers
are concerned, little if any research has been done to look at teachers’ AL in the
Saudi higher education context. This study measures the overall assessment
literacy level among university teachers in a Saudi context, considering the
impact of factors such as specialty i.e. the subject department, sex, qualification,
and years of experience on the level of AL.
3. The research questions

The paper aims to measure the level of assessment literacy among teachers in a
Saudi higher education preparatory program. It also tries to determine if factors
such as subject department, sex, level and type of qualification, and years of
teaching experience impact the teachers' general assessment knowledge. To this
aim, we propose the following research questions:
1. What is the assessment literacy level of teachers in Saudi higher education as
measured by the CALI?
2. How does the assessment literacy of Basic Science teachers compare to that
of English Language teachers?
3. How does the assessment literacy of female teachers compare to that of male
teachers?
4. What is the relationship between the teachers’ academic qualification and
their overall assessment literacy?
5. What is the relationship between the teachers’ experience and their overall
assessment literacy?

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4. Methodology
4.1. Research context

The study was carried out at the Preparatory Program at King Saudi bin
Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), Jeddah campus. During
this two-year program, sometimes referred to as the pre-professional program,
students follow intensive English language courses to improve their English
language proficiency to be able to study their future professional courses where
English is the medium of instruction. During those two years, the students are
also introduced to the basic concepts of general and medical science that are
needed for higher-level education in the health sciences. Those concepts are
presented in the form of eleven Basic Science courses, such as biology,
chemistry, and physics. The program consists of two paths, nursing and unified.
The nursing students choose their specialty before joining the university, while
the unified students go through a selection process based on their General Point
Average (GPA).
Because of the limited number of allocated seats at the School of Medicine

(around 150 depending on each campus’ capacity), the use of exam scores in this
context is crucial in determining the students’ future. The students who are not
selected for medicine will be directed to the school of Applied Medical Sciences,
where they also go through an additional phase of selection based on their
GPAs. Those factors make the program highly competitive and place more
importance on the accuracy of assessment, and consequently, the teachers’
assessment literacy. The study targeted all teachers at the preparatory program,
Jeddah campus, as part of the faculty enhancement initiative to assess the need
for training to ensure quality teaching and learning. All teachers, i.e., Basic
Science and English, were invited to participate in the study. However, it was
not mandatory, so only those who were willing joined.
4.2. Participants
The participants of this study consist of 54 English Language and Basic Science
teachers in a preparatory program. As the demographic information shows
(table 1), the participants varied in their educational background. Most of the
participants are English language teachers (n=41) while Basic Science teachers
represent less than half of the sample (n=13). The female participants, on the
other hand, made 60% of the sample(n=33). When it comes to educational level,
most of the participants are master’s degree holders (n=45). The instructors’
experience varied with the majority having work experience of between 11 and
15 years (See table 1). The paper uses the convenience sample method. More
than 70 questionnaires were distributed, but only 54 were completed and
returned.
4.3. Procedures
The permission and IRP for this study were obtained. The participants were
granted anonymity, and they were told that the result of the questionnaires
would not influence their annual appraisal form in any way. They were also
informed that the study's primary goal was to help improve the university's
assessment practices and, consequently, enhance teaching and learning quality.

204
The teachers who agreed to participate were provided with a hard copy of the
questionnaire containing 35 multiple-choices questions. The participants’
responses were calculated for correctness, with a value of one score given to the
correct answer and a value of zero given to the wrong response. The total
number of correct answers for the five questions represented the score for each
standard. The scores of CAL were then divided into three levels, namely:
Inadequate or needs improvement (lower than 60%), Fair (60-79%) and High
(80% and higher). The survey also included the participants’ demographical
information (See 4.4). There was no time limit specified for answering the
questions, and the teachers were permitted to take the questionnaires home and
return them whenever they had completed them.
4.4. Instrumentation
In this paper, we used the Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory (CALI)
approach. The instrument was developed by Mertler and Campbell (2005). It
consisted of five scenarios followed by seven questions each, i.e., a total of 35
questions. Each of the seven questions within a single scenario was aligned to
one of the following standards:
• Standard (1): related to the teachers' skills in choosing assessment methods
appropriate for instructional decisions.
• Standard (2): related to the teachers’ ability to develop assessment methods
appropriate for instructional decisions.
• Standard (3): about the teachers' ability to administer, score, and interpret
the results of both assessment methods.
• Standard (4): about using the assessment results when making decisions
about individual students, planning teaching, developing curriculum, and
school improvement.
• Standard(5): tests the teachers’ ability to develop valid students’ grading
procedures that use student assessments.
• Standard(6): addresses the teachers' skills in communicating assessment
results to students, parents, and other educators.
• Standard(7): adresses the teachers’ skills in recognizing unethical, illegal, and
otherwise inappropriate assessment methods and uses of assessment
information.
Each of the 35 items consisted of four options, of which only one was correct.
When statistically calculated, the right answer received a score of (1), while the
wrong answer received a score of (0). The aim was to assess the general level of
the teachers’ knowledge regarding some competencies related to assessment.
Consequently, a higher total score equated to a higher level of assessment
literacy. It is very important to mention that the instrument developers initally
aligned the seven standards with the American "Standards for Teacher
Competence in Educational Assessment of Students" (The American Federation
of Teachers, the National Council on Measurement in Education, and the
National Education Association, (1990)). The second part of the questionnaire
aimed to collect demographic information related to the participants' subject
department, sex, the educational level, and length of years of teaching
experience.

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5. Literature review
The term assessment literacy (AL) is used as an umbrella term under which
teachers’ different knowledge regarding the what, how, and why of classroom
assessment can be tested or measured (Stiggins, 1999). Researchers agree on the
importance of AL as part of the academic and professional skills that teachers
need across the different educational levels and disciplines (Xu & Brown, 2016).
However, some of them went as far as considering AL an essential preventive
measure against possible problems that might result from the lack of such
knowledge, especially if the impact of assessment on the teaching and learning
process is taken into consideration (Stiggins, 1995; Brookhart, 2011). Others
associated AL with the students’ achievement and their ability to learn (Rogier,
2014).
The literature review shows that despite this agreement among researchers and
educators regarding AL's importance, there is still a great deal of debate
surrounding the generic skills teachers need to possess to be considered
assessment literate. For instance, Paterno (2001) argued that the basic knowledge
required for assessment literacy included knowledge of assessment terminology
and ways of developing and using assessment methodologies and techniques.
Fulcher (2012), on the other hand, enlisted the following among the needed skills
for assessment literacy: knowledge about how to design and evaluate both
standardized and classroom-based test, familiarity with test processes and
awareness of principles and concepts that govern the practice (i.e., ethics of the
practice).
He also connected assessment literacy to a broader social and political context.

Some researchers (e.g., Pill & Harding, 2013 and Volante & Fazio, 2007) define
assessment literacy from the stakeholders’ perspective, such as students and test
developers. Gottheiner and Siegel (2012) added the ability to interpret the
assessment and to take action based on the results among the required skills of
AL, while Popham (2011) argued that AL should include, among other elements,
the use of basic statistics for educational measurement.
Mertler (2003) used the classroom assessment inventory (CALI) to investigate

the impact of experience on assessment literacy between two groups. The first
group consisted of 197 in-service teachers, while the second group consisted of
67 pre-service teachers. The results show that experience has an impact on the
in-service teachers as they performed better in administrating, scoring, and
interpreting assessments' results. The pre-service teachers outranked their in-
service teachers in the category related to developing valid grading procedures.
The paper concluded that in-service teachers outranked their pre-service
counterparts in five of the seven competency areas. According to the study, the
difference is significant and in favor of in-service teachers, which highlights the
importance of experience when it comes to assessment literacy.
Ashraf and Zolfaghari (2018) also assessed EFL teachers' assessment literacy and
their reflective teaching. The authors used two questionnaires that were
explicitly designed to assess language teachers' assessment literacy and covered
three subscales, which were teachers' disposition about assessment, knowledge

206
about assessment, and performance (Ashraf & Zolfaghari, 2018). The second
questionnaire was specifically designed to assess the teachers’ reflective
teaching. The questionnaire was based on six factors: cognitive, metacognitive,
affective, practical, critical, and moral. They concluded that teachers' assessment
literacy impacts their reflective teaching and can also be used to predict their
teaching practices. Xu and Brown (2017) offered a framework covering the
trajectory of professional development that, they claim, encompasses all aspects
of teachers' educational growth. This was done through a scoping literature
review and synthesis of the previously conducted studies.
The study identified seven competencies related to the base knowledge that
teachers need to possess as part of their academic skills. Those competencies are:
1. Choosing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions
2. Developing assessment methods appropriate for instructional decisions
3. Administering, scoring and interpreting the results of both externally
produced and teacher-produced assessment methods
4. Using assessment results when making decisions about individual students
planning, teaching, developing curriculum and school improvement
5. Developing valid pupil grading procedures
6. Communicating assessment results to various stakeholders
7. Recognizing unethical, illegal, and inappropriate assessment methods and
uses of assessment information. Xu and Brown (2017:150)
Some researchers added sociopolitical and sociocultural dimensions to the

factors that impact assessment literacy in general and language assessment
literacy, in particular. Fulcher (2012), for instance, states that “assessment
principles and practices should be discussed within a much wider historical and
social context” (p.125). Discussing assessment literacy, Scarino (2013) also
stressed the importance of experience when it comes to AL as, according to the
author, instructors tend to learn “on the job." Crusan, Plakans and Gebril (2016)
also looked at the development of language teachers' assessment literacy. Their
work is among the recent studies that have urged researchers and educators to
look at specific contextual and experiential factors when investigating teachers’
assessment literacy.
Finally, Alsomaani (2014) looked at the techniques used by the Saudi novice EFL
teachers at 12 public middle schools. Though the study does not use the term
‘assessment literacy,' it reported that the teachers' inadequate training in
assessment during their undergraduate programs is to be blamed for the
mismatch between the teachers' assessment practices and the students’ needs.
The study also revealed that the teachers obtained most of their assessment
knowledge through their “on-the-job experience." This study, and others, point
to the importance of continuous assessment training for in-service teachers if we
want to ensure we have reliable assessment methods and that students have a
better learning experience.

207
6. Results
In this section, we will report the statistical procedures that were used to analyze
the data. A descriptive analysis was conducted for the seven composite scores
based on the Standards. Inferential analyses including a t-test, evaluated at an
alpha level of .05, was used to compare the English language to the Basic Science
teachers’ mean scores for each of the seven composite scores, and the total score
for the entire instrument. A t-test was also used to compare the performance of
the female to the male teachers in each of the seven standards. Finally, ANOVA
test was used to look at the multiple variables of obtained qualifications and
years of experience in teaching.
Table 1 gives the demographic and basic information regarding the sample’s
number, subject department, sex, qualifications they have obtained, and the
number of years spent in teaching, i.e., experience.
Table 1: Demographic Profile

Variable N= 54 %
Basic science 13 24.1
Department
English 41 75.9
Male 21 38.9
Sex
Female 33 61.1
BA or BS 4 7.4
MA or MS 35 64.8
Qualification
Specialist 4 7.4
PhD 11 20.4
1-5 11 20.4
6-10 6 11.1
11-15 13 24.1
Experience 16-20 9 16.7
21-25 3 5.6
26-30 3 5.6
31+ 9 16.7
Table 1 shows that the majority of teachers were from the English department
(n=41), and female faculty constitute 61.1% of the study sample (n=33).
Regarding the academic qualifications, the table shows that 64.8% of teachers
were MA or MS holders, while 20.4% of them were PhD holders. The
participants, however, varied in the number of years they had spent in teaching.
As can be seen from the table 1, 13 instructors out of the 54 participating in the
study had spent 11-15 years in teaching. Nine of the participants, on the other
hand, had spent more than 31 years in teaching. Three teachers reported that
they had spent 21-25 years, and another three stated that they had had 26-30
years of experience in education. The second-largest number of instructors
(n=11) reported that they had spent between 1 to 5 years in teaching.

208
Table 2: Descriptive statistics

Mean of overall
Standard SD
assessment
Choosing an assessment method 2.6 1.1
Developing assessment methods 2.7 1.4
Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 2.0 1.1
Using assessment outcomes in decision making 3.0 1.0
Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 2.2 1.3
Communicating assessment outcomes 2.6 1.2
Knowing unethical practices 1.7 1.1
Overall 16.8 4.5
CALI descriptive statistics are illustrated in the table 2. For the overall
assessment literacy performance, the minimum obtained score was six, and the
maximum obtained score was 25 out of 35. The mean of overall assessment was
computed at 16.8, with 4.5 SD. The mean of overall statements was less than 20,
which indicates poor classroom assessment literacy among the study sample.
Breaking down the results by standards, it is found that the standard related to
using assessment outcomes in the decision-making had the highest mean score
while knowing unethical practices standard was found to receive the lowest
mean score (1.7), indicating poor knowledge in this standard. The next stage of
the analysis was dividing the scores of CAL into three levels, namely:
Inadequate or needs improvement (lower than 60%), Fair (60-79%) and High
(80% and higher). Table 3 summarizes the results based on this division.
Table 3: Teachers overall performance in Classroom Assessment Literacy

Poor Fair High
Standard
n % n % n %
Choosing an assessment method 22 40.7 24 44.4 8 14.8
Developing assessment methods 23 42.6 14 25.9 17 31.5
Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 36 66.7 12 22.2 6 11.1
Using assessment outcomes in decision making 17 31.5 21 38.9 16 29.6
Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 32 59.3 13 24.1 9 16.7
Communicating assessment outcomes 31 57.4 9 16.7 14 25.9
Knowing unethical practices 43 79.6 9 16.7 2 3.7
Overall 42 77.8 12 22.2 0 0
The overall scores show that 77.8% of sample cases have a poor CAL level, while
22.2% of them have a fair CAL level. It is essential to mention here that although
some participants scored high in some of the listed standards, none of them
obtained a high overall score (see table 3). When analyzing the results by
standards, it can be seen that standard 4, relating to the use of assessment
outcomes in decision-making, obtained the highest percentage. The standard

209
related to knowing unethical practices, 7th in the table 3, scored the lowest.
Almost 80% of the sample showed poor knowledge about ethical practice in
assessment. Developing assessment methods and using the assessment scores to
make decisions received a relatively high percentage of correct answers, 31.5%,
and 29.9 %, respectively, compared to the rest of the standards.
Table 4: Differences in CALI performance between departments

Mean Mean *P-
Standard
Basic science English value
Choosing an assessment method 2.31 2.66 0.332
Developing assessment methods 1.62 3.00 0.001**
Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 1.85 2.10 0.463
Using assessment outcome in decision making 2.54 3.12 0.077
Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 1.38 2.44 0.008**
Communicating assessment outcomes 2.08 2.71 0.097
Knowing unethical practices 1.77 1.73 0.913
Overall 13.54 17.76 0.003**
* independent t-test; ** p-value is less than 0.05
The t-test for independent samples was conducted to determine whether there
was a significant difference between the CAL levels of Basic Science and English
department faculty. The results show that the p-value was less than 0.05
(P<0.05), which indicates a significant difference between the two departments
in terms of overall CAL scores. The mean scores in the seven standards of
English language faculty were found to be higher than the mean scores of Basic
Science faculty. This result indicates a higher level of knowledge in CAL among
English language department members. In particular, the results show a
significant difference in standards two (i.e., developing assessment methods)
and six (i.e., using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes). The
difference is in favor of the English faculty. To answer the question related to the
participants' sex, a t-test was calculated, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5: The difference in CAL based on sex

Mean Mean *P-
Standard
Females Males value
Choosing an assessment method 2.64 2.68 0.876
Developing assessment methods 3.14 2.84 0.465
Administering, assigning, and interpreting learning outcomes 2.00 2.21 0.553
Using assessment outcomes in decision making 3.36 2.84 0.107
Using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes 2.68 2.16 0.120
Communicating assessment outcomes 2.86 2.53 0.354
Knowing unethical practices 1.77 1.68 0.776
Overall 18.45 16.95 0.233
* independent t-test

210
The summarized results in the table 5, show an insignificant difference in CAL

levels between male and female faculty in the English and Basic Science
departments (p>0.05). However, a quick look at the table 5 shows that the female
staff members performed better than their male counterparts.
Table 6: CAL performance based on academic qualification difference

Standard Mean Mean Mean Mean *P-
BA or BS MA or MS Specialist PhD value
Choosing an assessment method 2.75 2.60 2.75 2.36 0.903
Developing assessment methods 2.25 2.94 2.25 2.09 0.247

Administering, assigning, and
1.50 2.14 2.75 1.64 0.194
interpreting learning outcomes
Using assessment outcomes in
3.25 3.00 2.50 3.00 0.776
decision making
Using assessment to determine
2.75 2.40 2.25 1.27 0.055
levels of learning outcomes
Communicating assessment
3.50 2.66 2.00 2.09 0.150
outcomes
Knowing unethical practices 1.50 1.74 2.25 1.64 0.759
Overall 17.50 17.49 16.75 14.09 0.185

* F test result from ANOVA
Table 6 shows no significant difference in the participants’ performance in the

seven CAL standards based on their academic qualifications. Nevertheless, the
table shows that the performance of the bachelor’s and master’s degree holders,
whether in Arts or Science subjects, was slightly better than that of the PhD
holding staff members.
Table 7 shows the difference among the participants based on their overall
scores in CAL and the length of their experience as educators. Table 7 illustrates
the relationship between the teachers’ general level of assessment literacy, as
reflected by CALI, and the number of years they have spent in education, i.e.,
years of experience.
Table 7: CAL performance based on number of years of experience
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 2221.598 6 370.266 1.609 .166
Within Groups 10583.874 46 230.084
Total 12805.472 52
In Table 7, it can be seen that there is no significant difference in the classroom

assessment literacy level among the participants based on their years of
experience (p-value is >0.05).

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7. Discussion
Our participants' overall performance shows that the general level of assessment
literacy cannot be considered adequate, especially when compared to the
importance given to assessment in the program and the role it plays in
determining the students’ future in this context. The average for the seven
standards together is 16.8 out 35, which indicates a lack of AL knowledge. The
results show the need for further training in this area, as it seems that the
teachers might not be adequately prepared to effectively assess the students’
learning. However, these results do not come as a surprise as, despite the
different AL evaluation methods and contextual differences, they concur with
what is reported in the literature. Most of the previous studies show that
teachers’ general performance in AL tests is not satisfactory (e.g., Perry, 2013;
Brown, 2004; Mertler, 2003; Plake, Impara & Fager, 1993).
Although using a different assessment instrument, the same result was reported
by Plake, Impara and Fager (1993). In their study, they used the Teacher
Assessment Literacy Questionnaire (TALQ) as part of a two-part instrument.
The instrument, similar to the one used in this research, consisted of 35 items
that measured the seven competencies mentioned in the standards. Their study
also reflected the poor assessment literacy level among the participants.
Maclellan (2004) also reached the same conclusion, although that study used a
different approach to data collection. The researcher tested the teachers’
knowledge by analyzing each teacher's written scripts. In a comparable study,
Muhammad and Bardakçi (2019), reported a less than satisfactory level of AL
among Iraqi EFL teachers. The authors compared the teachers’ results with the
results reported in the published literature and concluded that Iraqi teachers
scored the lowest internationally (mean=16). The average reported score
globally, they stated, is 17 to 24 out of 35. As can be seen, the result of our study
falls between the Iraqi score and the lowest reported score internationally.
Most of the research studies attribute teachers' lack of knowledge about

assessment literacy to inadequate preparation in assessment during their in-
service teacher education programs, or perhaps a complete lack of any such
training at all (e.g., Alsomaani, 2014; Schafer, 1993). Herrera and Macias (2015) is
one of the studies that, although looking specifically at language assessment
literacy, emphasized that teachers need to develop their overall assessment
literacy and that special attention should be placed on improving the quality of
AL courses during pre-service educational programs. They argued that teachers
are "expected to have a working knowledge of all aspects of assessment to
support their instruction and to effectively respond to students, parents, and the
school community” (p.303).
However, when we look closely at our participants’ results in the each of the
individual standards, we notice that their performance varied across the
different standards. For instance, it seems that our participants displayed better
knowledge of the standards related to using assessment outcomes in decision-
making. That was followed by the standard of administering, assigning, and
interpreting the learning outcomes. On the other hand, they scored the lowest in
the standard dealing with the knowledge related to unethical practices. The

212
same result was obtained in the studies conducted by Perry (2013) and
Muhammad and Bardakci (2019). The relatively good outcome in standard four
can perhaps be attributed to the constant contact new teachers have with their
more experienced colleagues, a deliberate placement strategy in the department.
It could also be attributed to the standardized system of assessment formatting
employed by the university.
To answer the question regarding the relationship between the level of AL and
the subject department, the results indicate a significant difference in the overall
performance between the English language and the Basic Science teachers. The
results showed that English language teachers tend to possess more assessment
knowledge than their Basic Science counterparts. Furthermore, a closer look at
the detail of the teachers’ performance across the standards shows that the
difference is evident mainly in the standards related to developing assessment
methods and using assessment to determine levels of learning outcomes. This
result could be attributed to the nature of the courses being assessed.
Additionally, the fact that the university requires the English language teachers
to be graduates of specialized EFL teaching educational programs could also be
considered as a contributing factor to this difference. This tends not to be the
case with the Basic Science teachers, who are mostly graduates of Basic Science
programs and usually not required to have any specific teacher training.
Interestingly Alkharusi (2009) found that teachers who specialized in academic
areas such as English and Basic Science were better than those who specialized
in performance areas such as art and physical education.
The performance of female members of staff was roughly equal to that of their
male counterparts indicating that the sex of the participants in our study, i.e., the
third research question, did not have any impact on the participants' general
performance. This result has led us to rule out sex as a factor when it comes to
assessment literacy in Saudi higher education. Contrary to this study, Alkharusi
(2009) found that “measurement and test knowledge of pre-service teachers
tended to vary as a function of gender and major” (p.15). Males, in his data, have
more knowledge in assessment than females.
However, this study shared a similar conclusion to Alkharusi (2009), which

showed that the participants’ academic qualifications did not influence their
general performance. This research reflected no significant difference among the
teachers’ general level of AL when it came to their educational qualifications. It
was found that the average scored mark ranged between 14.09 and 17.50 in the
seven standards. In other words, there was no difference in the LA level among
teachers with a Bachelor's, Master's, or a Doctorate.
Finally, although the participants’ length of experience as teachers varied from

1-5 years to more than 30 years, this difference was not reflected in their overall
performance. i.e., they all had low scores. This could be a result of the teachers’
tendency to learn from each other's assessment experience, particularly where
less experienced teachers look to their more experienced colleagues for
guidance. In many cases, this practice has a positive impact. However, the

213
novice teachers might also copy the formats of older versions of tests without
possessing the necessary knowledge regarding the purposes for which those
exams were developed. While such practices lead to the sharing of positive
knowledge, it can also contribute to the teachers’ transference of erroneous
practices (Stiggins, 1988). This underlines the importance of ensuring that new
teaching staff is adequately mentored and that both old and new faculty are
encouraged to engage in continuous professional development.
An additional factor that may explain the lack of differentiation in results

according to years of experience may be that the survey asked about teaching
experience and did not ask specifically about what kind of experience each
teacher had had. A teacher may have had 20 years teaching part-time, perhaps
as little as 2 hours a week, or in an institution where little or no standardized
assessment was used. In such cases, the 20 years of teaching would give them
limited opportunities to learn about assessment. To conclude, it is worth
mentioning that this study has its limitations as the number of participants is
relatively small. The use of a single instrument to assess AL is yet another
possible source of limitation. Fulcher (2012) reported that the use of
questionnaires to assess LAL might elicit skewed responses. Nevertheless, the
study is a good indicator and a step in the right direction towards improving the
teaching and learning quality in the Saudi context.
The result of the overall performance in AL in this study indicates poor

knowledge of the principles underlying classroom assessment, which is a wake-
up call to educators in the higher education sector. The results also bring to our
attention the need to emphasize the importance of attending continuous
assessment training for in-service teachers. Furthermore, policies and ethics that
govern assessment should also be placed at the heart of any training related to
continuous professional development in the Saudi context. The importance of
continuous assessment literacy training during the teachers' years of service was
also emphasized by Popham (2006). It is also important to note that the
instrument used for this study is not context-specific. It is an instrument
designed according to the American education context, which is significantly
different from the Saudi one. For that reason, we would like to call for more
studies investigating assessment literacy in the Saudi context, but would suggest
the use of an instrument that is context-sensitive, and that takes the Saudi
education policies and practices into consideration (Yan, Zhang & Fan, 2018).
The use of CALI in this study is a good start and an indicator- of the teachers’
basic knowledge. However, it should not be used on its own and should also be
modified to include more context-specific elements.
8. Conclusion
Assessment is one of the most critical aspects of education; therefore, assessment
literacy among teachers is considered one of the most crucial skills to be
mastered at all educational levels. This study evaluated the AL level of teachers
at a Saudi higher education institution preparatory program. It used the
Classroom Assessment Literacy Inventory developed by Mertler and Campbell
(2005). The study found that the general level of AL among teachers in the Saudi
higher education program is less than satisfactory. It also reported that factors

214
such as sex, the qualification that the participants obtained, or length of years of
teaching experience have no impact on their assessment literacy. Nevertheless,
the English language teachers scored higher than their Basic Science colleagues,
which highlighted the role that the subject department played in the level of AL.
This might be attributed to different factors such as pre-service preparation
programs or the nature of the courses, as explained in the discussion section. The
overall result placed the Saudi teachers within a level of performance close, if
not similar to, most of the reported results in different contexts around the
world. This study is additional empirical proof, adding to the already published
work, calling for continuous assessment training for in-service teachers.
Significantly, it also adds emphasis to the importance of including contextual
elements to AL (Crusan, Plakans & Gebril, 2016; Yan, Zhang & Fan, 2018.).
9. Contextualization of the result

The inadequate level of assessment literacy among our participants does not
mean inadequate assessment practices in the institution. It is imperative to
mention here that at KSAU-HS assessment is strictly regulated, and the
university uses a variety of methods to ensure that all assessments adhere to
international best practice standards, to ensure validity and fairness. As per
institutional policy, instructors are required to align their test items with the
learning outcomes of each course. This alignment practice, as stated by Yon,
Zhang and Fan (2018), can help teachers to “develop sensitivity to the content
validity of their assessments because of the mandate to assess students' learning
outcome against the standardized curriculum" (p. 165). The values of reliability
coefficients of the exam samples that were taken from the different preparatory
level courses indicate that all items are highly reliable. The accepted overall
reliability values of exams in KSAU-HS is (>0.7), which provides additional
evidence of the importance and the influence that other factors such as context,
belief, and experience have on teachers' assessment literacy Deluca, LaPointe-
McEwan and Luhanga (2016).
10. Recommendations for educators

1. Assessment education should be part of the teachers’ continuous
development practices.
2. Assessment related workshops should be introduced throughout the
academic year, particularly every time a change in the assessment scheme is
introduced (Deluca, LaPointe-McEwan & Luhanga, 2016).
3. Teachers’ assessment literacy requires further recognition in the Saudi higher
education system and should be placed at the heart of any research tackling
higher education issues.
4. Assessment literacy evaluation instruments should be context-specific and
reflect the teachers' beliefs, practices, and educational policies.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 217-230, May 2020
Enhancing Students’ Academic Performance in

University System: The Perspective of
Supplemental Instruction
Oyinlola Omolara Adebola

University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2768-4273
Cias T. Tsotetsi and Bunmi Isaiah Omodan

University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1035-3339
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9093-3108
Abstract. Following the dwindled academic performance of first-year

undergraduate students in the universities as observed by the researchers
and confirmed by the literature, the study problematised Supplemental
Instruction (SI) mechanism as a tool to enhance students’ performance.
Supplemental Instruction, according to this study, is the kind of
supplementary academic supports rendered to students to enhance their
performance. In order to achieve this, this study explored the challenges
with the use of Supplemental Instruction along with the possible
solutions to the problems. Social constructivism was used to theorise the
study. Participatory Research (PR) was adopted as a methodology for the
study because it involved the coming together of the concerned people to
participate in problem definition, problem assessment, implementation,
and evaluation. Unstructured interviews were used to generate data from
the participants who were facilitators and students as co-researchers with
the use of audiotape recorder. The participants for the study included
first-year students at the selected university, the SI coordinator, two
tutors for various modules and their lecturers. Thematic analysis was
adopted to categorise, interpret, and analyse the generated data because
it involved the reflection of categorised objectives. The study found out
among others that; inadequate planning and lack of collaborative
engagement were the major challenges while training and retraining of SI
personnel and collaborative engagement were the suggestible solutions
to ameliorate the problems. However, the study, in its conclusion,
significantly enhances the university’s reputation and increases the
quality of its outputs in terms of students’ academic performance through
the use of SI.
Keywords: first-year students; academic performance; university system;

supplemental instruction

218
1. Introduction
University is an institution of higher learning providing facilities for teaching and
research and authorised to grant academic degrees. It was further stated that a
university consists of both higher institutions of learning and a community of
scholars (Sintayehu, 2018). Meanwhile, it has been said that university students
are not doing well in their performance. It was revealed in a study that was
conducted by (Rajendra & Sue,2015), that some of the reasons why students do
not perform well and the increase in the rate of drop out in university were
finances, lack of qualified lecturers, lack of academic support from the university
and wrong choices of specialisation to mention but few. However, this study is
to bridge the gap by providing academic assistance in the form of Supplemental
Instruction for those students who are especially facing poor academic
performance in university. This kind of academic support works in a way that the
senior students who have passed the specific modules are employed by the
university to tutor the junior students (Olstedt, 2005).
According to Medina (2003), Widmar (1994), Magin and Churches (1995),

Anderson, Boud and Sampson (1996), Potter (1997), and Wood (1997), SI is a well-
established program to promote students learning. It was estimated that the use
of SI had increased significantly, and a decade ago was already used at more than
1500 university colleges and all over the world (Martin 2008). According to
Olstedt (2005) and Arendale, (1997), SI is not just an approach, but it is a belief
system to learning. Inner action and curiosity are the driving forces, and the main
focus is on self-determination and collective learning. It has been used in higher
institutions, including the University of the Free State, to support students in their
learning activities.
From the above, we see Supplemental Instruction (SI) as an academic support

program that employs successful senior tertiary students to facilitate peer-
learning sessions with first-year students. SI is mostly attached to highly
populated modules (Philip, Jacques, Jane & Kym 2014). It has been observed by
researchers that students with average and with high SI attendance do
significantly better in terms of overall first-year credit performance than students
with scanty attendance (Etter, Sandra, Burmeister & Elder; 2001). It was further
noted by (Joakim, Leif & Lise 2012) that students with low, average, and high prior
academic achievement all benefit from attending SI sessions. SI complements the
regular studies of a course. The idea behind it was that learning a subject should
be enhanced by the exchange of thoughts and ideas between students. This is
realised by them asking questions, initiating work in small groups, and
coordinating the presentation of conclusions. These senior students attend
training courses on how to be SI leaders and provided with tools to use during
these sessions (Joakim, Leif & Lise 2012).
Michelle (2012) concluded that SI sessions improved students’ performances in

the semester that they attended SI sessions. It was noted that SI is a useful
approach to support student success. The U.S. Department of Education asserted
that participation in SI was correlated with higher mean grades, lower failure, and
withdrawal rates, as well as higher retention and graduation rates (Philip,

219
Jacques, Jane & Kym, 2014). Based on extensive research, it was concluded that in
entry-level courses, SI contributed to increased pass rates, as well as in higher-
level courses (Peterfreund, Rath, Xenos & Bayliss, 2008). SI was associated with
higher graduation rates and thus, student retention (Bowles, McCoy & Bates, and
2008; Crosling, 2018). While the studies mentioned here all point to the successes
of SI, the lack of students’ success in a large-scale first-year module offered at
universities in South Africa, even with SI implemented, led to the need for closer
scrutiny. From the above, we argue that Supplemental Instruction is a kind of
academic support rendered by the university to assist some students who have
difficulties in passing specific modules, in helping classes with a large number of
students and also to boost the academic performance of students. Therefore, the
problem of the study is that in some of the modules offered to large numbers of
first-year students, it was discovered that despite the intervention of the
university through SI, students’ grades were still below average. This happens in
almost all supplemented modules offered by first-year students. The period from
2015-2019 has shown that students were performing averagely. Thus, there is a
need to explore why the academic performance of first-year students did not
improve in the period under review 2015-2018 A lack of expected improvement
prompted me to pursue this study. The researchers observe this problem while
she was tutoring the module.
2. Theoretical Framework
Social constructivism was used as a theoretical framework for this study. This
theory is grounded in knowledge construction (Vygotsky, 1978). Vygotsky, the
father and founder of social constructivism, believed that the origin of knowledge
construction is the social interaction of people, based on the sharing, comparing,
and debating amongst learners and mentors (Dagar & Yadav, 2016). This is a
highly involving process of learning, focused on both learners and teachers,
improving their cognition to help others find meaning by means of the discourse.
Therefore, knowledge was seen not to exist in isolation from social and cultural
settings (Vygotsky, 1978; Dagar & Yadav, 2016). This viewpoint was in line with
the conclusion of Gergen (1995) that the basic principle behind social
constructivism pertains to knowledge was phrased through social interaction and
the result of social processes.
This theory is relevant to this study because it substantiates the fundamental

importance of recognising diverse opinions in the classroom with unrestricted
social interaction among the classroom stakeholders such as SI leaders,
facilitators, and students. From the above, one could deduce that Social
Constructivism believes that students learn best when collaborating with their
peers. Since the study is about using SI to enhance the use of academic
performance of first-year students, Social Constructivism as a theory is relevant
to the study. It is relevant because it enables both facilitators and students to
engage in socially constituted interrelation opportunities to construct and
interchange knowledge through their social discourse. Following Chambers-
Turner (2010) that social constructivism allows students to share knowledge
among themselves, which in our views enhances academic performance and leads
to the increase in the graduation rate, lowers drop-out rate, and also ensure

220
retention rate. In other words, social constructivism through collaborative share

knowledge in social context enhances Supplemental Instruction towards student
academic performance. Dagar and Yadav (2016) further justified the collaborative
knowledge sharing that a highly involving process of learning is focused on both
learners and teachers, improving their cognition to help others find meanings to
the discourse.
3. Research Question & Objectives

The following research question was formulated to pilot the study:
How can SI be used to enhance the academic performance of first-year students
in Universities?
To achieve the piloting question, the following objectives were raised to guide the
study:
• To identify challenges with the use of SI in enhancing the academic
performance of first-year students in Universities.
• To explore solutions to the challenges facing the academic performance of
first-year students in Universities.
4. Methodology
4.1 Research Design
This study adopted Participatory Research (PR) design; the nature of the research
design choice for this study is based on the premise that; there is a need for
individuals faced with the problem of the study to be part of the solution process
(Jarg & Thomas, 2012). PR is a research process where the concerns people
participate in one or more of the following: intervention planning, problem
definition, problem assessment, implementation, and evaluation (Hughes, 2003;
Ho, 2002). PR is also seen as a collective inquiry into a social situation to improve
the rationality and justice of participants’ social practices. In our view, it enhances
participants’ critical consciousness and resources, such as knowledge, social
networks, and their sense of community (Nelson, Ochocka & Griffin, 1998; Foster-
Fishman, Pennie, Kristen, Lauren & Christina, 2010). By implementation, the
participants were treated as equals to the researcher and also seen as empowering
and liberating (Aldridge, 2017). Its ideological orientation is liberal, focusing on
the improvement of professional practices. This is to say that the design is highly
committed to democratic engagement, transparency, and openness, cooperative
and communitarian ethos, inclusion, and multiculturalism (Dale, 2001). PR is,
therefore, appropriate for this study because of its involvement with the people.
The people in this study are the academic researchers and the researched. They
were brought together to find a lasting solution to the trajectory of Supplemental
Instruction and its correlational effect on Academic performance of Students.
4.2 Data Generation Method and Process

An unstructured interview, also called an in-depth interview, was used for data
generation in this study. An unstructured interview, according to (Dana, 2013) is
the best to discover important information about a topic and focuses on a
particular theme. We try as much as possible to remain transparent to new and
unexpected phenomena instead of imposing will on the participants (Sandy,

221
2011). All the participants in this process were seen as being reflective of real-life
experience and social reality. The data generation process involved having
meetings with co-researchers, which was aimed at clarifying the purpose,
problem, and process of the study. Interview with them focused on challenges
and solutions faced by the use of SI to enhance the academic performance of first-
year students in the university. After the generation of data, the researcher
presented the report to co-researchers/participants to check, add inputs, and
suggest corrections. Participants had the opportunity to check whether the data
generated were interpreted correctly. In addition, participants were allowed to
use any language that they were comfortable with during the interview.
4.3 Participants and Selection of Participants

The participants in the study included two first-year students, two lectures, two
tutors, and two SI leaders from the selected university. They assisted with their
experiences to address the issue in SI. Two first-year students were chosen
because they offered the module under investigation. The two lecturers chosen
were responsible for teaching the module for many years with adequate
experiences regarding the selected module. Also, the two supplemental
instruction leaders were selected because they were responsible for the
administrative aspect (recruiting, salary, assessment) of all tutors in the
university. They were able to share their experiences in terms of challenges,
success, and their views about using SI in a university.
4.4 Method of Data Analysis and Ethical Consideration

Thematic Analysis (TA) was adopted to analyse the generated data. Nowell,
Norris, White, and Moules (2017) opined that TA should be a basis for analysing
data because of its core value for conducting qualitative analyses. It is an approach
for categorising, reporting, organising, defining, and analysing themes found
within a data set (Omodan, 2019). The thematic analysis made it easy for us to
analyse data because it makes data to be easily understood, it provides
conveniently detailed, especially when summarising critical concepts of a huge
data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The ethical committee of the University of the
Free State approved the study with approval number UFS-HSD2018/1132. The
consent of the participants was sorted for, and they were provided with
information that, during, and after the study, their information and utterances
will be kept confidential from the third parties. They were also assured that their
names would not be disclosed to the third party and that their responses would
remain anonymous.
4.5 Presentation of Data and Discussion

In order to enhance the academic performance of first-year students in a
university with the use of SI, below were some of the challenges and possible
solutions that were found during the study; Inadequate planning and lack of clear
communication as challenges, training and retraining, and collaborative
engagement were found as solutions. For anonymity sake, the participants were
represented using A1 & A2 (Lecturers), B1 & B2 (Tutees), C1 & C2 (Tutors), and
D1 & D2 (SI Leaders/Personnel).

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5. The challenges with the use of SI to enhance the academic performance

5.1 Inadequate planning as a challenge
For any organisation to succeed, there must be proper planning. Planning was one
of the challenges facing the implementation of SI in higher institutions of learning
and could hinder the progress of any programme if not taking into consideration.
When there is no planning, all academic programmes, including tutorials, are at
risk, and this means that students’ academic performance cannot be enhanced.
This problem of planning is not limited to South Africa Universities alone, but as
stated by the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (KESSP) in a research
conducted by (Education Management Capacity Assessment, 2005). Below were
the comments from the participants:
Participant A2: “one major is about tutor clashes students who are also
tutors might miss tutorials we need to find a way because if a tutor who
is also a student has to attend class and tutor as well can be a challenge.”
According to participant A2, one major challenge associated with a lack of

constant planning was the issue of timetable clashes between tutors and tutees
and or among all the faculty in the university. It has been in existence for years
and seems to be seen as a normal thing to happen. It happens most of the time
that the time a tutor supposed to be in tutorial sessions clashed with the time
he/she was having a lecture, (Moleko, Hlalele & Mahlomaholo, 2014). In other
words, class attendance could also be of assistance in solving timetable clashes in
relation to what participant A said.
Participant D2: “Timetable clashes with that of the tutors, which
renders our tutorials at some point not to be important because they are
voluntary by nature. Some students don’t attend tutorials or neglect
tutorials, but we can’t blame them because this happens as a result of
timetable clashes.”
Participant D2 who happens to be one of the SI leaders emphasised that even

though timetable clashes is a challenge that is rendering their effort worthless,
continue to say that attending tutorial is voluntary; that is, it is not a must for
students to attend. Timetable clashes make it difficult for SI to blame or punish
any student who decides not to participate. This is a big challenge in such a way
that the students who are tutoring are clashing with the students (tutees) to be
tutored. Even though SI is responsible for managing tutorials, they are unable to
profile any solution to this challenge just because the university as a whole
manages the timetable through the office of Examination and records. This shows
that the department responsible for the payment of tutors is seen to be wasting
resources like money to a programme that cannot be controlled or managed well.
The above analysis confirms that inadequate planning, such as clashes of

timetable, class attendance, and assuring non-performing tutors, is confirmed to
be a severe challenge to the implementation of SI. This is in support of Alemu
(2019). Even this is also against the principle of social constructivism that says
that students should be learning collaboratively among themselves through
interaction and engaging in critically thinking. However, if there is no adequate
planning from both students and tutors, the implementation of SI will be a

223
challenge (Amineh & Asl, 2015). Nevertheless, this does not mean that there was
no planning at all, but instead, the study proved that preparation was not
sufficient enough to implement SI easily.
5.2 Lack of Clear Communication

Effective communication is an essential factor in the teaching and learning
process; without it, SI is might lead to fruitless efforts. It was another challenge
that hindered the implementation of Supplemental Instruction in universities and
other institutions of learning. When communication is not clear, students,
especially first-year students who are just finding their ways into higher
institution environments, are lost and do not know what to do concerning a
particular instruction. In Supplemental Instruction, communication among all the
stakeholders involved is considered to very vital, and this includes; tutors,
students (tutees), lecturers, and SI leaders (coordinators). Meanwhile, a lecturer
supposed to brief tutors what they ought to teach in the class, and at the same
time tutor should report back to the lecturer and SI coordinators. This channel of
communication keeps SI personnel abreast of what is happening at tutorial
sessions and informed them of the next action or strategy to take in order to
improve this support system. Participants also agreed that the lack of
communication and relationship among collaborators hindered the success of SI,
which made it a challenge; this was supported by SI (Moleko et al., 2014). Below
are the comments from participants;
Participant D2: “There is no proper communication between these
parties such that most students miss their tutorials.”
Participant A2: “Communication between the lecturers and tutors been
lacking can also be a challenge that will really require a way in which it
is coordinated better.”
Proper communication among all the stakeholders was also raised to be a

challenge facing the implementation of SI. It is not that there was no
communication but that the channel at which communication was wrong, or there
was no effective communication. Participant D2 was saying that the reason why
students who attend tutorials do miss classes was because of improper contact
between students and tutors. The same problem was echoed by participant A2
that the lack or inadequate communication was as a result of the lack of
coordinated communication, that is, improper or ineffective communication. The
participant A2 went further to say that apart from the issue of rapport between
them, it was also reported that lack of communication is another challenge.
Lack of clear communication was discovered in the data analysis process to be one
of the challenges facing the implementation of SI. Clear communication is an
aspect in academics that needs careful attention either horizontally or vertically if
teaching and learning should be successful. It emanated from the data that lack of
clear communication between students and tutors, students and lecturers, SI
personnel and tutors, and even between SI personnel and lecturers is not
sufficient. Research made it clear that due to lack of clear communication, students
give reasons why tutorial sessions are not appealing to them and see no point in
attending (Malm, Bryngfors & Mörner, 2012). Social constructivism theory states
that one of the significant factors that determine the success of peer learning is

224
language; that is, clear and effective communication helps students to function
well when interacting with other peers and even in the community (Gergen, 1995).
Therefore, the findings show a contradictory phenomenon where the current
reality indicates that there is a lack of clear communication among the SI personnel
and students.
6. The Suggestible solutions to the challenges to enhance the academic

performance
6.1 Training and Retraining of SI personnel
According to Mohamed, Saud and Amhad (2018), the place of training of people
should be given a priority of constant attention to training. Training and
retraining is an essential key that should not be neglected in every aspect of
academics, including SI personnel and facilitators. One of the major goals of SI
was to help students who are not doing well in specific modules, and for this goal
to be achieved, the study revealed that there was a need for training and retraining
of facilitators. Another reason why training was needed was to keep facilitators
abreast and to be a master of their work (content knowledge), methods of
teaching, and strategies they could employ to make teaching and learning
interesting and engaging. These facilitators were also students who were doing
their third or final year, which means that they were still undergraduates
students. Therefore, if the point mentioned above could be implemented, there
will be an improvement from both sides, students will be motivated to come to
the tutorial session, and the academic performance of students will be enhanced
through supplemental instruction support. The following statements from the co-
participants support our point:
Participant A1: “pairing experienced tutors with inexperienced tutors,
For example, yourself you were sort of mature compared to most of the
tutors you could handle a particular group alone, but with other tutors,
we used to pair them because some of them were not necessarily
experienced.” I think for me, the experience of a tutor plays an important
role.
Participant A2: “Another solution for this challenge is the tutors can be
trained to utilise podcasting for e-learning.” Whereby they will be trained
to capture themselves planning for the lesson on their laptops, recording
themselves and send to the students via the Blackboard so that they can
view on their own time.”
Participant B1: “Another condition is to keep on training the tutors.
They must receive training on a regular basis in order to keep them abreast
of the changes which are there of tutors.”
Participant B2: “One section could be of maintaining experienced tutors
if they are experienced we do not struggle too much but as well lecturers,
we may not be shy again to expel those who do not do well because if you
do not expel them, even those who are doing well they can see that if you
don’t do well, it does not matter.”
From the statement of participant A1, it was believed that if a tutor who was
experienced could be paired with an inexperienced tutor in order to learn from
each other. From the researchers' point of view, it was necessary even for the

225
experienced tutor to be given training and retraining before pairing with an

inexperienced tutor. It was also found that training and retraining of tutors and
even staff should be a continuous practice in academics generally. (Enaibe, 2012;
Joy, Nneka & Idugbo, 2013).
Participant B1 opined that tutors could be trained on how to use podcasting for e-
learning as solutions for the challenge of over enrolment and lack of venues.
(Podcast is kind of video files which a user can download to listen to). Because
participant B1 was talking about training tutors being able to use podcasts to
reduce in order to overcome the challenge, but there was a need for training. This
means that tutors can record themselves on what they wanted to facilitate and
upload it to Blackboard where students can both receive the content and master
them before or after tutorial sessions. In this way, SI could be enhanced
tremendously. To achieve this, the researchers suggested that tutors must be
trained on the use of podcasting ‘for e-learning’; this suggestion seems to be a
good one, not only for the success of SI but also for academic staff as well if
implemented.
Therefore, it was found that the training and retraining of SI personnel like tutors
and SI coordinators are very important in making SI implementation successful.
It was revealed that constant training is a requirement for any organisation that
wants to achieve its goal. This is, according to Mohamed, Saud, and Amhad
(2018). It is important that tutors and SI personnel, in particular, are put to
constant training from time to time to be productive, creative and even master the
content to be shared with the tutees during tutorial sessions. When they know
what is expected of them and are empowered to do so, they will be encouraged
and gain confidence in class.
6.2 Collaborative engagement and communication

Collaborative learning is a method of learning where groups of students coming
together to share their knowledge in solving problems, engage in collaborative
activities to learn from one another. This means that one of the reasons for
Supplemental Instruction, which is a support system in any higher institution of
learning, was to assist students who were having challenges in some specific
modules. Therefore, for SI implementation to be effective, there should be
collaborative learning among all the participants, including tutors where
everyone is involved, as we all know that “learning is doing”. In this process, it
will be easier for any tutor to know where students were having challenges that
can be attended to immediately. After this study, the researchers discovered that
collaborative learning was fun, interesting and made teaching and learning to be
meaningful in the hand of a skillful tutor. Apart from been interesting, students
were eager to attend the next class and will not want to miss it for anything.
Collaborative learning has advantages such as students developing higher-level
thinking, improved communication skills, and they are able to conduct
themselves and also develop leadership skills. SI believes that collaborative
learning is a method that both student and tutor could look into because of the
attributes to enhance the academic performance of students. The esponses from
the co-participants are as follows:

226
Participant B1: “On the issue of not participating, students need to be

encouraged to take their tutorials seriously. Most of them think that it’s
just a way of punishing first-year students.”
Participant B2: “On the issue of lack of flow of information-all the
stakeholders involved must have a workshop/training where they are told
to work together because they all need to collaborate in order to have
effective tutorials sessions.”
Participant C1: “The issue of communication there is need for the
tutorial team to emphasise the importance of proper planning so that
planning can be consistence between the two because communication is
key to ensure that the tutors can be able to facilitate the relevant content
in the tutorials.”
Participant C2: “Flow of information among all the stakeholders
involved must have a workshop/training where they are told to work
together because they all need to collaborate to have effective tutorials
sessions.”
Participant D1: “Most of the time the students do not show up if you
ask they blame the lecturers that they were not introduced.” “If you dig
deeper, you will realise that there is no communication between the tutors
and lecturers are not okay.”
The comments from participant B1 about students not participating in the tutorial
session in my understanding, he/she was saying that if students could be
encouraged, maybe there will be a change in the way they view tutorials. It was
believed that first-year students see tutorials as a way of punishment, and because
of that, they see no reason to engage during a session that was supposed to be
collaborative learning. Since we are discussing the solutions to SI, one of the
suggestions is student’s encouragement, according to the participant, could be
one of the solutions. Participant B2 suggested that all the stakeholders involved
in SI should be having workshops/training regularly. Since the lack of
communication and collaborative engagement was mentioned to be part of the
problems facing SI.
Furthermore, Participant B2 believed that if SI personnel, such as SI coordinator,

lecturer, tutor and tutees (students) could hold a workshop often to discuss
challenges that tutor faced during the tutorial and provide solutions, to raise
issues related to tutorials and how they can support one another in assisting
students who attend the tutorial. According to the statement, it sometimes
happened that tutors do go to class without knowledge of what to facilitate, and
this made tutors to be ridiculed, but if there is meeting from time-to-time, among
these people, indeed, students who attend tutorial will be motivated and eager to
always attend. With this solution, the academic performance of first-year students
will be enhanced through SI, and teaching and learning will also be effective. I
strongly agree with them the above statements because if there is effective
communication among all the stakeholders, workshops from time to time, and
proper planning, certainly SI will be enhanced, and the academic performance
will definitely be improved.

227
The collaborative engagement was, therefore, found to be one of the suggested

solutions to the SI implementation. Collaborative engagement could be in the
form of peer learning, group work, cooperative learning, etc. Aminneh and Ast
(2015) said that when learning under the assumption of Social Constructivism,
knowledge should be constructed through students interacting with one another
because knowledge does not take place in isolation, but rather in a social context.
Social Constructivism states that students are supposed to be critical thinkers and
constructors of their knowledge among themselves through collaborative
engagement (Kuka, 2000).
7. Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the findings, we, therefore, concluded that the challenges facing the
implementation of SI include inadequate planning, overcrowded as a result of
over enrolment, lack of communication, and collaborative engagement. In that
manner, the suggested solutions to these challenges remain training and
retraining of SI personnel, collaborative engagement and communication, and
Up-to-date evaluation and feedback. The study concluded that if the suggested
solutions can be implemented, then SI implementation will be possible in a
university. In summary, the study concluded that using Supplemental Instruction
to enhance the academic performance of first-year students is doable if the above
findings can be implemented in university. Of course, the use of SI in a university
as a supporting educational system is not a strange programme. Still, the aspect
of using it to enhance first-year students academic performance needs more
attention from universities. The study recommends that supplemental Instruction
should be prioritised to improve first-year students academic performance. The
research also suggests that both students (tutees) and tutors need to be motivated
in any form. There is a need for constant training and retraining of all SI personnel
and especially tutors.
However, the following recommendations were made according to the findings:

1. Recommendation for University: Those universities with the same academic
experience ensure that educational facilities such as mentioned in the findings
are provided. Effective communication among lecturers, tutors, and tutees is
essential as this was found to be a barrier that has to improve. Adequate
funding is a must for universities to run smoothly as it is supposed to be. So
the study suggests that universities should improve in this aspect. During
winter, it is always challenging to write as most universities in South Africa
write the midterm examination this time. Therefore, the study suggests that
more classrooms are built to accommodate a large number of students and
should be conducive enough for both staff and at least 1000 capacity of
students since the campus is growing fast. Alternatively, universities should
consider capping the number of first-year students.
2. Recommendation for Supplemental Instruction Department: That any
department responsible for the management and operation of SI system
should ensure that there are training and retraining for their staff and
tutors/facilitators. Not only that, but they must also device new meaning
following dynamism as regards university environmental factors and change.
Since the department is responsible for the recruitment of tutors, they must

228
ensure that competent tutors are recruited. The provision of feedback and
evaluation from time-to-time among the staff and the tutors must also be
ensured. The study also suggests that tutorials should be made compulsory
for not only students who have difficulties in some modules, but especially
first-year students. Attendance should also be taken and monitored by SI
coordinator. If a university wants to enhance students performance, there
should be adequate planning on the ground.
3. Recommendation for Tutor/Facilitator: Tutors must ensure that they prepare
before going for tutorial sessions as lack of preparation was mentioned as one
of the reasons why tutees feel discouraged to attend tutorials. They should
incorporate various strategies to engage their tutees to work either
collaboratively or individually. They should be accountable and responsible
for each tutee under their leadership.
4. Recommendation for Tutee/Student: That tutorials should be seen as a
roadmap to their success and not as a punishment. They should always see
tutorials as a platform where they can improve themselves both academically
and socially. Since tutorial sessions are organised for students, then it should
be seen as a place to ask questions and participate collaboratively in any form
of academic discussion.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 231-244, May 2020
Aesthetic Education as a Topical Direction of

Preparation of a Modern Specialist
Olena F. Sbitnieva
Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2201-2120
Liudmyla M. Sbitnieva
Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, Starobilsk, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5370-531X
Hanna E. Ovcharenko
Kyiv Municipal Academy of Variety and Circus Art, Kyiv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8648-6694
Victoria S. Furkalo and Svitlana S. Bondar

Pavlo Tychyna Uman State Pedagogical University, Uman, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0502-3207
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6159-2159
Abstract. This article explores the problem of aesthetic education and

focuses on issues related to its implementation in the educational
process of a modern educational institution. The content and features of
modern aesthetic education in the system of professional training of
future specialists are covered. The study was conducted during the
2018/2019 academic year. The experimental group consisted of 105
students aged between 17-19 years, while the control group consisted of
155 students of the same ages. As part of this summative assessment, a
survey was conducted with the help of a questionnaire, which involved
a total of 260 students from both universities, who answered the
questions specifying the main shortcomings of modern educational
activities. It is known that one of the conditions that interferes with
aesthetic development of future specialists is the lack of free time, due to
the fact that most students work in their free time after classes and the
lack of motivation to participate in classroom discussions. In the process
of conducting summative assessment with the help of psychological
methods, the main attention was focused on communicative and
organizational abilities, empathy, creativity and reflection. It is noted
that among the priorities of educational activities at the faculty, it is
important to create appropriate aesthetic conditions for the active
development of students. Based on the survey, it was found that the
main methods in aesthetic education are training, creative meetings with
experts, artists and writers; practicals (method of assignments, setting of

232
practical tasks - involvement in creative activity); preparation of

excursions to museums, theatres, cinemas and the creation of thematic
exhibitions. It is determined that studying at the university is not only
preparation for future professional activities, but also the formation of
character, inculcation of aesthetic and moral values, sustenance of
culture and the development of creative thinking. The use of relevant
international experience in the processes of creative preparation of
young people plays an important role in ensuring the effectiveness of
training and aesthetic education of students.
Keywords: aesthetic education; spirituality; methods; creativity; values
1. Introduction
Due to Ukraine’s integration into the European educational space, modern
education should be aimed at shaping the national spiritual revival of student
youth. The solution of urgent problems of becoming a harmonious personality
and shaping its civic consciousness, the ability to understand and multiply the
values of spiritual culture is of particular importance. In the 21st century, higher
education in the world educational space strives for internationalization and
international integration, while preserving its specifics. This occurs in the field of
common approaches to the development of a comprehensively developed
personality, system, content, method, forms of education, important moral and
ethical values and directions of the educational process, in the tendencies of
reforming education, innovation, creation of joint projects (Bitaev, 2004).
In addition, it should be emphasized that the emergence of spiritual

impoverishment in young people is currently observed in the educational field.
This problem is currently widespread, but for countries of different levels of
socio-economic development, the possibilities of progress in the educational
field in different pedagogical technologies may not be similar (Batrak, 2015). To
solve these problems, it is essential to use aesthetic values by future specialists.
Therefore, the main task facing the higher school today is to educate a highly
cultured person, a true professional, with the purpose of further building their
lives according to the laws of harmony and beauty of the world. It follows that
building a process for the effective organization of aesthetic education of future
specialists is important in pedagogical education (Skrypnikova, 2015).
This process is ensured by the main provisions presented in the National

Doctrine for the Development of Education of Ukraine in the 21st Century, the
National State Comprehensive Program of Aesthetic Education, which traces the
need for consistent and effective solution of the problems of aesthetic education
of student youth, development of planetary thinking, preparation for its
comprehensive world perception and creative knowledge of the aesthetic
phenomena of life, works of art. Therefore, the above urges the problem of
theoretical study of aesthetic education in the context of contemporary needs of
Ukrainian society, substantiation of already existing concepts that take into
account the aesthetic development of the future specialist, consideration of
appropriate pedagogical conditions in order to increase the level of aesthetic
culture of student youth is becoming urgent.

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2. Research methodology
The study is prolonged. It was conducted using general scientific theoretical,
empirical and statistical methods of research and analysis of results according to
the objective of each stage.
2.1. Research Design

The influence of aesthetic education on the formation of the aesthetic
development of the future specialist is analyzed using aesthetic-oriented
interactive methods, forms and means. In conducting the research, we were
guided by modern requirements to the methods selected in accordance with the
goal and objectives of the study. The following research methods were used to
solve our research objectives: analysis and generalization of scientific and
methodological literature and documents, pedagogical observation and
pedagogical experiment and sociological & psychological research methods.
The analysis and generalization of scientific and methodological literature on the

topic of this research made it possible to systematize, comprehend, compare the
scientific significance of specialized information from publications of foreign
scholars. Attention was paid to the following issues: requirements of
professional activity of future specialists and development of students’ personal
and professional qualities, study of students’ attitude to aesthetic education,
study of peculiarities of organization of content, forms and methods of aesthetic-
oriented educational activities.
2.2. Sociological methods

Survey techniques were used: interview and questionnaire. Student
questionnaire has been developed. The survey was conducted in accordance
with the main provisions and requirements for sociological research in order to:
determine the attitude of future specialists to the problems of organization of
aesthetic education, identify the positive and negative sides of the educational
process and evaluate the effectiveness of aesthetic education, its sections and
forms. The method of conversation was used to get acquainted with students,
study the person, identify strengths and weaknesses in their personal
preparation and professional training, for feedback on the correction of the
organization and content of aesthetic education of student youth.
The pedagogical observations were conducted at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko

National University, Institute of Culture and Arts in order to identify several
aspects of the study of student youth, namely: revealing the content of
psychological and pedagogical conditions of formation of a modern specialist in
the process of aesthetic education, identifying the relationship between the
educational process and aesthetic education, studying the process of formation
of personal and professional qualities as a basis for successful professional
activity of future specialists and improving the process of aesthetic education,
which will contribute to the effective formation of personal and professional
qualities of specialists by means, methods and forms of work.
The study was organized according to the requirements and was carried out
during the 2018/2019 academic year at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National

234
University, Institute of Culture and Arts with 105 students aged between 17-19
years (experimental group). The control group consisted of 155 students aged
between 17-19 years from the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts at
the Faculty of Performing Arts.
The experimental part of the study was divided into several stages. At the first
stage, the search, analysis and generalization of data of scientific,
methodological and specialized literature and documents were carried out. The
research work of this stage has allowed revealing problems of educational work
of modern youth and passing to the substantiation and development of their
vision of aesthetic education of modern specialists. At the second stage, in the
course of the summative assessment, a survey of students of the 1st-2nd years of
study (n = 105) studying at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University,
the Institute of Culture and Arts was conducted in order to analyze the current
state and identify problems of aesthetic education in an educational institution.
Based on the analysis of the literature, the answers of the respondents, the data
obtained and the results of the pedagogical experiment, the program of aesthetic
education was theoretically substantiated in order to improve the personal and
professional formation of future specialists. The structure of aesthetic-oriented
educational activity was developed, priority personal and professional qualities
were determined, comparative analysis of performed control exercises was
carried out. A formative assessment was conducted to test the effectiveness of
the proposed aesthetic education program for modern specialists. The results
were compared in the control group (155 students) and the experimental group
(105 students).
At the third stage, the results of the research and experimental work were
analyzed and generalized, the conclusions and practical recommendations were
drawn. The pedagogical experiment was conducted in order to scientifically
substantiate, develop and experimentally test students’ impressions of the forms
of educational activities.
2.3. Analysis of key research and publications

A detailed analysis of the scientific and pedagogical literature shows that the
main aspects of aesthetic education were considered in their scientific works by
well-known teachers. It should be noted that philosophical foundations of
aesthetic education (Bitaev, 2004; Gurina, 2005); cultural aspects (Petrova, 2007);
pedagogical aspects (Skrypnikova, 2015) made significant contributions to the
study of the problem. Important contribution was also made by foreign scholars
Kumar (2014), Maravilhas (2015), who considered the humanitarization of
education as a process of its culturalization in their works. The objective of the
article was to analyze the essence and peculiarities of aesthetic education as a
topical direction of preparation of a modern specialist.

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3. Results
It is well known that the main purpose of students in higher educational
institutions is to acquire professional knowledge. But it should be noted that
higher educational institutions prepare not only for future professional activity,
but also for the formation of moral, emotional and aesthetic values, etc.
Therefore, a university shall introduce activities for further formation of
aesthetic attitude of future specialists towards the world and themselves in the
first place, to the environment, and the desire to join the world of values, to
improve themselves physically and spiritually, to enhance aesthetic qualities
and so on. On the basis of the analysis of scientific and pedagogical literature
and practice, various interpretations of the essence of the concept of “aesthetic
education” were analyzed, which are presented in more detail in Table 1.
Table 1: Scholars’ views on determination of “aesthetic education”

Item
Authors Definition of the concept of “aesthetic education”
No.
the process of objectification and appropriation of aesthetic
Shevchenko values by the subject through formation of aesthetic attitude
1
(2010) towards them and intensification of creative artistic and
aesthetic activity
the process of acquiring artistic knowledge and skills; a means
of personal development based on the identification of: creative
Sharata and
abilities of future specialists, their professional abilities,
2 Kedis
musical, aesthetic needs and interests based on the historical
(2018)
experience of their people, acceptance of multicultural space,
value attitude to ethno-national specifics
purposeful process aimed at developing a modern socially and
creatively active person with a conscious life position, formed
Batrak
3 on the examples of eternal human values and high culture, able
(2015)
to critically perceive reality and bring beauty to the process and
result of life in all its manifestations
sees the essence of aesthetic education in the formation of a
“universal worldview of a man, combining both artistic and
moral, thus representing the unity of truth, good and beauty of
Bitaev human being” and states that “aesthetic education based on art
4
(2004) seeks to develop the person universally, transferring experience
to the individual, and through it - the total experience of
human being. In this way, the process of human creation goes
on, its ability to think is activated, a sensual culture is formed.”
Analyzing the views of scholars, we note that according to the educational

program of training future specialists, which is aimed at personal and
professional development of an individual, the acquisition of integrated
knowledge, skills, formation of an educated individual capable of self-
development and self-knowledge, professional mobility, successful adaptation
to changes in different spheres of life and labor management in a competitive
market economy. But first of all, in today’s society, the development of the
spiritual and aesthetic qualities of future specialists is worth consideration.

236
Therefore, the main purpose of aesthetic education in educational institutions is

the formation of an aesthetic culture - the opportunity for aesthetic mastery of
the world, spiritual growth of personality, assimilation and transformation of
the world and himself. The main result of successful aesthetic education is a
comprehensively and harmoniously developed individual, which combines high
ideological beliefs, moral qualities, aesthetic values (Ushakova, 2015). In higher
educational institutions, the main tasks of aesthetic education of the future
specialist are the formation of creative abilities, aesthetic motives, interests;
aesthetic concepts, views and beliefs and true aesthetic and spiritual values;
development of students’ aesthetic tastes; acquaintance with national and world
cultural heritage, with contemporary art; forming the readiness of graduates of
higher educational institutions to introduce aesthetic education in their future
life and the improvement of artistic literacy (Tserklevych & Kyrylyuk, 2015).
The following aesthetic components are used in the educational process of

higher education institutions during aesthetic education: aesthetic perception,
aesthetic attitude, aesthetic feeling, aesthetic judgment, aesthetic ideal, aesthetic
taste and aesthetic activity. In the process of pedagogical activity, it is necessary
to include the general culture, intelligence of the teacher and the student;
emotional saturation and expressiveness of educational material; the culture of
thought and the beauty of the world and the knowledge of arts and aesthetic
experiences (Shevchenko, 2010). The aesthetic education during which the
aesthetic culture is formed and the creative abilities of future specialists should
be realized in the interaction of lecturers, mentors, tutors, advisors and students.
Within the pedagogical process, it is the supervisors and the mentors who are
the subjects of aesthetic education and the students are the objects of education
(Radkevych, 2000). Lecturers, mentors and supervisors play an important role in
the process of aesthetic education of the future specialist, since a comprehensive
and harmonious formation of students depends on personal and professional
abilities of the subjects of education (Tserklevych & Kyrylyuk, 2015).
The next step in the summative experiment was a survey involving a total of 260
students from the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute
of Culture and Arts, and the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts,
which identified the major drawbacks of modern educational activities work
when providing answers to the questions. The results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: The main disadvantages of modern educational work (%)

Experimental Control
Disadvantages
group group
Lack of proper pedagogical conditions 24 13
Lack of free time for classes 42 19
Lack of motivation to participate in aesthetic activities 22 42
Insufficient attention of lecturers and supervisors to
5 7
educational activities
No need for aesthetic education, because they work daily 5 8
Other 2 11

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One of the conditions that hinder future professionals from aesthetic

development is known to be lack of free time due to the fact that most students
work in their free time after classes and lack of motivation to take part in
sessions held by tutors. In the process of conducting the summative assessment
with the help of psychological methods, the main attention was focused on the
communicative and organizational abilities, which are of great importance for
modern specialists, since communicativeness synthesizes various elements of
the outlook, moral, professional, physical and emotional-volitional qualities of
student youth, as well as special knowledge, skills and abilities that influence
the means of transferring, using and storing information. Reflection, analysis of
one’s professional activity, actions, behavior; critical analysis and determination
of ways of constructive improvement of their activity is carried out with the help
of professional reflection through the Method of Studying the Level of
Reflection.
An integral feature of the future specialist’s personality as one element of the

development of aesthetic and moral values is creativity, which is manifested in
the student’s ability to think outside the box and behavior, as well as to the
awareness and development of professional and life experience. On this basis,
we can say that thinking is related to the accumulation of facts that are
promising for science at the present stage of society development. According to
Petrova (2007) and Belyalova (2014), one of the components of a research culture
is exploratory thinking as the ability to generate new knowledge. They
emphasize that research thinking is related to self-exploration, research skills
and personality traits that are part of the research culture. Kumar (2014)
believes, that research thinking is a logical and rational way of thinking that
prompts us to explore every aspect of emerging problems. Therefore, the
method of Vartega “Circle” was used in the study.
Effective professional activity is supported by empathy as “understanding the

emotional state, penetration into the experience of another person.” The
Methods of Diagnostics of the Level of Empathic Abilities were used for this
purpose. The use of empathy in teaching helps students succeed, positively
engages with students, enhances the social and emotional component of learning
(Warren, 2017), motivates and enhances student performance (Arghode, Yalvac
& Liew, 2013). Based on the analysis of the results of the Motivation to Learning
at Higher Educational Institution methodology, it is found that the majority of
students of higher educational institution seek only a diploma of higher
education, but do not want to develop or to form an aesthetic culture for
mastering their professional activity. Attention was paid to motivation,
reflection, creativity, empathy, communication and organizational skills.
Another methodology was the Self-actualization Test, where all students have a
sufficient level (58%) on the scale of “value orientations”, thus confirming their
orientation to the society in which they live, to its ideals, norms, rules. In
accordance with the society’s guidelines, youth builds their value system based
on their needs and motives, i.e. the value system and its hierarchy are individual
for each student. The lowest scores on the cognition and creativity scales were
obtained by the specialists of the Kyiv National University of Culture and Arts,

238
while the students - the future specialists of the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko
National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts had a sufficient level of
these indicators, which can be explained by the inertness of many students, their
personal transformation in the conditions of the modern society, which are
manifested in the loss of or indistinct awareness of their own professional
prospects after graduation, over-emphasis on material incentives to perform one
or another activity. Data on the results of the study for each of the methods are
provided in Table 3.
Table 3: Comparative characteristics of the results of the study of future specialists
Experimental group, % Control group, %
Н С В Н С В
Communicative 62 11 27 41 21 38
Organizational abilities 58 15 27 53 19 34
Reflection 62 62 26 11 59 31
Creativity 29 29 49 22 26 52
Empathy 64 64 28 8 59 23
Acquisition of knowledge 47 42 11 55 39 16
Motivation
Mastery of profession 46 38 16 31 44 25
Getting a diploma 3 15 82 4 12 84
Analyzing the data obtained, we find that students have productive educational
activities. Having analyzed the results presented above, we can draw the
following conclusion: the development of the personal and professional qualities
of future specialists is not sufficient for the formation of aesthetic culture.
4. Discussion
The development of techniques for the use of interactive technologies for higher
education (Bodin, Marty & Carron, 2011) are of particular importance for our
study. The use of educational games as a way to model the conditional
professional environment makes it possible to “include” the student in the
scientific model of the theory of professional activity (Bellotti et al., 2011). The
effectiveness of the process of aesthetic education of future specialists depends
on the intended use of interactive and creative methods of work by lecturers,
supervisors, mentors, such as a case-method, round-table method, project
method, discussions, business games, role-playing games, supervisor’s hours,
conversations, creative competitions, musical evenings, exhibitions of creative
works and the like. The main means of aesthetic education of students are
education, work, life, communication, creativity, literature and art.

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The Institute of Culture and Arts paid considerable attention to the formation of
aesthetic culture and tastes in students. Among the advantages of educational
activities at the faculty, the basic is building educational process, which is aimed
at comprehensive and harmonious development, creative self-development and
self-realization of a young specialist, development of creativity and creative
thinking. This is implemented in the process of cultural and aesthetic activities,
which helps the student further increase the level of aesthetic culture and
acquire a creative potential. Moreover, creativity has been at the heart of the
innovations underlying student competitiveness (Chen & Chen 2012). The
creative thinking style of people has become a platform for new economic and
social trends (Černetič, 2012), information society (Maravilhas, 2015) and a
creative economy (Araya & Peters, 2010). According to Radovic (2016), creative
thinking is a synergy of cognition and personality traits that enables a person to
apply his or her intellectual abilities and knowledge to solve a problem using a
figurative and experimental approach.
Aesthetic education involves the development of knowledge, the ability to

multiply the cultural and artistic heritage of the people, to feel and reproduce
the beautiful things in their lives, the development of aesthetic needs and
feelings, moral and aesthetic values, as well as creative activities (Petrova, 2007).
It should be noted that during the aesthetic education at the Luhansk Taras
Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts, the project
method Moral and Aesthetic Culture of the Modern Specialist was implemented
in order to form productive knowledge. The purpose was to teach students to
think, find and solve problems independently, using knowledge from different
fields, to form integrative skills, to predict results and possible consequences of
different solutions and the ability to establish cause and effect relationships.
Training Development of Aesthetic Culture includes exercises such as emotions
and creativity, dialogue with art, emotional intelligence and others. This was
conducted with the purpose of assimilating knowledge, developing skills,
abilities, formation of attitudes and increasing competence in a certain sphere of
life. Professional training for future specialists becomes more effective if there is
an active interaction between students and teaching staff in the educational
process and if they learn and practice these skills.
Therefore, the use of training contributes to the overall formation of a culture of

interaction. Viewing and discussing videos on the topic, Beautiful and Ugly in
Art, helps to cover artistic problems and the problems of aesthetic education of
modern students. The conference on the topic, Formation of the Aesthetic Culture of
Student Youth - the Key to Successful Harmonious Personality, was held with the
participation of teachers and students, which discussed the problems and
prospects of aesthetic education in a modern educational institution through
questions and answers. In addition, the Word about Ukraine Speech Contest was
held on the Day of National Unity of Ukraine and the commemoration of the
Heavenly Hundred Heroes (people killed during the 2014 Revolution). Students
presented their patriotic speeches with emotions, sincerity, extraordinary
passion and dedication, which impressed those present. Furthermore, students
had the opportunity to visit the Park of Partisan Glory at the Chervonyi Khutir in
Kyiv.

240
An excursion to the memorial park and an interesting story about the heroic past
of our people made young people think about the fates of those who gave their
lives for the sake of future generations; the University Open Photo Contest “The
World through the Eyes of Students”; the briefing was held: Aesthetic
Competence as One of the Important Components of Professional Development
of a Future Specialist during which the following issues were analyzed and
discussed: “Aesthetic culture in the system of professional activity”, “Aesthetic
culture and worldview orientations of the future profession”, “Aesthetic taste
and aesthetic thinking”, “Aesthetic knowledge in the chosen profession”. During
the lesson, students were provided with information material on the structure of
aesthetic culture, analyzed the differences between aesthetic outlook and
aesthetic culture, detailing each component of the structure of aesthetic culture.
In order to work independently, students were asked to analyze each of the
components of aesthetic culture in accordance with the scientific approaches of
contemporary national and foreign scholars, etc.
The educational process in higher educational institutions is aimed at the

aesthetic development of an individual. Each subject taught in higher
educational institutions has opportunities for aesthetic education of a modern
specialist. All forms of educational activity - lectures, seminars, practical classes,
trainings - are characterized by a certain level of aesthetic load. It is individual
classes that not only give knowledge but create creative thinking. Lecturers,
supervisors teach students in the process of educational activities to see the
beauty in their actions, to understand the aesthetic aspects in joint activity, in the
process of teamwork. For example, in social studies, lecturers have the
opportunity to show students all the beauty of the enthusiastic and heroic. In
addition, the study of such subjects as Ethics, Cultural Studies, Aesthetics,
Ukrainian and Foreign Languages, Psychology and Acting Skills play a
significant role in the aesthetic education of modern specialists (Shevchenko,
2010). The work of Keller et al. (2016) attracted much attention as they believed
that the teacher has to invest his time, his love and his energy in the
development of the student’s personality. In order to establish a harmonious
relationship with students, consultations were organized with the supervisors,
where they created a trustful atmosphere and helped solve the educational
problems of preparation.
Consultations with students were conducted on the basis of the following

questions: “How do you see yourself in 5 years in your future professional
activity?”, “How is it possible to form your own aesthetic culture?”, “What are
the problems in the aesthetic education of your higher educational institution?”
Thus, the high schools use various forms of aesthetic education (traditional and
innovative), which were determined by the creative and innovative approach of
lecturers, supervisors, mentors, and tutors. In the process of educational work,
an aesthetically favorable atmosphere was created. It was aimed at the
effectiveness of aesthetic education of students at the faculty. This ensures the
development of a high level of aesthetic culture of a modern specialist. In
addition, famous cultural figures were involved in educational events, cultural
meetings. Also, cultural excursions with artists and writers were organized. That

241
is, based on the literature (Kavanagh et al., 2019), it should be noted that
lecturers have to independently choose such methods, forms and tools that they
believe will help students develop their aesthetic culture, spirituality, aesthetic
taste, creativity, etc. In this area, various educational activities of aesthetic
orientation were of great importance, conducted by lecturers, supervisors,
mentors at the student dormitory, namely: Student’s Day, Culture of
Communication in the Dormitory, Respect your Roommates, Exterior
Appearance and Culture of Behavior, a contest for the best dormitory room.
It should be noted that a survey was conducted on the topic: “Your Impressions
of the Forms of Educational Activities” among students of the Luhansk Taras
Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and Arts. The survey
involved 260 students. Analyzing the results obtained, we find that the positive
influence of the introduced forms and methods of educational activities, which
contributed to the cultural and aesthetic development and acquisition of moral
and aesthetic values by the students, their desire to achieve the aesthetic ideal,
the formation of aesthetic feelings, needs, tastes, that make it possible to increase
the efficiency of forming manners in modern specialists.
Based on the survey, it was determined that the following methods were most
effective in aesthetic educational activities: (trainings – 70% of respondents),
creative meetings with artists, writers – 85%; practical (method of assignments,
projects, case study, setting practical tasks – engaging in active creative activity –
68%); preparation of excursions to museums, theatres, cinemas; creation of
thematic exhibitions – 75%, briefing (56% of respondents), business and role-
playing games (77% of respondents), the students like lectures the least (38%),
because, as students stated, they occupy a passive position in this form of
activities. The developed criteria and the system of psychological and
pedagogical tests and methods of diagnostics were used to obtain the necessary
data for determining the levels of formation of components of readiness for
aesthetic development. At this stage, the students of the control and
experimental groups were diagnosed. The data obtained during this diagnosis
are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Diagnosis results
% of persons at the appropriate level
Criterion Professional Professional Professional
EG % CG % EG % CG % EG % CG %
Communicative 1.72% 29.31% 3.45% 14.65% 42.24% 8.62%

Moral and
2.58% 31.03% 13.79% 15.52% 31.03% 6.03%
aesthetic
Psychological 0.86% 38.79% 18.96% 9.48% 27.58% 4.31%
Creative 1.72% 12.93% 15.52% 31.89% 30.17% 7.76%

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4.1. Results of the pedagogical experiment

The results obtained indicate that it is advisable to divide students by three
levels (basic, professional, and professionally specialized) according to four
determined criteria. While at the stage of the summative assessment students
with the basic level of communication criterion amounted to 62%, after the
formative assessment they amounted to 1.72%, i.e. by 60.28% less. The formation
of levels of moral and aesthetic criterion during the ascertaining experiment and
after conducting the formative experiment is of particular interest. The data
obtained during this diagnosis are presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Formation of the levels of moral and aesthetic criteria
% of persons at the relevant level

Levels
Summative assessment Formative assessment
Basic 47% 2.58%
Professional 38% 13.79%
Professionally specialized 9% 31.03%
The total number of students with a professionally-specialized level for moral

and aesthetic criteria increased due to positive changes resulting from
displacement of those students who had professional and basic levels: basic -
47%, after the formative assessment the figure became 2.58%; professional - 38%,
after the experiment - 13,79%; professionally specialized - 9%, after conducting a
formative assessment of students – 31.03%. Future specialists with a
professionally specialized (high) level of psychological criterion were
characterized by personal maturity, emotional equilibrium, reflection and
empathy, but students still experience some difficulties with independent
assessment of some problem situations and conflict resolution. Thus, EG
students at the Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University underwent
qualitative and quantitative changes due to the introduction of educational
aesthetic activities, application of criteria and levels; implementation of
trainings, conducting of classes, lectures using interactive methods, etc.
Therefore, the objectives of the management of the educational institution,

lecturers, supervisors on aesthetic education are the development of special
methods of aesthetic orientation, intensification of educational activities to
involve students in various forms of educational activities, the organization of
meetings with famous artists, writers, holding all-university competitions,
trainings, role-playing and business games, organization of cultural leisure in
the form of excursions to cultural monuments, and visits to the theatres and
museums (Batrak, 2015). Therefore, the following indicators play an important
role in the effective aesthetic education in higher educational institutions: the
development of the aesthetic theory, which is the basis of aesthetic education;
aesthetic orientation of lecturers in the educational process in order to develop
the moral and ethical values of a modern specialist and spiritual values that will
be important for the Ukrainian society (Skrypnikova, 2015).

243
5. Conclusions
Aesthetic education is interpreted as the purposeful formation of aesthetic
attitude of a person to reality. This is a specific type of socially significant
activity carried out by the subject in relation to the object in order to develop a
system of orientation in the world of moral and aesthetic values as regards the
ideas established in modern society, about their nature and purpose
(Yarmachenko, 2001). It has been determined that aesthetic education plays an
important role in the system of professional training of modern specialists,
develops moral and aesthetic values, creative thinking and spiritual abilities that
future specialists will be able to use in the personal and professional sphere. It is
also noted that lecturers, supervisors, mentors, and tutors have a special role in
aesthetic education. Creating aesthetic conditions involves the joint activity of
lecturers and students. Analyzing the process of aesthetic education at the
Luhansk Taras Shevchenko National University, the Institute of Culture and
Arts shows that the institution provides training of aesthetically competent
specialists and forms a comprehensively developed, spiritual and cultural
personality. In the process of education, individuals develop a system of values
that structures the spiritual rebirth of the individual. It is spirituality as the basis
of aesthetic education that helps people to aesthetically perceive the surrounding
reality and develops the ability to be creative, to develop and use moral and
aesthetic values, spiritual abilities in the professional sphere, in life, in actions
and behavior. As a spatial limitation of the orientation process, the educational
institution acts as the center of the society for the student in which he lives and
acts in the period of self-determination. The process of formation of aesthetic
orientations can be represented as the process of an individual ascending to
aesthetic values. This aspect of the problem can become the basis for further
research in the field of vocational education in order to organize the aesthetic,
spiritual and moral education of students.
6. Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all members of the University for this research that we were
able to complete it smoothly.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 245-259, May 2020
Pedagogical Training System of Future Social

Workers in Ukraine: Experimental Study
Hanna A. Ridkodubska
Khmelnytskyi National University, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0561-6835
Oksana Ya. Romanyshyna and Oksana Y. Karabin

Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2887-5023
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8759-948X
Nataliia V. Kazakova
Khmelnytskyi Humanitarian Pedagogical Academy, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1499-3448
Halyna S. Tarasenko
Communal Higher Educational Institution “Vinnytsia Academy of Continuing
Education”, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9394-2600
Abstract. This research is intended to reveal the study and experimental

testing of the efficiency of the pedagogical system of training future social
workers for professional mobility. The article substantiates theoretical
and methodical framework for the training future social workers for
professional mobility (PM). The pedagogical experiment was conducted
in 2015-2019. The pedagogical training system of future social workers for
PM was developed based on modern innovative pedagogical
technologies. The result of this research is a well-ordered system of
interrelated elements of the educational process that has a particular
organization and structure. The structural-logical model combines
independent subsystems represented by conceptual, technological, and
performance evaluation structural blocks. As a result, the pedagogical
conditions of training future social workers for PM was substantiated. It
involved the creation of a positive motivational attitude of the future
social workers towards PM, the introduction and application of
innovative technologies of training future social workers for PM and the
interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional subjects.
Keywords: future social workers; professional mobility; pedagogical

system; structural-functional model; social workers’ readiness

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1. Introduction
Globalisation and integration processes are the essential features of modern
society. They lead to the deepening of international relations, modernisation of
processes in various spheres of human activity. Nowadays the labour market
imposes requirements on the future specialists who are focused on success and
continuous self-improvement. They should also be able to adapt quickly to new
market demands, make independent and responsible decisions and work in the
multicultural environment and multinational corporations.
Thus, the Ukrainian system of professional education is aimed at updating the

training opportunities for professional mobility (PM) of students as one of the
main tools of efficiency of the Bologna process implementation. The importance
of ensuring the continuity of the educational process is argued in the laws of
Ukraine (Legislation of Ukraine, 2014; 2017; 2019). The issues of the development
of young people’s and adults’ motivation for lifelong learning play a significant
role in these documents. This problem is focused on the Concepts of Continuing
Teacher Development (Euroosvita, 2012) and in research papers of Ukrainian and
foreign scholars (Agasisti, 2017; Baldwin & Gould, 2016; Bogdanova, 2013;
Cubberley, 2018; Sushentseva, 2017). They interpret knowledge about training as
a new concept of professional activity in terms of technological and technocratic
impacts on the quality of professional assistance by future specialists in the social
sphere.
In Ukrain the process of developing a new educational system is focused on

personal development and integration into the international educational space. In
all spheres, especially in the social one, there are qualities of a specialist that
become increasingly important. They include: adequate perception and mobile
response to new professional tasks, social responsibility, dynamism,
constructiveness, a developed sense of rapid adaptation in professional activity,
independence and efficiency in decision-making, the readiness to adapt quickly
to new working conditions and other qualities which determine a person’s
readiness for social and professional.
Professional mobility has been studied in sociology, particularly in the classical

works of sociologists, such as Zaslavskaya and Ryvkina (1991), Lipset (2012),
Sorokin (1992), Shubkin (2010) and others. The problem of training for PM was
covered in the studies of Ukrainian and foreign scholars. The future specialists’
training for professional activity (Bila, 2013) and personal mobility is
studied (Bogdanova, 2013). The other studies focus on professional mobility of
future specialists in economics (Ivanchenko, 2005) and social work (Kapska, 2005),
social education (Polishchuk, 2012), professional mobility principles (Prima, 2010)
and social mobility in developed countries (Romanovska, 2013; Sushentseva,
2017). The conditions determining professional mobility are identified by (Blau,
1964; 1977; 1995; Boddy, Cameron & Petrie, 2006). Students’ mobility is a
precondition of academic achievements (Demie, 2002). However, mobility change
throughout life (Dominelli, 2007; 2010; Ultee & Luijkx, 1990). Therefore, the
modern social work theory change (Payne, 2015).

247
Therefore, the literature review helped identify the gap in the existing research
and studies. The recent studies do not cover the experimental test of future social
workers for professional mobility in Ukraine, as well as the modern pedagogical
technologies and tools to be integrated in the teaching and learning processes in
universities. The aims and objectives of this article is to study and experimentally
test the efficiency of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for
professional mobility.
Research objectives:
1. Analyse the efficiency of training future social workers for professional
mobility.
2. Select and adapt the methods of diagnostics and criteria for measuring the
future social workers’ readiness for professional mobility accepted in
psychological and pedagogical literature.
3. Outline promising directions of the work aimed at training future social
workers for professional mobility.
The main hypotheses connected with testing the efficiency of pedagogical system
based on future social workers sample are the following. H1: the developed
pedagogical system of training future social workers for professional mobility is
more efficient than traditional training pedagogical system. H2: The integration
of new educational technologies in teaching and learning processes in
universities, as well as in the training future social workers for professional
mobility contributed to the increase in professional mobility of students.
2. Research Methods
This research is based on statistical analysis of the results obtained. The first
research stage is bibliometric analysis of scientific papers prepared in the period
of 1964-2020 in order to identify changes occurred in the theory and conceptual
framework. Theoretical background and approach to conduct this research was
chosen on this basis. The bibliometric analysis provides for determining tools for
interpreting the results of the pedagogical experiment based on statistical
analysis. The bibliometric analysis covers the period of the first half of 2015
academic year.
The next stage is the pedagogical experiment conducted during 2015-2019. The
quasi-experimental study provided conducting the research by collecting data
through the questionnaire. Quasi-experiment was used in the study of control
(CG) and experimental (EG) groups, where the variables were added. The
pedagogical experiment is used to measure the cause and effect relationship. The
first stage of pedagogical experiment conducted during the second half of 2015
academic year is determinative. At this stage, representative sample was formed
and empirical data were collected, traditional methods of training future social
workers for PM are analyzed. The statistical analysis was based on mean values,
percentage statistic indicators. The second stage of pedagogical experiment
conducted during 2016 – the first half of 2019 academic year is formative. The
experimental groups were formed at this stage.

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The third stage is statistical analysis carried out in 2019. At this stage, the results
of the experimental study conducted based on identified determinative and
formative research stages were analysed. The accuracy and reliability of the
obtained results was proved based on mathematical statistics tools: mean and
average percentage. The results validity was confirmed by the criterion for the
implication of differences between mean values of the Student’s t-test for
independent samples. The determinative and formative stages of the experiment
were conducted based on six institutions of higher education, where future social
workers obtain their degrees. The determinative stage of the pedagogical
experiment involved 97 students of the 4th academic year in 2014–2015 studying
for Speciality 6.130102 “Social work”, and 18 lecturers, who conducted surveys,
questionnaires, testing, control works and so on. The questionnaires and data
were collected in classes.
The research was conducted with diagnostic tools used by the lecturers and at the
formative stage of the research for students of control (CG) and experimental (EG)
groups. The use of diagnostic tools enables determining the state of the future
social workers’ readiness for PM at four levels, which in the digital equivalent
were indicated as follows: high – 5 scores; optimal – 4 scores; sufficient – 3 scores;
basic – 2 scores.
The pedagogical experiment was conducted based on tools and tests for
diagnostics the professional orientation of future social workers. The next tools
and tests were used:
1. Diagnosis of the research efficiency was carried out using the following
methods: modified Rogov’s method for establishing the professional
orientation of a future social worker.
2. Adapted Yanchuk’s method for determining the ability of students to match
the real and ideal images of “self-identity” (Bodalev, 2010).
3. A modified version of Ivanov’s and Kolobov’s Mast-test for determining the
vital values of future social workers (Fetiskin, Kozlov & Manuilov, 2002).
4. Ehlers’ “Motivation for Success” (Fetiskin et al., 2002) for determining
motivational purposefulness of future social workers.
5. Vershlovskys’s method, which enables revealing the changes of students’
perceptions on the phenomenology of PM by revealing a subjective
understanding of the meaning of the phrase “mobility of the future social
worker”, to clarify the formation of this quality in each student (Vershlovskys,
2002).
6. “Integrated Assessment of a Social Worker’s Efficiency in Vocational Activity”
(the method adapted by Fetiskin et al. (2002)).
7. The adapted method “Something New in Your Life”, which reveals the level
of the student’s readiness for the adoption of new techniques, “Readiness for
Professional Self-Development” method (Kodzhaspirova, 2005).
8. Berezhnova’s adapted methodology-test of “Reflection on Self-
Development”, questionnaire “Diagnosis of realization of the need for Self-
Development (Fetiskin et al., 2002).
9. Test “Are You Independent?” (Moskvina’s (1996) method) for students to
introduce their readiness for professional mobility.

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The next stage is statistical analysis of tests results. The statistical indicators were
used to report the data of pedagogical experiment: mean, standard deviation. To
confirm the validity of the experimental research, an empirical F-criterion was
calculated, the numerical value of which was compared with the theoretical F-
criterion (Fcrit). The reliability of the survey results was used by Cronbach's alpha.
Cronbach's alpha is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related
a set of items are as a group. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. A
“high” value for alpha does not imply that the measure is unidimensional (UCLA,
n./d.). Its values range between zero (0) and one (1.00). A practical way to
interpret the magnitude of a reliability coefficient can be the following scale
(ResearchGate, 2016): 0.81 to 1.00 Very High; 0.61 to 0.80 High; 0.41 to 0.60
Medium; 0.21 to 0.40 Low; 0.01 to 0.20 Very Low. A reliability coefficient is
considered acceptable at least at the upper limit (0.80) of the category “High”.
The research was being conducted from 2015 to 2019 in four stages of scientific-
pedagogical search based on Kamianets-Podilskyi National Ivan Ohiienko
University, Volodymyr Vynnychenko Central Ukrainian State Pedagogical
University, Yurii Fedkovych Chernivtsi National University , the Municipal
Establishment “Kharkiv Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy” of the Kharkiv
Regional Council, Khmelnytskyi National University, Ternopil National
Economic University. At different stages of the study, 233 students were involved
in the experiment: 97 future social workers (students of the 4th academic year,
Speciality 6.130102 “Social work”) at the determinative stage, 68 students of
control groups and 68 students of experimental groups participated in the
formative stage, as well as 18 lecturers of higher educational institutions (HEIs).
3. Research Results
We interpret the professional mobility of future social workers as the ability to solve a
wide range of problems in the social sector, the ability to acquire quickly new
special skills, a willingness to cope with new professional functions which
determine the specificities of providing professional assistance for different types
of clients, to assimilate technologies, knowledge and skills successfully. We
analysed the works of foreign scholars, in particular Dominelli (2010), who
considers professional knowledge as the main feature of this process, Demie
(2002) justifies preparation for professional activity as a prerequisite for training
future specialists. Ukrainian scholars, in particular Sushentseva (2017) describes
the features of preparation for PM, Prima (2010) determines features of PM
development and concluded on the specifics of training of future workers for PM.
We distinguish the following features: acquiring professional knowledge, skills,

gaining professional experience in performing tasks of a professionally oriented
practice, developing new methods to assist the clients, studying the efficiency of
customers’ interaction; rapid independent decision-making; ability to behave
differentially with people, understand people with respect to their needs and
interests; determining the objectivity, active life position of future social workers.
In order to optimize the process of training future social workers for PM, we
consider aspects of implementing the international educational experience in
training for professional mobility in Western Europe and America (RAND

250
Corporation, n./d.). Ideas of openness (the ability to self-development) (Altbach,

Berdahl & Gumport, 2001), mobility (activation of all spheres of social life, flexible
adaptation to the requirements of the labour market (Barr & McClellan, 2018)),
continuity (lifelong learning), advanced development (orientation at the future)
are based on the professional training of social workers in the international
educational environment). These ideas are constantly developing and they reflect
a new perspective on achieving professional goals of training competitive
specialists (Görlitz et al., 2015).
Future social workers’ willingness for PM is determined as a unifying dynamic

new formation in the personality’s structure of future social workers, which
actualizes the openness to change, the degree of understanding the need for
mobility, manifests in the flexibility of thinking and adequate assessment of their
professional tasks, balancing their capacities with the motives for professional
self-development. The results of the research proved that training future social
workers for PM becomes effective. The process effectiveness is regulated in
accordance with scientifically grounded and developed pedagogical principles of
the following approaches: system, individual-oriented (Payne, 2015), action
(Ivanchenko, 2005), praxeological (Boddy et al., 2006), competent (Vyhrusch &
Romanyshyna, 2016), dialectical (Polishchuk, 2012), epistemological (Halatyr,
2010), synergetic (Altbach et al., 2011) approaches in the process of training future
social workers for PM.
Based on the analysis of scientific sources and practical experience of training

future social workers, the pedagogical conditions of training for PM were
substantiated. The first pedagogical condition is the creation of a positive
motivational attitude for the future social workers’ PM. The second pedagogical
condition is the introduction and application of innovative technologies of
training future social workers for PM. We determine the interdisciplinary
coordination in the study of professional disciplines as the third pedagogical
condition. Interdisciplinary coordination is a system of forming an integrated
viewpoint at mobility (Baldwin & Gould, 2016).
Interdisciplinary coordination is intended to cover all sides of this phenomenon.

That is why, if properly constructed, it will help to carry out qualitative training
of future social workers for PM by means of methodically justified integrated use
of different subjects, methods, forms and appropriate didactic materials.
Therefore, we consider interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional
subjects as a real basis for training future social workers’ PM, with the
introduction of the following subjects: “Introduction to Major”, “Social Work with
Families, Children and Youth”, “Practice of Social Activity”, “Rehabilitation
Work”, “Social Work with Different Client Groups”.
We consider the ability to adapt quickly to new conditions of professional activity,

to solve difficult specialized issues and practical problems as readiness for PM. It
implies the application of certain theories and are characterized by the complexity
of conditions as the main indicator of future social workers’ readiness for PM.

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3.1. Determination of the process and result of training future social workers
The developed model of the pedagogical system of training future social workers
for PM has been viewed through its introduction into the teaching and learning
process. The orientation of the structural and functional model is outlined in the
determined components, divided into conceptual, technological, performance
evaluation structural blocks. As a result, this provides the possibility of
reproduction of the purposeful process of the integration system of PM training.
The criteria of the integration system of PM training were defined: personal
qualities of readiness for PM, the students’ search and analytical qualities,
students’ professional capacities and skills.
The conceptual block accumulates the realization of the objective of motivation to

be mobile and successful; forming a person’s professional orientation, advanced
personal and professional development; stimulating students to professional self-
improvement, self-development. The technological block of the structural-
functional model of the pedagogical system of training future social workers for
PM describes the substantive provision of the training process in the context of
studying different subjects. The following subjects were introduced:
“Introduction to Major” (1st semester, 1st academic year), “Social Work with
Families, Children and Youth” (1st semester, 2nd academic year), “Practice of Social
Activity” (1st semester, 3rd academic year), “Rehabilitation Work” (1st semester, 4th
academic year), “Social Work with Different Client Groups” (2nd semester, 4th
academic year). The performance evaluation block gives an idea of the efficiency
of the process of training future social workers for PM at the level of relevant
personal and professional qualities (personality, nature of activity, dynamics of
self-development) (Figure 1). The pedagogical experiment aims at testing the
hypothesis probability and its verification. Conducting a pedagogical experiment
and research helped to achieve the outlined objectives in four stages.
The first stage (preparatory theoretical) was conducted during the first half of the
2015 academic year. At this stage, the bibliometric analysis of the scientific
literature on foreign and Ukrainian experience was conduct based on the
discussion of future social workers’ professional training. The conceptual research
approaches were clarified. The bibliometric analysis includes identification of
peculiarities of training future social workers for PM. The results were compared
based on pedagogical innovative and traditional technologies in educational
process. The nature, structure, criteria and indicators were specified, and four
levels (high, optimal, sufficient and basic) of the future social workers’ readiness
for PM were identified. The second stage (determinative) was conducted during
the second half of 2015 academic year. At this stage, proper empirical information
about the efficiency of traditional training future social workers for PM was
collected and analysed. The relevance and reasonability of updating the students’
training for PM were confirmed. A representative sample of groups of students,
who subsequently participated in the experimental pedagogical research in
control and experimental groups was created.
The third stage (formative) was conducted from 2016 until the first half of the 2019
academic year. At this experimental stage, a pedagogical system of training future
social workers for PM was implemented in experimental groups. The theoretical

252
background is the developed methodological support based on bibliometric

analysis, pedagogical conditions that ensure its efficiency. The innovative
pedagogical technologies (person-oriented, project, interactive) used include:
training methods, case methods, presentations, game methods, practical
assignments. Trainings, multimedia technologies were applied, independent
work and all kinds of activities was organized. The fourth stage is statistical
analysis conducted in 2019. At this stage, the results of experimental research
conducted during the determinative and formative stages in Research Methods
section were analyzed. The accuracy and reliability of the obtained results was
proved by means of methods of mathematical statistics. The general conclusions
of the study were drawn. Methodological recommendations for improving the
efficiency of implementing the pedagogical system of training the future social
workers for PM were developed.
Pedagogical conditions: the creation of a positive motivational attitude for the future social workers PM, the
Conceptual block
Social demand on social workers: regulatory and legal support for the
introduction and application of innovative technologies of training future social workers for PM
continuity of vocational training, improvement of the educational process
Pedagogical conditions: the interdisciplinary coordination in the study of professional subjects

at HEIs in the context of training for PM
Purpose: training future social workers for PM
Tasks: collect and Specific principles: Methodological
analyse empirical consistent creative approaches: system,
information, form a position, business individual-oriented,
representative communication, unity of action, praxeological,
sample of students, subject and social competent, dialectical,
develop a contexts, specialization epistemological,
pedagogical system and role influence, synergetic
of training for PM dialogism of
communication
Technological block
Content provision: “Introduction to Major”, “Social Work with Families,
Children and Youth”, “Practice of Social Activity”, “Rehabilitation Work”,
“Social Work with Different Client Groups”, independent work and
practical assignments.
Pedagogical technologies: individually oriented, project, interactive
Methods: intellectual game, case method, project Forms: lectures,
method, portfolio, creating situations of success, practical classes,
educational games independent work,
trainings, consultations
Efficiency assessment block
Components of Criteria of readiness for PM: personal qualities,
readiness for PM: search and analytical qualities, professional
personal, cognitive, skills and capacities, of skills and capacities of
procedural- self-esteem and reflexion
behavioural,
analytically-productive
Levels of readiness for PM: basic, sufficient, optimal, high
Result: future social workers’ readiness for PM
Source: author’s development based on literature review

Figure 1: The structural-functional model of the pedagogical system of training future
social workers for PM

253
The determinative and formative stages of the experiment were conducted on the
basis of six institutions of higher education, where future social workers obtain
their degrees. Determinative stage of the pedagogical experiment involved 97
students of the 4th academic year 2014–2015, Specialty: “Social Work” and 18
lecturers who conducted surveys, questionnaires, testing, control works and so
on. The main purpose of conducting the determinative stage of the experiment
was to diagnose the level of future social workers’ readiness for PM, who have
completed their training at the HEIs. The research was conducted with diagnostic
tools used by the lecturers and at the formative stage of the research for students
of control (CG) and experimental (EG) groups. This approach provided for the
reliability of measuring the levels of personal, cognitive, procedural-behavioural,
analytically-productive components of the future social workers’ readiness for
PM according to the determined criteria. The use of diagnostic tools enables
determining the level of the future social workers’ readiness for PM at four levels,
which were indicated as follows in the digital equivalent: high – 5 scores; optimal
– 4 scores; sufficient – 3 scores; basic – 2 scores.
The reliability statistics were calculated to assess reliability and validity of the
results (Table 1). Cronbach’s alpha is 0.706 for control group survey and 0.702 for
experimental group survey. Therefore, the results are highly reliable.
Table 1: The reliability and validity statistics

No of
Reliability statistics Cronbach’s alpha No of items
respondents
Future social workers at the
0.712 45 97
determinative stage
Control group 0.706 45 68
Experimental group 0.702 45 68
Based on processing and analysis of the obtained indicators and levels of each
component of the future social workers’ readiness for PM, the results of the
determinative stage of the experiment were obtained as provided in Table 2.
Table 2: The levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM (4 th academic year)
at the determinative stage of the experiment
The levels of the future social workers’ readiness
for PM Average
Components High Optimal Sufficient Basic score
(5 scores) (4 scores) (3 scores) (2 scores) (AS)
CG % CG % CG % CG %
Personal 25 25.8 53 54.6 19 19.6 0 0 4.1
Cognitive 13 13.4 47 48.5 37 38.1 0 0 3.8
Procedural-behavioural 14 14.4 45 46.4 38 39.2 0 0 3.8
Analytically-productive 22 22.7 50 51.5 25 25.8 0 0 4.0
Readiness for PM 18 18.6 48 49.5 31 31.9 0 0 3.9
Designations: PM – professional mobility; CG – number of students; AS – average score
The analysis of the generalized indicators (Table 2) revealed the following levels
of readiness of 97 future social workers of the 4th academic year for PM: high – in

254
18 students (18.6%); optimal – in 48 students (49.5%); sufficient – in 31 students

(31.9%); the basic level was not found; the average score was 3.9.
The obtained results of the determinative stage of the experiment determined the
relevance and reasonability of developing additional pedagogical factors: the
need to introduce the author’s pedagogical system and its technological support
to improve the efficiency of training future social workers. The positive impact
and efficiency of the developed pedagogical system was proven through the
formative stage of the experiment. For this purpose, 1st-year students who started
their studies in 2015-2016 academic year were divided into control (CG) and
experimental (EG) groups. CG students were studying for four years according to
the traditional model, and EG students were studying with the use of the author’s
pedagogical system of training for PM. The final control was conducted with the
students of CG and EG in the period of completion their studies in the 4th academic
year of 2018-2019.
At the stage of generalization and analysis, a thorough analysis of the results of

the stages of input and output controls of the experiment was conducted, the
numerical values of the levels of each component of future social workers’
readiness for PM were compared by the indicators of input control (IC) and
output control (OC). The generalized results of training future social workers for
PM, which reflect the complex development of all components of readiness, at the
stages of input and output controls are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: The levels of the future social workers’ readiness for PM at the stages of
input and output controls
The levels of the future social workers’
readiness for PM
Groups – control phase –
High Optimal Sufficient Basic AS
number of students
(5 scores) (4 scores) (3 scores) (2 scores)
NS % NS % NS % NS %
CG – IC – 68 students 11 16.2 26 38.2 28 41.2 3 4.4 3.7
CG – OC – 62 students 14 22.6 29 46.8 19 30.6 0 0 3.9
EG – IC – 68 students 10 14.7 27 39.7 27 39.7 4 5.9 3.6
EG – OC – 64 students 20 31.3 34 53.1 10 15.6 0 0 4.2
The data analysis of the Table 3 confirms the efficiency of implementing the
author’s experimental pedagogical system in the educational process of HEIs,
because in terms of indicators of all levels and the average score, the EG students
showed more significant changes than the CG students as regards training future
social workers for PM. Comparison of the results of changes in training future
social workers for PM in the context of traditional training showed that no
significant changes occurred in CG. Mathematical statistics methods used in
professional pedagogy were applied to prove the results of the experimental
study. The reliability of the results in the formation of CG and EG was established
by calculating the criteria by the Student’s t test or t-distribution (shift index and
dynamics).

255
The data analysis of Table 3 enables summarizing the findings of the

determinative stage of the experiment (DSE) obtained in 2014-2015 academic year
with 4th year students, and the results of the output control in CG (OC-CG),
obtained in 2018-2019 academic year in CG, which were almost identical at all
levels and the same in terms of the average score (3.9), in contrast to the output
control in the EG, where the average score was 4.2 points. The differences in the
criteria and levels, that is, between the achievements of the participants in the
experimental and control groups are statistically relevant and significant. The
analysis of the indicators of Table 3 and the calculation of the Student’s t-test
indicates the achievement of reliability in the distribution of students with the
specified levels (Table 4).
Table 4: The state of future social workers’ readiness of for professional mobility by
levels
The state of future social workers’ readiness
of for professional mobility by levels
Groups – control phase –
High (5 Optimal Sufficient Basic (2 AS
number of students
scores) (4 scores) (3 scores) scores)
NS % NS % NS % NS %
CE – IC – 97 students 18 18.6 48 49.5 31 31.9 0 0 3.9
CG – OC – 62 students 14 22.6 29 46.8 19 30.6 0 0 3.9
EG – OC – 64 students 20 31.3 34 53.1 10 15.6 0 0 4.2
To confirm the validity of the results of the experiment, an empirical F-criterion

(Femp-CG and Femp-EG) was calculated, the value of which was compared with the
Table value (Table 5) of the theoretical F-criterion (Fcrit). The Fcrit index for our
research was determined by the number of degrees of freedom (Table 5), which
was determined by subtracting one unit from the number of students in the group.
Thus, in the CG, where the number of students was 68 and 62, and in the EG,
which had 68 and 64 students, the F-criterion should be in range of 1.7-1.3 (for the
number of degrees of freedom 60-120).
Table 5: Results of F-criterion calculations for generalized indicators
Groups Indicators for determining the F-criterion

– control AS f ( xi − x) Femp
stage  f ( x − x)
i
2
2
5 4 3 2 5 4 3 2
CG-IC 3.66 11 26 28 3 1.34 0.34 -0.66 -1.66 43.22 0.64
1.2
CG-OC 3.91 14 29 19 0 1.08 0.08 -0.92 -1.92 32.6 0.53
EG -IC 3.63 10 27 27 4 1.37 0.37 -0.63 -1.63 43.81 0.64

1.5
EG -OC 4.16 20 34 10 0 0.84 -0.16 -1.16 -2.16 28.44 0.44
To determine the empirical F-criterion, general parameters (averages and

variances) were compared for each component and future social workers’ overall
readiness for professional mobility. Analysis of indicators of Table 5 allows us to
summarize that F-criterion for CG (Femp-CG = 1.2) goes beyond the standard
tabular data (1.7-1.3). Therefore, a slight increase in the level of each component
and the overall readiness of the future social workers who studied in the control

256
groups for PM, is related to the natural conditions of the traditional educational
process at HEIs. The F-criterion for the experimental groups (Femp-EG = 1.5) is
within the standard table (1.7-1.3). This means that the results of our research are
reliable and confirm the validity of the experiment. Thus, the levels of future social
workers’ readiness for PM depend on the purposeful implementation of the
developed pedagogical author’s system. The results of the experimental study
have been confirmed by reliable indicators, verified by the methods of
mathematical statistics.
4. Discussion
In the conditions of irreversible transformations, which are taking place in
Ukrainian society, the problem of reforming all spheres of life of the society
becomes more acute. The development of professional mobility of future
specialists, which is a prerequisite for the effective restructuring of socio-economic
problems, harmonization of cultural and intellectual levels of different population
groups, undoubtedly leads to the achievement of social justice, and therefore, the
stability of the society. The consequence of the interaction of the conditioned
processes is the activation of the redistribution of new and change of the already
existing spheres of professional activity of future specialists, which, in turn, causes
the redistribution of professional units in the labour market, motivated by the
emergence of new requirements, adequate requirements of the time and the
sphere of professional activity (Halatyr, 2010; Prima, 2010 and others). This
reveals the relevance of the issue of future specialists’ professional mobility, since
professional mobility is one of the most significant characteristics of human
interaction and professional activity. The bibliometric analysis showed that
considerable experience was gained in the pedagogical theory and practice of
Ukraine. It could become the basis for future social workers’ professional training
(Kapska, 2005; Nychkalo, 2015; Polishchuk, 2012 and others). The analysis of the
quality problem of professional education was carried out (Sushentseva, 2017;
Vyhrusch & Romanyshyna, 2016 and others).
At the same time, there are no specific studies that would directly address the
training of future social workers for professional mobility, which is determined
by the development of multi-professional qualities of future specialists, which are
the basis for the development of professional competence. Some areas of research
problems of training future social workers for professional mobility have not been
covered. The first problem is a lack of pedagogical system of scientific and
methodological training of social workers for professional mobility. The second
problem is the lack of scientific and pedagogical support of the process oriented
towards training for professional mobility. The third problem is the insufficient
use of innovative technologies that would provide qualitative dynamic changes
in training future social workers for future mobility at the HEIs. The fourth
problem is the existing need for system-integrative organization of training future
social workers for professional mobility and the lack of a conceptual justification
in the theory and methodology of professional education.
The reliability of the research results were due to the system of methods and
techniques for studying the efficiency of training future social workers for

257
professional mobility, the objectivity of the data obtained was confirmed by

Student’s t-test, the conclusions are based on the reasonability of providing the
main components of the studied system. The conducted research confirmed the
assumption that the use of pedagogical training system of social workers
improves the quality of the development of readiness of future specialists in the
social sphere for PM.
5. Conclusion
We interpret the future social workers’ professional mobility as the ability of
future social workers to fulfil a wide range of tasks in the social field. Training
future social workers for professional mobility is a dynamic consistent
pedagogical process that changes due to innovative technologies implemented by
introducing forms and methods of training aimed at forming an individual who
is ready for self-development, self-building and adaptation. The pedagogical
conditions for training future social workers for PM were identified, and the
method of their realization was scientifically substantiated. The pedagogical
conditions are the following: the creation of a positive motivational attitude of the
future social workers towards PM, the introduction and application of innovative
technologies of training future social workers for PM, the interdisciplinary
coordination in the study of professional subjects. Therefore, the trainer should be
a leader and motivate future workers, create motivational environment. In order
to realise this recommendation, universities should test the teachers at regular
intervals based on special motivational questionnaire.
The experimental results illustrate positive changes in the future social workers’
readiness for PM. The analysis of the results of the experiment confirmed the
pedagogical reasonability of the substantiated conceptual approaches for the
development and implementation of the author’s pedagogical system of training
future social workers for PM. The research was limited in terms of the
respondent’s sample, as the participants of the control and experimental groups
were students of the faculties of pedagogy. The results were not tested on students
from different specialities. Therefore, the results cannot be extended to other
specialities. Promising area of development of the problem is the development of
readiness of bachelors’ and masters’ of social studies in the context of modern
realities connected with the globalization of intellectual potential, leading
educational and fundamental achievements for the purpose of self-development
and professional growth of future social workers.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 260-275, May 2020
Potential of the Use of Social Networks in

Teaching a Foreign Language in Higher
Educational Institutions
Iryna M. Zvarych
Kyiv National University of Trade and Economics, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0715-9551
Natalia М. Lavrychenko, Nataliya H. Zaitseva,

Olena M. Chaika and Oksana M. Skorobahata
Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0776-7362
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0131-5368
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3650-3991
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9519-587X
Abstract. The article justifies the need to use social networks in teaching
a foreign language in higher educational institutions. The research
identified the prospects of Instagram in English language classes. Besides,
the author developed the algorithm to implement the function of this
social network in students’ foreign language learning. The diagnostic,
summative, and final stages of the experiment provided for filling of
questionnaires by students. The study began with a diagnostic test to
establish the level of interest of students and teachers in the use of the
potential of social networks. It helped reveal the urgent need to use new
social networks in the process of teaching English language to students.
To verify the initial level of student’s communicative competence, foreign
language skills of students majoring in Pedagogy and Speciality “Foreign
Language,” were considered. The experiment involved 40 students. An
academic group of the 1st year of the bachelor’s degree was selected to test
the developed fragment of the algorithm for using the capabilities of
Instagram. The age of students was 18-19 years. The results of this study
include a significant improvement of students’ vocabulary, training for
the correct usage of grammatical structures, and bridging the language
barrier while communicating in English. This technology also received
positive feedback from students. Moreover, the study demonstrated the
opportunities self-learning by students at home.
Keywords: informational and communicative technologies; social

networks; foreign communicative competency; students; teachers

261
1. Introduction
Today, in the current context, transparency of higher educational institutions
(HEIs) to external requests, as a strong foundation, is the basis of the educational
system. Thus, at the present-day stage of development of the education
informatisation that provides opportunities for quick information processing and
creation of new qualitative information on its basis is essential in the process of
realization of these principles. In its turn, it is a foundation for the intellectual
activity quality improvement of (Maguth, Yamaguchi & Elliott, 2010). Besides, in
modern higher professional education, the vital principle is the concept of the
accessibility of education of any degree and forms to every individual regardless
of sex, social status, nationality, and physical conditions (Mills, 2009). The
outlined tendencies emphasise the possibility to use social networks in the
educational process in HEIs. It will help to make education accessible to
everybody. It will also activate the process of assimilation of the educational
information.
For the last ten years, foreign language teachers have been actively using Internet
resources to immerse students in the language environment. The integration of
online radio materials, foreign-language TV programs into the educational
process allows for fundamentally new vectors of development of the study
process of teaching foreign languages. The use of mass media information
provides a more profound mastery of a foreign language, promotes the
development of students’ foreign language communicative competence, orients
them to the development of information culture, skills of independent acquisition
of knowledge. At the same time, we note that a significant disadvantage of such
resources is the lack of feedback, necessary for the communicative process. I It is
essential to take into account the recipient’s reaction to the source message in any
act of communication (oral or written) in the process of social interaction.
At the same time, social services Web 2.0, which can be used in the learning
process, provide new extensive opportunities for the exchange of different
information. Many educators, psychologists, and researchers today note that the
current generation of young people, who grew up on technological innovations,
prefer to communicate through blogs and social networks over real social
interaction. According to surveys, most students find blogs convenient and useful
in learning a foreign language (Gerhart, 2017). In this regard, one of the urgent
tasks of the pedagogical community is to understand the educational potential of
Internet resources and the development of innovative educational technologies
aimed at their practical use in the educational process (Arndt, 2017; Gerhart, 2017).
The study of the existing theoretical framework allowed establishing some
academic aspects of the use of social networks in the study of a foreign language
in the educational process of HEIs. In particular, the specifics of motivating
students to learn professional English terminology while listening to international
thematic blogs are specified (Gerhart, 2017). The potential of thematic
communities in Facebook (Birky & Collins, 2011) is substantiated. We do not find
practical recommendations for using the capabilities of today’s popular network
- Instagram. Therefore, we will try to develop a fragment of the algorithm for
using Instagram in the study of English.

262
From the researchers’ points of view on social networks on the Internet, virtual
social networks are “a social structure of the Internet environment, nets of which
are organizations or certain people, where ties determine interactions
established.” (Mills, 2011; Roblyer, McDaniel, Webb, Herman & Witty, 2010). In
current realities of the spread of available high-speed Internet, and popularity of
mobile devices with Internet access, communication with the help of social
networks is becoming necessary as a breath of life for us. Every fifth user aged 18
to 34 spends 6 hours and more per day on the social networks (Gilpin, 2011).
According to the results of the survey, the highest number of students from
domestic HEIs use Instagram.
During the last two years, the popularity of Facebook has been increasing,
especially among students of HEIs (Birky & Collins, 2011). Nevertheless, many
representatives of generation 40+ (including teachers of HEIs) are prone to regard
social networks sceptically as a waste of time. Moreover, many HEI teachers keep
considering a social network mostly as an “enemy”(Maguth et al., 2010). In
particular, the matter is about such service as Instagram. Trying to use social
networks in their work, teachers must take into account a crucial aspect: everyone
is equal in social networks. People do not find ”correct“ patterns of creativity and
thoughts known in advance (Romano, 2009). Consequently, this demonstrates
certain signs of subjectivity related to the student’s sign-in (or failure to sign in)
in social networks.
In general, the experience of Western countries demonstrates the effective impact

of social networks on the educational process. Thus, the review of the works of
modern scholars found the correlation between a teacher’s presence in Facebook
and “the climate” in an auditorium. This study proved that there is a relationship
between the level of teacher’s self-disclosure through the social network with the
degree of motivation of students to study particular educational material; the
relationship of student assessments with the level of teacher’s “disclosure”
through Facebook (Handley & Chapman, 2011; Redston & Cunnigham, 2012).
Therefore, we believe that the higher students rate the level of teacher’s self-
disclosure through the network, the better their emotional state will be.
Social networks were poorly used in the educational process in the post-Soviet
countries (Boyd & Ellison, 2007). The reason is a skeptical attitude of the teaching
staff to social networks (Aksenova, 2015; Klimenko, 2012). At the same time,
researchers in the sphere of education believe that application of social networks
is promising in terms of improving the quality of education, in particular foreign
language learning (Ballance, 2012; Chen, 2013; Reinhardt & Chen, 2013; Lin,
Warschauer & Blake, 2016). According to them, these technologies have a serious
pedagogical potential that must be understood by a professional community and
implemented into practical activity (Bezukladnikov, Novosyolov & Kruze, 2014;
Mozhaeva & Feshchenko, 2010).

263
In the current circumstances, the main functions of social networks in education

are as follows:
• a social network as a messenger, that is, a program for quick message
exchange. Given the spread of mobile devices with Internet access, this
function is convenient and publicly available. It is ideal for online
consultations and organization of the current teacher-student cooperation;
• a social network as a message board. It can be used for official messages and
announcements of upcoming events by structural divisions of HEIs;
• a social network as a library catalogue. Numerous special groups or
communities have books on various academic subjects. Full-text copies of
books increasingly appear in such online libraries due to the Internet capacity
increase. It allows referring to them with the observance of all rules of
scientific citing;
• a social network as a substitute for paper periodicals. Almost all modern
newspapers, magazines covering economic, and management topics have
groups in social networks, where they announce or publish a full text of their
materials (Aydin, 2014).
• scholars stress that application of social networks in foreign language learning
enables achieving the following results:
• creation of a single information environment of the educational system;
• production of high-quality, transparent, and accessible portals of educational
resources;
• improving qualifications of the teaching staff, their introduction to new
methodologies, motivation to be creative and to develop professionally;
• the system organization of permanent consulting and information support for
all participants in the educational process;
• formation of the new thinking culture of participants in the educational
process, transfer from a psychological paradigm to competency-based one, an
increase of information literacy (Figure 1).
• At the same time, it is possible to distinguish the usage of social networks
among other types of network technologies in the practice of foreign language
teaching in HEIs (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020):
• a familiar environment for students: an interface, means of communication
and content publication are studied thoroughly by users;
• diversity of communicational forms: wiki pages, forums, polls, voting,
comments, subscriptions, sending of personal messages, and others provide a
wide range of opportunities for collaboration (Kabilan, Ahmad & Abidin,
2010; Schmitt, 2008; Yavuz, 2012).
Social networks allow students to contact their teachers, ask them questions and
write some comments directly during the preparation for practical classes. For
example, social networks allow posting educational videos, pictures, photos,
audio records, and documents. Besides, teachers post both obligatory and
additional learning materials for independent students’ work on their pages or
specially created accounts of educational environment quite often (Hall & Walsh,
2002; Huang & Hung, 2013; Junco & Cole‐Avent, 2008).

264
ensuring the enlargement of

students' foreign vocabulary
combining staff capacity of

teachers, improving their skills, formation of a new culture of
familiarity with new thinking of participants in the
techniques, motivation for educational process, the
creativity and professional transition from a psychological
development paradigm to competence,
formation of a single improving information literacy
information space of the
education system
creation of high-quality, open
organization of a system of and accessible portals of
constant consulting and educational resources
information support for all
participants in the educational
process
intensification of self-
educational activity of future
specialists towards learning
professional vocabulary in
social networks
Figure 1: Theoretical scheme for the application of social networks in foreign

language training
2. Materials and Methods

The research represents the author’s idea and consisted of several stages. The first
stage was to study the current level of communicative, lexical, and grammatical
knowledge, skills, abilities of students. Foreign-language skills and abilities of
students majoring in Pedagogical education, Speciality “Foreign Language” were
measured to identify the initial level of students’ communicative competence. The
experiment involved forty students. A focus group was an academic group of
first-year students aged 18-19 and studying for their bachelor’s degree
(Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020).
Before the experiment, the state of affairs in the academic group was thoroughly
analysed. The students had English classes two times a week with teaching based
on the manual by Dellar and Walkley (2010). This manual was prepared jointly
with National Geographic, so that it is illustrated by beautiful photos and other
forms of visualization. Each level of the course consists of 100-120 hours for work
in the class. The manual consists of 16 units: My First Class, Feelings, Time Off,
Interests, Working Life, Going Shopping, School and Studying, Eating, Houses,
Going Out, The Natural World, People I Know, Travel, Technology, Injuries and
Illness, News and Events. Each unit consists of subunits: vocabulary, grammar,
reading, listening, and developing conversations. It means that each topic requires
the mastering of all types of speech activities.
Each unit begins with explanations of the aims for the chapter, and each unit ends
with Review (generalized information on the material studied). The manual ends
with assignments to work on written communication skills (Introduce Yourself,
Short Emails, Stories, Making Requests, Suggesting Changes, Reports, For and
Against, Review). Students can find Grammar Reference after this part, which
contains short theoretical material on grammar topics and assignments for its

265
mastering. The next part is Information Files containing additional materials to

develop the communicative skills of students. The useful content ends with scripts
for all audio records in the manual to study them thoroughly. An exciting aspect
of this manual includes short insertions titled Native Speaker English in the
middle of chapters. They provide information on spoken English as well as on
how to use unusual and exciting phrases. For example, when we should use the
word “right” (this word has several meanings). Besides, a set of educational
videos accompany the course. The stated above are the advantages of the manual.
However, the textbook has some disadvantages. First, the grammatical part is
rather small, which is a negative side of the manual. Not all students can cope
with such a format due to a lack of fundamental knowledge obtained at schools
or other places. It most likely explains the choice of the manual for the
intermediate level. because the focus of this manual shifts from grammar towards
vocabulary. Students hardly join work in the classroom without clear explanation
of grammar.
Despite the preparation for passing a standardized state exam (SSE), the language
level is low. The results of the placement test proved it. The SSE level means to
know the subject on levels from A1 to B2. In practice, few, if any, has B2 level. It
is especially the case in a focus group. Another weak point of this program is its
orientation. Students major in Pedagogy, Speciality “Foreign Language,” which
provides that future specialists must be able to communicate in English in their
professional environment. However, the textbook is of general social focus. Before
the research, participants filled in the placement questionnaire and completed the
test to identify the English level. The test originated from a free source, an official
website Macmillian (Sorokovykh, Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020). The
maximum points for the test are 60. Gradation of levels is as follows: 1-15
(Elementary), 16-30 (Intermediate), 31-45 (Upper Intermediate), 46-60
(Advanced). Twenty-four people of the group passed the test on Elementary /
Pre-Intermediate level, thirteen people – on Intermediate level, and three people
from the group had Upper-Intermediate level.
After establishing the current level of communicative, lexical, grammatical

competencies of first-year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialization “Foreign
Language”, the students identified the level of their interest in the use of social
networks in foreign language classes. Therefore, we consider a survey to be a
critical method of our research. The obtained data testified to the significant
interest of students in learning a foreign language using new social networks. The
development of a fragment of the algorithm for the use of Instagram in the study
of English by first-year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialization “Foreign
Language” was followed by an input survey. To reach the goal, students filled in
a questionnaire during the diagnostic, summative and final stages of the
experiment. The research begins with a diagnostic test to identify the level of
students’ and teachers’ interest in the application of social networks' potential to
activate the process of acquirement of professional terminology by future
specialists. It enabled identifying the urgent need for the application of modern
social networks in English language learning by students.

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3. Results
While modelling the innovative foreign language teaching process with the
implementation of publicly available social networks, it is necessary to assess the
convenience of their usage from the technical point of view and the usefulness of
social networks application from the learning perspective (Robelia, Greenhow &
Burton, 2011). We should note that this study presents only a few results of the
survey of students and foreign language teachers. The students completed the
questionnaire before they worked with social networks within mixed education.
The presented part of the questionnaire had both open and closed questions, and
aimed at identifying the subjective experience of students and teachers in the
application of social networks, students’ and teachers’ thoughts and expectations
from the integration of social networks into educational practice (Sorokovykh,
Shumeyko & Vishnevskaya, 2020).
Let us start with the results of the survey of the second, the third, and the fourth-
year of all forms of attendance (full-time, full and part-time, and students of the
correspondence department. They major in Pedagogy, Speciality “Foreign
Language” (foreign language level is from B1 to C1). The first question aimed to
identify the most popular social networks among students, which they use
frequently. The results showed that all students had pages in several social
networks; a leader is Instagram. All respondents use this network. Facebook ranks
second, and Twitter ranks third (Tables 1, 2).
Table 1: Students’ responses the purposes of using social networks

Values in % The purpose of using social networks
50% Communication with friends
30 % For entertainment
16 % For studying
4% Other options for social network usage
Table 2: Students’ responses about the total time spent on social networks
Values in % Total time spent on social networks
30% Check their pages on social networks from time to time
32% I spend less than an hour a day on social networks
20% More than an hour a day
18% I spend all day on social networks
The results obtained from these questions demonstrate the high level of social
network popularity among students. At the same time, they show that students
lack understanding of the potential of education. In its turn, it proves the idea
(Depew, 2011) that even if modern students are “digital aborigines,” they often
have no idea of how they can use ICT for studying. The majority of students who
took part in the survey were “for” (89.8 %), and only 10.2 % were “against” when
answering the question on the possibility to use social networks in the study of
foreign language (Figure 2).

267
10%
Against
For
90%
Figure 2: Application of social networks in the study of foreign language by students
The results demonstrate students’ readiness and willingness to include social

networks in teaching practice (audition 7). When analysing students’ responses
about the effectiveness of the use of social networks for the development of speech
activities, we found several facts shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Effectiveness of social networks for the development of speech activities

Values in Reasonability of using social networks for the development of
% communicative foreign language knowledge, skills, abilities
35% the most effective use of social networks for the development of reading
32% letters
18% speaking
15% listening
All students mentioned several answers to this question (Figure 3). Thus, the
research conducted among students shows popularity of social networks. The
survey demonstrated that the majority of students support the idea of integrating
social networks into teaching foreign language. They consider social networks as
the most effective tools for learning reading and writing.
Listening
15% comrehension
32% Speaking
18%
Reading
35% Writing
Figure 3: Assessment of the effectiveness of social networks for speech activities

268
The next step was to conduct a questionnaire among teachers (Table 4). The
majority of teachers-respondents are using social networks (84.4%); 15.6% do not
use social networks. The most popular social networks among teachers are
Instagram (62%, ranks first), Facebook (27%, ranks second), and Twitter (7%).
Four percent of teachers indicated that they use different social networks.
Table 4: Time spent working on social networks by teachers

Values in % Total time spent on social networks
40% Spend less than an hour a day checking their social media pages
50% Check their pages on social networks from time to time
6,8% Spend more than an hour a day on social networks
3.2% do not use social networks
Majority of teachers use social networks to relax (43.8%), to communicate with

students (34.4%), to study (18.6%), 3.2% chose the answer “other” (in this case in
comments teachers wrote that they used social networks for communication with
colleagues). 93.6 percent of teachers who took part in the survey expressed their
support of social networks application in the practice of foreign language
teaching. 6.4 percent of teachers demonstrated their negative attitudes (Figure 4).
Determining types of speech activities for which social networks application

would be the most effective, teachers emphasized the highest level of
effectiveness: for writing skills development (37%); for reading (35%); for listening
comprehension (audition) and speaking (14 % for each) (Figure 5). Let us state
that while answering this question, teachers chose several answers, rating them
according to the effectiveness of using listed speech activities in social networks.
6%
Against
For
94%
Figure 4: Teachers’ opinion on social networks in foreign language teaching

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14%
Listening comprehension
37%
14% Speaking
Reading
Writing
35%
Figure 5: Appropriateness of social networks application to develop different types of

speech activities (teachers’ experience)
Ranking writing and reading first according to the effective development in social
networks is explained by the fact that communication in social networks is mainly
written, making them a convenient type for the development of such skills. Based
on the comments provided by teachers, we conclude that social networks are
educational space, which along with possibilities for foreign language learning
offers options for tackling several educational objectives:
1. Manage the educational process. Social networks are practical means that help
teachers and students communicate seamlessly. The information on
cancellation, postponement of classes, holding conferences, etc. can be posted
there (Arndt, 2017).
2. Individualise the educational process. Social networks allow students to
complete assignments anywhere anytime; teachers can learn more about
students’ interests and hobbies in social networks and then use this
information while planning the educational process (Ballance, 2012).
3. Organise the educational process. Teachers can continue discussions started
during the lesson and post assignments for students (Gerhart, 2017).
4. Engage students who are inactive or less active during lessons in discussions
(Chartrand, 2012).
5. Update students' motives for acquirement of professional terminology in the
process of learning English. Social networks can be a platform for projects’
preparation and delivery, organization of quizzes and competitions,
conducting various surveys (Aksenova, 2015).
In general, summing up the results of students’ and teachers’ questionnaires leads

to the following conclusion: the majority of students and teachers are registered
in social networks what enables to avoid difficulties related to adaptation and
exploration of a new interface, which can appear during the work with specialized
educational programs. The conclusions drawn by modern researchers prove this.
They stated that application of social networks reduces the number of challenges
related to adaptation to a new communicative environment that can emerge in the
process of working with unique educational platforms (Chartrand, 2012; Ryan,
Magro & Sharp, 2011; Shahrokni, 2009).

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4. Discussion
Nowadays, as the educational system is changing, it is necessary to develop new
educational technologies using new resources. We tried to develop additional
technique to teach students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language”,
the English language by applying Instagram. According to its principles,
Instagram is a supplement to the main in-class practical lessons to use the English
language in an authentic environment for the development of students’ foreign
language communicative competence (Aksenova, 2015). Data on the placement
questionnaire demonstrate that all respondents (100%) use the Internet every day.
66.7 percent use the Internet for communication and 33% – for work and studying.
Thus, 66.7% of responses proved the Internet usage in 50-80% of cases related to
the need to find additional information. 16.7 percent voted for less than 50%, and
16.7% voted for more than 80%. The open question about the time spent on the
Internet per day does not have an absolute consensus. Answers varied from 1 to
7 hours a day on average. The responses on titles of the most popular social
networks ranked in a rather exciting way.
50% of users use Instagram, 33.3% of respondents use Facebook, and 16.7% use
Telegram. All respondents expressed their willingness to increase their
competency level in a foreign language. 66.7% of voters are ready to do it through
the Internet, and 33.3% are “rather interested.” There are no leaders as regards the
time that respondents are ready to spend on language learning on the Internet.
33.3% are ready to spend between 30-40 minutes, another 33.3% are ready to
spend between 40-60 minutes, and the remaining 33.3% are ready to spend more
than 60 minutes a day to study the English language on the Internet. Half of the
respondents opined that it is possible to study a language through Instagram.
These opinions were divided between “likely,” “likely not,” and “not.”
These data allowed hypothesizing that the experiment would be successful

because the majority of participants used the Internet every day. Besides, they use
Instagram and are positive about language learning through this social network.
Instagram ranks first regarding attendance of the first-year students majoring in
Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language.” Initially, this service was for prompt
photo exchange. To organise distance electronic learning of a foreign language,
we recommend creating a separate account to subscribe all students of the group.
Subscribers can regularly check for updates and participate in various forms of
work suggested by the teacher. For students’ supervised independent work and
distance learning not to be spontaneous, the teacher must develop a schedule for
posting publications or broadcasting live in advance. It is also useful to agree on
a suitable time for live sessions with students.
The primary forms of activities for learning English on Instagram are:

• commenting on photos and pictures (as comments – the written language; as
videos – an answer, and as messages – oral communication);
• posting videos with a verbal message on the topic;
• posting videos in Ukrainian/English as materials for translation;
• live sessions preparation on behalf of the teacher or with an invited student;
• short tasks and messages (photos and videos) in stories.

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So, the first form of the work is teaching through pictures and photos. A teacher
posts an image on the topic of the lesson and gives assignments to comment on it.
Thus, in the account specially created for this purpose, the teacher posted images
on the topic “Feelings” that refer to the problem “Stay Fit and Healthy.” Students
had to comment on the images offered. We should note that in such terms,
students themselves suggested an activity directed towards the speed and
correctness of the answer. While completing this task, students will reread
previous comments. It will help memorise vocabulary on the topic. The program
update of 2016 enables to post not only publications that are stored in a feed, but
also so-called “stories” – short 15-seconds video records limited in their number.
However, each story is available only for 24 hours for subscribers. Teachers can
use “stories’” as assignments for the next lesson, raise some problematic issues,
draw students’ attention to changes in the schedule. “Stories” is an excellent
opportunity to remind subscribers about upcoming events and tests. We used
“stories” to test students (Figure 6).
The third form of distance learning is the work with videos. The length of the
video-content loading is 60 seconds. Video materials can be used both to introduce
additional information on the topic under study and as material for translation.
Videos can also be a popular “Challenge” – a problematic task posted on students’
pages with an appropriate hashtag.
Figure 6: The application of test function in Instagram to work on grammar material

(modal verb “should”)
Through live sessions on Instagram, a person can study the English language. For
example, it can be a session on any topics developed for independent study or
supervised independent work. During a live session, it is convenient to introduce
additional literature to students, and to recommend how to assimilate a particular
topic. The students will have an additional stimulus not to miss a live session
because it is in available up to a day (or you can set even shorter time). It is
especially relevant if students are going to have a test based on this material.
Moreover, a live session is appropriate for student’s answers before a credit or an

272
exam, a thematic colloquium or a test. Besides, a live session provides an

opportunity to work on the main mistakes made in tests, to provide examples of
communicative situations that will be presented on exams.
Thirdly, the possibility to invite a speaker for a live session enables teachers to
engage students in active participation. The organization of this type of project
work should be as follows: the teacher develops a schedule of distance sessions,
according to which each student prepares a particular topic. On the appointed day
and time, a teacher goes live and invites a student to join. Other subscribers join
the session, listen to reports, and ask questions. The teacher assesses both the
readiness of the student who organizes the session and the level of activity of other
students. The teacher can also ask questions or add some information. It is
especially important in the first stages of this type of work, when the activity of
participants is low. While teaching the topic “Travel”, the teacher suggested
watching a video about Singapore, a city of the future, demonstrated on National
Geographic. Regarding grammar, the teacher repeated information about modal
verbs.
In general, an obligatory part of such an experiment lasts four weeks. However,

there were some breaks between weeks during which the group’s activity did not
stop. The teacher posted games, songs, and funny materials. The students, having
understood it, also shared their stories. After the end of the testing, students filled
in a final questionnaire, and passed a test to identify the language level one more
time. The majority of students admitted that many questions became clearer after
the course completion. Thus, nine participants succeeded in improving their first
results. Thirty people proved their level, and one student passed the test worse
than the first one.
The final questionnaire showed the following statistics. The participants used
Instagram every day. 66.7% of respondents revealed that they spent 15-20 minutes
a day to become familiar with the group’s material, 16.7% spent between 5-10
minutes, and another 16.7% spent more than 60 minutes. 66.7% spent 20-30
minutes on social interaction, and 33.3% spent only 15-20 minutes. 50% of
respondents used dictionaries while writing their posts, 33.3% did it quite often,
and only 16.7% did it rarely. All respondents answered used their smartphones to
search for relevant resources. Following the results of the experiment, the
participants assessed Instagram as a way to obtain new knowledge of the foreign
language. 83.3% gave a favourable consideration to this method, and 16.7% gave
a negative one. Thus, the research received positive feedback from students, even
though students did not actively engage in the core activities.
The results confirm the existing conclusions of researchers that the academic
potential and features of the use of virtual social networks are due to their
accessibility to most Internet users (Klimenko, 2012). The very ideology and
interface of Instagram make it possible to save time when there is no need to
organise the adaptation of students to a new educational tool and a
communicative space. Virtual social networks also contribute both to formal and
informal communication between teachers and students, making it possible to

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implement the technology of personality-oriented learning. We agree with the

position of modern scholars that the multimedia of the communicative space
greatly facilitates uploading video and audio materials, interactive applications,
and viewing them in the virtual learning space (Huang & Hung, 2013).
In addition to the above possibilities of using virtual social networks in teaching

foreign languages, including English, the combination of individual and group
forms of educational work with the help of virtual networks allows us to achieve
a better understanding and assimilation of educational materials, as well as the
individualization of learning. The common communicative space of virtual social
networks for all subjects of the foreign language learning process allows us to
jointly assess both the process and the results of completing academic
assignments, observe the dynamics of success of each member of the virtual
learning group and track their activities.
Current modernization processes in higher education provide for shifting a

significant proportion of academic time from in-class hours to independent work
of students. The use of virtual social networks has a similar effect. It makes the
use of research approaches in learning, independent and group search for
information to solve the problem set by the teacher, to develop the ability to search
for the necessary information independently, to work in a team, to perform
collective search activities, and make interaction with groupmates more popular
and accessible.
5. Conclusions
Modern technologies are incredibly popular, especially mobile devices and
computers with access to the Internet. Many foreign universities use mobile
devices to optimise the educational process. They are a supplement to the main
educational program creating unique educational games. The popularization of
social networks is ongoing. Their functions are changing and transforming from
purely social to broader ones. The process of foreign language learning reflects
these trends. The main goal of foreign language teaching in HEIs is the formation
of the communicative skills of students. There is an urgent need to create a new
way to develop students’ communicative skills in the context of reducing hours
provided for foreign language learning and increasing number of students in one
group. Instagram was an attempt to reach these goals. The study provides a short
instruction on the possible application of Instagram for educational purposes in
the process of learning. The developed algorithm implies the active cooperation
between students and a teacher on the Internet by using social networks to
improve the communicative skills of future specialists. The technique was tested
on 40 first-year students majoring in Pedagogy, Specialty “Foreign Language.”
During the experimental verification of the efficiency of this technique, Instagram
was used as an additional resource as indicated in the program. The experiment
was not extended, though it can provide practically oriented conclusions and
produced positive results in the level of students’ English language skills. Further
research may involve a subsequent improvement of the methodology for the
formation of professional culture in law students in their professional training at
the undergraduate level.

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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 276-288, May 2020
Development of Social Intelligence in Preschool

Children by Art Therapy: Case Study of Oyna
Educational Centre
Akhmetzhan S. Seitenov
Ahseyt LLC, Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1767-3274
Rakhila Zh. Aubakirova

Pavlodar State University, Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7984-2387
Alyona A. Kostyunina and Ekaterina V. Mishchenko

Gorno-Altai State University, Gorno-Altaisk, Russian Federation
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9055-6472
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2820-9167
Natalya B. Shevchenko
Altai State Humanitarian and Pedagogical University, Biysk, Russian Federation
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5763-5021
Abstract. The objective of this research paper is to elaborate methods for

the development of social intelligence of preschool children by means of
art therapy. Using the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale cognitive,
behavioural and affective criteria are refined with the corresponding
indicators of the levels of development of social intelligence in preschool
children. The methodology was implemented at the following stages: the
preparatory one was characterized by an emotional mood, rallying the
children’s team, and diagnosing interpersonal relationships, the main one
is both summative and formative, which provides for training, and the
final one is summing up with the help of a diary of pedagogical
observations. The description of art-therapeutic methods, in particular,
fairy-tale therapy, game therapy, drama therapy and isotherapy used in
working with children are presented. The paper substantiates the need to
test the effectiveness of the developed methodology in the process of
empirical research and the adaptation of the Tromsø Scale to diagnose the
levels of development of social intelligence in preschool children. In
addition, the preparation of teachers for work, sharing and assimilation
of the acquired pedagogical experience in the teaching process of
preschool educational institutions was covered.
Keywords: social intelligence; development; preschool child; art therapy

277
1. Introduction
Preschool age is the basis for the formation of the child’s personality. UNESCO
(2018) determines early childhood (from birth to the age of eight) as the peak
period of brain development. At this stage, children are significantly affected by
the environment and people. In this regard, the education and upbringing of
preschool children should be directed not only at preparing for primary school,
but also at the holistic development of the child’s social, emotional, cognitive and
physical needs in order to build a solid foundation for life-long learning, as well
as personal, social and physical well-being (UNESCO, 2018). The World Health
Organization (WHO) notes that children are the future, and ensuring their
physical, socio-emotional, verbal and cognitive development should be a priority
for all societies (WHO, 2019). The Incheon Declaration (UNESCO, 2016) notes, that
quality education stimulates creative spirit and knowledge, guarantees the
acquisition of basic literacy and numeracy skills, as well as the skills, of analysing,
problem solving and other high-level cognitive, interpersonal, and social skills.
Therefore, the development of social intelligence of a child of preschool age and
the development of appropriate methodological support for the implementation
of this process is an urgent problem.
Analysis of the scientific literature demonstrates the diversity of definitions of the

concept of “social intelligence”. Wedeck (1947) understood it as the ability to
properly assess the feelings, moods and motivations of people. Robinson (1947)
believed that the basis of a child’s social intelligence contained knowledge of
himself and relationships with other children, the ability to make decisions on
interaction with others and act according to these decisions. Bailey (2002) has a
similar opinion, noting that social intelligence includes complex social skills that
reflect the ability to understand other people’s hidden mental states and act based
on these findings. Buzan (2002) distinguished eight groups of skills in the
structure of social intelligence, namely: 1) understanding and cognizing people
through verbal and non-verbal signals; 2) active listening; 3) sociability; 4)
influencing others; 5) social activity; 6) negotiating and solving social problems;
7) persuasion of others; 8) orientation and behaviour in different social
environments.
Doğan and Çetin (2009), summarizing the essence of social intelligence based on
the analysis of scientific works of other authors concluded that there are four
related issues that need to be resolved. First, this is the correct definition of this
concept. Silvera, Martinussen and Dahl (2001) found out that some psychologists
question the existence of this formation and its expediency, since it is difficult to
measure it in the process of empirical research. The authors see the solution to this
problem in defining social intelligence as a multiaspect formation, which will
allow establishing its connection with other psychological formations.
Secondly, it is necessary to identify the components of social intelligence as a

complex phenomenon. It is important to note that most authors define social
intelligence as a combination of certain components, distinguishing not only
cognitive (knowledge) and behavioural (skill) components, as mentioned above,
but also motivational (social needs and interests) (Astramovich, Lyons &

278
Hamilton, 2015; Nolan & Paatsch, 2018; Rodney et al., 1988) and affective
(emotions and feelings) (Kaukainen et al., 1999; Kisida, Bowen & Greene, 2018;
Wawra, 2009) components. Thirdly, it is necessary to clarify whether social
intelligence is an independent formation and establish its connection with the
intelligence itself. Doğan and Çetin (2009), referring to the opinions of predecessor
scientists, conclude that social intelligence and academic intelligence are two
separate structures that are independent, however, complement each other.
Fourthly, as the researchers note, the procedure for measuring social intelligence
and selecting appropriate diagnostic tools is quite complicated. Despite the
existence of many methods in the psychological and pedagogical literature, most
of them are focused on the measurement of a particular trait, for example, the
cognitive or behavioural component of social intelligence. Therefore, it is
advisable to refer to the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale, developed by
Norwegian scholars (Silvera et al., 2001), which, in our opinion, most
meaningfully reflects the components of social intelligence (cognitive, affective
and behavioural). It is worth noting that this methodology was tested by its
authors to determine the level of social intelligence of teachers and students of
higher educational institutions, as well as by Turkish scholars (Doğan & Çetin,
2009), who similarly tested the validity and reliability of this methodology in the
process of working with university students. For the first time, Russian scholars
tested the Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale for schoolchildren; its high reliability
for various age and gender groups was revealed and subscale test norms for
students aged 7-16 years were developed (Enygin, Fominykh, Bubenchikova,
Arregi-Orue & Aubakirova, 2018; Fominykh, Barsova, Zarudnaya &
Kolomiytseva, 2016; Nasledov & Semenov, 2015; Zarudnaya et al., 2018).
However, the potential of the proposed methodology for measuring the level of
social intelligence in preschool children is insufficiently studied.
We believe that there is a fifth issue related to social intelligence, which is poorly
studied in scientific works and requires careful analysis and systematic study,
namely the development of methodological support for the development of social
intelligence of preschool children, which is the objective of this study.

The experiment involved 12 children of the experimental group. The following
research methods were used in the study: analysis and generalization of scientific
literature in order to generalize and study the research problem, pedagogical
observation with the use of a diary for pedagogical observation of children,
recording the qualitative changes that occur in the process of introducing methods
of developing social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy,
SWOT-analysis is a method of strategic planning, in order to identify strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, threats) and pedagogical modeling which is the
introduction of art-therapeutic methods and techniques on the basis of Oyna
Training Centre in Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan. The Tromsø Social
Intelligence Scale was used to refine the criteria and indicators of the levels of
social intelligence in preschool children.

279
2.1. Pedagogical Modelling

The methodology of the development of social intelligence in preschool children
by means of art therapy was developed in the study, the stages of its
implementation were identified; appropriate art-therapeutic methods and
techniques were selected; this methodology has been introduced on the basis of
Oyna Educational Centre in Pavlodar, the Republic of Kazakhstan. In the process
of developing the methodology, scientific works of the scholars (Van Oers &
Duijkers, 2013; Taber, 2013; Katzmann, Goertz-Dorten, Hautmann & Doepfner,
2018; Mora, van Sebille & Neill, 2018;) were used, which justified the creation of
methodologies for teaching and developing children on the basis of art therapy,
in particular, game therapy, since the leading activity of children of preschool age
is gaming. The experience of scholars (Bachar, 2008; Cutter-Mackenzie &
Edwards, 2013; Robson & Rowe, 2012; Müller, Naples, Cannon, Haffner &
Mullins, 2018) was taken into account, who proved the effectiveness of using
works of art and attracting children to create them for the harmonious
development of preschool children.
2.2. The Tromsø Social Intelligence Scale

The method of Norwegian researchers (Silvera et al., 2001) is used to refine the
criteria and indicators of the levels of development of social intelligence in
preschool children. The criteria are determined on the basis of three subscales:
processing social information, social skills and social awareness. Cognitive
indicators indicate the subject’s ability to understand the desires, aspirations,
intentions and feelings of others through verbal or non-verbal signals, predict
other people’s behaviour, their feelings and reactions to the actions of the subject.
Behavioural indicators assess the ability to easily adapt to new situations of
communication, to initiate and maintain interaction with others, choosing the
right words and topics for communication and affective indicators measure the
susceptibility to events and reactions to others in interpersonal interactions.
2.3. Diary of Pedagogical Observations

In the process of pedagogical research, it is appropriate to use both quantitative,
and qualitative research methods. Such methods, according to Nind and
Lewthwaite (2018), allow obtaining more meaningful and in-depth information,
identifying factors affecting the object of study, the causes and consequences of
its condition. We use a diary for pedagogical observation of the children of the
experimental group (12 people) and to record the qualitative changes occurring in
the process of implementing the methodology of the development of social
intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy. The basis for building
a diary is a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) to
record the strengths and weaknesses of a child’s personality, reflecting the degree
of formation of social intelligence according to cognitive, behavioural and
affective criteria, and “Opportunities” are formulated as guidelines for further
work in order to intensify strengths and eliminate weaknesses. Nind and
Lewthwaite (2018) suggest using the diary not only as a method of pedagogical
self-observation, but also as a way of exchanging opinions with colleagues. We
consider it expedient to organize the cooperation of a teacher with the child’s
parents with the help of a diary to increase the efficiency of the methodology.

280
3. Findings
Oyna Educational Centre (Pavlodar, Republic of Kazakhstan) pays special
attention to the education, upbringing and development of preschool children
based on the synthesis of advanced pedagogical experience from various
countries of the world (Finland, Hungary, Singapore, Japan). At the same time, it
is important to preserve the national Kazakh traditions of teaching and
upbringing, which is achieved through the use of an ethnological material. In the
process of work with children, the methods of art therapy, fairy-tale therapy,
drama therapy, game therapy and isotherapy are widely used, and, in addition,
their educational potential for the development of social intelligence is
determined. Isotherapy is the therapy by fine arts, first of all drawing, which is
currently used for psychological correction of clients with neurotic,
psychosomatic disorders, children and adolescents with difficulties in learning
and social adaptation, in the family conflicts. The methodology of development
of social intelligence in preschool children by means of art therapy is implemented
in three stages as detailed below.
3.1. Preparatory
The purpose of this stage is the emotional mood of children to effectively interact
with each other, ensuring group cohesion and diagnosing interpersonal
relationships in the children’s team. Pedagogically valuable is the use of
icebreaking games: “Acquaintance”, “Find the one who ...”, with the help of which
children are directed towards initiating communication with each other,
displaying positive emotions, spontaneous expression of feelings. It is also
advisable at this stage to identify the overall level of relationships in the children’s
group and rank the participants from the category of “rejected” to the category of
“stars”, that is, the children who enjoy popularity and sympathy in the group. For
this purpose, the methods of sociometry and the method of projective drawing as
a type of isotherapy are used. Each child is invited to draw himself in the centre
of the sheet as the sun or the moon, and to “place” the other members of the group
in the form of stars around. Thus, the child draws those to whom he feels
sympathy and trust closer to himself. The information contained in the drawings
of children is processed by the educator and transformed into a sociogram, which
is also a drawing in which members of the group are drawn as geometric figures.
These figures are connected by arrows, which reflect the nature of the relationship
in the children’s group. This allows forming microgroups of children for the joint
solution of a certain educational task in the future work.
3.2. Main (summative and formative)

Its goal is to develop the social intelligence in preschool children in terms of
cognitive, behavioural and affective criteria through a special training that
combines the signs of role-playing, communicative and sensitivity trainings.
Using a combination of fairy-tale therapy and game therapy, the child’s social
intelligence is developed according to cognitive criteria, and the task of the
educator is to direct the children involved towards: predicting other people’s
behaviour and understanding of feelings, desires, intentions of other people
using, among other things, words, gestures, facial expressions and other means.

281
Lessons with children are built on the basis of the plot of a particular fairy tale or
a series of fairy tales. It is known that a preschool child will never remain
indifferent if what he does is connected with the world of fairy tales, fantasies,
games and things that are close to him (hobbies, friends). Practical experience with
children indicates the appropriateness of using Kazakh folk tales about animals,
for example, Tiger and Mouse, Dog Assessment, Cautious Bunny, Small Bunny,
and others. It requires an analysis of fairy tales which are based on the interaction
of subjects with children. We share the point of view of Sidorchuk and Khomenko
(1998), who believe that the traditional approach to the analysis of literary works
with preschool children through a detailed study of the causal relationships of the
interaction of heroes and the identification of their characteristics has several
disadvantages: due to psycho-physiological features children quickly lose interest
in analysing the content of a work, almost do not see identical models in works,
cannot draw analogies between different situations.
Therefore, in our work we use the method proposed by the authors for analysing
a literary work with the help of the “Yes-No” situational game:
1. Inaccurately compiled text code of any literary work is deliberately delivered.
For example, analysing the fairy tale Dog Assessment, the following statement is
formulated: “A kind person, coming up to me, starts shouting, making noise,
swearing”.
2. The main rule of the game is reported: generalized questions should be asked
in such a way that the presenter (teacher or child) can answer “Yes” or “No”.
Questions concerning the names of the characters or the names of the fairy tale
remain unanswered.
3. Questions are structured in accordance with the algorithm for deciphering the
details (signs) of the situation. At the same time, we omit such points proposed
by the authors as clarifying the level of reality and establishing the genre of the
work, since it is already known that this is a fairy tale. Other questions are
arranged in the following order: clarification of the signs of the first object,
clarification of the signs of the second object, determining the place where the
objects interact, determining the time of interaction, determining relationships
between the objects and finding out the characteristics of secondary objects.
4. After each clarified step, the text with established features is gradually built. It
is necessary to reformulate and clarify the original statement (“A good person,
coming up to me, does not touch me and silently passes me by, and a bad person
begins to scream, make noise, swear”) and continue the work with the adjusted
task.
5. The text enriched with clarified characteristics is reproduced by children in the
final version.
6. Search for analogies: children give examples of other fairy tales that are based
on a similar model.
7. Return to the put-up fairy tale. Children should clarify the content of the work
and write a new text “Yes-No”.
8. Determination of the version of the fairy tale most accurately compiled (in terms
of the plot) fairy tale.

282
The next is a combination of such art therapy methods as drama therapy, game
therapy and isotherapy, which allows the development of a child’s social
intelligence according to behavioural and affective criteria. The task of the
educator is to develop in participating children susceptibility to the events and
reactions of others in interpersonal interaction, as well as the ability to: adapt to
new situations of communication and to initiate and support interaction with
others, selecting the right words and topics for communication. At this stage,
staging of fairy tales, which were analysed, and the role-playing of participating
children is appropriate. Dramatization is interesting when the rest of the
participants are not informed of the name of the fairy tale and they have to guess
it, carefully watching the play of the “actors”.
We also use the recommendations of Edwards (2017) on the use of three types of
games: open-ended, modelled and purposefully framed. The goal of the open-
ended game is the assimilation of a new concept by children in the process of their
own search activity, and the techniques are observation, experiment; the goal of
the modelled game is the assimilation of a new concept by children through its
demonstration in action by the teacher, and the techniques are demonstration,
explanation; the goal of the third type of games is the assimilation by children of
a new concept in joint activities with a teacher through the study of various
information sources, and the techniques are discussion, open questions,
observations, use of resources, transfer of previously acquired knowledge to a
new situation.
For example, continuing the study of the topic “Animals”, we conduct an open-
ended game with children, combining game therapy and isotherapy. At first,
children are divided into search groups, the participants are offered cards with
the image of wild animals, and each group selects a research topic related to a
certain animal (for example, one of those living in the Republic of Kazakhstan).
The purpose of the research is to study the features, behavioural patterns of an
animal, associations with it, ideas that arise. We consider the possibility of living
observation of the object of research to be pedagogically valuable, therefore we
organize a visit with the children to the zoo or museum. The next is to collect data
about the object. The children record the obtained information using the writing
panel - drawings, symbols, signs, children perform together in search groups. In
addition to observations, we encourage children to “interview experts” - other
people, relatives, acquaintances. This allows not only supplementing knowledge
about the object of research, but also develops the ability of children to initiate
communication not only with their peers, but also with older people. As practice
shows, the most difficult thing for a child is to summarize the data obtained, so
the educator must help him with this, tell him which details are basic and which
are secondary. At the end, the participants of each search group define a new
concept, characterizing its features, giving examples and the like. Members of
other groups are encouraged to ask questions, discuss the submitted report. Such
a collective research work contributes both to the acquisition of research
experience by children,and teaches teamwork and adaptation to various
communication situations.

283
At the summative and formative stage, it is important to comply with the

requirements of the training, namely:
1) children should be about the same age (5-6 years);
2) during the training, the educator maintains a positive atmosphere, focusing on
the successful actions of children, which ensured the effectiveness of interpersonal
communication;
3) activity, initiative, spontaneity, sincere expression of feelings is encouraged.
It is necessary to determine the conditions under which the training will be
productive, namely:
1) relationship of education, upbringing and development;
2) correspondence of the methods, techniques and forms of training to psycho-
physiological nature of a child;
3) educational cooperation of children;
4) ensuring the physical and emotional well-being of a child is to create a state of
comfort, confidence and success for the children during the entire period of the
training.
3.3. The final stage, aimed at summarizing with the help of a diary of
pedagogical observations
The level of formation of social intelligence in the child is determined according
to the indicators based on the modified version of the Tromsø Social Intelligence
Scale (Table 1).
Table 1: Level of formation of social intelligence in the child
Choice Quality
4 - Strongly Disagree Quality is stable, manifests itself continuous
3 - Agree Quality is stable, manifests itself in most cases
2 - Undecided Quality is unstable, its manifestation is situational
1 - Disagree Almost no quality
0 - Strongly Disagree No quality
It is important to trace the dynamics of the results before and after the
implementation of the methods of development of social intelligence in preschool
children. The data obtained as a result of pedagogical observation allow us to
carry out a SWOT analysis: to identify the child’s strengths and weaknesses as
internal factors, and to identify opportunities and threats as external factors.
Based on the SWOT analysis, recommendations for parents are formulated, for
example:
1. As often as possible, ask Kaisar to tell what he thinks about one or another life
situation, discuss the development of the plot in a fairy tale or cartoon. In order to
understand cause-effect relationships, ask your son: “Why did the heroes do this?
Could they have done differently? What could follow?” In order for Kaisar to
understand the mood of another person, sympathize with him and learn to
sincerely express his feelings, tell him more often what you feel in a given
situation and why.

284
2. Amina often seeks support and patterns her behaviour on her brother; this
makes it impossible to build her own strategies of social behaviour. Therefore, she
needs to be taught to initiate interaction with others, to demonstrate her reactions
to their actions, to actively manifest herself in the society. Try to express her
unconditional acceptance to the child, not because she does something good or
behaves correctly, but because you accept her as she is. Find an opportunity to
encourage her independence and initiative.
The need to keep a diary of pedagogical observations in order to develop the

social intelligence of a preschool child is supported by the results of a study by
McLeod et al. (2018), who discovered that educators and parents are more
concerned about the development of the speech of children and their
expressiveness than their behaviour in society, readiness for school,
independence, and the like. This indicates that both parents and educators, as
subjects of pedagogical influence, underestimate the importance of developing
the child’s social intelligence for his successful self-realization in society.
A sample diary to characterize a preschool child according to these three criteria
are provided in Appendix 1.
4. Conclusion
In the study, the concept of “social intelligence of a preschool child” is defined as
a combination of cognitive, behavioural, and affective components that reflect the
essence of social intelligence as a multiaspect formation. It is worth noting that
when introducing the methods of developing the social intelligence of preschool
children with art therapy means, the educator’s preparation for the
implementation of the methodology is particularly significant. In this regard, the
educator is an important socializer, ensuring that learners acquire social and
emotional experience, teaching them to overcome emotional and behavioural
problems. Therefore, in our opinion, it is appropriate to conduct psycho-
pedagogical training for educators in order to form their readiness for work with
preschool children, aimed at developing their social intelligence by means of art
therapy. At the same time, self-diagnosis and self-development by educators of
their own social intelligence are important for productive work with children. The
practical significance of the results lies in the fact that methods for the
development of social intelligence of preschool children by means of art therapy
have been developed and implemented. In the future, it will allow specialists to
identify the characteristics of the child’s mental organization and contribute to its
successful socialization and adaptation in general in educational institutions. The
outcomes from this study can be used in the preparation and advanced training
of specialists majoring in Psychology, in particular in the process of preparing
lectures and practical classes on social psychology, personality psychology,
pedagogical psychology, special courses and special seminars.
It was revealed that the leading art therapeutic method in the process of
implementing the developed methodology is game therapy, which corresponds
to the age and psycho-physiological needs of preschool children. Despite the
scientific and pedagogical community recognize the educational and
developmental benefits of the game compared to traditional education, educators

285
in preschool education institutions fully apply the latter to teach preschool

children, feeling some uncertainty, because they lack the relevant theoretical
knowledge and practical experience in the use of games for learning. The
combination of game therapy with other art therapeutic methods of fairy-tale, iso-
and dramatherapy is pedagogically valuable. It is necessary to check the
effectiveness of the developed methodology in the process of empirical research,
which requires conducting a pedagogical experiment on the basis of Oyna
Educational Centre. To implement its stating and control stages, it is necessary to
adapt the Tromsø Scale to diagnose the levels of development of social
intelligence in preschool children, taking into account their age characteristics,
differences, and the like. However, we believe that this method does not take into
account the diagnosis of the motivational and value component of social
intelligence, which is manifested in the motives of communication and value
orientations of a child (for himself, the others, the group), therefore, the criterion
and diagnostic tools for determining the level of development of social
intelligence of a preschool child requires refining.
It is important to share and introduce the acquired pedagogical experience of

implementing the methods of developing the social intelligence of preschool
children by means of art therapy in the educational process of preschool
educational institutions. Research prospects can be, first, further development
and testing of psychological and pedagogical technologies for the development of
social intelligence of children, to contribute to their development, preservation of
mental health. Second, in the comparative analysis of the results of an empirical
study and determining the most sensitive age period for development social
intelligence of an individual.
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288
Appendix 1
A Sample of a Diary
Child’s Name: __________________ Age: __________ Date: _________________
Levels of Development
Criteria Indicators
4 3 2 1 0
1. Can predict other peoples’ behaviour
2. Knows how his/her actions will make
Cognitive (Social Information
others feel
3. Understands other peoples’ feelings
4. Understands others’ wishes
Processing)
5. Can often understand what others are

trying to accomplish without the need for
them to say anything
6. Can predict how others will react to
his/her behaviour
7. Can often understand what others really
mean through their expression, body
language, etc.
1. Often feels uncertain around new people
who he/she doesn’t know
Behavioural (Social Skills)
2. Fits in easily in social situations

3. Is good at entering new situations and
meeting people for the first time
4. Has a hard time getting along with other
people
5. It takes a long time for him/her to get to
know others well
6. Is good at getting on good terms with new
people
7. Frequently has problems finding good
conversation topics
1. It is difficult for him/her to understand
others’ choices
Affective (Social Awareness)
2. Is often surprised with things people do

3. Feels that other people become angry with
him/her without explaining why
4. Feels that people are often angry or
irritated with him/her when he/she says
what he/she thinks
5. Finds people unpredictable
6. Feels that he/she often hurts others
without realizing
7. Is often surprized by others’ reactions to
what he/she does
Strengths Weaknesses
Opportunities Threats
Suggestions for parents:

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

289

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 289-303, May 2020
Application of Cloud Educational Technologies

for Teacher Competence Development
Iurii L. Mosenkis
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9957-0585
Liudmyla V. Lukianyk
Rivne State University of Humanities, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3432-1614
Oleksandr M. Strokal
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9229-2711
Vira A. Ponomarova
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1880-4691
Hanna V. Mykhailiuk
Borys Grinchenko Kyiv University, Kyiv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4734-7031
Abstract. The research deals with solving an urgent pedagogical problem

– finding ways for teacher competence development based on the use of
innovative educational technologies that meet the modern requirements
of society, pedagogical science and practice. It is established that the
educational process on-line can be managed with the use of cloud
technologies that influence the architecture, the services provided and the
logistics of implementation of training courses. The experimental use of
Google Apps Education Edition and OwnCloud was tested in distance
training courses for teacher competence development with up to 10 years
of practical experience. The obtained results and the dynamics of the
development of the motivational, cognitive, activity and personal
components of teacher competences were analysed using the methods of
mathematical statistics. This study reveals that Google Apps Education
Edition has powerful tools and extensive opportunities for distance
learning, and is an effective means of enhancing the development of all
components of teacher competence. The use of these services in the
process of distance learning courses to increase teacher competence
almost completely solves the problem of interaction with the teaching
staff and the learning environment. This helps to establish the

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correspondence of the content of assignments to the studied topics and to

ensure a professional focus of project assignments of teachers. This model
can be used to develop and implement services that allow the
organization of personal information space for teachers (on the example
of blogs and Google cloud service).
Keywords: cloud learning technologies; Google Apps Education Edition

services; distance competence; development courses
1. Introduction
With a wide spread of digital technologies, learning takes the form of a
continuous, individually oriented, flexible and dynamic process. Global trends in
improving technologies and ways of obtaining, processing and transferring
information open up new educational opportunities (Haris & Khan, 2018). The
development of information technology, the use of the Internet, the networking
of educational organizations, e-learning necessitate the study of the training and
competence development of teachers, taking into account the priority areas of
digitalization of society (Admiraal & Berry, 2016). The world educational space is
expanding the use of electronic means, technologies and resources using the
Internet and various innovative technologies (Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016). The
dynamic development of information technology and, as a consequence, the
changing requirements for educational activities are in line with the level of
teacher competence development level (Khedr & Idrees, 2017; Singh & Baheti,
2017). The emergence of new forms of organization of the educational process and
increasing the range of educational tools, technologies and educational services
make new demands on the teacher competence in an electronic information
educational environment. The continuity of professional education, the expansion
of basic skills, independent continuing of study are all necessary for teachers to
develop their competence and improve pedagogical skills (McKenney, 2018). In
this regard, e-learning, including mass open online courses and cloud-based
learning technologies, becomes increasingly widespread.
The urgency of using cloud-based learning technologies in developing teacher

competence is dictated, first of all, by the pedagogical needs for improving the
learning performance (Hidayat & Utomo, 2014). Competence orientation of the
learning process is characterized by increasing dynamics of the educational
process, a significant increase in the role of distance learning technologies, as well
as the global transition of information resources in the virtual environment. All
this encourages educational institutions to adopt innovative models of activity.
Therefore, the optimization of adult (teachers) learning involves the use of
information and communication technology platforms, smartphones, learning
management systems (Jain & Pandey, 2013; Odeh, Garcia-Perez & Warwick, 2017;
Prescott, 2014). Cloud technologies optimize the collection, systematization,
storage, retrieval, processing and presentation of information, are of general
educational importance and can be used in the study of all subjects (Sultan, 2010).
The great value of incorporating cloud technology into the educational process is
the ability to increase time for learning without changing the curricula of
educational institutions (Lakshminarayanan, Kumar & Raju, 2014).

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The issue of application of cloud technologies in the educational process is

determined by a number of their advantages. First, they provide on-demand self-
service, i.e. the users’ ability to use computing resources to the required extent
without the provider’s (system administrator’s) consent. Second, the combination
of resources is a dynamic redistribution of capacity (storage devices, RAM, network
bandwidth, etc.) (Etawi, 2018). Third, the distribution of resources between multiple
data centers allows the use of IT resources by different applications and users in an
incoherent mode (Su, Tzeng & Hu, 2016). They also provide universal network
access – the users receive cloud services regardless of the terminal device used via
the Internet from high-tech data centers. Another advantage of cloud technologies
is the elasticity (“infinite” scalability) of services, provides access to the system even
in the “peak” of requests, and the list of services can expand or narrow
automatically, without additional interaction with the provider (Kleftodimos &
Evangelidis, 2016) and consumption record (payment upon use). In spite of the
above, the researches show that theoretical prerequisites on the issues of
informatization of education and competence development of specialists with the
use of different pedagogical technologies have been formed so far, but there is a
lack of research examining the use of cloud educational technologies for the
competence of teachers.
1.1. Research questions

The objective of this study was to determine 1) how and to what extent the
distance learning program based on Google Apps Education Edition and
OwnCloud can contribute to the learning process and increase the teacher
competence; and 2) how teachers perceived the program of the distance
qualification courses?
1.2. Literature Review

Literature review showed that teacher competence functions under the conditions
of totally innovative realities of the modern world, high rate of knowledge
updating, blurring the boundaries of teaching as its system-building element
(Vangrieken, Dochy, Raes & Kyndt, 2015). Having a range of professionally
significant functions (ability to reflect, creativity, self-organization, self-
development, selectivity, manifestation of creating content, innovative solutions)
(Lauermann & König, 2016; van Leeuwen, Janssen, Erkens & Brekelmans, 2015)
in conjunction with professional skills allow teachers to act as reflective agents of
industrial and socio-cultural innovations, which ensures their personal and
professional success.
The expansion of teaching activities - collaboration, counselling, tutoring,

monitoring - necessitates building competence and realizing skills within
computer-assisted communication (Yousafzai, Chang, Gani & Noor, 2016). It also
urges the search for alternatives to traditional forms of organization of the
educational process, creating opportunities for personal learning, interactive
classes and group teaching (Nosenko, Popel & Shyshkina, 2018). It should be
noted that the organization of advanced teacher training has some features. The
work which states that the diversity of existing online services requires their
analysis and evaluation for the purpose of selection for use in the curriculum
(Diaby & Rad, 2017; Kaur, 2016) is interesting for the achievement of the research

292
objectives. Of course, such selection should be made taking into account the
educational potential of services, the possibility and reasonability of their use in
the educational process (Narayana, Kumar & Jayashree, 2017). Building the
teacher competence based on cloud technologies should be aimed not only at
studying the actual specific services and technologies, but also at mastering the
methods of their use in educational activities (Chhabra & Dixit, 2015; Kaur, 2015).
In this regard, the organization of teacher competence building provides review
lectures of an introductory nature, as well as practical classes, where the teachers
will consider specific examples of the use of cloud technologies and services, and
round tables where they can discuss and “play through” learning situations using
a variety of online services. We base our belief on the study of the researches
(Elmonem, Nasr & Geith, 2016; Admiraal & Berry, 2016; Bulla, Hunshal & Mehta
2016; Hidayat & Utomo, 2014; Kleftodimos & Evangelidis, 2016).

The study was prolonged and was conducted using general scientific theoretical,
empirical (pedagogical observation, questioning, experiment) and statistical
(quantitative and qualitative analysis of experimental results) methods of research
and analysis of results according to the objective of each stage. The structure of
the pedagogical experiment included three stages: diagnostic (primary diagnosis
of the level of teacher competence), formative and final stages. The research work
was based on the use of the following experimental methods: questionnaires,
testing, laboratory research work, defence of projects, element-by-element
analysis, peer assessment, computer processing of research results; methods of
mathematical processing of research results. The general scheme of organization
of research work was as follows: a survey was conducted; project topic, project
requirements were developed; the elements for element-by-element analysis were
selected; weight points were distributed; peer assessment of projects was carried
out by opponents. According to the tasks of the research and the main
characteristics of teaching activity, the structural components of teachers’
competences are distinguished: motivational, cognitive, activity and personal.
The outlined components became the basis for distinguishing the basic,
reproductive and creative levels of teachers’ competence development.
2.1. Population Sampling

The general population of the sample of the survey conducted during 2016-2019
was 311 teachers of different subjects from the National Pedagogical Dragomanov
University (93), South Ukrainian National Pedagogical University named after K.
D. Ushynsky (84), Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatiuk National Pedagogical University
(65), Sumy State A. S. Makarenko Pedagogical University (69) with approximately
the same work experience. To organize the experiment, the teachers who
participated in the experiment during 2016-2019 were divided into experimental
and control groups (Table 1).
Table 1: Number of students in experimental and control groups

Year Experimental group Control group
2016-2017 60 55
2017-2018 45 48
2018-2019 24 30

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Non-variational conditions in CG and EG were the conduct of experimental

research during the study of the same subjects and the use of the same forms of
control. CG teachers’ training was carried out according to the traditional method
of advanced training (full-time, full-time and part-time). Variational conditions
included the implementation of cloud-based learning technologies in the EG in
the distance competence development courses for teachers. Experimental
verification of teachers’ competence level was based on a level approach
(Livingston, 2014), according to which teachers’ competence levels were
determined with the use of cloud technologies: basic reproductive, creative.
Based on the research (Livingston, 2014; Simaiya & Paul, 2018), teachers’
competence level assessment is presented in the form of:
u = min{u3 , u y , uo },
where u – conditional index number of teachers' competence level, where: 0 –
initial; 1 – basic; 2 – reproductive; 3 – creative;
u3 – conditional index number of the level of knowledge of teachers, where: 0 –
initial; 1 – basic; 2 – reproductive; 3 – creative;
u y – conditional index number of the level of teachers’ skills, where: 0 – initial; 1
– basic; 2 – reproductive; 3 – creative;
u o – conditional index number of the level of experience of teachers, where: 0 –
initial; 1 – basic; 2 – reproductive; 3 – creative.
Testing based on Google Forms was implemented in self-preparation mode

directly to control knowledge. Therefore, the level of motivation for teaching was
assessed by performing laboratory research work; the level of knowledge of teachers
- in each disciplinary section (topic) based on the results of the final diagnostic work
(practical, control and independent work). The content of control measuring
materials covers all sections and topics that were studied within the distance
competence building courses by means of cloud services. The teachers’ skills were
assessed based on the results of the defence of final project work on a dichotomous
measurement scale, as well as practical tasks, independent (individual, group)
and tests, observation, participation in research (preparation of reports for
conferences). The level of teachers’ experience was assessed based on the results
of the defence of the project research work, which was performed within
professional activity. The total number of assignments is a multiple of three - the
number of identified levels. The results of the current control and intermediate
appraisal formed the rating of teachers. Based on the rating scale adopted in
higher educational institutions (60-74/75-89/90-100 points), the corresponding
points were accrued for the relevant types of work (Table 2).
Table 2: Distribution of points for the types of work within the experimental study
Levels
Types of training work
Basic Reproductive Creative
Laboratory research work 10-13 14-16 17-20
Individual works 10-13 14-16 17-20
Test papers 5-6 7-8 9-10
Testing 5-6 7-8 9-10

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It was assumed that the theoretical model of the distribution of the data obtained
from the experiment is a normal distribution, since the random variables obtained
from the analysis are the sum of a large number of weakly dependent terms.
Mathematical processing of average scores was carried out using a data analysis
tool - descriptive statistics from the Microsoft Excel 2007 software package. This
statistical analysis allowed assessing the level of effectiveness of teacher
competence through the use of cloud technologies and services due to the
interpretation of the level of the average score on the set of competence
components identified.
At the pre-experimental stage, the teachers performed the input diagnostic work
with the outlined diagnostic tools, and its results are presented in Table 3. It
follows from its analysis that all participants of the pedagogical experiment
successfully completed the input diagnostic work and were admitted to
participate in the pedagogical experiment. Experimental and control groups were
formed according to the results of the input diagnostic work.
Table 3: Results of input diagnostic work of teachers’ competence at the pre-

experimental stage
Groups Levels of teachers’ competence development levels according to the results
of input diagnostic work
No. of teachers % No. of teachers % No. of teachers %
2016-2017
CG 33 60% 17 31% 5 9%
EG 39 65% 15 25% 6 10%
2017-2018
CG 27 56.25% 15 31.25% 6 12.5%
EG 23 51.1% 17 37.8% 5 11.1%
2018-2019
CG 18 60% 11 36.7% 1 3.3%
EG 16 66.7% 7 29.2% 1 4.1%
At the beginning of the experiment, comparisons of the division of teachers by

levels of academic achievement were made. The purpose of this statistical
operation is to confirm the insignificant difference between the academic
achievement of the competence development of EG and CG teachers. We used 
2
criterion to test the null hypothesis (H0) that there is no difference between the
distribution of students in the two groups by level of academic achievement.
According to the results of the input testing (by years), statistical evaluation was
performed based on the homogeneity criterion 2 .
The empirical value of  emp

2
was calculated by the formula:
2
 ni mi 
L 
− 
emp
2
= N M   N M
,
i =1 ni + mi

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L – number of gradations of levels of teacher competence development levels.

N and M – respectively, the volumes of the experimental and control groups;
ni – number of EG students who showed a certain level of competence (basic,
reproductive, creative);
mi – the number of CG students who showed a certain level of competence (basic,
reproductive, creative).
Two hypotheses we put forward to establish matches or differences in the
characteristics of CG and EG.
Н0 (null hypothesis) – there are no differences between EG and CG teachers in
terms of compared characteristics.
Н1 (alternative hypothesis) – differences between EG and CG teachers in terms of
compared characteristics are significant.
Comparison of the values of the criterion 2 with the critical one (  0.05 = 5.99)
2
allowed noting that the characteristics of the samples coincide at the significance
level of 0.05 and the EG and CG splitting in the chosen way is possible, therefore
the hypothesis Н0 is accepted. The results are shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Values of the  emp

2
criterion by years of pre-experimental study
Year 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019

 2
emp 0.364 0.440 0.344
2.2. Research Design

In order to improve the competence of teachers, distance competence
development courses have been developed by means of cloud services. Within the
study, the main category of trainees were practitioners with a work experience of
no more than 10 years. The teachers chose Google online portal as an online
platform for the practical assignments. The choice of using Google Apps
Education Edition in remote teacher competence development courses is due to
the following reasons: minimum hardware requirements (prerequisite is Internet
access); cloud technology does not require any funds for purchasing and
maintaining specialized software (the applications can be accessed through a web
browser window); Google Apps supports all operating systems and client
programs used by teachers and educational institutions; working with documents
is possible with any mobile device that supports the Internet; All Google Apps
Education Edition tools are free allowing synchronous mobile communication
mechanism (confirmations, notifications, reminders), online help system.
Distance competence building courses for teachers were based on the use of
special software:
- Google services (Google Classroom, Google Mindmeister, Google Docs,
Google Spreadsheets, Google Presentation, Google Forms);
- QR code generator QR coder;
- mobile service QR scanner;
- online designer of interactive assignments LearningApps;
- service for organizing interactive testing, surveys and quizzes (Socrative,
PollEverywhere).

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The main Google services used by teachers for their competence development
were: Google Drive – for posting abstracts of lectures and their presentations;
Google Docs – for active work with lecture texts; Google Calendar – to plan and
manage educational activities (schedule of classes, consultations, schedule of
conferences, reminders of check weeks, deadlines for submitting reports); Google
Group – a means of bringing different users together into one group; Google Site
– a system for publishing the necessary information on the network; Google Mail
– to receive notifications of changes in personal space and to conduct off-line
consultations; Google + Hangouts –for online seminars (webinars) and the
opportunity to ask questions in the text chat. In the educational process, students
also created their own cloud storage on the local network with the help of
OwnCloud service, explored the possibilities of its use in their professional
activity. The set of outlined services provided by the educational “cloud” of a
particular teacher, form his personal information and educational environment.
The purpose of each service is shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Purpose of Google Services for teacher competence development
Services Purpose
Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets Displays training information

Google Slides, Google Docs, Google Organization of lectures, webinars,
Spreadsheets Google+ Hangouts laboratory work, extracurricular work
Instructions on the timing of work,
Google Calendar, Gmail
notification of events
Google Forms Organization of testing
Google Docs, Google Spreadsheets, Assessment of group and individual
Google Slides work
Gmail, Google Drive, Google Calendar Provision of educational communications
The use of Google Apps Internet Services in distance competence development

courses allowed us to fulfil a number of tasks: creating training groups based on
each lecture groups by assigning a group address of @groups.live.com type;
organization of a calendar of training assignments during the courses with the
possibility of automatic notification of the group one week before and subsequent
marking of the performance; discussing a separate lecture topic based on
OneNoteWebApps notebook; joint editing of the document by several members
of the group (this task was most successfully accomplished in the process of
carrying out case studies and project assignments, since the results of the
discussion with the teacher or other participants of the groups did not require the
transfer of files and creation of new documents on the basis of previous ones);
posting of educational materials with the possibility of updating them in the
current file (making additions; adding comments to individual content elements);
receiving assignments by teacher and reporting on their performance 24/7;
monitoring the performance of training assignments throughout the courses.

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3. Results
Repeated assessments were made according to the same diagnostic methods upon
completion of the distance competence development courses by the EG teachers
with the use of cloud technologies. The following dynamics were obtained in CG
and EG (see Tables 6-10).
Table 6: Results of laboratory work to evaluate the motivational component of

teachers’ competence
Groups Levels of the development of motivational component of competence
2016-2017
EG 10 17% 32 53% 18 30%
CG 20 36% 23 42% 12 22%
2017-2018
EG 9 20% 23 51% 13 29%
CG 15 31% 24 50% 9 19%
2018-2019
EG 2 8% 11 46% 11 46%
CG 11 37% 13 43% 6 20%
Table 7: Results of the performance of final diagnostic work to evaluate the cognitive
component of teachers’ competence
Groups Levels of the development of cognitive component of competence
No. of No. of No. of
% % %
teachers teachers teachers
2016-2017
EG 17 28% 27 45% 16 27%
CG 23 41.8% 26 47.3% 6 10.9%
2017-2018
EG 10 22.2% 24 53.3% 11 24.4%
CG 19 39.6% 23 47.9% 6 12.5%
2018-2019
EG 4 16.7% 10 41.7% 10 41.7%
CG 14 47% 12 40% 4 13%
Table 8: Results of the defence of the final project work for the evaluation of the
activity component of the competence of teachers
Groups Levels of the development of activity component of competence
2016-2017
EG 12 20% 29 48% 19 32%
CG 23 42% 27 49% 5 9%
2017-2018
EG 12 26.7% 21 46.7% 12 26.7%
CG 25 52% 18 38% 5 10%
2018-2019
EG 4 17% 14 58% 6 25%
CG 10 33% 20 67% 0 0%

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Table 9: Results of the defence of project research work to evaluate the personal
component of teachers’ competence
Groups Levels of the development of personality component of competence
2016-2017
EG 19 32% 26 43% 15 25%
CG 19 34.5% 28 50.9% 8 14.5%
2017-2018
EG 8 17.8% 30 66.7% 7 15.6%
CG 13 27% 29 60% 6 13%
2018-2019
EG 4 17% 12 50% 8 33%
CG 10 33% 18 60% 2 7%
The result of the distance teacher competence development courses was evaluated
comprehensively, based on all types of work. Results for distance courses using
cloud technologies are presented in Table 10.
Table 10: Changes in teacher competence development during distance courses based
on cloud-based learning
Groups Summarized levels of the teacher competence development
2016-2017
EG 13 22% 36 60% 11 18%
CG 24 44% 25 45% 6 11%
2017-2018
EG 9 20% 21 47% 15 33%
CG 16 33.3% 27 56.3% 5 10.4%
2018-2019
EG 2 8% 15 63% 7 29%
CG 12 40% 16 53% 2 7%
Teacher competence development levels before the experiment

80
70
60 Basic
% of teachers
50
40 Reproductive
30
20 Creative
10
0
CG EG CG EG CG EG
2016-2019
Figure 1: Summarized distribution of teachers by levels of competence development

at the pre-experimental stage, %

299
Teacher competence development levels before the experiment

70
60
50
% of teachers
40 Basic
30 Reproductive
20
Creative
10
0
CG EG CG EG CG EG
2016-2019
Figure 2: Summarized distribution of teachers by levels of competence development

at the post-experimental stage, %
Figures 1 and 2 show the distribution of teachers by levels of competence

development before and after the experiment. The results of the statistical data
processing compared to the academic results of the CG and EG (after the end of
the experiment) made it possible to accept an alternative hypothesis and
confirmed the reliability of differences of the characteristics of the compared
samples at the level of 95% (Table 11).
Table 11: The value of the  emp

2
criterion by years of study after the experiment
(comparison of control and experimental groups)
Year 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019
 2
emp 6.519 7.621 9.402
Statistical processing of the results of competence development levels in the

control group before and after the application of traditional training method
(without the use of cloud technologies) indicates more significant changes of the
experimental group results before and after the training using cloud technologies
(Table 12).
Table 12: The value of the  emp

2
criterion by years of study after the experiment
(comparison of control and experimental groups)
Year 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019
CG 5.593 6.333 2.459
EG 25.440 16.9823 18.297
The numerical indicators reflect the effectiveness of the use of cloud-based

learning technologies in improving teacher competencies. The given data of tables
and figures testify to increase of competence of the EG and CG teachers. In the
EG, this increase was, however, more significant (for 2016-2019): on average, there
was an increase in the number of teachers with a creative level of competence in

300
the EG compared to CG by 17.1%; with reproductive level – by 5.3%; as for the

basic level, there were 9.3% fewer teachers in the EG with this level.
The use of cloud technologies to improve the competence of teachers-practitioner

is quite effective and efficient, as evidenced by our distance cloud competence
development courses, including the Google Apps Education Edition web portal
with its main services. The use of these services extends the cognitive activity of
teachers, develops communication and information skills enabling the use of
online cloud services and sharing technologies for network cooperation and
solving professional problems in the future. The EG teachers have mastered
different models of educational activity based on the distribution of the functions
of learning activities and the organization of communication between the teacher
and students, as well as students with each other using cloud technology.
4. Discussions
The use of cloud technologies, in particular the Internet portal Google Apps
Education Edition with its main services in the system of advance training of
teachers proved to be a pedagogical stimulus for their professional development.
The experience of using the above forms and methods of working with Google
Apps Education Edition services has shown that the formation, development and
improvement of teacher competence is possible through consistent work in the
system and the development of all its tools. In addition, distance training courses
provided individualization of learning, created preconditions for the transition to
personality-oriented learning, allowed teachers to “immerse” in a virtual
environment with the ability to simulate educational and professional situations,
initiating a willingness to solve problems. The latter is consistent with the findings
of Singh and Baheti (2017). When determining the role and service of cloud
computing for higher education system proved that cloud services allow
rethinking the use of the Internet in the educational process: from access to
educational materials of various kinds (text, visual, multimedia) to joint work
with the teacher or partners.
This study is consistent with the results of our literature review and contributes
to the study of the problem of introducing cloud educational technologies in the
system of professional training and building competence of teachers. The results
confirmed a previous study conducted by Purwoko, Andayani, Muntar and
Diartha (2017), which points out that there is a current need for teachers who focus
on continuity of professional education, the expansion of basic skills. Therefore,
there is also a need for e-learning, mass open on-line courses. Although this was
outside the scope of this study, distance courses reduced the imbalance between
excessive efforts to develop teachers’ ability to engage in a variety of independent
activities to collect, process, store, transfer, produce educational information, and
lack of tutor in the development of information skills in the experiment
participants.
The study complemented and deepened previous research on the use of cloud
technologies in the educational process in the following aspects: the use of cloud
computing and technology in education (Bulla et al., 2016); forming feedback and

301
metadiscourse at the group level through cloud technologies (Resendes,

Scardamalia, Bereiter & Halewood, 2015) and using open source technologies and
open Internet resources to create an interactive learning environment
(Kleftodimos & Evangelidis, 2016). The theoretical, methodological and practical
developments have outlined further problem field of research on the technology
of integration of cloud services “application as a service” and learning
management systems (LMS).
5. Conclusion
The use of cloud-based learning technologies in the process of enhancing the
competence of teachers enables continuous learning, self-development, raising
the level of knowledge of specialists, mass sharing of information and experience
regardless of spatial and temporal boundaries, equal chances for self-realization
of the participants to the process, creates conditions for teachers to build
individual educational trajectories, maximum individualization of the
educational process and orientation to conscious independent work. The set of
Google Apps Education Edition services we considered meets the requirements
for training systems, because they not only facilitate the acquisition of knowledge,
but also enhance the skills to use of different strategies for finding information on
the Internet, to analyse the information received, effective interaction of teachers
in the fulfilment of common tasks and organization of the studied material.
Experience in using the said forms and methods of work with Google Apps
Education Edition has proven effective development and improvement of
teachers’ competences during distance courses for systematic work in the systems
and development of all their tools. The study of theoretical modules of
educational programs in the format of remote technologies, which are
implemented on Google Apps platform can be used in the prospect of the
development of cloud technologies in higher education. For further research, we
propose to develop a mobile application for teachers on Android and IOS to
monitor their own achievements, as well as the techniques and methodological
support for using Google Apps Education Edition in teaching. It will be very
convenient, since mobile phones are always with you and you can complete the
task at any time.
6. Limitations and Implications for the Research

The results of the study can be challenged because the experiment relied on the
experience of only a few higher educational institutions and involved teachers
who had no more than 10 years of experience. The quasi-experimental design of
the study and a number of variables studied were also limitations of this study.
This study experimentally proves that traditional courses in the system of the
university-based qualification courses for teachers should soon become a
secondary matter, as the digitalization of learning and cloud storage of not only
data but also applications changes the approach towards the traditional client-
server model, where the user obtains the minimum required functions.

302
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 304-317, May 2020
Using U-NO-ME Card Game to Enhance Primary

One Pupils’ Vocabulary
Brenda Ak Lukas, Finola Iba Ak Patrick, Gloria Chong,

Nursuriati Binti Jaino and Melor Md Yunus*
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2892-8217
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2854-7062
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3145-3603
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3197-7119
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7504-7143
Abstract. It has been taxing for most English teachers to conduct proper
English lessons since their pupils know minimal English vocabulary.
Experiencing meaningful learning to understand the lesson content is
more challenging when there is a limited chance to fully integrate ICT
into English lessons, especially in rural schools in Sarawak. Therefore,
this study aimed to unveil the U-NO-ME card game's potential as an
educational game in enhancing Primary One pupils' vocabulary
acquisition. The research design employed in this study is quasi-
experimental. The two types of data collection instruments used were
pre- and post-test and a Likert-scale questionnaire. A total of fifty-two
(52) Primary One pupils from four different schools of four different
districts in Sarawak were selected through purposive sampling. The
vocabulary adopted into the card game was aligned with the current
CEFR-based curriculum as designed in the Supermind textbook of
Primary One and Primary Two's pupils in Malaysia. There is a
significant improvement in pupils' vocabulary acquisition based on the
scores between the pre- and post-test. Results from the questionnaire
implied that pupils had positive perceptions of U-NO-ME card game as
it enhanced pupils' memory retention and encouraged their learning
motivation. Moreover, this study provides an insight for English teachers
to discover the use of educational games in creating more interesting,
useful, and meaningful teaching and learning vocabulary lessons.
Keywords: vocabulary acquisition; memory retention; motivation;

educational game; social interaction
1. Introduction
Vocabulary is essential knowledge in any language learning. New words
learned are new vocabulary obtained in the targeted language. When learning

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English as a second language, getting vocabulary first is important than

mastering other language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing). The
learners also expanded other language skills.
"Vocabulary is an essential component of language proficiency and acts
as foundation for learners to communicate with each other" (Khoii &
Sharififar, 2013, p. 199).
Alqahtani (2015) also agreed by stating that second language learners must
acquire sufficient vocabulary knowledge to impede effective and meaningful
communication. Acquiring vocabulary is fundamental for the development of all
other skills in learning the English language. Learners need to acquire an
extensive vocabulary as this will help them to speak, read, and write more
proficiently in the second language. Vocabulary is especially essential to English
language teaching as we need them to express ideas. Thus, it plays a significant
role in everyday conversations as well as scholarly communication. Tovar Viera
(2017) stated that learning vocabulary means learners also learn their meanings
and how to use them in different contexts and situations. Hence, mastering an
adequate number of words, and using them correctly is essential to
communicate well in a targeted language.
One of the most challenging parts in learning a foreign language, particularly in

English as a second language (ESL), is the retention of vocabulary. The
importance of vocabulary is reflected daily in and out of the school as pupils
who possess sufficient vocabulary are those achieving pupils (Alqahtani, 2015).
In the current Malaysian education system, primary and secondary schools have
integrated the Common European Framework of Reference for Language
(CEFR). This new curriculum aids in improving English proficiency among
younger learners through natural learning. Despite the reformation of
curriculum, "vocabulary acquisition in a foreign language is a problematic and
time-consuming task" (Yunus, Salehi & Amini, 2016, p. 184). Yamat, Fisher and
Rich (2014) opined that due to lack exposure to English language and
opportunity to use the language, Malaysian primary school pupils are likely to
face difficulties to engage actively in classroom activities. Inadequate amount of
vocabulary acquired disable them to express themselves and use the language
confidently.
According to Umar and Hassan (2015), the integration of Information and

Communication Technology (ICT) into teaching and learning acts as an essential
tool to accompaniment and support teachers’ professional development to
deliver productive and successful lessons. In conjunction with the statement, the
ICT usage is prominent in teaching and learning in schools, managing
educational institutions, and administrative sectors for the development of
Malaysia (Ministry of Education, 2012). Nevertheless, some schools, especially
those in rural areas, are facing challenges in implementing and integrating ICT
into teaching and learning purposes due to technology barriers. Without the
help of ICT, non-native speaker pupils from rural and even suburban schools are
struggling in understanding the lesson content of CEFR textbooks, which differ
from the local context. These children are supposedly in their generation known
as digital natives. Realistically speaking, they are far from being one. Growing

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up in a rural and suburban area, although it's not entirely inaccessible to the
town, some are rarely going out of the village. Due to inadequate facilities and
unavoidable technology-barriers, most teachers tend to stick to traditional
methods in teaching. Teachers use conventional ways of teaching vocabulary,
such as giving synonyms, memorisation, and oral explanations from teachers.
These actions can demotivate pupils, and gradually, the pupils will lose interest
in learning the English language and may not be willing to be in contact with
anything related to English. Referring to Amjah (2014), learners should learn in a
pleasurable and engaging environment. Therefore, teachers are highly
encouraged to prepare effective teaching pedagogy to ensure learners can learn
better in learning the English language.
1.1 Origin of U-NO-ME

Originally, U-NO-ME was an idea generated from a famous card game called
UNO, which was developed initially in 1971. Internet connection is not needed
for this card game to operate. Most of the time, educators consider learners'
memory is the only evidence that something learned. As Thornbury (2002, cited
in Rizki et al., 2013) stated, to ensure pupils can recall and retent the knowledge
longer, needs to be placed into working memory. Based on Cowan in 2014,
working memory requires information to be in a ready accesible form. Working
memory facilitates planning, comprehending, reasoning, and problem-solving.
In 2016, Richard reviewed that card games benefit in improving academic
achievement and promoting high order thinking and problem-solving. Card
games further encouraged learners to interact actively and collaborate with other
people and learn to come up with effective solutions to any problem that they
face. Therefore, this study lets the pupils expose to the U-NO-ME card game that
challenges their thinking and promotes their decision making.
It is a practical and user-friendly game that enables users or players to use it to

gain information and learning at the same time. Teachers modified on how to
play the cards and the cards' content. The content of the U-NO-ME cards
consists of words, pictures, and power cards. When playing the original UNO
game, players have to match the number, colour, or the action of the card that
the previous players discard. For instance, a blue card with the number "three
(3)" is on top of the Discard Pile, the next player has to discard either a blue card
or a card with the number "3" on it. Players can also discard a Wild card, which
can alter the card's colour at that time in play. The U-NO-ME card game, on the
other hand, players need to find the matching cards, picture to its word
correctly, and take them out. Power cards are to make the games more
entertaining and exciting. Pupils who finish all their cards in their possession
will become the winner. As mentioned by Akdogan (2017), games, as fun
activities develop intellectual skills and analytical thinking. A game makes the
players absorb in an artificial struggle, defined by rules, that results in a
quantifiable consequence. The originality of the materials exposes the pupils
with new vocabulary and improve their proficiency in the using of vocabulary
words. In the process of U-NO-ME card game, reading, speaking and listening
language skills are involved. This number of players of the U-NO-ME card game
can be two to six.

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Figure 1 shows the images of the U-NO-ME cards' prototype. All of U-NO-ME
cards are 8.7cm length and 5.5cm width, which is of the perfect grip. They are
nicely packed together with a manual in their box. U-NO-ME cards consist of a
total number of forty-eight (48) cards, twenty (20) word cards, 20 picture cards,
and eight powers cards. Apart from that, the design of the deck was on one
theme, which is animals. This particular theme is present in the CEFR
Supermind textbook and the English syllabus.

Figure 1: U-NO-ME prototype
The study addresses an important issue on how the U-NO-ME Card game could
be used to enhance the primary one pupils' English vocabulary. The paper could
make a significant contribution to the teaching of a second language through
gaming. Thus, this study is to unveil the U-NO-ME card game's potential as an
educational game in enhancing pupils' vocabulary acquisition when inadequate
ICT facilities occur.
Through the pre- and post-test together with a questionnaire, this study sought
to discover the research questions, as follow:
1. To what extent does the U-NO-ME card game aids in pupils’ vocabulary
acquisition?
2. What are pupils’ perceptions regarding the use of U-NO-ME card game
in English vocabulary learning?
2.1 Vocabulary Learning

According to Derakhshan and Khatir (2015), traditional teaching methods such
as memorisation, repetition of words, direct-translation methods, and fill-in-the-
blank exercises tend to make pupils feel troublesome and bored during teaching
and learning session. They also stated that “using a long list of words and their
translation items make no guarantee that remembering will take place” (p.40).
Thus, it makes learning a language can also be frustrating and demotivate the
pupils as they are only acquiring new vocabulary through unfamiliar words in
the textbooks or during the teachers’ lectures during a classroom lesson. Susanto
et al. (2019) suggested that motivation is the contributing factor to the success of
language learning. It indicated that motivation plays an important role to attract
pupils’ attention in vocabulary acquisition. Young learners get distracted easily
as they mostly have short attention span. Therefore, teachers need to prepare
exciting activities to avoid boredom in the classroom. Susanto et al. (2019)
mentioned that some educators have been teaching vocabulary based on an

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academic achievement approach and disregard the appropriateness of the

words’ difficulties used. In this situation, English grammar is usually essential in
measuring the English proficiency or academic achievement and is a reflection
of the mastery of English rather than vocabulary.
2.2 Game-based Learning

Game-based learning is not a new notion in education. It has been widespread
worldwide in recent years, particularly in classrooms where educators have
started to look for various interactive and engaging learning environments, as
stated by Serrano (2019). Today's curriculum needs to include solutions to attract
pupils' attention and keep them engaged in their learning and encourage their
critical and creative thinking. One of the relevant solutions is through a game-
based learning approach. Games are mainly used for strategic thinking back in
the Middle Ages (Cahill, 2019). Therefore, game-based learning is an acceptable
approach in today’s world of teaching and learning because of its constructivist
concept. “Constructivism posits the need to provide pupils with the necessary
tools so they can build their procedures to solve a problem" (Gamelearn, 2017).
The constructivist approach allows learners to participate as they interact with
people of their surroundings. They get to solve the problems that are being set
out and apply the knowledge in daily life.
Furthermore, learning through repetition, experiencing defeat, and

accomplishment of goals is the principle of games (Cahill, 2019). Games are
usually designed with appropriate difficulties while still easy to be played and
conducted. The same concept is applied in using games in the education
curriculum since learners will work towards a goal, choose their actions and
exploring and testing the strategies that they come across while playing. In this
way, they can indirectly find solutions to the problems. Thus, active learning
takes place instead of passive learning.
2.3 Learning Vocabulary Through Games

Some studies have shown that vocabulary enhancement activities, such as
games, can improve learners' vocabulary acquisition. In 2011, Yunus et al.
emphasised that learning has to be active so that the pupils can link between
their prior knowledge and what they are about to learn. Correspondingly, pupils
know their goals and what they will achieve at the end of the learning. Teaching
and learning context can be meaningful and useful if pupils can experience and
have a better understanding of the language as they practise all the language
skills through games. According to Dr Karpicke (2016), meaningful learning is
long-lasting, understandable, and well organised. It also helps learners to be able
to transfer knowledge, making inferences, and overcome obstacles. Ulrich and
Glendon (2005), as cited in Williyam et al. (2016), claimed that the use of games
effectively draws pupils' attention. Games allow the immediate provision of
feedback from teachers; thus, pupils can assess their comprehension and
improve themselves. Subsequently, it helps to encourage learners to sustain their
interest, work, and need for further study (Williyam et al., 2016). Hence, the
game can help teachers maximise learners' learning potential. Games can make
learners more enthusiastic and motivated in learning vocabulary.

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Also, Derakhshan and Khatir (2015), referring to Huyen and Nga's (2003) study
on learning vocabulary through games, stated that the use of vocabulary games
in the classroom exposes learners to the real-world situations. It also enables
pupils to use language in an adaptable, comfortable and interactive way.
Learning vocabulary through play is believed to hold high value in language
education since it helps to make language learning more entertaining (Razali et
al., 2017). Connecting the intended meaning with images is how a word is
learned and with the virtual-aid method thus heightened the retention of the
word. In a research study conducted by McLean and Griffiths (2019), it was
ascertained that playing games have a positive impact as it fosters social support
as well as the progress of social ties, including social capital, social identity, and
civic engagement. Learners are more likely to develop positive attitudes and be
more motivated through game-based learning. Rizki et al. (2013) also supported
that statement by mentioned that physical activities that make pupils move
around could boost pupils' motivation in learning. Physical movements aid in
boosting energy to tired learners during class. It can avoid boredom as well as
refresh learners' memory on the learning.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research Design

This study utilised the quasi-experimental research design. Quasi-experiments
employ experimental and observational studies by using randomised controlled
trials (RCTs) in many respects as mentioned by Maciejewski (2018). The
researcher selects the target group into different treatments instead of using
random selection. The researchers collect pre- and post-test scores data, hence
involving manipulating independent variables from purposive samples.
According to Rogers and Revesz (2019), the independent variable is predicted to
bring about some effects or changes in the dependent variable. For example, in
this study, it is about examining the impact of using U-NO-ME card game on
vocabulary acquisition.
There are two parts of the data in this study. Firstly, data were derived from pre-
test and post-test scores. Before the inception of U-NO-ME card game as a
treatment, a pre-test was given to check pupils' performance. A post-test was
given as an evaluation of the development of pupils' performance after the
treatment. It illustrated the effect of using U-NO-ME card game on the
vocabulary learning process.
Secondly, a questionnaire was administered to the same respondents in four

different schools from four different districts in Sarawak. Using a questionnaire
in this study was to obtain information about pupils' perceptions of the U-NO-
ME card game in learning vocabulary in ESL classrooms. As mentioned by
Debois (2019), the use of questionnaires is used to the targeted groups and
conducted in several means. As for this study, the format of the questionnaire
employed Likert scales.
The data collection method was done quantitatively instead of qualitatively. This
research aimed to reveal the lexical development of pupils in the pre- and post-

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test and examine the effectiveness of U-NO-ME card game in teaching has
positive effects on vocabulary learning.
3.2 Research Respondents

Table 1 illustrates the number of respondents used throughout this study. A
total of 52 Primary One pupils (seven years old) were selected purposely for this
research; without any control group. Out of fifty-two (52) respondents, ten (10)
were from a rural school in Kapit district, sixteen (16) were from Saratok district,
another 16 were from a rural school in Tatau district, and 10 were from a rural
school in Sri Aman district. These schools were labelled as School A, B, C, and D,
respectively.
Table 1: Number of respondents (n)

The School Total number of
Male Female
(District) respondents (n)
A (Kapit) 2 8 10
B (Saratok) 8 8 16
C (Tatau) 11 5 16
D (Sri Aman) 4 6 10
Total (n) 52
3.3 Research Procedures

A total of twenty (20) animal vocabulary words were listed and used in the pre-
test and post-test items. Both tests comprised of three (3) types of items, which
included matching pictures to words (10 items), unscramble letters based on the
given images (5 items), and write the correct names to the images provided (5
items). The researchers chose 20 words because they are in one of the suggested
themes available in the CEFR Supermind Textbook. Not only that, but teachers
also believed that exposing more than 20 words may cause the pupils to burn
out. Hence, selecting only 20 words was considered well suited to accommodate
the research aim, which was to study the U-NO-ME card game's potential in
enhancing pupils' vocabulary acquisition. Figure 2 is the research design of this
study. Before the teaching and learning process began, the pupils were to
answer the pre-test questions. Once the pre-test was completed, teachers
continued with the first lesson by explaining animals and introducing the pupils
to all 20 targeted animal vocabulary words using pictures. Immediately after the
introduction, the pupils were introduced to the U-NO-ME card game. The
teachers had to demonstrate how to play the games and explained its rules
because pupils are not familiar with it. This practice went on every day for one
month, with at least 10 minutes allocated during each interaction. On the last
day of the experiment periods, the teachers handed out the post-test, which was
similar to the pre-test for pupils to complete.
Figure 2: Pre-test and post-test design

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3.4 Data analysis

Both pre-test and post-test were checked by teachers before the results were
listed and translated into percentages. The percentage from the post-test was
deducted by percentage from the pre-test to verify any improvements from both
tests. This result is then presented in a table. Then, pupils' achievement in both
tests were introduced in the form of a bar chart. To further support the data, a
paired sample t-test was carried out to describe the difference in mean before
and after the U-NO-ME card game. The respondents' achievement scores were
recorded into statistical software known as IBM SPSS Statistics version 20. The
difference between the pre-test and post-test results was recorded as proof that
there is a positive increment between pre-test results and post-test results from
the four schools. Next, the results from the questionnaire were translated into
percentages and presented in a table. Each of the items was rated on a Likert
scale of 1 to 5. It is to indicate to what extent the respondents agree to the given
statements based on their experience throughout the implementation of U-NO-
ME card game. The findings were analysed through SPSS version 20, and
descriptive statistics involving percentages and mean score were employed. The
mean score was classified into three levels. Low level denoted to the mean score
of 1 – 2.33 while moderate level referred to the mean score of 2.34 – 3.66. The
high standard, on the other hand, was constituted by the mean score ranging
from 3.67 – 5.00. The results from the two data were significant in proving the U-
NO-ME card game's effectiveness in enhancing the acquisition of pupils'
vocabulary.
4. Results
This section will discuss two sets of findings, which are the comparisons
between test results from four different schools as well as the survey results
from the questionnaire distributed to the respondents.
4.1 Comparison of outcomes between pre-test and post-test
Table 2: Comparison of results between pre-test and post-test
Number of Pre-Test Post Test Difference

School District
pupils (n) (%) (%) (%)
A Kapit 10 33.5 89 + 55.5
B Saratok 16 33.4 85.6 +52.2
C Tatau 16 22.8 62.8 +40
D Sri Aman 10 39.5 71.5 +32
The results in table 2 show that there is an improvement in the pupils'

vocabulary acquisition. Three rural schools and one suburban school in Sarawak
administered the tests. Pupils in School A (Kapit) and School B (Saratok) showed
a definite increase of 55.5% and 52.2% score percentage in their post-tests,
respectively. In the meantime, pupils in School C (Tatau) showed a positive
increment of 40%, and pupils in School D (Sri Aman) showed a definite increase
of 32% in their post-tests. In this study, most pupils have shown an

312
improvement in their vocabulary acquisition regardless of their school settings.

By playing the U-NO-ME card game, pupils were exposed to a total of 20 animal
vocabulary words repeatedly. The U-NO-ME card game has resulted in a
positive effect on the frequent use of repeated words. Bakar and Nosratirad
(2013) stated that the new words found in the game were frequently and
repeatedly used. This card game allowed their players to learn the vocabulary
quickly in their study as they had the opportunity to recall the prior knowledge.
Also, the pupils were learning to interact with their peers as this game requires
them to verify their friends' cards to ensure they found the matching pair. Social
interactions are essential in ensuring the pupils have ample opportunities to use
the target language. U-NO-ME card game exhibits a fun yet challenging
atmosphere for the pupils during the game. Nevertheless, most of the pupils
actively participated as they enjoyed playing U-NO-ME card game. In
conclusion, this outcome has proven that the U-NO-ME card game improved
pupils' vocabulary acquisition in all four schools.
Pre-test VS Post-test
100
Average Score (%)
76.5 %
80 +11.
60
40 31.3 %
20
0
PRE-TEST POST-TEST
Figure 3: Average score percentage between pre-test and post-test
Figure 3 shows the mean score percentage for pre-test and post-test in three
rural schools and one suburban school. Figure 3 shows a positive increment of
45.2% from the average score of pre-test and post-test. Hence, this innovation
has brought a significant influence on the pupils' vocabulary acquisition.
To further support the data from the document analysis, a paired sample t-test
was conducted through SPSS version 20 to get the mean value, standard
deviation value, t-value, and significance value. The results are illustrated in the
table 3 and table 4.
Table 3: Paired Samples Statistics
Std. Std. Error

Mean N
Deviation Mean
PRE-TEST 31.3462 52 18.44747 2.55820
Pair 1
POST-TEST 76.5385 52 19.08542 2.64667

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Table 4: Paired Samples Test

Sig. (2-
Paired Differences t Df
tailed)
95% Confidence
Std. Std. Interval of the
Mean Deviati Error Difference
on Mean
Lower Upper
Pre-test
Pair 1 -45.19231 19.77723 2.74261 -50.69832 -39.68629 -16.478 51 .000
Post-test
The pre-test and post-test results were compared using a paired sample t-test. As
illustrated in table 3 and table 4, there was a noticeable difference in the scores
between pre-test (mean=31.3462, s.d=18.44747) and post-test (mean=76.5385, s.d
= 19.08542) ; (t = -16.478, p < .001). Besides, the table showed a greater difference
in terms of the mean for the post-test. It is concluded that Ho was rejected since
there was a significant difference in pupils’ vocabulary acquisition after they
were introduced to the U-NO-ME card game. This statistic proved that the
pupils’ vocabulary acquisition has improved over the treatment given during
the experimental period.
4.2 Pupils’ perceptions of U-NO-ME card game
Table 5: Pupils’ perception of U-NO-ME card game

Mean
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
disagree
Neutral
Score
Agree
agree
No. ITEMS
1. U-NO-ME is interesting. 0 3 0 6 43 4.71

(0%) (5%) (0%) (10%) (83%) (High)
2. U-NO-ME is easy to play. 2 1 1 10 38 4.56
(3%) (2%) (2%) (17%) (73%) (High)
3. I enjoy learning with the U-NO- 0 3 0 4 45 4.75
ME card game. (0%) (5%) (0%) (7%) (87%) (High)
4. I can play U-NO-ME with 0 0 0 5 47 4.90
my friends anywhere. (0%) (0%) (0%) (8%) (90%) (High)
5. The pictures and words in the U- 0 1 0 8 43 4.79
NO-ME card game are bright and (0%) (2%) (0%) (13%) (83%) (High)
attractive.
6. U-NO-ME makes me feel 0 1 0 5 46 4.85
excited to learn English. (0%) (2%) (0%) (8%) (88%) (High)
7. I can remember the spellings 0 1 2 12 37 4.63
better using U-NO-ME. (0%) (2%) (3%) (20%) (71%) (High)
8. U-NO-ME motivates me to learn 0 0 0 5 47 4.90
the English language. (0%) (0%) (0%) (8%) (90%) (High)
9. U-NO-ME helps me to improve 0 1 1 8 42 4.75
my vocabulary. (0%) (2%) (2%) (13%) (81%) (High)
10. I will continue to use U-NO-ME to 0 0 0 4 48 4.92
learn. (0%) (0%) (0%) (7%) (92%) (High)

314
Meanwhile, 90% of the respondents strongly agreed that U-NO-ME card game
had motivated them to learn the English language, as shown in the
questionnaire results in table 5. According to Uberman (1998), as cited in Luu
(2012), learning through games will boost learners' motivation as it cultivates
healthy competition in learners. It helps learners to learn and retain new words
quickly. Besides, 81% of the respondents strongly agreed that this innovation
had improved their vocabulary acquisition. A total of 92% of respondents had
firmly decided to continue using this innovation in their learning. Both of the
statements scored a high mean level of 4.75 and 4.92, respectively. In sum, the
questionnaire results indicated that most of the respondents had ethical
perceptions of using U-NO-ME card game to learn vocabulary. It is crucial for
the pupils to feel comfortable using the target language to allow the learning
process to occur naturally. Therefore, the U-NO-ME card game was proven
effective in improving pupils’ vocabulary acquisition.
5. Discussion
5.1 U-NO-ME card game aids pupils’ vocabulary acquisition

The results showed a positive increment in the respondents’ score percentage in
all of the schools. Despite being implemented in a different setting, this
innovation made its way to support pupils’ learning in the English language.
According to Oxford (2002), memory strategy has significantly been used in
increasing vocabulary retention as it allows learners to associate words with
images and sounds. U-NO-ME card game requires pupils to adopt a memory
strategy frequently as they need to find the matching pairs to win the game.
More words were correctly recalled by the pupils as shown in the post-test after
playing the U-NO-ME card game as compared to their findings in the pre-test.
Therefore, the U-NO-ME card game is effective in enhancing pupils’ memory
retention of theme-based vocabulary in the CEFR syllabus. Besides, 88% of the
pupils were excited to learn vocabulary through this card game. Hence, this
innovation was proven to engage pupils in their learning. According to
Honarmand et al. (2015), as cited in Bavi (2018), the use of interactive activities in
vocabulary teaching allows pupils to overcome the embarrassment and
participate more actively in their learning. Furthermore, interactive activities are
known for establishing a positive environment in a classroom. In this study, the
U-NO-ME card game allowed pupils to express themselves using the English
language comfortably. This card game has a positive impact on implementing
interactive activities in an ESL classroom. Besides, teachers should no longer
stick to the conventional teaching methods when it concerns a language that the
pupils rarely use. By incorporating interactive activities in a classroom, pupils
are slowly shaped into independent learners as they have more autonomy in
their learning. Eventually, they will be able to identify their mistakes and
improve on their weaknesses.
5.2 Pupils’ perceptions on the use of U-NO-ME card game in English

vocabulary learning
Based on table 5, 83% of the respondents strongly agreed that this innovation is
an exciting game to play. On the other hand, 87% of the respondents strongly
agreed that they enjoyed playing U-NO-ME card game with a high mean of 4.75.

315
This outcome proves that the respondents had ethical perceptions of this
innovation. Besides, the researchers who were the teachers themselves played
their roles as facilitators throughout this study. Vygotsky (1978) clarified Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) as "the distance between the actual developmental
level determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in
collaboration with more skilled partners" (p.86). It refers to the gap between
what learners can achieve independently and what they can achieve with
guidance and encouragement from competent partners. A teacher who acts as a
facilitator will provide more room for the pupils to learn at their best; and hence,
create a meaningful learning experience. Besides, this innovation allows pupils
to interact with their friends as they play the game, which indirectly promotes
peer coaching. According to Celce-Murcia, Brinton, and Snow (2014), interactive
activities involving negotiation aid in learners' vocabulary acquisition as these
activities exhibit more exposure, attention, time, and manipulation during the
process. Most of the pupils were no longer reluctant to use the English language
to interact with their friends as they were eager to win the game. This card game
has proven that it is necessary, especially for timid pupils, to feel comfortable
instead of burdened in using a target language. It would help create meaningful
learning opportunities for the pupils, as they could confidently use the language.
6. Conclusion
In this study, the findings provided an insight into the use of U-NO-ME card
game in providing active and meaningful English vocabulary learning for
primary ESL classroom. Results from the pre-test and post-test showed a
significant improvement in pupils' vocabulary acquisition. The data collected
from the questionnaire implied that this innovation enhances pupils' memory
retention in learning new vocabulary. Pupils were motivated to learn new
vocabulary through games. Additionally, their interactive skills were gradually
improved as peer assessment was inevitable while playing U-NO-ME card
game.
Apart from that, this study could help educators to realise the importance of
providing meaningful learning. The findings have proven that card games can
be used and modified to cater to pupils with different needs. Furthermore, this
innovation allows teachers to act as facilitators while pupils assess each other
during the game, thus creating a pupil-centered learning environment.
However, the researchers discovered two research limitations during the study.
First, there is a lack of prior research studies on the topic as less citing on
previous research studies in the literature review. The second limitation was the
sample size and population. In this study, the researchers used a relatively small
number of respondents. Thus, the significant relationship of the data only
represents the distribution of the population and is considered as a
representative of the groups of pupils to whom results were generalised. Lastly,
few measures could be taken into consideration in the future replication of this
research innovation, which is to incorporate the use of ICT, such as Quick
Response (QR) codes and Augmented Reality (AR), into the card game.

316
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Appendix 1: Pre- Test
Name: Class: Date:
A. Match the pictures to the correct words.
1.
• • camel
2.
• • horse
3.
• • kangaroo
4.
• • cow
5.
• • polar bear
6.
• • jellyfish
7.
koala
• •
8.
• • sheep
9.
• • parrot
10
.
• • cheetah
B. Rearrange the letters to form the correct words.
1.
g o t a
2.
w l a h e
3.
n a s k e
4.
b r a b i t
5.
g e p n u n i
C. Name the pictures correctly.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Appendix 2: Post Test
Name: Class: Date:
A.) Match the pictures to the correct names.
1.
jellyfish
2.
snake
3.
kangaroo
4.
whale
5.
crocodile
6.
tiger
7.
horse
8.
parrot
9.
polar bear
10.
camel
B.) Rearrange the letters to form the correct words.
1.
o c w
2.
p h i n d o l
3.
b t i r a b
4.
h p e s e
5.
p e i n g u n
C.) Name the pictures correctly.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Appendix 3: Questionnaire
Circle a number for each statement.
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Diagree
3 = Neutral
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
Disagree
disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Neutral
Agree
agree
No. ITEMS
1. U-NO-ME is interesting.
1 2 3 4 5
2. U-NO-ME is easy to play. 1 2 3 4 5
3. I enjoy learning with U-NO-ME card
game. 1 2 3 4 5
4. I can play U-NO-ME with my friends

anywhere. 1 2 3 4 5
5. The pictures and words in U-NO-ME

card game are clear and attractive. 1 2 3 4 5
6. U-NO-ME makes me feel excited to

learn English. 1 2 3 4 5
7. I can remember the spellings better

using U-NO-ME. 1 2 3 4 5
8. U-NO-ME motivates me to learn

English language. 1 2 3 4 5
9. U-NO-ME helps me to improve

my vocabulary. 1 2 3 4 5
10. I will continue to use U-NO-ME to

learn. 1 2 3 4 5
318

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 318-335, May 2020
Academic Reading and Writing Needs of

Undergraduate Nursing Students in Research
Reynold C. Padagas
College of Nursing and Health Sciences, José Rizal University
Mandaluyong City, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7584-1750
Bonjovi H. Hajan
Senior High School Division, José Rizal University
Mandaluyong City, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2911-5824
Abstract. Like other students of any discipline, nursing students are

taught to develop and enhance their cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor skills. They are being trained for their future nursing
responsibilities in the clinical or community-based facilities and are
empowered to create positive changes in healthcare through the conduct
and publication of quality research. However, conducting and publishing
quality research could be challenging for many nursing students as these
entail a myriad of skills, including reading and writing in the discipline.
This study investigated students’ needs in academic reading and writing
in nursing research using sequential-explanatory mixed methods design.
Quantitative data were first gathered through a self-administered
questionnaire from a group of 18 nursing students. Afterward, six
conveniently selected students from the same group were subjected to a
semi-structured interview conducted online. Descriptive statistics such as
Mean and Standard Deviation and content analysis were employed as
data analyses for the survey and interview data. The following are the
findings of the study: (1) on academic reading, nursing students’ needs
include organizing literature items reviewed, and synthesizing general
concepts to generate a new idea; and (2) on academic writing, students’
needs encompass the use of correct grammar, paraphrasing, adherence to
a publication format, and confidence in academic writing. The study
draws pedagogical implications for an English for Academic Purposes
(EAP) classroom, suggesting that language teachers employ explicit
teaching of reading strategies that facilitate critical reading and teach
academic writing both at the micro and macro levels.
Keywords: academic reading and writing; undergraduate nursing

research; English for academic purposes

319
1. Introduction
Institutions of higher learning have a time-old threefold function, and these
include research, instruction, and extension (Tanhueco-Tumapon, 2016).
Considering this, research is regarded as the core that bridges the gaps in both the
academic and community purposes of higher education institutions. Research is
elemental in any learning institution as it creates a secure interconnection between
and among the goals of higher learning. It is one of the fundamental metrics of
quality education in higher learning institutions like the university. It is perhaps
safe to assume that an institution without quality research production and
publication may be a clear manifestation of a lack of support for higher learning.
Disseminating new scientific knowledge through publication is crucial in any

discipline, including nursing (Yancey, 2016). Nursing students are trained to
develop and enhance their cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills. The
formal training of nursing students is not only limited to their future promotive,
preventive, curative, and rehabilitative duties in the clinical or public nursing
facilities. It also includes an aspect that fosters healthcare development through
active involvement in the writing and publishing of scientific research. Preparing
undergraduate nursing students to become researchers is a faculty requirement
(Parilo, Parsh & Samson, 2019). The need to improve nursing students' research
skills is essential as it contributes to the science of nursing, specifically evidence-
based nursing (Ryan, 2016). However, critical reading as an essential skill in
research could be difficult to maneuver (Gile, 2001). Also, writing has remained
"a game with a bewildering set of rules, many of which are never made explicit to
student writers" (Harwood & Hadley, 2004: 356).
Building on this contention, this study is an attempt made to provide insights into
the needs of nursing students concerning academic reading and writing in
research. The researchers believe that skills in reading and writing applied in
academic settings are extremely pivotal in nursing research as these serve as
pathways for nursing students to engage in research and demonstrate scholarship
essential for evidence‑based practice in healthcare and nursing. The findings of
the present study have useful applications to the EAP pedagogy, particularly in
the context of academic reading and writing in nursing research.
1.1. Literature Review

1.1.1. Academic Reading and Writing
Academic reading is defined as "purposeful and critical reading of lengthy
academic texts for studying specific major subject areas" (Sengupta, 2002: 3). It is
a concentrated reading and is distinct from daily reading (Faizah, 2004). The
ability to comprehend academic writings is vital, which the university students
are required to perform (Levine, Ferenz & Reves, 2000). In the context of research,
academic reading may be regarded as critical reading. Gile (2001) identified three
norms for critical reading: a research act subject to the similar patterns as other
research acts, the importance of comprehending before evaluating, and
skepticism towards one's evaluation. Critical reading as a research act subject
pertains to its role in ascertaining systematic, rigorous, careful, and objective
reading. Comprehension before evaluation suggests that the reader must

320
understand the writer's positions and opinions embedded in his or her writing.
This is important to ensure that misperceptions about the veracity of the literature
are avoided. Finally, skepticism towards one's evaluation signifies a careful
process of reading to avoid reader bias. A thorough reading of all parts of the
material and double-checking are essential features of this norm.
Given these norms, academic reading in research has direct applications in the
literature review because, in many cases, the literature reading stage is not
appropriately undertaken (Gile, 2001). As Gile (2001: 1) asserted, one reason could
be attributed to the critical reader's behavior, "who may be careless, impatient, or
lack the stamina required for long, careful reading." In connection, critical reading
entails genre knowledge. According to Carrell (1985), students who are taught
using genre structure tend to develop better reading recall and/or
comprehension. This is also consistent with Hyon (2001), who discovered that an
EAP genre-based reading pedagogy resulted in students' more considerable
attention to rhetorical features in texts.
The notion of “academic writing” is frequently construed in a slightly unreflective

approach leading to the existence of its various definitions (Ask, 2007, as cited in
Borglin & Fagerström, 2012). Grami (2010: 9) describes academic writing as a
sophisticated writing type that entails, “careful thought, discipline, and
concentration.” It is that type of writing that makes use of linguistic devices held
as an academic language (Schleppegrell, 2012). However, an academic language
may be better viewed from different disciplinary perspectives because, according
to Hyland and Tse (2007), each field of study shares its own bundle of lexical terms
and structures. In connection, academic writing requires genre knowledge since
genre commands certain rhetorical devices needed in a specific discipline (Bhatia,
1993). In a nutshell, academic writing involves knowledge of conventions, styles,
language, and audience given a specific area of discipline (Hyland, 2003), and
successful academic writing situates “complex higher-order analytical demands”
on learners (Whitehead, 2002: 502). In research, effective academic writing entails
a certain level of awareness and understanding and, more importantly, the ability
to critically evaluate and integrate ideas and correctly build on and reference to
the body of knowledge (Knowles & McGloin, 2007).
Given the nature of academic reading and writing espoused above, it can be
argued that these skillsets are essential for conducting proper research that results
in publication. Academic reading is necessary to critically examine the existing
body of knowledge, which could pave the way for the development of academic
writing skills, which is central for writing and publishing research outputs in
nursing.
1.1.2 Some Studies on Academic Reading and Writing in Nursing

Research into academic reading and writing in the context of nursing have been
proliferating recently. For example, Gazza and Hunker (2012) determined
scholarly writing problems in post-licensure nursing students that needed
teachers to respond to a variety of writing abilities. To improve writer
development, they offered scaffolding within and across courses in the nursing

321
program and also in courses that promote the nursing curriculum. The authors
also responded to the call for faculty training to facilitate successful scaffolding.
Moreover, Uysal Toraman, Hamaratçılar, Tülü and Erkin (2017) investigated the
effectiveness of writing an undergraduate thesis on the behaviors of nursing
learners with respect to research and advancement in nursing. The research
suggested that writing a nursing education thesis has a favorable impact on
nursing students’ behaviors towards and understanding of research and
advancement in nursing. Additionally, Miller, Russell, Cheng, and Zembles (2018)
studied the usefulness of a scaffolded pedagogy in writing with virtual degree-
accomplishment nursing learners. The study concluded that writing should be
taught with devoted time in the nursing classes for learners to develop as skilled
writers. It should provide authentic exposure that will enable them to
conceptualize as well as present their thoughts in a meaningful and critical
manner.
Furthermore, Shellenbarger, Gazza, and Hunker’s (2018) study determined

perceived skills of undergraduate nursing learners in showcasing the scholarly
writing competence. Their results showed that the students perceived they
understand the necessary elements of scholarly writing. Besides, the study found
that students sometimes employed preliminary activities which included
preparing an outline, thinking, find the literature, devoting time conceptualizing,
writing in small parts to scaffold their writing, constructing scholarly writing
following recognized project formats, among others.
In the Philippines, research and development is an integral component of the

Science, Technology, Engineering, Agri-Fisheries, and Mathematics (STEAM)
program in higher education (Anito & Morales, 2019). Universities should
establish a research organization that supports the development of research
competence among their research stakeholders (Anito, Limjap & Padagas, 2020).
Particularly, nursing graduates are expected to participate in health-related
research, evaluate research projects, and utilize the research process in improving
client care (Commission on Higher Education, 2017). Through courses on
disciplinary research, nursing students are assumed to communicate effectively
using culturally appropriate language; and conduct research with an experienced
researcher that contributes to the development of practice in healthcare and
nursing. The journey in nursing research, however, is not learned overnight. As a
result, many strategic interventions have been established to help nursing
students in their research work. These interventions include internship other than
the collective didactic and classroom learning experience in research writing.
According to O’Brien and Hathaway (2018), an internship is a favorable practice
that not only provides significant practical skills but also helps stimulate curiosity
in a prospective research profession.
Interestingly, O’Brien and Hathaway (2018) also expressed that teachers carrying
out research projects seldom interact with nursing learners in undergraduate
courses. The workshop strategy is useful for training nurses to write publishable
articles and for developing the writing abilities of nurses and nursing learners;
however, such method, to be effective, should work hand in hand with individual

322
monitoring and feedback on writing (Derouin et al., 2015). In another study,

attributional retraining (AR) was instituted to improve students’ writing
performance (Tai, Pan & Lee, 2016). Moreover, the development and the
durability of research allow for the marked appearance of discipline in nursing
sciences (Szyba et al., 2018). Issues and concerns in research writing also include
facilitation styles employed by the teacher and academic integrity held by
students. In a nursing research class with diverse learners, a teacher needs to
ensure class facilitation to fulfill course objectives. While the study was related to
the class facilitation in a hard science course, the lessons uncovered from the
findings of Padagas (2020) emphasized the role of facilitation techniques in
maximizing collaborative learning activities despite team diversity. A supportive
intervention facilitation style is deemed necessary because writing skills can
thrive among nontraditional undergraduate students when scaffolded with
guided instruction (Miller, Russell, Cheng & Skarbek, 2015). Besides, Gutierrez
and Padagas (2019) examined academic dishonesty among college nursing
students. Their findings revealed that while there is no single measure to prevent
or resolve academic dishonesty in college students, teachers and the school play
a crucial role in helping students live with academic integrity.
Ostensibly, writing research in nursing requires tedious preparations for one to

be able to master it. More than the pieces of training embedded in instructional
designs that are translated into teaching and learning processes in nursing
research is the necessity to publish in reputable journals, both those in print and
pixels. However, research publication entails a myriad of skills, including critical
analysis of the literature and advanced academic writing. These are much debated
as the culprit as to why student researchers fail to publish their academic works
because academic writing is perhaps the most critical factor in showcasing
scholarship (Whitehead, 2002). Notwithstanding its central value, research on
writing within the context of nursing students indicates that academic reading
and writing remains as one of the most challenging facets of their learning
(Whitehead, 2002).
All the studies mentioned above underscore the importance of academic literacy
skills such as reading and writing in nursing education. However, it is noteworthy
that none of these studies has explored the needs of nursing students with respect
to academic reading and writing, especially in the research context. The
researchers believe that skills in reading and writing applied in academic contexts
are extremely pivotal in nursing research as these serve as pathways for nursing
students to engage in research and demonstrate scholarship essential for
evidence‑based practice in healthcare and nursing.
This study investigated the academic reading and writing needs of undergraduate
nursing students in research. Specifically, this research aimed to address the
following questions:
1. What are the academic reading needs of nursing students in a research
class?
2. What are the academic writing needs of nursing students?

323
2. Methods
2.1 Research Design

This study applied the sequential-explanatory mixed methods research design by
Creswell and Plano-Clark (2011). The use of such design was applicable in the
present study because quantitative data collection and analysis preceded the
qualitative phase (see Figure 1). Besides, the emphasis of the study was
maintained since a more in-depth investigation was carried out to build on the
quantitative data results (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011). However, it should be
noted that the qualitative phase may be limited. It only considered responses from
the six participants who were conveniently available to take part in its conduct.
Figure 1: Sequential-explanatory research design flow (Creswell & Plano-Clark, 2011)
2.2 Participants
The participants of this research were undergraduate nursing students in a private
university in Mandaluyong City, Philippines. For the quantitative strand of the
study, the researchers used an entire class comprising of 18 fourth-year nursing
students (6 male and 12 female) whose age bracket ranged from 20-40. These
students could be considered bilingual since English is treated as a medium of
instruction in the Philippines (Wa-Mbaleka, 2014). They were purposively
selected as the participants because they were enrolled in a nursing research class
and had already completed research projects on clinical and community nursing.
The researchers believed that these students could best share their challenges
(needs) regarding academic reading and writing.
For the qualitative strand, the researchers employed a convenience sampling

technique in which six students from the same group participated in the
qualitative interview. It should be noted that the qualitative phase occurred after
the semester had ended in which some students were no longer available for
interviews during this time; hence, the employment of convenience sampling.
2.3 Instruments
After reviewing extant literature on academic reading and writing, the researchers
developed a survey questionnaire to assess the academic reading and writing
needs of the participants. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. Part 1
measures the academic reading needs and part 2 assesses the academic writing
needs. The instrument was a Likert scale characterized with a four-point scaling
(refer to Table 1 for the scaling and its verbal interpretations). The verbal
interpretations were based on Akcaoğlu's (2011) study, which assessed the needs
of graduate students in terms of academic writing. The original version had "no
need" as the last level comprising of five levels all in all. For this study's purpose,
only four levels were retained since the researchers opted to use a four-point
scaling. The range was calculated by (4 − 1 = 3) then divided by four as it is the

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highest value of the scale (3 ÷ 4 = 0.75). This became the basis of the arbitrary scores
necessary to interpret the weighted means (WM). As a justification, Borgers,
Sikkel, and Hox (2004), as cited by Leung (2011), suggested using four points as
an ideal after recognizing several choices, the neutral point, and reliability.
Meanwhile, using the arbitrary scores, the researchers created corresponding
verbal interpretation (VI) adapted from Akcaoğlu (2011) for each range, as
presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Arbitrary Score and Its Corresponding Verbal Interpretation (VI)
WM range VI
3.26 – 4.00 Low
2.51 – 3.25 Moderate
1.76 – 2.50 High
1.00 – 1.75 Very high
Initially, there were eight items in each part of the questionnaire. These items were
checked for face and content validity. The questionnaire's validation was done by
a panel of experts from the English Language and Nursing fields. The number of
items in the instrument was increased to 10 for each component after the
validation. There were also modifications in the language components of the items
that were considered vague. After the validation, the instrument was pilot tested
among 15 students, and the result yielded a Cronbach's alpha of 0.82, suggesting
that items were internally consistent. For the qualitative strand, the researchers
focused on two questions regarding students' needs in academic reading and
academic writing. The questions also underwent validation by the same panel of
experts. The survey was administered as a self-completion questionnaire.
Moreover, the participants were given one hour to complete it. The qualitative
interview was of a semi-structured type, conducted among the participants
through online. An example of a question that was asked to the participants
during the semi-structured interview was, "What challenges about reading and
writing did you encounter in your research class?".
2.4 Data Analysis

The quantitative data were processed using descriptive statistics. Explicitly, Mean
Score (MS) and Standard Deviation (SD) were calculated on the individual items
of the academic reading and writing needs survey. Weighted Mean (WS) was also
determined to provide an overall measure of students’ academic reading and
writing needs. To determine students’ academic reading and writing needs,
verbal interpretations of the acquired MS and the WS, which can be found in Table
1, were used. Meanwhile, content analysis was performed for the qualitative data.
The contents in which the qualitative analysis anchored were on the two variables
investigated in this study. This was done so because the qualitative findings were
used as supplements to the quantitative results.

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2.5 Ethical Considerations

The Jose Rizal University Research Ethics Committee allowed the conduct of the
study. Also, individual informed consent was acquired from the students. The
participants were ensured of anonymity and confidentiality of personal
information. To establish rigor on the acquired qualitative data from written
interviews, the researchers treated the data free from partialities and students
were consulted with their responses to ensure authenticity and reliability of the
analysis.
3. Results
3.1 Academic Reading Needs of Nursing Students in Research

Table 2 presents the quantitative results on students’ academic reading needs. It
can be gleaned that the nursing students’ academic reading needs in a research
class are moderate (WM: 3.13). Among the items in this skills set, Item Number 1
that says “I use journal articles during the literature review because they are
highly reliable” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.60) got the highest mean score followed by Item
Number 9, which states “I consider time element in conducting the literature
review” (MS: 3.33; SD: 0.94). The lowest mean scores are Item Numbers 7 and 8
that stated: “I am organized in conducting the literature review” (MS: 2.78; SD:
0.97) and “I am capable of synthesizing general concepts to generate a new idea”
(MS: 2.72; SD: 0.87), respectively.
Table 2: Academic Reading Needs of Nursing Students
Items MS SD VI
1. I create a comprehensive plan for the literature
3.22 0.92 Moderate
review.
2. I use journal articles during the literature review
3.56 0.60 Low
because they are highly reliable.
3. I understand primary and secondary sources in
3.11 0.87 Moderate
literature review.
4. I am techno-intelligent to search using the online
3.06 0.85 Moderate
platforms.
5. I read the entire articles from various sources to look
3.17 0.60 Moderate
for the most important information to be retrieved.
6. I need to broaden my skill in literature search using
3.28 0.93 Moderate
specific and topic-related concepts.
7. I am organized in conducting the literature review. 2.78 0.97 Moderate
8. I am capable to synthesize general concepts to
2.72 0.87 Moderate
generate a new idea.
9. I consider time element in conducting the literature
3.33 0.94 Low
review.
10. I construct conclusion based on the information
3.06 0.83 Moderate
obtained.
Weighted Mean 3.13 0.84 Moderate

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Remarkably, the quantitative result above shows that while nursing students’
needs are moderate in terms of academic reading, they may need further support
concerning organizing and synthesizing literature. This is indicated by the lowest
mean scores obtained in Items 8 and 7, as discussed above. The qualitative
findings could further explain such a result asked during the interview. Below are
the extracts exemplifying this confirmation.
We needed to enhance our analyzation [analytical] technique in order to
create good interpretation [of the literature examined]. (NS1)
I haven’t much struggle with this since I can access a lot of paper which
includes some concept from our study too. However, given there are too
many studies, I’ve had a hard time selecting which is really necessary and
[which is not] not. (NS2)
In our case, since it was a timeless worldwide problem, there are a lot of
researchers who conducted a similar study or at least a close one. Here
comes the most complicated thing for us. How do we sort out those
literature? Given that, it is a lot. It almost feel[s] like doing a puzzle and
it was overwhelming. (NS5)
From the extracts above, it is apparent that students find it challenging to organize
and synthesize the literature that they read about their studies. NS1 illustrates this
by stating that excellent analytical skills are a must to examine the relevance of
the works examined critically. This is also reiterated in NS2’s statement that
choosing the most relevant literature could be challenging, whereas NS5
underscores how doing literature review could be overwhelming with all the
information presented and that the real challenge is to organize them into
something that would make sense. Besides organizing and synthesizing literature,
students also find it challenging to locate information appropriate to their studies.
The statements below from students affirm such findings.
I think the biggest challenges we encountered during finding literature
review, are finding up to date researches which are researches from 2014
to present and give interpretation for it. (NS1)
Hunting for a good related literature is challenging because you have to
find an equal or significant source[s] or ideas that is [are] logical with the
argument. There times that when you find a good article, the date does
not fall under the given time period. (NS3)
Notably, students indicate that locating the right information could also be
challenging because one must consider not only the relevance of the information
but also their recency. This particular finding seems to differ from what they
revealed in the quantitative result in which they reported low needs in
considering time elements when conducting a literature review. Considering that
they are nursing students, the qualitative finding is noteworthy due to the nature
of nursing as a fast-paced and dynamic field.
3.2 Academic Writing Needs of Nursing Students in Research

In Table 3, a summary of the quantitative results regarding the academic writing
needs of nursing students in research is presented. It can be deduced that nursing
students’ academic writing needs are moderate (WM: 2.99). Highest mean scores
are obtained by Item Number 6, “I am confident to follow comments and

327
suggestions” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.60), Item Number 9, “I consult the dictionary or
thesaurus to understand the words I use in my article” (MS: 3.56; SD: 0.50), and
Item Number 10, “I strictly observe proper in-text and reference citations” (MS:
3.33; SD: 0.67). The lowest mean scores are those in the Item Number 4, “I write a
paragraph free from grammatical errors” (MS: 2.50; SD: 0.69), Item Number 2, “I
am aware of grammar rules” (MS: 2.61; SD: 0.83), Item Number 1, “I am aware of
the various research formats to complete my article prior to journal submission”
(MS: 2.67; SD: 0.94), and Item Number 3, “I am confident in my academic writing
skills” (MS: 2.67; SD: 0.94).
Table 3: Academic Writing Needs of Nursing Students

Items MS SD VI
1. I am aware of the various research formats

to complete my article prior to journal 2.67 0.94 Moderate
submission.
2. I am aware of grammar rules. 2.61 0.83 Moderate
3. I am confident in my technical writing skills. 2.67 0.94 Moderate

4. I write a paragraph free from grammatical
2.50 0.69 High
errors.
5. I easily follow the guidelines set for
publication with minimal assistance from my 2.78 0.85 Moderate
adviser.
6. I am confident to follow comments and
3.56 0.60 Low
suggestions.
7. I read and re-read, and write and re-write
what I have initially read and written to keep 3.22 0.79 Moderate
improvements of my article.
8. I know how to do proofreading and editing
3.00 0.88 Moderate
of my own article.
9. I consult the dictionary or thesaurus to
3.56 0.50 Low
understand the words I use in my article.
10. I strictly observe proper in-text and reference
3.33 0.67 Moderate
citations.
Weighted Mean 2.99 0.77 Moderate
The quantitative result on students’ academic writing needs, as illustrated above,

implies that although in general, their academic writing needs are moderate, there
is evidence that they may necessitate more support on English grammar for them
to write effectively. This is illustrated in the lowest mean scores obtained in Items
4 and 2. While Item 4 is clear about writing free from grammatical errors, Item 2, I
am aware of grammar rules means that students have metalinguistic knowledge
such as knowledge on subject-verb agreement, active and passive voice,
transitional devices, among others.

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As found in the quantitative result, nursing students need much support

concerning these two aspects. Such a result is further elaborated in the qualitative
responses of students, as exemplified in some extracts below.
I observed that grammar was also our weakness. We also had a hard time
paraphrasing contents from the sources. An online grammar checker and
paraphrasing tool was been helpful to us. (NS2)
This is also very challenging for me because I’m not really good in writing
in any forms especially in English but I always tried and do my best to do
the writings on my own and consulted some person I know that will help
me to check on my grammar so that I can improve myself in writing
English. (NS4)
We encountered countless of problems in terms of grammar, since we do
not have the same proficiency or knowledge in doing so. It was such a
critical aspect in research writing because good English writing skills are
equal to better explanation of the topic. (NS5)
From the statements above, it can be inferred that the students need further
knowledge of grammar rules, which seems to hinder them from writing a good
research article in nursing. Given that English as a subject is required from
elementary to tertiary level (Cam & Tran, 2017), grammar is still of concern.
However, NS2 and NS4 consider having some strategy in dealing with this
problem by referring to specific online tools or by having a third person to do the
language editing. Also, NS5 explicitly points out that knowledge of the English
language is highly valuable. It aids in the production of a clear and concise
explanation of one’s ideas, which is needed in research writing. Moreover,
nursing students’ needs in academic writing are not limited to grammar. They
also reported that skills in paraphrasing are fundamental. This is seen in NS2’s
response above, and this finding is consistent with the quantitative result.
Furthermore, because nursing research is highly technical and requires advanced

academic writing skills, students state that the professional way of writing is
essential. This specific finding agrees with what was found in the quantitative
result, whereby students stated that they had moderate needs in adhering to
guidelines set for publication as indicated by one of the lowest mean values from
the dataset. This finding is further reflected in NS1’s response below.
In writing in English, I think the biggest challenge for me is writing in
professional English. Knowing myself, I tend to always write only in basic
English. (NS1)
4. Discussion
This study aimed at investigating the academic reading and writing needs of
nursing students in research. The quantitative results generally suggest that
nursing students manifest moderate needs in terms of academic reading and
writing. As supplemented by the qualitative findings, the overall analysis
provides further evidence that these students do require as much support in terms
of certain aspects of academic reading and writing. In their research, Chen,
Khalid, and Faruk (2019) created a model to guide universities in adopting
changes for the development of the academic writing skills of new scholars such

329
as students which could lead to the advancement of the quality of research and
publications globally.
Nursing students’ academic literacy skills, such as academic reading and writing,
have been espoused in previous studies (Borglin, 2012; Borglin & Fagerström,
2012; Whitehead, 2002). On the aspect of academic reading, the results show that
nursing learners need support concerning organizing literature items reviewed
and synthesizing general concepts to generate a new idea. Given such findings, it
appears that nursing students lack critical thinking in doing a literature review.
The literature review is a critical component of research because it clarifies why
students research the topic they investigated. Hence, nursing students should
employ critical thinking in conducting a literature analysis. The ability to think
critically is an integral aspect of medical nursing training (Mangena & Chabeli,
2005; Profetto-McGrath, 2003). However, such skill is embedded when one reads
at a critical level, especially when examining the literature review (Gile, 2001).
Critical reading requires that students read research articles to critically evaluate
their worth for “adequacy, appropriateness, and thoroughness” (Garrard, 2017).
The findings on academic reading in this research support the study of Borglin
(2012). It was asserted that the cultivation of skills in critical thinking and
judgment is vital in nursing education. Undergraduate students’ difficulty in
reading research articles was also discovered in St Clair-Thompson, Graham, and
Marsham’s (2018) study.
As with academic writing, students' needs revolve around correct grammar,

paraphrasing, adherence to a publication format, and confidence in academic
writing. This means that nursing students may have little knowledge of the
English language's grammatical structure, which consequently results in their
difficulty in paraphrasing and, in general, in low confidence in academic writing.
Students' needs on grammar were specifically indicated in the lowest mean scores
of items in the quantitative survey relating to grammar rules. This particular result
was also confirmed in the qualitative interview, where majority of the students
reported challenges in terms of grammar rules. This finding corroborates Alfaki's
(2015) study, which revealed the university students indicated several writing
needs, mostly language-related at the levels of usage errors, mechanical mistakes,
among others. This is also consistent with the result of Ratnawati, Faridah, Anam,
and Retnaningdyah (2018) which found that Indonesian undergraduate students'
academic writing needs were highly reflected in their use of incorrect grammar
such as incorrect tenses. Grammatical competence, apart from vocabulary, is a
fundamental linguistic device that every student, regardless of discipline, needs
to develop to achieve proficiency in academic writing because students are
expected to write in correct English (Coxhead, 2011). Thus, it can be argued that
nursing students, despite their discipline as a hard science, should not be excused
from developing good grammatical knowledge in English.
Additionally, it seems that nursing students, as far as the results of this study are
concerned, are not genre-oriented. This is seen in their lack of awareness of the
publication formats (Item 1) and their inability to comply with publication writing
guidelines with minimal revisions (Item 5). However, this conclusion should be

330
taken with careful consideration since students’ needs were only self-reported,
and a further probe delving into the students’ actual writing when preparing to
publish may be needed to confirm such result. Genre knowledge is equally
essential in academic writing because it has been found to be strongly linked to
students’ writing performance (Graham, 2006; Lu, 2010). In this case, if nursing
students are introduced to the language and conventions of academic writing in
scientific publishing in their research class, then there is a prospect that they can
become genre-oriented on publication writing. All these results on academic
writing needs collectively corroborate Kapborg and Berterö’s (2002) finding. It
states that nursing students encounter problems relating to poor spelling and
grammar, as well as inadequate structure. Moreover, previous studies
(Diekelmann & Ironside, 1998; Whitehead, 2002) also found a similar result in
which nursing students demonstrate little knowledge upon which to build on,
and the burden of addressing demanding and conventional academic writing
needs which perhaps hindered the growth of inventive and authentic work.
Overall, this study provides further evidence endorsing the study of Borglin
(2012), which suggested that the teaching of critical thinking and academic
writing in nursing program has to take off from theoretically founded instructive
models, e.g. academic literacies model by Lea and Street (1998, 2006). Indeed,
research writing in nursing demands a multitude of academic literacies. Academic
Reading and Writing are two of the most crucial skills that students ought to have
to succeed in their writing endeavors.
4.1 Implications for EAP Teaching

Several pedagogical implications in the context of EAP can be drawn from the
findings of the present study. First, language teachers, especially those teaching
academic writing courses in higher education institutions, should explicitly teach
different reading strategies that students can employ when doing a literature
review. Explicit teaching of reading strategies can develop students’ reading skills
(Gatcho & Hajan, 2019). By explicit teaching, it does not mean that teachers focus
merely on theoretical aspects of reading strategies as a topic. Instead, they should
guide the students on how to integrate such strategies into their real-life
applications. In other words, these reading strategies, when taught to students,
should enable them to develop critical thinking (Castillo-Hajan, Hajan &
Marasigan, 2019), which, in this case, can be achieved through a critical reading
of the extensive works students examine as part of their literature review. To do
this, language teachers should make use of published research articles within the
students’ discipline as reading materials.
It should be noted that literature review is an essential component of research as

it involves students proving mastery in their field of discipline. It also provides
justifications to the academic community about why students research their
chosen topic. More importantly, critical reading is a vital precursor to critical
writing (Knott, n.d.). Hence, it is indispensable that language teachers first
develop students’ academic reading skills before introducing them to the
complexity of academic writing in research.

331
Second, language teachers should teach academic writing to nursing students

both at the micro and macro-level. At the micro-level, nursing students should be
taught small bits of linguistic devices such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
The teaching of these linguistic elements should be directly related to students’
discipline because each discipline consists of its own bundle of lexical terms and
structures (Hyland & Tse, 2007). For example, whether students should use active
voice rather than passive voice or vice versa in writing given their discipline has
to be clearly explained to students. Nursing students should be taught genre,
conventions, and styles in academic writing at the macro level, especially if the
goal of nursing research is publication. Again, language teachers are suggested to
make use of research articles published within the students’ discipline as models
for writing. By doing so, students can acquire the stylistic elements expected
within the academic community of their field.
Third and last, because academic writing in the context of nursing research can be
complex to teach, it would be best if language teachers are writers themselves.
Language teachers, as writers, can have the advantage of being able to connect
with students and understand their struggles in writing (Whitaker, 2012, as cited
in, Hajan, Castillo-Hajan & Marasigan, 2019). Hence, to help students boost their
confidence in academic writing, language teachers must be not only knowledge
dispensers but also motivators. Perhaps, motivating students in an academic
writing classroom can best start with teachers sharing their written artifacts as
models for student writing.
4.2 Limitations of the Study

Despite the pedagogical implications of the study, certain limitations are noted.
The study has, by far, examined nursing students' academic reading and writing
needs. Although employing mixed methods with both survey and interview data
present, the investigation may have limitations in providing an actual view
regarding nursing students since the study was heavily based on students' self-
reported responses in its quantitative and qualitative phases. Self-reports may
have failed to capture students' real needs as compared to when data collection
involved analysis of students' actual writing, such as their research papers. In
addition, the qualitative strand of the study may be unable to account for students'
actual needs in academic reading and writing as no analysis of students' reading
and writing skills based on their actual performance was made. Finally,
considering the small sample size, the results of this study could not be
generalizable to all nursing learners. Hence, conclusions about the nursing
students' academic reading and writing needs have to be taken with careful
consideration.
5. Conclusion
The study has attempted to investigate the academic reading and writing needs
of nursing students in a research class. It was concluded that nursing students still
need further support on their skills set on academic reading and writing for them
to write in their chosen discipline successfully. In particular, they could hardly
organize literature items reviewed and synthesize general concepts to formulate
a new idea. This establishes that their academic reading needs principally revolve

332
around organizing and synthesizing literature. Also, they have problems

concerning the use of correct grammar, paraphrasing, adherence to a publication
format, and confidence in academic writing. This illustrates that their complex
academic writing needs range from foundational to more advanced skills in
writing.
Building on the findings of this study, implications for EAP teaching were drawn
suggesting that language teachers handling academic writing courses employ
explicit teaching of reading strategies that facilitate critical reading, and teach
academic writing both at the micro and macro levels, i.e., students taught small
bits of linguistic resources as well as genre, convention, and style in academic
writing. Pedagogical implications further explicate that it is best if language
teachers of academic writing are writers themselves through which they can serve
as motivators in boosting students’ confidence in academic writing.
5.1 Recommendations
The study recommends that future research may employ language teachers who
are teaching academic writing courses as respondents to gain more in-depth
insights regarding students’ academic reading and writing needs in nursing. This
enables the triangulation of responses that can provide a more encompassing
result. Besides, future studies may also consider investigating nursing students’
research papers from a linguistic lens as basis for further explicating their needs
in academic writing. For instance, genre analysis of their research introductions
may help future researchers understand better students’ academic writing skills
in terms of organization and style. A more authentic tool for determining
students’ academic reading needs apart from the survey is also suggested. This is
to address the limitations of self-reported responses of the participants captured
by the self-administered questionnaire employed in the quantitative phase of this
study. Furthermore, more nursing students sampled from different year levels are
necessary for future research to provide a more conclusive view concerning
academic reading and writing needs in nursing research.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 336-351, May 2020
Perspectives on Mentoring Support During

Teaching Practicum in
Local & International Settings
Rohaya Abdullah
Universiti Sains Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4518-1733
M. Ali Ghufron
IKIP PGRI Bojonegoro, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0681-9140
Yunita Puspitasari
STKIP PGRI Jombang, Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7079-6011
Norlida Ahmad
Universiti Sains Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5167-6471
Abstract. This study aims to investigate the mentoring support given by

the local and foreign mentors to English language teacher trainees during
their teaching practicum. The practicum comprised two phases. In phase
one, the trainees experienced a local teaching practicum for one month in
Penang, Malaysia. In phase two, they went through an international
teaching practicum in Indonesia for two months. The sample of this
qualitative study comprised four respondents from Universiti Sains
Malaysia, who voluntarily undertook the international teaching
practicum in Jombang, Indonesia. All of them were females aged 24 years
old. The data were collected from reflections and semi-structured
interviews and were analyzed using thematic analysis. The findings
suggest that in both phases, the mentors cumulatively provided
cognitive, affective and, social support. All types of support augmented
the teacher trainees’ competence as future teachers.
Keywords: English language; international teaching practicum; local

teaching practicum; teacher trainees

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1. Introduction
The rapid advancement of technology, global market, and unique demographic
nature of students have challenged the teaching profession to employ a range of
practice in which it accommodates different purposes, integration of knowledge,
sophisticated pedagogical repertoire, learners’ diversity, and shifting contextual
forces. Learning to teach could be intriguing as well as mischievous (Borko,
Whitcomb & Liston, 2009; Fomin, 2020) because it is drawn upon a complex array
of contextual and unpredictable knowledge that occurs throughout the life of a
teacher. Teacher education today should be able to equip teachers with
knowledge and skills to establish effective teaching.
To achieve effective teaching, various approaches were administered. One

familiar educational term within the context of teaching education is mentoring.
It is initially done through university-based preservice formal training and seen
as a course that helps teacher trainees (TTs) become professional teachers.
Mentoring is a process of assisting novices develop teaching practice through a
nurturing relationship between those with less experience and those with more
experience in the field (Hairon et al., 2020), and a mentor guides by serving as a
role model and advisor (Bigelow, 2002). The instructional relationship is typical
in the form of instructional supervision, assessment monitoring, curriculum
implementation, and establishment of a supportive work environment. Teaching
practice in schools is a part of teaching practicum (TP) which is pertinent for TTs
as they have the opportunity to exercise the acquired teaching concepts (Barton,
Hartwig & Cain, 2015). Studies on mentoring have revealed fruitful outcomes in
various aspects ranging from cognitive and affective of learning to teach the
socialization process that takes place during the first contact with the realities of
classroom teaching and school context (Aderibigbe, 2013; Kaasila & Lauriala,
2010).
Mostly, TP occurs in a local setting in which the TTs and mentors share a similar
socio-cultural background. However, to provide experiences of learning and
engaging teaching in foreign education settings, international networking,
agreements, and meaningful collaborations have been initiated by many
institutions (Kabilan et al., 2017). In the Malaysian context, the School of
Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia (SES, USM) has been conducting
international teaching practicum (ITP) since 2011, allowing the TTs to carry out
their teaching practicum in other countries such as the Maldives and Bangladesh
(Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al., 2017) after going through a period of local teaching
practicum (LTP). Mentoring in the ITP platform provides TTs the opportunity to
experience effective pedagogical training and the interplay between individuals
with different socio-cultural variables (Kabilan et al., 2020; Quick & Sieborger,
2005). It also embraces broader counseling, role modeling, and supports from the
mentors. There are many studies on teacher mentoring. However, research on ESL
TTs experiencing mentoring in an EFL context, Indonesia, to the best of our
knowledge, is scarce. Experiencing knowledge gain in this context would
contribute to the field of TP, particularly on mentoring. The findings would be
beneficial for novel teachers teaching in a similar setting.

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While many studies reported that ITP seems to be encouraging and promising
(Ahmad et al., 2019; Burgard et al., 2018; Cinelli & Jones, 2017; Cruickshank &
Westbrook, 2013; Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al., 2016; Kabilan et al., 2017; Kim, &
Choi, 2018; Quick & Sieborger, 2005; Tambyah, 2019), some studies underscored
the challenges faced by the TTs. For instance, Hendra et al. (2019) found that the
five TT’s from the Philipines and Thailand who underwent the ITP in Jambi,
Indonesia had difficulties in religious sensitivity, content subject, language, and
school climate. Kim & Choi (2018) found that Korean TTs faced communication
and culture issues during their practicum training in the U.S. In another study,
TTs from Indonesia had predicaments in the curriculum, lesson planning,
language proficiency and cultural differences in multi-ethnic Malaysian schools
(Kabilan et al., 2020). Jin et al. (2019) revealed that the Australian TTs in Anshan,
China, were perplexed with the Chinese education system, which is different in
the social and cultural contexts.
When faced with such adversities, the teacher training providers need to have the
knowledge about the type of support required to ensure that the TTs’ learning
experience during their ITP is not in jeopardy. Amid of our vivacity in advocating
the change in the practicum landscape for the last 20 years (Lang, Cacciattolo, &
Kidman, 2016), mentoring support is not addressed aptly at this juncture. The lack
of research on ITP on this matter has not substantiated the kind or manner of
support for the TTs undertaking ITP. Hahl and Mikulec (2018) found that the
mentors’ support is pivotal for the international students’ training in Finland for
being very practical and reassuring, but that was only a small part of the whole
finding. More research is necessary to investigate this phenomenon not only to
ensure the quality of mentoring support but also to provide solutions to the issues
reported in the challenges of ITP.
Following this issue, the research on teaching practicum mainly focuses on either
LTP or ITP. Studies in which TTs undergo two modes of practicum (LTP and ITP)
are scarce (Kabilan, 2013; Kabilan et al. 2017; Kabilan et al. 2020). It is imperative
to investigate the mentor support received during the LTP as well as the ITP to
see whether the mentoring support offered at the home ground and outbound are
the same or otherwise. It is also crucial to find out whether the mentoring support
is vital for TTs during LTP or is it more necessary during ITP. Could the mentor
support in LTP and ITP complement each other in shaping the TTs
professionalism? The findings from such a study would inform teacher training
providers alike on the necessary framework to support the TTs’ practicum
training that is usually carried out once in their bachelor’s degree. Thus, this study
aims is to examine the mentoring experiences of TTs in Penang, Malaysia, and
Jombang, Indonesia. The objective of the study is to examine the type of
mentoring support given to the English language teacher trainees by the local and
foreign teacher mentors.

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2. Review of Literature
The underpinning theory

Drawing from Social Cognitive Theory by Bandura (1999), this study involved the
interconnectedness between learning and observed conditioning behaviors. The
theory propagates that knowledge is constructed by modeled behaviors in the
social environment. Through the capability of reflective thinking, the individual
then self regulates sensible decisions on his actions by accepting or rejecting the
behavior. Choices lie in the hands of the individual. When a notable observed
behavior is emulated, the creative human psyche could expand the new
knowledge further, resulting in cognitive, affective or behavioral changes. As
described by Bandura (1999), “While performing activities, the individual form ideas
about what leads to what, act on them or predict occurrences from them, judge from the
results the adequacy of their thoughts and change them accordingly” (p.25).
The attained knowledge could translate into various forms, such as attitude,
competencies, beliefs, and skills. Mentoring mimics this behavior modeling
concept. Differing classroom instructions, classroom management, feedback, and
discussions that relate to content and pedagogical knowledge and moral conducts
modeled by the Indonesian and Malaysian preceptors or mentors could enrich the
TTs’ learning experiences on the teaching practice during the LTP and ITP. The
models obtained from the two training milieus could demonstrate a set of
examples for the TTs’ considerations.
Mentoring support
Mentoring, a traditional practice to provide first-hand on-site training to the TTs
during their practicum is still relevant. The mentor is a knowledgeable teacher,
functioning as the guide, counselor, facilitator, expert other, supervisor and
evaluator to name a few. The young and naïve TTs consider their mentors as the
experts. The TTs will turn to their mentor teachers as the primary source for
proper strategies to deliver a meaningful lesson, amend the instructional
planning, class control, overcome fear and build confidence and other matters
related to teaching. Mentoring is thus an agentic social process acquired from
skillful mentors (Bandura, 1999; Edwards, 2017).
Mentoring is argued extensively in the literature (Pennanen et al. 2016). The

mentoring concept seems to be divergent. Mena, Hennissen & Loughran (2017)
contended that an effectual mentoring would be influenced by how the mentors
assume their roles to assist the TTs in the field during their practicum tenure. The
mentors must be equipped with sufficient mentoring knowledge and execute
them vigilantly. However, things are more complex. Mentors who are supposed
to be constructive are destructive instead. Domineering mentors eradicate
dynamism in the TTs, hence giving distraught to the TT’s identity formation
(Yuan, 2016). Being directive and dominating discussions also fail to support the
TTs (Mena, Hennissen & Loughran, 2017). Langdon (2017) motioned that mentors
with presumptions hold beliefs and practices that are hard to break, resulting in
poor mentoring.

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As opposed to those findings, Izadinia (2016) asserted that having ‘an open line of
communication and feedback’ with the TTs are fundamental while establishing
positive rapports and addressing the needs of the TTs are the key concepts of good
mentoring (Izadinia, 2015). This study is also corroborated by Duse, Duse &
Karkowska (2017), who studied mentoring engaging four counties of Sibiu,
Brasov, Cluj-Napoca and Iasi for three years. They emphasize that the mentors
and the TTs’ pronounced relationships have resulted in the TTs’ progress during
the training. The authors also urge that mentoring is crucial for TTs and for novice
teachers who are just starting their career in the teaching profession. MERID-
model (Mentor (teacher) Roles In Dialogues) developed in 2008 (Crasborn et al.,
2011) proposed that the mentoring dialog framework would assist the mentors in
upskilling their mentoring technique by employing the appropriate role
according to the contexts. In this framework, the mentors are classified into four
quadrants: active vs. reactive (Y-axis) and directive vs. non-directive (x-axis). In
each quadrant, they play different roles: a) active and non-directive quadrant -
initiator, b) active and directive quadrant – imperator, c) non-directive and reactive
quadrant – encourager, and directive and reactive quadrant - advisor. In their
study, this framework benefitted the mentors in looking back at their supervision
and improving them for future use. Mentoring could also be collaborative in
nature, where co-thinkers and co-learners concept intercept conventional
mentoring. This mode of mentoring affords co-learning between the TTs and the
mentors. Although this strategy seems to undermine the expertise of a
knowledgeable mentor, the effect could be indispensable as proven by Ginkel,
Verloop & Denessen (2016).
3. Methodology
Research Background and Setting

The research adopted a qualitative design to investigate the mentoring
experiences received by the respondents. Initially, the TTs had their LTP in
Penang, Malaysia for four weeks. They were assigned to two mainstream schools
correspondingly. Then, ITP ensued for eight weeks. The four TTs were placed in
two government schools in Jombang, Indonesia (East Java). The first pair went to
a vocational school while the other, in a mainstream school.
During the TP, the participants taught English language to secondary level. For
the LTP, the TTs were given between 8-12 periods of English language (40 minutes
per lesson). Meanwhile, in the ITP, they were required to teach eight classes (50
minutes per lesson). Besides normal teaching, the TTs were involved in
extracurricular activities assigned by the schools. Each TT was assigned a school
mentor teacher.
Participants
The sampling technique used in this study was purposive and criterion sampling.
Only those who chose to undergo this mode of TP (LTP & ITP) and were willing
to participate in the study voluntarily were involved in the research. This study
employed Siedman’s (2013) criterion to determine the sample size, i.e., sufficiency
and saturation of information. The number of respondents must be representative
of the total population and data must reach saturation. Hence, four female TTs

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out of eight TTs who went for the ITP in Jombang, Indonesia (majoring in English)
were chosen for the study. All four were from multi-ethnic females, aged 24 years
old and were in the fourth year of their degree program, the year for their
practicum training.
Before involving in the ITP mode, there were prerequisites that the TTs had to
pass, which included a minimum CGPA of 3.0, positive attitudes towards the
teaching profession, learning and research. The ITP should also be self-funded.
For this study, the TTs were named (pseudonym) as Mel, Sydney, Nor and Ching.
Data Collection and Analysis

The data for this study was collected from reflective journals or reflections (JR)
and two interview sessions (IS). The reflective journals were written daily on their
LTP and ITP mentoring experiences. They wrote about their encounters with their
mentors, especially on the attainments that are prominent for their professional
development as future English language teachers. The TTs were encouraged to
add their emotions when giving their insights. They could also add on their
viewpoints in their reflections. The interview sessions took place in SES, USM,
after their LTP and ITP, respectively. The interview was designed following the
semi-structured protocol. Each TT was interviewed for a minimum of 30 minutes.
The questions asked dealt with the mentor-mentees’ relationships, frequency, and
place of meetings, discussion matters, expectations and the support given by the
mentors. Both interviews were recorded for analysis purposes.
The data were analyzed using thematic analysis. To ascertain the trustworthiness
of the study, the six phases of analysis process proposed by Lincoln and Guba (as
cited in Nowell et al. 2017, p.1) were employed. The phases were familiarizing
with data, formulating for initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing the
themes, defining and naming the themes and finally, producing the report.
4. Findings
Three common themes of mentoring support emerged from the study. The TTs
reported that they improved their professionalisms as beginning teachers through
cognitive, affective, and social supports.
Cognitive support
Cognitive support refers to the assistance obtained by the TT in the acquisition of
new knowledge or the expansion of existing knowledge. The data revealed that
the mentors supported the trainees cognitively in various aspects. They include
lesson planning, pedagogical skills, classroom and time management and
assessment.
Lesson planning
In Malaysia, when Ching told her mentor that she could not complete the
objectives of her lesson, Ching was advised to shorten them as it is just a one -
period lesson; ‘…he just asked me to like... minimise the numbers of learning objectives,
that’s how I learned from him’(IS). Sydney learned to suit the focus skill with the
lesson plan and the materials with the level of the students. Her lesson plan was
appropriate for writing, not speaking. Thus, her mentor commented, ‘it was

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supposed to be a speaking lesson …..but the way I um approached it is wrong. It’s more
like a writing lesson instead of a speaking lesson and the material is actually too difficult
for the students’ proficiency level’(SI). Nor’s mentor supported her using
questioning techniques during their discussions. When Nor wanted to teach her
students on paraphrasing using ‘SpongeBob Squarepants’ video clip, her mentor
questioned, ‘….…if she were to ask the students to write a summary of what they saw
the video was about, is it considered paraphrasing? But she said, no’(SI). Nor reflected
and agreed with her mentor.
In Indonesia, Sydney had some difficulties in writing the lesson plan as she was
asked to teach a topic for two weeks. Thus, she asked her mentor who then lent
her some reference books to refer to‘…I asked her and she even gave me, I mean lent
me one of the books that she co-wrote. She told me that I can just use the exercises from
that book so that really helps me’ (SI). Similarly, Nor, who had two mentors, said that
‘They both support me a lot. In giving ideas on how to teach. Giving lesson plan samples.
Sharing items and materials.’ In short, the TTs had no problem attaining their
resources.
Pedagogical skills
In Malaysia, Mel shadowed her mentor’s lessons to learn the various approaches,
and later, she was asked to repeat the same lesson in another class using her
technique. From her reflection, although she loved her mentor’s lessons, ‘Her set
induction was realistic and direct as she asked students to brainstorm the ways of doing
certain action. I love it because it is more applicable and relatable for the students.’ (JR),
Mel decided to use video in her set induction and discussed the issue of her lesson
with the students using power point slides. This technique she claimed had
captured more attention from her students.
Analogously, Ching’s Indonesian mentor also modelled some teaching methods

before Ching started teaching her own classes. Ching preferred the Indonesian
teaching methods as she found them to be more stimulating and effective. She
justified, ‘For instance, my school in Indonesia only focused on the specific courses the
students studied. For example, in my mentor’s classes which were about accounting, he
always related English to their job scopes and he often stressed on the importance of
English’(JR). This suggests that English is taught as a functional subject in that
school.
Uniquely, Sydney experienced the role of a mentor in Indonesia. She was asked
to comment on her mentor’s teaching, ‘After the observation, my mentor approached
me for feedback about her lesson. I commented on her ease in managing the classroom,
some students’ lack of interest in learning the English language and her teaching pace’
(JR). The discussion paved the way for interchange of ideas and built new
understandings in Sydney. The mentor had empowered Sydney to exercise what
she had acquired from her knowledge and translating it into practice.
Assessment
Sydney was given the chance to mark a test paper with the help of her Malaysian
mentor. The experience was very meaningful for her, ‘… she showed us how marks
are awarded for different types of questions based on the answer scheme. I find this very

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useful as I would be able to make good use of this knowledge (the criteria of a grade A short
essay etc) to deliver a better reading or writing lesson that focuses on the certain aspects
which I might have overlooked before. This would help Sydney structure her lesson
focus.
Another enriching experience in Indonesia was about the authenticity of their

evaluation system. The TTs witnessed how speaking evaluation was carried out
at Borobudur temple. According to Ching, ‘During the English trip to Jogjakarta, the
students needed to converse English to Foreigners to pass their exam. It was more to
practical usage. We went to Borobudur temple for conducting the English speaking
test’(JR). Nor attested to this, ‘I loved this idea of practically using English to speak to
foreigners in order to improve their skills, it also helps improving their social skills.’(JR).
Their testing method is realistic. From this experience, the TTs discovered the
alternative of oral testing.
Classroom and time management

Nor’s Malaysian mentor taught her about classroom management, ‘…before we
started to actually teaching, we had like, a round table. She gave us situations, what can
we do if this happens, and she asked us, what will we do. …… she did point out if what
we do is suitable or not suitable and she suggested ways on how she did it in classes.’
(SI). The scenario given had helped Nor to visualize the situation and think of
ways to deal with the situation. And when the mentor gave her some solutions,
Nor was able to see things realistically. Mel was supported when she accounted
for a discipline problem in her class during her LTP. Her mentor advised her to
take this measure, ‘..... tomorrow... you go and do a show, let them admit themselves,
what did they do wrongly, who are the culprits, and... So, from there, we can actually train
them and want them to admit their fault not to repeat again and also to apologise to the
others’(SI). Mel did precisely that, and the problem was resolved.
In Indonesia, the TTs were exposed to a unique approach of disciplining through

character building. Every morning, all school students are greeted by the teachers
and perform ‘salam’ (Islamic handshake). The students have daily assembly and
singing the national anthem is made compulsory in every meet, signifying the
inculcation of patriotism. They even have hand-drawn ‘batik’ classes. The ‘batik’
lesson is not merely a drawing exercise, but it has a commercial objective as well.
The ‘batik’ products are sold to the locals and visitors. The TTs were amazed by
such practices.
Ching also learned about time management from her Indonesian mentor on how
to still produce quality teaching despite a busy schedule. She wrote, ‘The things
that he taught me was useful to me as it minimized the burden and energy spent on specific
days especially when the English periods were continuously for the whole day with 3
classes’ (JR). The mentor taught Ching that in school, students’ knowledge
augmentations should be the teacher’s priority, anything besides that is
secondary. In short, students’ needs should never be risked.
Affective support
Affective support deals with one’s unsteady emotions. In a complicated learning
journey as this practicum training, this support is necessary to provide a

344
conducive learning environment that ultimately would optimize the TTs’ learning
progress. The data revealed that the TTs did obtain motivation and care,
particularly in Indonesia.
Motivation
In Malaysia, Sydney’s mentor motivated and commended her for the
improvement in her second appraisal. Unlike the first lesson, she managed to
overcome her weaknesses in her lesson plan, approach, and classroom
management as her mentor stated, ‘she said that I improved a lot … mm students, they
actually listen when I talk. And the flow of the lesson is smoother classroom interruptions
by the students, I’m, I handled it well instead of panicking like last time, doesn’t detract
from my lesson objectives.’ (IS). Sydney felt overjoyed that it boosted her spirit. Mel
adored her Malaysian mentor as she was very reassuring, ‘She always encouraged
me throughout the time, especially by motivating me to be patient for the weak students. I
love her way very much as she truly gave me inspiration and strength in teaching the weak
students’ (JR). Mel was very appreciative for the guidance and encouragement
because she was very troubled with the issue.
Nor received good comments from Bu Tenty and she suggested some ways to
improve the lessons as well, ‘The comments were very uplifting which made me feel
like teaching wasn’t actually that bad after all’(JR). The support must have been very
significant for Nor to make such a claim.
Care
According to Sydney, ‘Mm mentoring in Indonesia seems more intimate because the
mentors, they erm took great lengths to take care of us not only in terms of us doing well
in the school but also outside of the school. They constantly check on us, making sure that
erm we are not experiencing any difficulties and so on. That’s why I said that my mentor
is a mother figure for me in Indonesia’(SI). This affective support suggests another
benefit that the Malaysian TTs had obtained during their ITP. They were well
looked after.
Nor was very thankful and touched that the Indonesian mentors took very good
care of her wellbeing, especially when she was sick, and that was the week that
her supervisor from Malaysia was coming to observe her. Not only her mentor
but the supervisor was also concerned about her health to the extent that they,
‘…came to our place every day to check on me, cook for us, and massage me whenever she
had time. I was told to rest at home for a couple of days so that I will feel better for my
observation’(SI).
The data did not reveal any evidence of ‘care’ from the local mentors. However,
this does not mean that they were not treated well. It could indicate that perhaps
the students did not need it because they were at the home ground and were able
to take care of themselves.
Social support
Social support refers to the type of support that would establish the rapport
between the mentors and the TTs. Similar to affective support, it is also imperative

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to ensure that the trainees are comfortable to learn. In this practicum, the trainees
were supported socially, primarily in Indonesia.
Relationship
Mel was treated like a sister by her Malaysian mentor, hence; her relationship with
her mentor was very casual. They always shared things, chatted, and had fun. She
confessed, ‘I always shared my teaching materials, specifically the notes, SPM trial
papers and worksheet to her for my Form 4 class and in return she gave me advices and
guidance of my teaching materials…… she treated all the USM trainees a lunch at a cosy
café. We chatted a lot, shared what we had learnt from both sides and took pictures We
text through Whatsapp and are friends in Facebook. I sent her my pictures in Indonesia
too’(JR). Mel was delighted to have such a relationship.
Hospitality
The TTs reported that they received a very warm welcome from the Indonesian
mentors. The hosts were very hospitable. According to Nor, the Jombang local
newspaper highlighted the news about their coming; ‘Press was invited and I was
interviewed by the reporter, they welcomed us wholeheartedly, as what Bu Muna said,
STKIP PGRI Jombang is now our second home’(IS). Bu Muna’s words made them feel
at home right away.
Besides that, the trainees were brought sightseeing to Kampung Coklat and Pantai
Pasir Putih Trenggalek. Mel said that ‘Pak Adib, planned to bring us there ever since
the first week we were there but he just had the time on this day so we went out with him,
Bu Rukmini and her daughter, Nalla. We had a great time out and enjoyed the
journey’(JR). After coming back from a short trip to Yogyakarta and Bali, Sydney’s
mentor also asked about how the trip went. ‘She did some catching up with me to
check on my well-being,’ Sydney claimed (JR). The social support that established
the TTs’ relationships with their mentors had alleviated their learning process.
5. Discussion
From the data, it was evident that the LTP and ITP have evolved the TTs’ initial
professionalisms in teaching. The three months’ period accentuated the self-
actualization of the TTs, despite the intermittent challenges faced along the
tumultuous journey. During this experimental interim period, the TTs are usually
‘vulnerable’ (Stanulis & Russell, 2000) for being in a country that is altogether
dissimilar from theirs, especially in the curriculum and culture. To excel in
teaching, the TTs realized the need to have a certain set of competencies.
Prominently, a strong foundation in theory and practical aspects were the
prerequisites. This teaching practicum was the clinical platform that translated
those hypothetical understandings into pragmatic (Burns et al., 2016). For first
timers, the TTs captured that mentor support was imperative at this juncture as
beginning teachers. The three types of mentor support; cognitive, affective, and
social obtained from both their local and transnational mentors proved to be
beneficial for the TTs.
Cognitive support appeared to be an integral contributing factor to the TTs’

professional development during the practicum. The mentors, especially in
Malaysia, emerged as the knowledge providers playing their roles in ensuring the

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execution of proper lessons. Using divergent approaches, the mentors, amid their
busy schedules, never failed to offer professional supervision. This opportunity
had enabled the TTs to link their learned theories into practice, in which
oftentimes adaptations seemed to be more applicable. The TTs understood that a
failed lesson, whether in the planning, management, or time and classroom
management, would be detrimental for the students. Evidently, the support had
helped the TTs to reflect on unforeseen matters in their lessons. Having gone
through two different settings of practicum doubled the TTs’ knowledge. Similar
findings on the development on cognition were found in these studies i.e.,
increased in confidence in speaking and communication, teaching confidence and
skills, interpersonal skills, new world views of education and culture and
adapting to new working cultures (Kabilan et al., 2017), and developed teaching
skills, interpersonal skills, awareness to diversity and independence.
In Indonesia, being in an EFL context was another reinforcing training as the TTs
were guided on the adoption of a curriculum alien to them. The exposure on how
a speaking test could be conducted outside the classroom and in an authentic
environment had also widened the TTs’ wisdom as such an evaluation is rare in
their home country. The character-building experience was meaningful, as well.
The TTs were taught the ways of how patriotism was instilled among the
Indonesian students by their daily routines. The ‘salam’ inculcated respect for the
teacher and the ‘batik’ lessons nurtured their love for their culture. Meanwhile, in
two unique cases, besides being the sage, the mentors collaborated with the TTs
in the knowledge building. Back in Penang, Malaysia, when Sydney was
empowered to take the role of her mentor, she successfully commented on her
mentor’s lesson. Even though the purpose was to train Sydney in a reverse
fashion, the mentor could have also learned from Sydney’s comments. This
experience portrays that the TTs and the mentor could co-learn with one another.
Similar finding is found in Ginkel, Verloop and Denessen’s (2016) study. In Mel’s
instance, the close relationship she had, witnessed the sharing of materials and
knowledge between the mentor and her. This experience suggests that the support
can also be reciprocal.
Affective support was the second theme that emerged from the data. Sydney’s
mentor praised her for the remarkable improvement that Sydney made in her
lesson. During her second observation, she did not panic, her lesson went
smoothly, she articulated well, and her class control was perfect. The appraisal
motivated Sydney to improve further. Meanwhile, when Mel encountered a
complex situation in dealing with weak students, her mentor consoled, and
encouraged her. Her mentor’s move was very much appreciated. In Nor’s case,
the inspiring words from her Indonesian mentor had made Nor changed her
pessimistic notion on teaching. In Indonesia, the experience of affective support
was impeccable. As a host country, host mentor, they were accountable for the
safety, comfort and health of the TTs under their wings. For that reason, Nor was
treated with great care while she was sick, and Sydney reported that the TTs’
wellbeing was often checked. This support had moved the TTs. The intimacy had
made Sydney felt that their relationship was more of a mother and daughter. The
concerns had impacted the TTs’ professional development positively. The

347
prevalence of affective support also emerged in Israel et al.’s (2014) study. Coined
as emotional support, they concluded that affective support and cognitive
support were interrelated. Similarly, in Mitroi and Mazilescu’s (2014) study, the
respondents perceived that an effective mentor support should consist of
emotional support. Mentors should be balanced emotionally, possess empathy,
calmness, and kindness. Analogously, Izadinia (2015; 2016) and Duse, Duse and
Karkowska (2017) also concur that having a good relationship with the TTs will
enhance their professionalism.
Social support is also fundamental during an exacting period, like the teaching
practicum. The evidence from Mel’s experience connotes the rudimentary of
social interactions that should take place between a TT and the mentor. Casual
and compassionate portrayals of the mentor had smoothened Mel’s learning
undertakings. The relationship they had was invariably complementary. The
acceptance and recognitions in turn had built Mel’s trust, in her mentor. Similarly,
Mukeredzi (2017) found that to be accepted as part of the community, establishes
trust. The importance of such a bond was also parallel with Sulistiyo et al.’s (2017)
findings. The relationship needs to be built ‘based on mutual respect and
understanding of each other’s expertise, needs and perspectives’ (Sulistiyo, et al., 2017).
The TTs utterly adored the hospitality received while training in Indonesia.
Although making the headlines in the local newspaper was overwhelming, the
TTs were delighted by the opportunity. They were not just welcomed by the
mentors but by the entire school. The mentors tightened their bonds with the TTs
by taking them on sightseeing trips. They had a splendid time. With this good
rapport, Kabilan (2013) claimed, the TTs would settle in the new environment at
a fast pace.
The findings supported Bandura’s (1999) postulation in his Social Cognitive

Theory as well. The mentors in the LTP and ITP had indeed played a crucial part
in the TTs’ professional developments. They assumed the roles that the TTs could
emulate from. However, other factors also formulated a pleasant learning
environment for the TTs, namely, the students, school, and administrators.
Bandura divided this environment into three imposed environment, selected
environment, and constructed environment. Most of the teaching experiences in
this study were supported by constructed environment. The conducive social
environment was created between the TTs and their mentors, students, school,
and administrators.
This approach of TP has an essential implication for the Ministry of Higher

Learning and teacher training providers. With adequate mentoring support, it is
wise for teacher education programs to adopt this measure to cater to the needs
of globalization, diversity, and mobility, which are becoming notable in today’s
world. It is a fact that the world is becoming interconnected and becoming more
and more borderless. Thus, the ministry and providers need to be mindful of the
possibility of job-seeking beyond the TTs’ internal perimeter. This scenario has
been happening in the outside world, where multinational teachers from South
Africa, India, the Philippines, and Eastern Europe have sought for employments
in the UK and US schools (Brown & Stevick, 2014 as cited in Cladinin & Husu,

348
2017 ; Dunn et al., 2014; Manik, Maharaj & Sookrajh, 2006 as cited in Cladinin &
Husu, 2017). By getting extra training, the TTs’ chances of job security of the TTs
would be expanded, enabling their mobility to other countries.
Another consideration that the ministry and teacher education providers should
pay attention to is the influx of student immigration or migration from countries
like Indonesia, Rohingya, Pakistan, the Philippines, Vietnam and the Arab world
into Malaysia, particularly in private schools. This influx has resulted in a
substantial diversity in the local schools in terms of language, religion, and
culture. The local teachers are often perplexed and overwhelmed by the different
needs of the multinational student populace (Kim & Kim, 2012). While immersion
courses for in-service teachers are necessary to support existing teaching services,
many teacher training providers are integrating ITP in their pre-service courses to
fit the TTs for the diverse classrooms. To evade the necessity of such a training
would not be appropriate.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the mentors in Malaysia and Indonesia provided cognitive,
affective, and social support to the TTs. For novice teachers-to-be, the trainings
were invaluable, although it was just for a short stint - three months. Although
the mentors originated from different backgrounds and cultures, they had the
same objective i.e., optimizing the opportunities for the TTs to experience a
meaningful practicum. The mentors, one in Malaysia and one or two in Indonesia,
complemented each other. Ultimately, the TTs attained holistic support. This
study reveals another success of this fashion of teaching practicum. Hence, teacher
training providers with similar background could consider this dual TP program.
The practitioners or teacher mentors could also utilize the support found in this
research when becoming a mentor teacher. More importantly, the researchers
would like to urge the Ministry of Higher Learning of Malaysia to take heed and
reassess the curriculum of teacher training providers at the local universities to
cater to this dire need.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 352-378, May 2020
Peer Tutorial: Championing Students at Risk
Joel B. Tan and Esterlina B. Gevera

University of Mindanao
Davao City, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3902-7986
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1468-3346
Abstract. This study aimed to evaluate the implementation of the Peer

Tutorial Program by the Dynamic Society of Accounting Students
(DySAS) of the College of Accounting Education (CAE), University of
Mindanao. The study employed descriptive-qualitative research design
and focused group discussions were conducted among 21 students
selected through purposive sampling. The researchers held all measures
to ensure the rigor, trustworthiness, and ethical soundness of this paper.
Stories, experiences, and answers of study participants were properly
documented, analyzed, and provided with meanings using the thematic
analysis approach. Themes on the benefits of Peer Tutorial included:
help cultivate good study habits and learning style; improve students'
academic performance; reinforce and strengthen personal learning and
understanding of topics; build self-confidence and independence in
learning accounting and promote progressive education and skills
development. The Peer Tutorial Program hopes to bring positive results,
joy, hope, and inspiration to students by learning with and through their
peers. With the shift to Outcomes-Based Education (OBE), where
students are expected to manage their learning styles and pace, the
program becomes even more timely and helpful to facilitate the change.
Essentially, peer tutorial is a profound expression of commitment to the
pedagogy of equitable and conscientious education through
collaboration and inclusivity, where students learn and succeed with
one another.
Keywords: education; peer-learning; tutorial; qualitative; accountancy
1. Introduction
Historically, businesses and market enterprises have trusted accountants to
provide accurate and timely financial information for informed decision-
making, to examine the fairness of economic reports, and to assist management
in honest compliance with regulatory and tax-reporting requirements (Albrecht
& Sack, 2001). Hence, the demand for accounting graduates has attracted many
students to enroll in the accounting program. But the way to becoming an

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accountant is not a walk in the park. It is full of challenges, and only those who
remain steadfast until the end survive.
The open admission policy of the University of Mindanao has paved the way for
students to enroll in accounting programs regardless of their academic
preparedness. However, because of the program’s standards and retention
requirements, many have failed, dropped, or even shifted to other programs.
There had been so many reasons to account why the cohort rate of accounting is
judiciously low. First, accounting courses are highly technical and are not that
easy to learn. Second, the majority, if not all freshmen, are in the process of
personal dissonance and adjustment, a shift from being carefree persons to
responsible, mature individuals. Lastly, few students are considerably slow
learners; that is, more time and discussions are needed so they could understand
the topics substantially.
To address this apparent concern, the College of Accounting Education (CAE)

has altruistically designed a peer tutorial program as a mechanism to help
students, particularly those ‘students at risk, otherwise known as the 'STAR' in
acquiring desired competencies and eventually pass the currently enrolled
professional courses. The CAE hopes that through academic interventions like
tutorials and bridging programs, students will perform better, increase their
likelihood to pass the course, and promote the spirit of teamwork among its
students, which is one of the core values of the University of Mindanao.
Peer teaching is an old, deep-rooted concept. During Aristotle’s time, tutors

were played by the archons, or student leaders and were described in the letters
of Seneca, the Younger. In 1795, Scotsman Andrew Bell popularized the concept
into a theory which then implemented in French and English schools decades
after (Briggs, 2013). In principle, peer tutoring is an approach by which one
student, known as the expert, instructs another student, called a novice (Briggs,
2013; Dowd, 2018). In recent years, Chen and Liu (2011) and Flores, Veiga Simao,
and Carrasco (2012) averred that many Higher Education Institutions (HEIs)
around the world had implemented tutoring as an alternative learning system.
This is because of the difficulties and inadequacies experienced by students in
learning their lessons under a limited, fast-paced class discussion.
Tutorials come in different ways and forms. Briggs (2013) explained the many
forms of peer tutoring. One is surrogate teaching that is common in universities
and higher learning institutions wherein an older student, often graduate or
advanced undergraduate, is given the teaching role for an apprentice or learner.
Another kind is proctoring, which is one-on-one tutoring by senior students who
have demonstrated expertise with the topic (Bloom, 1984; Briggs, 2014). The
emerging type of tutorial is cooperative learning, where a person is given the
responsibility to teach others, and each contributes to the group’s performance
(Johnson & Johnson, 2009). Alternatively, there is the so-called 'reciprocal peer
tutoring (RPT)' where the entire class is divided into pairs to tutor each other. As
to ways, it can come in small groups like a mini-seminar or workshop (Exley &

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Dennick, 2004) or through self-help or tutor-less form (Yazedjian & Kolkhorst,

2007).
Peer tutorial, as cited by the Athletic Study Center (2016), is an effective learning
technique that promotes and enhances the student's academic competencies and
self-resolve towards independent learning (Topping, 2005; Colvin & Ashman,
2010; Viana et al., 2019). In a related study, Chi, Roy, and Hussmann (2008)
described peer tutorial as an academic exercise that encourages learners to
become active and productive participants in the learning process through
interactions with peers. In peer tutorial, tutees and tutors are collaborators of
learning. Falchicov (2001) described collaborative learning as instrumental in
developing self-esteem, improving classroom engagement, increasing academic
interest, and improving study habits (Matine, 2019; Shenoy & Petersen, 2019).
Further, students learning with fellow students eliminate that feeling of
intimidation, inhibition, and reservations; thus, making it easy for them to
clarify and qualify knowledge without fear of being ridiculed or feeling
undignified (Aclo, Damiar & Norodin, 2015; Dowd, 2018).
In the College of Accounting Education, peer tutorial is a flagship program

implemented in partnership with the Dynamic Society of Accounting Students
(DySAS), a student organization of the College. One of the fundamental
objectives of the program is to provide an avenue for students, especially those
who are having a hard time dealing with accounting courses to enhance and
improve their knowledge in accounting (Lumactod, Nipales, Pelenio & Taripe,
2013). The tutorial process begins with the recommendation of the teacher of
students (tutees) who failed in at least two assessment periods to join the tutorial
program. Tutorial classes are handled by selected DySAS members (tutors) who
are competent to deliver the designated topic. To determine whether the
program has indeed contributed to the tutee's performance, concerned teachers
monitor the progress of the tutee in his or her succeeding assessment periods.
The tutorial program has been in existence since 1991 (Lumactod et al., 2013).
Yet, no tangible and substantial studies have been done to gauge how successful
the implementation of the program has been relative to its objective of helping
students pass their currently enrolled courses, thus helping the College improve
its cohort rate. In their latest account, DySAS reported that during the first
semester of the school year 2015-2016, they were able to conduct several tutorial
sessions for two courses: Accounting 1A and Accounting 5. A total of 122 tutees
participated and benefited from the program. Of this number, 95 were
Accounting 1A students, and 27 were enrolled in Accounting 5 course. Majority
of the tutees enrolled in both courses got a passing mark from 3.5 - 3.1 or 75 – 79.
Under the Program, tutorial activities include, but not limited to, discussing the
scheduled topics, administering and answering pre and posttests, answering
problems in the textbook, giving review materials, and presenting an overview
of the next topic (Dynamic Society of Accounting Students [DySAS], 2015).
Given the lack of study that assesses the implementation of the Peer Tutorial
Program, which could serve as the basis for quality improvement; hence this

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study was undertaken. The researchers believe that this inquiry shall provide
concrete evidence on the program's intrinsic value and significance through an
objective and comprehensive evaluation of its implementation in terms of
delivery and results. Further, this study shall offer practical interventions and
recommendations to improve its design, delivery, and overall services.
Primarily, this research assesses the level of implementation of the Peer Tutorial
Program. Specifically, the study aims to answer the following questions:
1. What is the status of 'STAR' after subscribing to Peer Tutorial?
2. What are the perceptions of 'STAR' on the Peer Tutorial Program?
3. What are the problems encountered by students in the Peer Tutorial
Program?
4. How does Peer Tutorial help tutees and tutors in their professional
course performance?
5. What are the suggestions of the participants to improve the
implementation of the Peer Tutorial Program?
2. Method
This section outlines the methodologies and processes employed in the conduct
of the study to ensure the integrity and scholarliness of the paper. The
discussion is structured in order of the study design, study participants and
selection process, phases of exploration, the role of researcher, trustworthiness of
the study, and ethical consideration.
Study Design
The paper utilized a descriptive-qualitative study design. King (2007) mentioned
that qualitative studies achieve an in-depth understanding of the 'constructs'
people use to describe and rationalize everyday experiences and interactions
with the world. We aptly opted for this design as we intended to describe and
interpret thoughts and feelings of the participants and find meanings in their
shared stories on the implementation of peer tutorial program (Hannes, Booth,
Harris & Noyes, 2013). The qualitative approach is deemed appropriate for this
research because it described how the program was implemented and improved
the performance of the participants through their experiences and views on peer
tutorial, the problems they have encountered as well as their suggestions to
enhance the program.
Participants and Selection Process

The participants of the study were accounting students from the 1st to 4th-year
level selected through purposive sampling. They were students who had
undergone the peer tutorial program at least twice and had given their consent
to be part of the study, whether as tutees or tutors. The chosen tutors were
outstanding DySAS members, mostly 3rd and 4th-year accountancy students who
have been involved with the tutorial for at least one (1) year or two (2)
semesters. They were shortlisted because of their rich and meaningful
experience with the program.
On the other hand, the selected tutees were 1st, and 2nd-year accountancy and
accounting technology students who have shown consistent poor academic
performance, sedentary class participation and are considered 'at risk' of failing

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the course. They were referred and nominated by their accounting teachers.
However, to qualify as participants, they must have attended the tutorial session
at least twice, are willing to participate in the study, and are confident about the
impact of the program in their academic success. The participants were clustered
into three (3) of seven (7) participants (Creswell, 1998), namely: the tutors, the
triumphant tutees, and the fruitless tutees.
Phases of Exploration
Data were gathered through document analysis and focus group discussions
(FGDs) using an expert-validated interview guide during the 3rd quarter of the
academic year 2016-2017. The format of the FGD was open and spontaneous to
reduce inhibitions among participants. While the interview was structured
around predetermined questions, the discussion went interactive, free-flowing,
and dynamic. Marshall and Rossman (as cited in Walby, 2015) suggested that
the data collection method in qualitative research is categorized into four types:
participation in the setting, direct observation, in-depth interview, and
document analysis. The responses during the FGD were carefully logged using
notes and a machine recorder, accurately transcribed and confirmed by the
participants in a journal. Data gathered were coded individually and categorized
based on the nature of participation as either tutee (TE) or tutor (TR) and
research objectives. After then, the coded data were analyzed using the thematic
analysis approach.
Role of Researchers
As researchers, we played the following roles in the study. One of the roles we
played was as interviewers. As such, we captured and document stories of our
participants relevant to the study objectives. As interviewers, we made sure that
a carefree and relaxed conversation is carried on the set. With a sincere yet light
environment, we allowed our participants to share their experiences without
intimidation, pressure, and fear of being judged. Another important role we
assumed was as observers. Since this inquiry is qualitative, we were equally
interested in non-verbal languages like emotions and mannerisms as with their
words. We believe that often, meaningful anecdotes can be drawn from
unguarded facial expressions, behaviors, and gestures. For this purpose, we kept
an eye-to-eye contact with our participants during the interview.
In addition, we also took the role of encoders. The first thing we encoded was
the accounting performance of our participants before and after they have joined
the tutorial program. This coding was needed to determine the statistical impact
of peer tutorial to the tutees' academic progress. After this, we carefully recorded
the participants' responses during the interview. The narratives of the
participants are critical to validate the numbers collected. As encoders, we
observed honesty and impartiality to ensure that the themes and concepts
generated are according to the context and perspective of our participants. To
this end, we employed the audit trail to facilitate an easy and efficient way to
indexing the responses of our participants to and from the transcripts of focus
group discussion. The format we used was (TE-P#/TR-P#). TE stands for the
'Tutee' while TR represents 'Tutor.' The P# means' Participant Number'. Say, for

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example (TE-P1), interpreted as Tutee - Participant 1 or (TR-P1), described as

Tutor - Participant 1.
Trustworthiness of the Study

In qualitative studies, the trustworthiness of the study is both paramount and
sacred. This thrust is ensured by keeping high levels of integrity, transparency,
and objectivity in the collection, transcription, and interpretation of data. In his
literature, Shenton (2004) indicated four elements of reliability to include
credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. As with credibility,
the study was carried out systematically (Silverman, 2015; Shenton, 2004). We
followed technical and ethical standards in the collection and analysis of data.
Processes and tools were checked, reviewed, and verified by experts in
qualitative studies. Conversely, transferability was upheld through clear-cut
research objectives, contextualized themes, and well-defined respondents.
Moreover, we never allowed our personal biases and prejudices to influence the
outcome of this study (Creswell, 1998; Shenton, 2004).
Similarly, to ensure dependability, member checking was done on the data

before and after analysis and interpretation. Participants were able to validate
their narratives as to completeness and accuracy (Silverman, 2015). Further,
participants were adequately oriented on the purpose and rigor of the study,
especially on data gathering. Lastly, confirmability was secured in this study
through the use of audit trails. This device allows the reader to trace and confirm
the information from its raw source. Marshall and Rossman (2010) stressed that
the findings, interpretations, and conclusions must be supported appropriately.
Besides, all materials and instruments used in this study were kept intact for
verification and corroboration purposes.
Ethical Consideration
As researchers, we put high regard to the anonymity of our participants and the
confidentiality of the data gathered. On this, pseudonyms were assigned to the
participants to hide their identity. The information gathered was never shared
with others and used other than the purpose of the study. Consent was also
secured to guarantee the voluntary participation of the participants. We
respected the right of our participants to withdraw from participating should
they decide to discontinue. Further, this research paper is entirely credible,
devoid of any data manipulation, deceit, and plagiarism.
3. Results
This section of the paper presents the results of the data gathered. It outlines the
meaningful and significant answers of the participants to questions relevant to
the objectives of the study. The results are presented following the order of the
research questions.
Status of "STAR" after subscribing to Peer Tutorial

We began our exploration of the phenomenon by looking at the summative
report of the tutorial program prepared by DySAS for the 1st semester of 2015-
2016. A total of 122 students attended the program for the entire semester, with
an overall passing mean rating of 65.81 percent. Accounting 1A recorded 56

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passers with a general passing rate of 61.54 percent, 35 flunkers, and four no
grade or in dropped condition. Meanwhile, 21 tutees enrolled in Accounting 5
passed the course with a staggering 80.77 percent passing percentage, with five
flunkers and one no grade or in dropped status. While we were confident that
the program had helped our STARs, we did not discount the fact that there
might be students who failed to profit from the program.
Table 1: Report on Peer Tutorial Implementation
No Grade (NG) Passing

Period Subject Passed Failed Total
and Dropped Rate
Accounting 1a 56 35 4 95 61.54%
1st
Accounting 5 21 5 1 27 80.77%
semester
Overall 77 40 5 122 65.81%
As shown in Table 1, the tutorial sessions in Accounting 1A and Accounting 5

helped the STARs pass their currently enrolled courses. In the study of
Braganza, Capisnon, Dela Salde, and Manib (2014), peer tutorials increase the
level of performance of students in an exam. It is worth noting, though, that
some tutees failed to proceed because of irregular attendance and poor
participation during the session.
In the related study, Briggs (2013) noted that those who obtained higher scores
on the QRI (Quality Reading Inventory) test are students engaged in peer
learning. This suggests the positive effect peer tutoring can have on academic
performance. While academic achievement is a function of many factors,
including aptitude, preparation, and environmental support, a tutorial session is
a big rally round to nurturing and strengthening the readiness and confidence of
students to do good in class and eventually pass the course.
Table 2: Perceptions on Peer Tutorial Program

Core Frequency of Key Statements
Ideas/Themes Responses
A review session Typical "Attending tutorial sessions enables students to
review their accounting lessons by answering the
pre and posttests" – (TR-P1)
Platform to share General "I always had fun. You get to share and learn
knowledge and new knowledge with fellow students" – (TE-P10)
learn with others
Create Typical "Tutorial was fun. I can meet different people
acquaintances and and find friends" – (TE-P15)
friends
Stressful and Typical "When tutees find the topic very hard to
challenging understand even if repeatedly taught" –(TE-P7)
Interactive and fun Typical "We were provided with discussions about a
learning topic. We were encouraged and allowed to ask
experience questions freely. We were provided with sample
problems with answers. It is a great experience" –
(TE-P12)

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Reinforce General "Allow us to learn through various methods and

classroom learning activities like pre and posttest, seatwork, oral
recitations, reporting, working with buddies and
giving assignment" – (TR-P1)
Discover new General "It adds new learning because they also teach
learning not taught things not discussed in the class" –(TE-P17)
in the classroom
Find models and Typical "I have become more patient in studying and
inspiration to do developed new ways to learn better and faster" –
better in studies (TE-11)
and in life
Builds teamwork Typical "I really make sure that I will be present when I
and sense of am assigned to teach or tutor. This makes me
responsibility to more responsible and caring of others" – (TR-P7)
learning
Boring, Variant "When we have to move from one room to
unorganized, and another and when the tutorial session seems
non-interactive unprepared and unorganized" –(TE-P8)
Having stern interest and strong desire in one thing will drive every person to
commit, pursue, and work hard for it. This interest is influenced by a person's
need, condition, priorities, and perception. This truth led us to ask our
participants about their views and thoughts about the tutorial program. We
probed this area first to be able to understand the students' reasons for attending
or withdrawing from the activity. We carefully captured and classified the
answers of our participants based on their universal thesis. The following ten
themes emerged from the responses on the perceptions on the Peer Tutorial
Program.
A Review Session
A tutorial session simulates a typical review class where tutors and tutees
update and refresh themselves on specific accounting topics. The tutors who are
assigned to manage the learning session had to review themselves and master
the topics to be discussed so they can deliver satisfactorily to the tutees (TR-P1).
The tutees, on the other hand, had to appraise themselves of what they have
already learned so they can catch up with the lesson (TE-P11; TE-P13). Tutors
also employ various teaching techniques characterizing a typical teaching-
learning environment. Participant (Tutor) 1 aptly said,
“Attending tutorial sessions will enable students to review their
accounting lessons by answering the posttest and pre-test prepared by
the tutor” - (TR-P1)
This is supported by Participant (Tutee) 13 saying,

“It helped me retain the topics I have studied in the past” - (TE-P13)
Essentially, akin to review class, tutors provide learning materials, discuss the
outlined topics, and conduct assessment activities.

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Platform to share knowledge and learn with others

CAE's tutorial program is a student initiative. It is run and managed by DySAS,
an organization of accounting students. The program allows selected members,
usually academic scholars and accounting-adept students, to become tutors to
share their knowledge and skills to their fellow students, especially those who
are at risk and those belonging to lower years. The entire process espouses the
sharing of knowledge among fellow students and learning along with others,
not just about accounting but also about best practices on how to manage time,
stress, and personal issues (TR-P3; TR-P6; TE-P11; TE-P18). Participant (Tutor) 3
profoundly recounted,
“It is very fulfilling on my part because I can be able to share what I
have learned in accounting. Also, I have the opportunity to share my
study habits to them” – (TR-P3)
Participant (Tutee) 18 echoed,

“Of course, I am happy being able to learn with my classmates and
friends as we share ideas” – (TE-P18)
Over time, the program has transcended from sheer teaching to coaching,
mentoring, and advising. It has empowered tutees to be self-reliant and to
interact confidently with their fellow tutees, friends, and classmates. In effect,
the breadth of learning from simple tutorial sessions has become even more
extensive and more impactful.
Creating acquaintances and friends

Apart from the opportunity to learn, the tutorial program is also a venue to win
friends and comrades. Learning together fosters good rapport and friendship
between and among tutors and tutees (TR-P1; TR-P3; TR-P7; TE-P11; TE-P19).
This makes learning even more enjoyable and exciting. Participant 7 (Tutor) and
11 (Tutee) declared,
“The tutorial experience was great. I was able to make friends with
tutees” – (TR-P7)
“Tutees and tutors become friends” – (TE-P11)
Sharing knowledge and interacting with one another is a show of care, building
mutual trust and respect, which are essential elements to creating and keeping
relationships such as friendship. After all, learning, to be extra meaningful and
exciting, must be fun and shared with friends.
Stressful and challenging

A tutorial session can be toxic and exhausting both for student tutors and tutees.
Both tutors and tutees have to manage their time to prepare and attend to the
tutorial sessions (TR-P1; TR-P2; TE-P8). Tutors, in particular, have to bear the
difficulties of reviewing and strategizing on how the topics will be discussed.
They even have to bear tutees' diverse personalities, motivation, priorities,
concerns, and reception towards the session, not to mention the feeling of
anxiety during the discussion and in answering every tutee's question.
Participant 1 (Tutor) cordially narrated,

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“The challenging moment for me is seeing tutees not prepared coming to

the session and not doing their assignment” – (TR-P1)
Even Participant 5 revealed one of her sad experiences by telling us,

“There was once an instance when my tutee asked a question, and I was
not able to answer it. I felt embarrassed and disappointed at myself” –
(TR-P5)
For tutees, it has always been a challenge to review past lessons or learning new
ones in a fast-paced manner. More so, the time available for the tutees that could
match the tutors' free schedule as regular classes are continuing.
Interactive and fun learning experience

Nothing beats fun learning. It does not only fight boredom and exhaustion, but
it also increases topic absorption and retention. The tutorial works through
interactive and fun learning activities (TR-P2; TE-P8; TE-P10; TE-P12; TE-P19).
With interactive and fun learning activities, tutees are expelled from feeling
bored, exhausted, and mentally-consumed. Instead, they remain to be attentive,
focused, and alive during the entire session. Participant 2 shared,
“I had great interactions with my tutees. It is fun to learn accounting
on tutorials” – (TR-P2)
Participant 8 disclosed,
“I had good times with the tutorial session when the discussion happens
to be interactive, and all my questions are answered” – (TE-P8)
Participant 10 warmly disclosed,

“I always had fun. You get to share and learn new knowledge. I had fun
reviewing” – (TE-P10)
Tutors are not just predisposed to do lecturing as a means to discuss the topics
but also tasked to use other approaches like cooperative learning and student-
led discussions that encourage independent-learning, interaction, and active
participation. These approaches to teaching also help the tutors save their energy
and tone by shifting their role from being a resource person to a facilitator and,
at the same time, addressing the multi-intelligences and varied learning styles of
students.
Reinforces classroom learning

The tutorial session is designed to reinforce class discussion of identified topics
that are critical and challenging to students, especially for those at risk of failing
or have shown poor academic performance consistently. The tutorial aims to
strengthen student understanding of accounting topics learned first inside the
classroom (TE-P10; TE-P11; TE-P13; TE-P15; TE-P16; TE-P17). Participants 15
and 16 convincingly recounted,
“Tutorial session is very helpful to us. It helps us clear lessons we do not
understand” – (TE-P15)

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Through the review materials provided and discussions given, students are able
to deepen their understanding of the topic. They are even encouraged to ask
questions or clarify information which they have missed to ask or are afraid to
clarify with their teachers (TE-P11; TE-P12; TE-P13; TE-P14; TE-P17). Participant
12 narrated,
“We were provided with discussions about a particular topic. We were
encouraged and allowed to ask questions freely without feeling
intimidated by the tutors. We were provided with sample problems with
answers. It is a great experience”- (TE-P12)
Indeed, the tutorial session can be a potent mechanism to enhance the learning
and comprehension of the students, especially those who struggle and have
difficulty in understanding and learning the lessons at once. In the tutorial, the
pacing is relatively slow as the topic discussions are specific and controlled. It
can also be an excellent aid for students who have missed their classes as they
can learn the topics they missed during the tutorial. Participant 3 confidently
said,
“I learned new topics from the session” (TE-P3)
While tutorials are held to reinforce learning which occurred inside the class,
being attentive and engaged during classroom encounters with teacher remains
to be very important and will help a lot in improving our academic performance.
Discover new learning not taught in the classroom

In some rare cases and circumstances, the tutorial session becomes a hub of new
knowledge and accounting skills. Tutors share techniques in solving accounting
problems and tips in understanding difficult concepts and principles. Apart
from accounting, tutees also learn from their tutors best practices on how to
manage time, how to study effectively, and how to learn steadfastly. Time and
again, it has been acknowledged that education goes beyond the classroom;
tutorial sessions can be a ground of fresh, meaningful experiences and
instruction helpful to understanding accounting and even life, in general.
Participant 12 noted,
“Tutorials provide me with new tips, techniques, and shortcuts in
understanding and solving problems” - (TE-P12)
We categorically believe that learning is not confined within the four walls of the
classroom. There are discoveries and fresh thoughts that take place beyond it
and which are, in several instances, more meaningful and exciting as these were
acquired spontaneously and with others.
Find models and inspiration to do better in studies and in life

The tutorial session is more than just learning with experts. It is also an
opportunity where tutors model and inspire student leadership and excellence
to tutees. One apparent impact of the tutorial is that tutees find exemplars and
inspiration from the tutors. Tutees see their tutors as their motivation to do
better and be like them. This idea was shared by Participant 20 pronouncing,
“I study more now than before because I am inspired by the advice of our
tutor” – (TE-P20)

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The admiration and respect developed by tutees towards their tutors can lead to
emulation and replication; thus, tutors become persons that tutees look up to as
their model of scholarship, responsibility, and resilience. In many circumstances,
tutors also provide peer advising relating to career goals and personal issues.
One of the tutors, our Participant 3 delightfully narrated,
“One of the happy moments I've had with the tutorial session was when
I inspired students not only to work hard for accounting but also to
learn to love it” – (TR-P3)
In tutorial sessions, students do not only acquire and enhance their knowledge
and understanding of a specific topic and make new friends but also find
exemplars that serve as inspiration and models of motivation.
Builds teamwork and sense of responsibility to learning

The success of tutorials rests on the teamwork and commitment between and
among tutors and tutees. Tutors need to demonstrate teamwork by planning the
details of the tutorial session to include the list of topics, the assignment of
tutors, and the flow of the session. Consequently, tutees must show commitment
and support through active participation and engagement during the session. A
tutorial is not about the tutors or the tutees individually; it's about the
collaboration forged between the two and the shared responsibility towards
learning. In the equation of tutorial, teamwork and shared responsibility are the
essential variables. Heartwarming insights we heard from our participants was
from Participants 5 and 12 when they realized,
“It made me realized that dealing with accounting, you need a friend to
walk with you on the journey. The best buddy you could have is your
peer” – (TR-P5)
“The feeling of accomplishment was indescribable. Learning with peers
is a good thing, especially when everyone is attentive and cooperative. It
made me easy to understand the topic” – (TE-P12)
Learning with others through the tutors or mentors or coaches is an experience

that beholds teamwork, responsibility, charity, and sharing. These same qualities
are what the University of Mindanao wants from its students and graduates.
Boring, unorganized and non-interactive

One common reason why students are not attracted to tutorials and likely to
withdraw and disengaged during sessions is because of its predisposition to get
boring and non-interactive. This situation typically happens when tutors failed
to meet the interest and expectations of the tutees; when learning materials are
lacking; teaching strategies are repetitive; tutors are unprepared, and the
environment is not conducive for learning. Participant 8 shared,
“When we have to move from one room to another and when the tutorial
session seems unprepared and unorganized” – (TE-P8)
Just like any other learning session, be it a formal class or a tutorial, making the
session attractive to students and sustaining its dynamics and energy is a

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continuous challenge. Hence, while tutors may have the key responsibility to
design and navigate the session, tutees have equal power to make it enjoyable
and productive.
Table 3: Problems Encountered by "STAR" on Peer Tutorial

Core Ideas /Themes Frequency of Key Statements
Responses
Difficulty of scheduling the General "Most of the time, the schedule of tutorial
date and time of tutorial is in conflict with our classes and
personal schedules" –(TR-P1)
Tutors' lack of skills in Variant "Some tutees are bored because of the
tutoring and of teaching lack of teaching skills of the tutors" –
strategies (TR-P4)
Lack of tutorial room General "We have to look for a vacant room every
time we hold the tutorial; otherwise we
have to disrupt or cancel the activity" –
(TR-P5)
Lack of learning materials Typical "There were times when materials and
and resources topic notes were not provided which
could be very helpful so we can follow
the discussion and have it reviewed at
home" –(TE-P13)
Lack of teachers' Variant "There could be more tutees in
encouragement and attendance if teachers would require
support those who are supposed to attend. And
there should be credit points to be given
to tutees" –(TR-P6)
Unsound attitude of Tutees Variant "Students attending the tutorial sessions
and Tutors are eager to learn, but as the discussion
goes on, they get bored easily and slowly
losing focus" – (TE-P10)
As with any other initiatives, activities, and programs, the tutorial has its own
set of problems and challenges that can derail the achievement of its goals and
objectives. We thought that the tutorial might not be perfect, hence need to
improve continually. There may be errors, weaknesses, and limitations in its
method and mechanism that need to be addressed. Having said so, we,
researchers explored the problems and challenges as perceived and experienced
by the participants. The six themes that emerged from the anecdotes on the
problems encountered by "STAR" on Peer Tutorial Program are provided
herewith.
Difficulty of scheduling the date and time of tutorial

Tutors and DySAS officers agreed that one of their pressing problems in the
conduct of tutorials was to sync the schedule of the tutor and the tutees.
Participants confessed that organizing a peer tutoring activity can be daunting
and challenging, even during scheduling. There must be a common, agreed-
upon time structure for the tutorial session that will not compromise regular
classes of both tutors and tutees. Failure to meet both parties' availability would
mean no tutorial session. Time must be open, free, and unrestricted to allow
comprehensive, complete, and concentrated discussions.

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Typically, tutorial sessions are done on weekdays, during the free hours of the
tutees and tutors. While this is relatively difficult because students have
reservations to participate owing to the regular classes that they have to attend
to in-between or after the session, weekend schedules are nearly impossible
either because of the many, equally important activities that both tutors and
tutees have to accommodate like the bridging program, OJT seminars, weekend
exams, thesis defense, CWTS, and PE classes among others. Participant 1
captured this challenge saying,
“Most of the time, the schedule of the tutorial is in conflict with class
and personal schedules” – (TR-P1)
Another concern was revealed to us by Participant 12 citing,

“I hope tutorial sessions do not fall on regular class schedule so that they
will not be in conflict with regular class” – (TE-P12)
Having the right schedule that allows students-at-risk to be in attendance can

make the program more efficient and valuable to those who especially need it.
This is something DySAS has to manage and deal with effectively.
Tutors' lack of skills in tutoring and of teaching strategies

One critical element that could make or break a tutorial session is the
knowledge, skills, and attitude of the tutors. Many agreed that one major culprit
to a successful tutorial is the lack of competency among tutors in imparting
knowledge and managing the session. Without the right attitude and skills, the
discussion tends to become unorganized, boring, and ineffective. Tutees, when
feeling bored and worn-out, easily lose their focus, become disengaged, and can
be unreceptive towards learning.
While tutors must be knowledgeable on the subject and topics they ought to
share with the tutees, they must also be equipped with the appropriate
tutoring/teaching skills in order to transfer such knowledge effectively. Tutors
must be well-armed with excellent communication and interpersonal skills
alongside the values of passion, commitment, patience, and understanding. A
participant narrated,
“Tutors' way of teaching must be lively, and tutors must have a sense of
humor to break the monotony of discussion and catch our attention - the
tutees” – (TE-P11)
This challenge was also recognized among tutors. One tutor confessed,
“We should have seminars and training to help us improve our teaching
skills” – (TR-P6)
Apart from the technical knowledge, there is also a need for tutors to become
adept at various teaching approaches and pedagogy to become effective and
relevant in their instruction.

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Lack of tutorial room

One of the most important logistical requirements for the conduct of tutorials is
a room- a place conducive for learning. The room must be spacious, well-lighted,
with good ventilation and physical resources like chairs, tables, and
whiteboards. Ideally, a tutorial room must support a productive and fun
learning experience.
Apart from managing an amenable schedule that works for tutors and tutees,
another perennial concern that besets DySAS every time tutorials are planned is
where to hold the learning sessions. By practice, tutorials are held in vacant
classrooms and discussion rooms at the library. However, it must be pre-
scheduled since reservations are also limited. This problem was best articulated
through suggestions by Participants 5 and 12 citing respectively,
“There must be a permanent room that is conducive for learning” –
(TR-P4)
“The College must also provide vacant rooms specifically intended for
the conduct of tutorial because as experienced, we do not have
permanent rooms which led to the interruption and cancellation of the
session” – (TE-P12)
As members of the faculty of the CAE, we remembered that there was a time
where no rooms are available; thus, tutees and tutors just hopped from one
classroom to another every after an hour, which disrupts the energy,
concentration, and learning momentum of the participants. This kind of
experience discourages students from actively attending the activity.
Lack of learning materials and resources

Learning is never perfected within the tutorial session. The quality of tutoring is
affected by many limitations, including the time, the environment, and the type
of tutees in attendance, hence to augment student learning, materials and
resources are indispensable. However, these things are inadequate, if not
completely lacking among tutors. Given this scantiness, it could impede the
learner's capacity to fully grasp the concepts and topics taught during the
residential session. Having no materials at hand may also trigger disengagement
and demotivation among tutees.
As tutees have different styles and ways of learning, different pacing, and
conditions during the session, the learning materials could greatly help reinforce
the topics discussed. It can also facilitate better learning as the tutees do not just
hear the discussion but also have something to see and follow-through,
especially for visual learners. Alternatively, tutees need materials so they can
relearn and practice their learning at home, in the classroom, or at the library,
thus deepen and enhance their understanding of the topic. This problem was
shared vividly to us by Participant 15 saying,
“Tutors must provide learning materials like sample questionnaires and
reviewers that we can bring at home for further study and practice” –
(TE-P15)

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With the learning materials available on hand, tutees will become independent
learners themselves, that is, self-directed learning, away from the oversight of
tutors and only through the aid of adequate and appropriate materials. This is
an autonomous learning that works.
Lack of teachers' encouragement and support

As an intervention program for the STARs (students at risk), the process design
of tutorial is cyclical; and it begins from the inputs of the teachers. It is the task of
the teachers to identify students who need help and intervention, especially
those who have shown consistent poor performance in the class and on
examinations. They must encourage students to attend tutorials. This idea was
resonated strongly by Participant 2 when she told us,
“Teachers must require their students to attend tutorial classes
especially those who need peer tutorial” – (TR-P2)
Likewise, teachers need to monitor the progress of their students. They should
help evaluate the effectiveness of the program through reinforcement in the
classroom, like giving out assessment tasks related to the topics discussed
during the session. To encourage participation, teachers may include in their
quizzes and even in the exam problems given during the tutorials. Through this,
students can find connection, value, and appreciation of the program. On this
note, Participant 6 commented,
“There should be an evaluation of the performances of tutees inside the
classroom” – (TR-P6)
From a different perspective, Participant 4 mentioned another role accounting

teachers have to play in improving the implementation of the program. He
loudly pondered,
“I think there must be a professor or any equivalent representative of the
College to evaluate the performances of the tutors” – (TE-P4)
With how the program works, the roles of teachers as providers of inputs and
evaluators of outcomes are critical. Teachers' constructive feedback on the
program delivery and outcomes will serve as valuable inputs to the quality
improvement program of the College. The worst that could happen is when
teachers failed to monitor whether tutors are doing what they are supposed to
do and that tutees are making progress in their performance.
Unsound attitude of Tutees and Tutors

We believe that beyond the legitimate issues of lack of resources and support
system, the low turnout and poor participation among tutees and even tutors are
influenced by their attitude and impression towards the program.
One significant factor that contributes to the success of any program, such as
tutorials, is the attitude of the tutees. When tutees come to tutorial sessions just
to comply with their teacher's encouragement or requirement, they remain
passive and disengaged with the activity. When tutees view tutorial sessions as
burdensome, insignificant, and ineffective, they become reluctant and will most
likely not attend or become apathetic to the program. When tutees find no

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appreciation and remain unsympathetic towards the tutors and the learning
activities, the quality of learning is compromised. This iniquitous truth was
framed in the words of Participant 11 when she recounted,
“As tutee, tutorial session does not have any impact on my academic
performance because I am satisfied with my professor's performance.
There is no reason for me to attend tutorial session” – (TE-P11)
Participant 14 echoed,
“During tutorials, while the tutors are friendly and approachable, but
what they are teaching is just the same with what we're given in the
class. The knowledge I have gained inside the classroom is just the same
as in the tutorials” – (TE-P14)
As with tutors, when they see the program as an obligation than a noble
responsibility, they will easily succumb to indolence and apathy, making their
performance less satisfactory and mediocre. When tutors perceive tutorials as
onerous and unrewarding, they may stop learning and enhancing their skills
and eventually stay-off from the program. Indeed, the attitude and commitment
of both tutees and tutors matter in the value proposition of tutorials.
Table 4: Benefits of Peer Tutorial to "STAR" and the Tutors

Core Ideas/ Themes Frequency of Key Statements
Responses
Help cultivate good study General "For me, it improves my study habit
habit and learning style especially on taking down notes and how
to become focused in everything that you
do" –(TE-P16)
Improve students' Typical "My classroom performance like my
academic performance quizzes and exam scores has improved
because I can relate the questions from
the tutorial" –(TE-P15)
Reinforce and strengthen General "Tutorial session really helps students
own learning and because tutors can share some topics that
understanding of topics were not taken up in classes" –(TE-P13)
Build self-confidence and Typical "Attendance to tutorial improved my
independence competence and confidence in
understanding accounting. It pressured
me to strive more and learn more
accounting courses." –(TE-P12)
Promote active education Typical "After attending tutorials, I am just
and skills development studying on my own. I can really answer
questions" –(TE-P15)
At this point, we have explored the real and perceived benefits of the program
for both tutees and tutors alike. Understandably, what attracts and keeps the
participants from being engaged and committed are the favors and gains they
get from it. While there are participant-centered objectives outlined in the
program, these can only make sense when achieved satisfactorily and have
impacted the participants significantly. Five themes have emerged describing
the benefits of the program, to wit:

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Help cultivate good study habit and learning style

Students believed that the tutorial has helped them cultivate good study habits
and learning styles. Tutees confessed that their study hours have increased after
joining the learning sessions. Moreover, tutees were able to develop the right
attitude, competencies, and disposition towards learning after consistent
participation. Participant 16 recounted,
“For me, it improves my study habit especially on taking down notes
and how to become focused in everything that you do” –(TE-P16)
Improve students' academic performance

The tutorial strengthens learning motivation and increases students' academic
accomplishments. Tutees attributed the improvements in their class performance
to their active participation in tutorials. Results of both formative and
summative assessments, like quizzes and exams, have improved. In addition,
tutees have shown improvements in their attitude towards learning. In fact,
Participant 15 shared,
“My classroom performance like my quizzes and exam scores has
improved because I can relate the questions from the tutorial” –(TE-
P15)
Reinforce and strengthen own learning and understanding of topics

Tutors reinforce their learning through tutoring. By instructing their peers,
tutors even enrich their knowledge and develop their sense of compassion and
responsibility for others. Tutors become more competent in the topic and
diligent in their studies as they have to ensure their tutees will learn and get
inspired through them. As tutors, they need to retool themselves and master the
knowledge they ought to impart. In the words of Participant 13, she said;
“Tutorial session really helps students because tutors can share some
topics that were not taken up in classes” –(TE-P13)
Build self-confidence and independence

Peer tutorial is a confidence booster. Studying with someone of relatively the
same age typically makes students feel more comfortable and relaxed. They do
not feel as intimidated with a peer as they might with a teacher. Besides, peer
tutors can share personal struggles with the subject material, such as
rationalizing the difficulties they have encountered and what strategies they
used to overcome it. This circumstance allows the learner to feel comforted and
empowered. On this note, Participant 12 narrated,
“Attendance to tutorial improved my competence and confidence in
understanding accounting. It pressured me to strive more and learn
more accounting courses.” –(TE-P12)
Promote active education and skills development

Direct peer tutoring promotes active learning and skills development. Peer
teaching-learning provides opportunities for students to raise questions, confer
issues, exchange viewpoints, and engage in collaborative learning by working in
teams on problems and tasks. The use of varied and effective teaching strategies
like role-plays, healthy discourses, case studies, and simulated projects not only

370
stir students' enthusiasm and creative participation but also address their multi-
intelligences. Confidently, Participant 15 told us,
“After attending tutorials, I am just studying on my own. I can really
answer questions” –(TE-P15)
Suggestions to Improve the Implementation of the Peer Tutorial

This section presents the suggestions of our participants to improve the design
and delivery of the tutorial program through an action plan. The six themes that
emerged from the suggestions of the participants on how to improve the
implementation of the program, both the design and execution, are provided in
table 5.
Table 5: Suggestions to Improve the Implementation of the Peer Tutorial

Core Ideas/ Themes Frequency of Responses Key Statements
Conduct a college-wide Typical "The College should
campaign about the promote the program so that
program many students would be
aware of it and can
participate" – (TR-P3)
Provide tutorial materials General "Provide learning materials
and resources like sample questionnaires
and reviewers" –(TE-P15)
Offer a flexible schedule or General "Posting of flexible
tutorial-time option schedules for the tutorial
session should be made
clearly and ahead of time" –
(TE-P10)
Conduct one-on-one Variant "There must be one-on-one
tutorial sessions tutorial session or buddy-
buddy system especially for
working students" –(TE-P11)
Provide a tutorial facility General "There must be one
or room permanent tutorial room
that is conducive for
learning" –(TR-P5)
Conduct a retooling or Typical "Tutors need to attend
skills training for tutors seminars and workshops on
how to be an effective tutor"
–(TE-P8)
Conduct a college-wide campaign about the program

To increase student participation and strengthen the programs' goal and
advocacy of helping the STARs, the College through the DySAS may conduct a
college-wide campaign to promote and raise awareness about the initiative and
how students can benefit from it. Organizers may do a room-to-room campaign
to reach students and encourage them to get involved.
Teachers can also help in the dissemination effort by introducing the said
program - its design, purpose, and benefits during the class orientation. Further,
an attractive advertisement may be placed in a conspicuous place within the
College area so students will be reminded. Participant 3 made a point by saying,

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“The College should promote the program so that many students would
be aware of it and can participate” – (TR-P3)
Provide tutorial materials and resources

Learning materials and handouts must be provided to tutees. These tools could
facilitate a better understanding of the topic being discussed and help students
follow through the lessons gained even beyond the tutorial session, hence
inspire self-directed, independent learning. Materials also respond equitably to
multiple intelligences. It is essential for visual learners and supports auditory
and kinesthetic learners as well. In support of this call, Participant 15 detailed,
“Provide learning materials like sample questionnaires and reviewers” –
(TE-P15)
Offer a flexible schedule or tutorial-time option

With the different free time and availability of the tutors and tutees, it would be
helpful and encouraging to students if they can choose their schedule when to
attend the tutorial. Through this, they can thoroughly focus and lend quality
time to the activity for effective learning and engagement. They need not hurry
nor worry about possible conflict with their regular classes.
This mechanism also serves the interest of the tutors as they will be afforded
enough time to prepare themselves, their tools and strategies, so to ensure
quality discussion and learning experience for their tutees. Since tutors work
within their means and time, they can facilitate better without worry and
prejudice to personal academic pursuits. After all, their services are free. This
suggestion was held by Participant 10 expressing,
“Posting of flexible schedules for the tutorial session should be made
clearly and ahead of time” –(TE-P10)
Conduct a one-on-one tutorial session

When the crowd of tutees becomes bigger with multiple levels of readiness,
conditions, and motivations, it would be very challenging, if not nearly
impossible, for tutors to cater all the needs and preferences of the tutees. Tutors
can only apply general approaches in discussing the topic. This truth can have
different effects, though. For those fast learners, they may get bored; those less
prepared may find the discussion harder to follow. Some may get distracted and
become disengaged because of class size, while others tend to feel anxious and
uncomfortable. All these translate into ineffective learning.
One alternative to group tutoring is one-on-one tutorial session. This alternative

addresses the issue of individual learning style, need, and pace. Personal tutorial
provides a more comprehensive, well-thought, and customized learning
activities. Participant 11 candidly shared his insight on this matter by saying,
“There must be one-on-one tutorial session or buddy-buddy system
especially for working students” –(TE-P11)

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Provide a tutorial facility or room

Having a room for the activity and having a place that fits the learning session
are two different yet equally important things. First, there must be a specific
room or facility to hold tutorial classes. Second, it must be conducive for
learning and can facilitate various teaching strategies available to tutors. The
facility must be equipped with learning tools and materials, is accessible, well-
ventilated, and away from unnecessary disturbances like noise. In support of
this need, Participant 5 proposed,
“There must be one permanent tutorial room that is conducive for
learning” –(TR-P5)
Conduct a retooling or skills training for tutors

Akin to the saying, "One cannot give what he or she does not have," tutors need
to undergo a regular and structured retooling or training program designed to
equip them with the right skills and attitude on teaching and how to manage
tutorial sessions. In this way, they can transfer their knowledge to the tutees
more effectively.
Just like full-pledged teachers, tutors must be trained about pedagogy and
teaching strategies and get oriented about the dos and don'ts of advising and
motivating learners. With tutorial sessions, the most challenging part is not
about what knowledge and information to share but how to effectively and
meaningfully transfer them despite the differing learning styles, intelligence,
attitudes, and readiness of the learners. After all, learning is not just about the
learner; it is also about the conduits - the teacher and the technology. Participant
8 expressed her hopes that,
“Tutors need to attend seminars and workshops on how to be an
effective tutor” –(TE-P8)
4. Discussion
This section of the paper presents the discussion on the themes that emerged
from the meaningful responses of our participants relative to the research
questions. It is organized into four main categories, namely: Perceptions of
'Students at Risk' on the Peer Tutorial Program, Problems Encountered by
Students in the Peer Tutorial Program, Benefits of the Peer Tutorial Program to
Tutees and Tutors, and Suggestions to Improve the Peer Tutorial Program.
Perceptions of "Students at Risk" on the Peer Tutorial Program

The Peer Tutorial Program empowers students to appraise and evaluate their
academic preparedness, strengths, and weaknesses concerning specific courses
and topics (Braganza et al., 2014; O’Dea & Harris, 2019). It does not only help
tutees enhance their understanding and knowledge about a particular lesson or
course (Shenoy & Petersen, 2019) but also promote the spirit of service, sacrifice,
teamwork and disciple between and among tutees and tutors (Braganza et al.,
2014; Briggs, 2013).
By its worth, the tutorial session is a great help for students, especially those
who are struggling to understand their accounting lessons (Shenoy & Petersen,
2019). At least, through the program, students are able to clarify and deepen

373
their understanding of their lessons and can give due attention to addressing
specific and personal academic concerns (Bailey, 2010; Aclo et al., 2015; Matinde,
2019). Tutors use varied teaching strategies depending on the topic to be
discussed, the time available, and the number of tutees in attendance (Bailey,
2010; Chi & Vanlehn, 2010). The rule of the thumb, though, is to ensure a
friendly, open, comfortable, and inspiring approach, so tutees never get bored,
and quality learning is achieved (Aclo et al., 2015; Briggs, 2013).
Tutors are great motivators and serve as an inspiration to tutees. Apart from
imparting their knowledge, time, and self, they motivate the tutees to develop
self-confidence and continue pursuing their dream of becoming a CPA. They
model hope and inspiration to students to carry on despite the hardships and
struggles they come across with the accounting course (Aclo et al., 2015; Pratiwi
& Ariani, 2020). In several cases, the tutor-tutee relationship has bloomed into a
profound connection of friendship and fellowship (Kram & Isabella, 1985;
Zapata, 2020).
Akin to a classroom, it employs similar teaching techniques commonly used by

teachers inside the classroom; thus, tutees can easily follow the dynamics and
format of instruction and are more relaxed and open in grasping the lessons
(Aclo et al., 2015; Johnson, 2011). Among the popular techniques used were
lecture, think-pair-share (TPS), team learning, and debates, among others
(Bailey, 2010; Chi & Vanlehn, 2010).
Essentially, DySAS tutorial program provides meaningful services to students

by creating a practical and fun learning experience. It encourages and inspires
tutees to continue pursuing their dream of becoming an accounting professional
despite the hardships encountered in their core courses. Through DySAS, the
tutees have found hope and comfort in their studies and became more driven to
study harder (Aclo et al., 2015; Lumactod et al., 2013).
Problems Encountered by Students in the Peer Tutorial Program

One pressing issue of peer tutorial is student resignation and lowliness. Some
students who may feel less and inferior when tutored by fellow students may
develop a hostile relationship with one another (Booth & Hyland, 1996). If a
student cultivates this feeling of lowliness, he or she may withdraw from
working effectively with his or her assigned peer and, as a result, failing to get
the full benefits of the program.
In the context of study participants, the compelling issues and concerns that
need to be addressed are the scarcity of learning materials and tools, tutor’s poor
pedagogy and methodology, lack of infrastructure, conflicting time and
schedule between tutors and tutees and the inimical attitude of the learners
towards the program. In the works of Jain (2010), it was held that little had been
reported about the efficacy of peer tutorials on improving the class performance
of tutees. He even argued that the risk of transferring the wrong knowledge
from one student to another brought about by inexperienced and incompetent
tutors could bring more harm than help to participants (Pratiwi & Ariani, 2020).

374
Benefits of Peer Tutorial Program to Tutees and Tutors

The peer tutorial, as cited by Chi et al. (2008), is an effective academic program
that encourages learners to become active participants in the learning process
through tutoring and collaborating with peers. In tutorials, tutees and tutors
become partners by allowing each other discover their strengths and weaknesses
and, together, help improve those areas that require enhancement (Astin,
Wogelgesang, Ikeda & Yee, 2000). While the tutees learn from their tutors, the
tutors master the lessons. Falchicov (2001) described collaborative learning to be
instrumental in developing self-esteem, improving academic performance
(Viana et al., 2019), creating new friends, increasing course interest, and
improving study habits.
The Athletic Study Center (2016) asserted that tutorial is an alternative learning
technique that promotes and enhances a student's academic competencies and
self-resolve (Topping, 2005; Colvin & Ashman, 2010). In the same light, tutorials
foster students’ self-reliance and self–confidence as they get engaged in
academics. Students learning with fellow students eliminate that feeling of
intimidation, inhibition, and reservations; thus, it is easy for them to clarify and
qualify knowledge without fear of being ridiculed or feeling undignified (Aclo et
al., 2015; Dowd, 2018).
On another thought, Palfreyman and Tapper (2013) accentuated that peer

tutoring allows students to ask questions and clarifications, which seldom
happens in the classroom. It should be noted, however, that peer tutoring
complements and is not replacing classroom instruction (Briggs, 2014; Zapata,
2020). Tutoring is not and will never be displacing professional teaching. In fact,
blending these two learning modalities, bringing its strengths, can be a powerful
means to helping STARs improve their academic pursuits. As Borchert (2000)
and Debard (2004) put it, millennial students learn quickly and effectively when
with others. They are more team-oriented than individualistic (Dowd, 2018;
Johnson & Johnson, 2009).
In their study, Kunch, Jitendra, and Sood (2007) discussed that peer tutoring is
best when students of diverse abilities and intelligence toil together in teams to
learn specific material or practice an academic task. Progress happens when an
experienced student, usually a senior, helps a novice learner enhance his or her
skills and knowledge (Dowd, 2018). Along this process, a tutor's personal
growth as he or she imparts learning and provides support to the mentee
(Colvin & Ashman, 2010; Osborne & Othman, 2019). Likewise, Alakija (2005)
stressed that a good relationship between tutors and tutees is essential in
tutorials because tutoring improves not just knowledge but also character and
values.
Suggestions to Improve the Peer Tutorial Program

While the University of Mindanao embraces continuing quality improvement
(CQI) as an approach to grow and advance its management systems, so is the
College of Accounting Education in developing innovative and improved
programs and activities for its stakeholders, especially the students (Pratiwi &
Ariani, 2020). Through this approach, the College could identify the weak areas

375
and can exhaust means to perfect it, making it more current, relevant, and
effective for the students and other interested parties (O’Dea & Harris, 2019).
The tutorial program is not an exemption to this approach. From the design to
the implementation of the program, there have been many areas that require
further enhancement. Suggested improvements had been as simple as awareness
campaign and provision of learning materials to more complex and resource-
intensive like the conduct of retooling (Osborne & Othman, 2019) and
construction of the tutorial facility, among others. As an output of this study, an
action plan was developed. The action plan encloses the detailed set of activities
that can be done to ensure quality, effective, and sustainable tutorial program for
both tutees and tutors.
5. Conclusion
Peer tutorial may be a timeworn, alternative means to collaborative learning but
it has proven to be effective and powerful in helping not just those having
difficulty in their academics and non-performing in their courses, but also those
who want to enrich their knowledge, skills and even character by teaching
fellow students. It works in two ways: tutees get to understand, clarify and learn
more about the lessons, and tutors get the chance to contribute to the success of
their colleagues and find purpose and satisfaction from studying to remain
credible and competent in imparting knowledge. Inspired by the University's
vocation, "No one is left behind," the College's peer tutorial program envisions a
conscientious alternative education where students help their fellow students
improve their academic readiness and performance during exams and classroom
activities, all in the spirit of inclusive excellence and responsible community. It is
on this truth that the College acknowledges the significant role played by
students to improve the quality and delivery of equitable education. It may still
be a long way for the Institution to perfect this Peer Tutorial Program but what
is worth celebrating now is the partnership that is built between the College and
its students as well as the trust afforded by the College towards its student-
tutors in helping the 'STAR' achieve their academic outcomes. While this study
is delimited on assessing the implementation of the Program, significant lessons
and insights can be drawn for future investigation as to its sustainability and
implication to education policy. Nonetheless, we still applaud the gallantry and
solidarity developed and shown by the tutors towards their fellows. This is
teamwork that works. This is excellence in citizenship at its best.
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Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 379-394, May 2020
Malaysian Public University Lecturers’ Perceptions

and Practices of Formative and Alternative
Assessments
Tajularipin Sulaiman
Faculty of Educational Studies / Sport Academy, Universiti Putra Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4664-2637
Sedigheh Shakib Kotamjani

Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6249-0293
Suzieleez Syrene Abdul Rahim

Faculty of Education, University Malaya
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9272-5241
Muhammad Nazrul Hakim

Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4710-3467
Abstract. Successful teaching and learning are highly dependent on

assessment as it provides necessary information for making informed
decisions in a higher education program. University lecturers should be
equipped with skills and knowledge on different methods of evaluation
to assess their students effectively. Only few researchers have
investigated the assessment methods employed by lecturers in
universities in Malaysia. Traditional class-based assessments are the
most common mode of assessment although this form of assessment fails
to measure students’ learning adequately. This qualitative study aims to
determine the level of lecturers’ awareness of the different kinds of
assessments at the University Puta Malaysia (UPM). The study sampled
48 lecturers from various faculties at UPM. They responded to a self-
reporting questionnaire that required them to indicate their perceived
competence in alternative and formative assessments. The result of the
thematic analysis revealed that lecturers were utterly aware of formative
assessment practices. However, despite the significance of alternative
assessments in the learning process, some lecturers were not aware of
alternative assessment practices. The implication is that the literacy level
of lecturers in alternative assessment methods should be improved.
Keywords: alternative assessments; formative assessment; lecturers’

practices
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1. Introduction
Educators conduct assessment to obtain information to determine the degree to
which learners have reached the desired goals of the program. University
lecturers should be encouraged to emphasise assessment practices that support
students’ learning (Yan & Cheng, 2015). Assessment is the process of acquiring
information about students’ learning. Students’ assessment in higher education
has been extensively debated by educators and educational (Ibarra-Sáiz &
Rodríguez-Gómez, 2015). They discuss whether the current assessment practices
enhance students’ lifelong learning and which assessment practices are
appropriate for learning enhancement, and how giving feedback can improve
students’ learning (To & Carless, 2016; Kitula, Kireti, & Wambiya, 2018). It is
through the use of assessment results, informed decisions about teaching and
learning processes can be reached (Stears & Gopal, 2018).
Therefore, assessment is an essential part of the teaching-learning as it provides

evidence of learning. Formative and summative assessments are popular in
educational contexts. Formative assessment is conducted periodically during
instructions to give constructive feedback to both learners and educators about
learning success and failures (Kitula et al., 2018). Instructors use the results of
formative assessment to monitor the learning process during instruction to
improve the learning process (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018). However, summative
assessment comes at the end of a given course to enhance the degree of
instructional goals and to evaluate both students and the teaching process
(Khairil & Mokshein, 2018).
These two forms of (formative and summative) assessment play two significant
roles in education. The first role is to determine the level of learning (assessment
of knowledge), and the second is to use an assessment to improve the process of
learning (assessment for learning). Generally, formative assessment is more
concerned with the assessment of learning whereby instructors identify learning
difficulties and take corrective measures (Kaur, Singh, Of & Scaffolding, 2017).
Therefore, in assessment for learning, lecturers give constructive feedback to
learners to achieve learning outcomes. While summative evaluation is concerned
with the assessment of learning aiming at determining the level at which
learning objectives have been realised (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018).
On the other hand, alternative or authentic or comprehensive assessment refers

to the measurement of students’ ability and skills in accomplishing complex
tasks which lead to intended learning outcomes. In an alternative assessment,
students are engaged to perform some tasks in which they typically imitate real-
life situations. If teachers apply alternative assessments, they will be able to
examine students’ strengths and skills, and they can use the information to
design their teaching approaches appropriately. Hence, alternative assessment
refers to a process-oriented evaluation in which lecturers emphasise on the
students' progress and growth (Ghaffar, Yusop, Enhancement & Enhancement,
2018).
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The Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015- 2025 realised the skills that students are
required to master in a globally competitive environment. Hence, Malaysia
Education Blueprint and the National Higher Education Strategic Plan 2013-2025
put a lot of emphasis on using assessment to encourage active student learning.
Consequently, all universities in Malaysia must integrate two crucial
components, namely clear and measurable learning outcomes and well-designed
quality assessment in harmony with the intended results. There is a close
relationship between these two components since learning outcomes are a basis
of guidance and practice for assessment among university academicians
(Badariah & Ahmad, 2015). To achieve this requirement, academicians should
refer to primary sources (a) Quality Assurance Division in the Malaysian
Ministry of Higher Education, and (b) the Malaysia Education Blueprint 2015-
2025. Having implemented these critical components into programs, the public
universities guide their academic staff regarding classroom assessment practices
through holding workshops to raise their awareness of classroom assessment
practices.
University lecturers also need to assess their students’ learning and provide
evidence on the mastery of skills, knowledge, and competencies and determine
challenges associated with the learning process. Therefore, they also need to be
equipped with skills in assessment since the quality of any assessment technique
used, and its consequences depend on lecturers’ competence and knowledge in
educational assessment (Xu & Brown, 2016). Lack of proper procedures in
assessment results in poor learning outcomes as one of the challenges facing
higher education in Malaysia and failure in enhancing learners’ thinking ability
(Ibarra-Sáiz & Rodríguez-Gómez, 2015). In Malaysia, university education has
been expanding from year to year due to the increased number of students
enrolling in different universities in the country. High enrolment rates of
students go hand in hand with a demand for more lecturers. These lecturers
need to have skills and knowledge on educational assessment for them to be in
the right positions of making informed decisions about teaching and learning in
universities.
In most universities in Malaysia, lecturers conduct both continuous assessment

and final examinations with more weight given to the final exams (Lyamtane &
Ogoti, 2018). However, scores obtained in the continuous assessment tasks
contribute to the final score a student gets at the end of the course. Lecturers
decide on the type and the number of assessment tasks to be given, the
frequency of assessing, the weightage of each assessment task, and the
administration of the assessment tasks. Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the
level of assessment literacy among university lecturers in a public university in
Malaysia to determine if they are competent enough to assess their students
thoroughly.
2. Statement of the Problem

Traditional assessment is the primary method of assessment that could
undesirably influence students’ learning results in Malaysian higher education.
This study aimed to address this problem (Badariah & Ahmad, 2015). Even
382
though several workshops held for lecturers to implement alternative

assessment practices in higher education, many academics still have been
relying on pen and paper exams to gauge students’ learning (Flores, Veiga,
Barros & Pereira, 2014). Hence, it seems that lecturers have limited awareness of
alternative assessment practices.
Few researches have investigated lecturers’ perceptions of formative and

alternative assessment practices in a Malaysian higher education institution. As
mentioned before, in the teaching and learning process, assessment is an
important aspect, and the whole process of formative evaluation in universities
is all left in the hands of lecturers (John, 2015). University lecturers, therefore,
need to be well equipped with skills and knowledge on different assessment
techniques to assess their students effectively. Malaysian higher education
expects universities to conduct credible exams at the end of each semester,
which includes setting examinations according to the course outline, moderating
before they are administered, ensuring proper administration, marking
objectively, and giving out realistic results.
Along with other factors, practical assessment depends on knowledge of lectures

in the field of the evaluation. Some studies conducted in Malaysia; however,
revealed lecturers were sufficiently familiar with continuous assessments and
alternative assessment practices (Nor Hasnida, 2016). Other studies, on the
contrary, indicated that lecturers do perceive themselves as being more or less
competent in the field (Abidin, 2015). This ambiguity, therefore, led to the
current study to determine the perceived competence of university lecturers in
conducting assessment practices in a public university, where little research has
been done. The objective of the study was to identify Malaysian public
university lecturers’ perception with regards to assessment, specifically about
formative assessment, alternative assessment and modes of alternative
assessment.
Academicians have frequently been using the traditional form of assessments in
higher education (Streff, 2016). Many proficient experts in all fields have been
utilising conventional assessments in the certifying process because instructor’s
bias is more likely to reduce in objective scoring and the results provide detailed
information about learners’ common errors (Marín-García, Bonavia & Losilla,
2011). Some scholars indicated that students could cheat easily in traditional
assessments. This form of assessment cannot measure in-depth understanding,
students’ problem-solving and critical thinking skills (Streff, 2016). Besides,
recent studies in literature, described that traditional evaluations might not be a
valid indicator of learning outcomes if learners face some problems such as fear
of tests or biases throughout the assessment (Klusmann, Richter & Ludtke, 2016).
Secondly, traditional examinations fail to measure students’ learning over the
whole course (Zhan, 2015; Sambell, 2016). Due to academic and student concerns
on traditional assessment in higher education, lecturers need to discover
alternative assessment practices.
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In recent studies, some lecturers are interested in implementing an alternative

assessment due to the limitations and shortcomings of traditional assessment
practices (Streff, 2016; Nederland, Sluijsmans, Zuyd & Jochems, 2010). Having
integrated alternative assessments, lecturers provide more definitive evidence of
learning in higher education (van Gog, Sluijsmans, Brinke & Prins, 2010). In
alternative assessments, a lecturer might ask students to find a solution to a
problem, produce work, or demonstrate a skill. Portfolios and instructor
observation are examples of alternative assessment forms. Alternative
assessments usually assess higher-order skills of Bloom’s Taxonomy; analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation (Margulies & Ghent, 2013). To implement HOTS,
teachers need to have sound knowledge, skills and positive attitudes towards
alternative assessments (Sulaiman, Ibrahim, Abdul Rahim, Hakim & Omar,
2019).
There are three types of alternative assessments; performance-based, authentic,

and constructivist assessments (Dikli, 2006). In performance-based evaluation,
lecturers observe students' ability to use higher-order thinking skills while doing
the tasks and applying the skills they learned from a course. Authentic
assessments refer to the evaluations in which students are assigned “real world”
tasks. In constructivist assessments, lecturers assign students to accomplish
some tasks or work, and they examine their mastery of the skill; moreover,
students play a part in evaluating their work (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014).
Current studies suggested that alternative assessments are used as delivery

mechanisms, learning strategies, or triangulation instruments in addition to
being used as methods of measuring student learning (Avalos, 2011). The
finding of another study revealed that if the alternative assessment is used as a
triangulation instrument, it would lead to different outcomes, ranged from no
association to a strong association of increased learning (Yan & Zhang, 2017).
However, other studies found that alternative assessments were learning
strategies instead of assessments (Mohammadi & Golaghaei, 2018).
Nevertheless, other researchers employed alternative assessments to identify
perceptions of students instead of learning.
Nezakatgoo (2011) reported that some portfolio assessments suffer from design
limitations and create some issues with validity and reliability (Nezakatgoo,
2011). Moreover, another study by Kramer et al. (2018) examined the
effectiveness of group assessment in which a group cooperated on evaluation,
and all members of the group received the similar grades, the suggestion was
not robust enough to influence stakeholders (Kramer, Olson & Walker, 2018).
Furthermore, some studies reported that learning objectives and the content of
an alternative assessment were not thoroughly investigated (Sarrico, et al., 2010).
Overall, the current literature suggests that formative and summative
assessments do not necessarily give a suitable measure of student learning (Kaur
et al., 2017). Some studies provided evidence, that alternative assessments gauge
student learning more precisely than traditional assessment; however, much of
the available research on alternative assessments reflected some flaws in
different modes of alternative assessment in terms of measuring learning.
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On the other hand, Gavin (2012) reported that lecturers’ perceptions of assessing
students play a crucial role in the improvement of student learning (Gavin,
2012). Some studies reported that lecturers raise the issue of poor assessment
methods, and some of the lecturers lack satisfactory competencies in assessing
students (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014).
Lecturers’ assessment practices play a significant role in determining student

learning (Schafer, 1991). The lecturers’ assessment competencies and practices
are inconsistent at various levels of education (Alkharusi, 2008). Other studies
reported that lecturers’ knowledge and practices in the assessment are much
dependent on their experience (Postareff et al., 2007). However, based on the
current literature in Malaysian higher education, there are few studies
conducted to investigate assessment practices and competencies (Khairani,
2017). It was reported that the most frequently used assessment is the traditional
assessment in Malaysian public universities. Currently, there is more tendency
for alternative assessments in the majority of Malaysian universities (Kaur et al.,
2017). To date, there is a need to address the lecturers’ self-perception of
assessment practices in Malaysian universities to ensure they implement
different assessments to measure the specified learning outcomes (Mohamad Uri
& Abd Aziz, 2017).
4. Methodology
A qualitative approach was adopted for this study as it was deemed suitable to
achieve the aim of this study, which was to identify the lectures’ perception and
assessment practices in a Malaysian public university. A qualitative research
methodology allowed the participants to openly explain their related
perceptions and experiences that supported the researcher to have an in-depth
understanding of their practices (Creswell, 2013). The study made use of a
purposive sampling technique. This type of sampling involves a selection of
participants with specific characteristics that can provide relevant and rich
information to achieve the purpose of the study (Patton, 2001). The participants
of the study were 48 lecturers from different faculties in a Malaysian public
university who were willing to take part in the study. A written open-ended
questionnaire (Appendix 1) was employed to collect data from the participants.
The responses were then analysed and coded to identify relevant themes.
The data were analysed through the manual method. The researchers became
familiar with the data, then they compiled and organized data by breaking data
into smaller categories through colour-coding each category or categories, at this
point, the researchers had developed the categories scheme based on the
individuals’ responses to questions (Yin, 2016). The researchers went through
the responses, and they searched for common patterns to create categories. The
relationship between emerging patterns and themes resulted in creating new
concepts and codes within the categories. The researchers took into account the
words that participants often used to convey a similar meaning or idea. These
recurrent ideas developed into themes. Table 1 illustrates the themes and sub-
themes that emerged from the data related to formative assessment.
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Table 1: Themes and sub-themes outlined concerning the formative assessment
Theme Sub-theme
To examine the Continuous basis, evaluation, systematic way, checking
effectiveness of teaching mechanism, learning objective
and learning
Providing feedback Constructive feedback, learning outcomes, modifying
instruction, modifying content
In what follows, five themes were developed based on the lecturers’ responses to
alternative assessment practices. Table 2 illustrates the themes and sub-themes
that emerged from alternative assessments.
Table 2: Themes and sub-themes outlined about alternative assessment
Theme Sub-theme
Other than traditional Non-traditional assessment, assessing skills
assessment
The Alternative Connecting formative assessment to instruction, matching
assessment reconnects with students’ learning styles, to compensate limitation of
formative assessment to formative assessment
instruction
Alternative assessments Enhancement of soft skills, problem-solving, team
improve learning and working, interpersonal and intrapersonal management
soft skills
lack of lecturers’ Frequent repetition of written papers, observation, group
awareness of alternative assessment, presentation, project work, debate
assessment modes
The alternative Alternative assessments, small class size, challenging to
assessment is suitable develop, time-consuming to assess and grade
for small class and time-
consuming to assess
5. Findings
This section discusses the findings which were summarised into themes. The
finding is related to the purpose of the study, that is, teachers’ perspectives of
formative and alternative assessment.
5.1 Formative Assessment

Theme 1: To Examine the Effectiveness of Teaching and Learning Process
The results of the analysis revealed that all lectures were aware of the concept of
formative assessment and its practice. They usually conduct formative
assessments throughout the course continuously. They maintained that this
assessment examines the effectiveness of a teaching and learning process. Some
lecturers defined the formative assessment as “a systematic way to evaluate whether
learning outcomes have achieved and to examine whether the teaching was effective” (L-
1). Another lecturer referred to the formative assessment as: “A checking
mechanism to identify if the learning objectives are achieved” (L-3).
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Most lecturers defined the formative assessment as a method to check whether

“learning objectives” have been met. The findings indicated that lecturers
administered the formative assessment continuously during the course, which is
consistent with other studies (Bahati, Tedre, Fors & Mukama, 2016). Moreover,
this finding is in line with Kitula and Ogoti’s research that formative assessment
was used to monitor the learning process during instruction to improve the
learning process (Kitula & Ogoti, 2018). Also, the formative assessment provides
lecturers with a more precise representation of student knowledge and skills by
utilising different strategies throughout the instructional process (Khairil &
Mokshein, 2018).
Theme 2: Providing Feedback in Formative Assessment

The second common theme that emerged from the formative assessment was
providing feedback. The majority of lecturers reported that formative
assessment is an efficient assessment tool to find students’ weaknesses and to
provide constructive feedback to enhance learning outcomes.
One of the lecturers with twenty years of teaching experience maintain that:
“Formative assessment is employed to monitor how well students are
grasping instruction throughout the course. It provides useful
information for not only lecturers on how to modify ongoing lesson and
to meet students’ needs, but also for students on how to improve their
work” (L-10).
Another lecturer defined formative assessment as:

“A way of gauging the level comprehension, competency and mastery of
certain knowledge and skills and formative assessment leads to
constructive feedback” (L-21).
The finding of this study support previous research that supportive feedback
from the different formative assessments can improve learners’ (Sambell, 2013).
Students’ and teacher’s active participation is required to achieve the desired
outcomes in formative assessment (Jacoby, Heugh, Bax & Branford-White, 2014).
Therefore, the feedback provided in the formative assessment can enhance
students’ achievement, engagement, and motivation to learn (Bennett, 2011).
Through these engagements and interactions between lecturers, students, and
tasks, knowledge is developed based on the social constructivist learning theory
(Janeth, 2019). Due to its importance to learning, formative evaluation is known
as assessment for learning (Gikandi, Morrow & Davis, 2011).
5.2 Alternative Assessment

Theme 1: Other than Traditional Assessment
The majority of lecturers were familiar with the concept of the alternative
assessment as most of them defined it as “other than traditional assessment” (L-3,
L-7, L-15, L-33). This is a common theme which emerged from the description of
alternative assessment by lecturers. This definition is consistent with Oosterhof
and Todorov (2008) definition of the alternative assessment which collects data
in a non-traditional method, for instance, peer-review, self-assessment, portfolio,
387
problem-solving, and projects. Moreover, most lecturers mentioned that

“alternative assessment aims to assess students’ skills, not their knowledge.” (L-7, L-11,
L-20). The alternative assessment measures students’ ability and skills in
accomplishing real-life tasks which lead to intended learning outcomes.
The findings showcased all participants in this study agreed with the
effectiveness of an alternative mode of assessments. They also were aware of the
effect of alternative assessments on students’ learning; nevertheless, these
lecturers were still applying traditional assessments, since these assessments are
much easier to create and measure than those of alternative assessments
(Wright, 2016).
Theme 2: It reconnects Formative Assessment to Instruction

The participants shared their experiences as they asked about alternative
assessments. L-5 and L-3 maintained that “alternative assessments are great
strategies to complement formative assessment and to connect assessment to
instruction”. They highlighted that alternative assessments and formative
assessments together can match students’ learning styles. L-7 clarified that
“alternative assessments enhance students’ comprehension by assisting students in
applying what they have learnt”.
Furthermore, L-4 stated that formative assessment had several limitations. “It
fails to gauge higher-order skills” (L-4). Moreover, the formative assessment fails to
gauge students’ learning over the entire course. Therefore, academicians need to
implement alternative methods of assessment practices in higher education.
Theme 3: The Alternative Assessment Improves Learning and the Soft Skills
The majority of lecturers mentioned that the alternative assessment aims to
measure students’ soft skills, for instance, problem-solving, team working,
interpersonal and intrapersonal management. This is consistent with the
definition of the alternative assessment which requires students to solve a
problem, to answer an open-ended question, to carry out a skill, to produce
work such as instructor observation and portfolios (Conijn, Franz, Emons, de
Beurs & Carlier, 2019).
Theme 4: Lecturers’ Limited knowledge of Alternative Assessment Modes

Concerning the type of alternative assessments, fifty percent of lecturers only
were aware of some types of alternative assessments. Assessment choice differs
based on instructors’ teaching methodology and learning theories. In terms of
the types of alternative assessments, some lecturers mentioned written papers,
observation, group assessment, a presentation, project work, and debate. This
finding is supported by Rawlusyk (2016) who found instructors frequently
employed group projects, written papers, and personal projects. Lepp (2010) also
reported that lecturers widely asked students to make a presentation group or
individual projects. These three modes of assessments were explained as an
authentic assessment, that is to say, they are relevant to the real world and
prepare students for the future (To & Carless, 2016).
388
Furthermore, lecturers who have more teaching experience in the faculty of

education and medicine used more alternative assessment modes compared
with other lecturers in other faculties. They mostly used observation,
individual, and group projects. The findings indicated that academics with less
than three years of teaching experience, usually implement formative
assessments to assess students. This finding is consistent with Rawlusk’s (2016)
result in which Nursing lecturers used more learner-centered methods of
teaching and alternative modes of assessments than other lecturers in other
programs. Lecturers used alternative assessments such as performance
assessment, practicums, observations, self-assessment, interviews/conferences,
written papers, debates, and journals.
Moreover, lecturers mainly employed group projects, written papers, and

individual projects as the most frequently implemented modes of alternative
assessment. It worth mentioning that self-assessment, peer assessment, and
portfolio were not common practices by lecturers. This result is consistent with
another study by Rawlusyk (2016) that only a few lecturers used peer
assessment and self-assessment to assess students in tertiary education. In the
same vein, other studies also found restricted use of portfolios by lectures (To &
Carless, 2016). Rieg and Wilson (2009) researched to rank various assessment
techniques used by lecturers. They described that self-assessment ranked as the
ninth and peer-assessment as the 14th.
Theme 5: The Alternative Assessment is Suitable for a Small Class and Time-
Consuming to assess
The majority of lecturers explained that alternative assessment practices are
more suitable for small class sizes. They explained that, for larger class sizes,
formative assessment is more appropriate since this kind of assessment has
rubrics, and scoring and marking would be more convenient. L-9 stated that
“smaller class easier for me to conduct the assessment in the class”. Moreover,
participants revealed that creating alternative assessments needs a lot of time
and is time-consuming to assess them. L-2 described that,
“I consider alternative assessments for some of my lessons, but some
lessons are not easy to mold into alternative strategies.” (L-2)
L-7 stated that “students tend to have alternative assessments in my

class such as projects, presentations, open book, etc. However, it takes
much longer to grade” (L-7).
5.3 Best Modes of Alternative Assessment

When the lecturers were asked about the best mode of assessment, different
types of assessments were reported such as group assessment, observation,
group presentation, debate, writing a paper, peer assessment, project work, and
discussion. Lecturers with more than ten years of teaching experience explained
that observation is the best mode of alternative assessment. Lecturers, with five
years of teaching experience, found group presentation as the best alternative
mode of assessment.
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6. Discussion
Lecturers typically utilise assessments to make crucial decisions on the students
learning (Matovu & Madziah Zubairi, 2014). Assessments play key roles in
learning, and due to this reason, lecturers have to implement appropriate
assessments to ensure learning outcomes were achieved throughout the course
(Sambell, 2016). However, some lecturers stated that exams fail to measure
higher-order thinking skills. Hence, they mentioned that they use alternative
assessments along with the formative assessment. They reported that alternative
assessments are great strategies to complement formative assessment and to
connect assessment to instruction. However, the majority of lecturers explained
that alternative assessment practices are more suitable for small class sizes. They
described that for larger class sizes, the formative assessment is more
appropriate since this kind of assessment has rubrics, and scoring would be
more convenient.
In terms of implementing alternative assessments, most lectures relied on

presentation, individual projects, written papers, and group work. Other modes
of alternative assessments, for example, portfolios, journals, workbooks, and
practicums, have not frequently implemented. Lectures just rely on merely three
out of the thirteen methods recorded as an alternative assessment to produce a
course grade. Furthermore, responses from lecturers indicated that they rarely
implement these techniques. The reason why some lecturers fail to apply
alternative assessments may be related to a lack of lecturers’ awareness of
alternative assessment practices. Furthermore, lecturers who have more than
teaching experience in the faculty of education and medicine used more
alternative assessment modes compared with other lecturers in other faculties.
These findings showcased lecturers have different assessment competencies and
practices, which implied that the more experienced lecturers applied more
appropriate assessment practices.
Lectures mostly used observation, individual, and group projects. The findings
indicated that academics with less than three years of teaching experience,
usually implement a formative assessment to assess students. One possible
implication of this study is that that higher education should provide more
continuous professional development in alternative (authentic) assessments to
raise lecturers’ awareness of assessment practices in higher education (Postareff,
Virtanen, Katajavuori & Lindblom-Ylänne, 2012) (Martín, 2016). Moreover,
training would help lecturers transform from their traditional assessments mode
to more authentic assessments which involve students in learning skills (Martin
& Mahat, 2017). Another implication for this study is that lecturers should be
provided with professional development sessions to raise their awareness of
various authentic assessment methods.
390
7. Conclusion
The findings of the study indicate that the participants generally view
alternative assessments as any type of assessments other than the traditional
paper-pencil based assessments. They also view alternative assessments as
connecting formative assessments with instructions. Alternative assessments are
also seen as ways to improve students’ learning and soft skills. Some of the
lecturers view alternative assessments as mainly suitable for small classes.
However, in general, lecturers seemed to have limited knowledge of various
types of alternative assessment modes. Moreover, they found them to be time-
consuming. As for formative assessments, the lecturers were of the opinion that
information from formative assessment helps them gauge the effectiveness of
the teaching and learning processes. Formative assessments also provide
feedback to students about their learning. The findings also indicated that the
majority of academics use formative assessments for grading purposes. Hence,
university lecturers need professional development to enhance their knowledge
about formative and summative assessments, which will improve their
assessment practices.
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Appendix 1
Open ended questions

Answer all questions.
University:
Faculty:
Years of teaching experience:
What is assessment? Explain
What is formative assessment? Explain
What is alternative assessment and give examples of alternative assessment

modes? Explain
395

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 395-410, May 2020
Enhancing Mathematical Language through

Oral Questioning in Primary Schools
Muhammad Sofwan Mahmud

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0504-4622
Aida Suraya Md. Yunus, Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub and Tajularipin Sulaiman
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8742-4855
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4313-2922
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4664-2637
Abstract. Fluency in mathematical language is essential in helping

students to master mathematics content. This qualitative case study was
conducted to describe how mathematics teachers apply mathematical
language to students in the oral questioning process. Data were
collected through observations, interviews, and field notes. Six
mathematics teachers from six different primary schools were selected
as participants of the study using a purposive sampling method. The
data were then analyzed using a constant comparative method to
identify the patterns and themes that emerged from the data obtained.
The study found that students were questioned by emphasizing the
correct pronunciation and were asked mathematical terms and
keywords to improve their mathematical language ability through oral
questions. To enhance mathematical language, the teacher also restated
terms in the teachers’ own words, asking using verbal-cloze questions,
asking questions about mathematical terms repeatedly and using
seeking-clarification questions. Thus, the use of various approaches in
oral questioning had helped students to improve their fluency of
mathematical language and enabled them to understand mathematical
concepts better. Therefore, teachers need to understand the role played
by oral questioning in the teaching of mathematical language to
students.
Keywords: mathematical language; oral questioning; teaching

mathematics

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1. Introduction
Effective use of oral questioning in the mathematics teaching process can
develop students' mathematical thinking and help students develop a better
understanding of the topics being studied (Desli & Galanopoulou, 2017; Shahrill
& Clarke, 2014). Mahmud et al. (2020a) stated that one of the crucial functions of
oral questioning is to help improve students' thinking towards understanding
mathematical problems and finding solutions. Mathematical learning objectives
will become more challenging to achieve if students have poor fluency and
proficiency in mathematical language (Zhang & Lin, 2015). Good mathematical
language fluency can help strengthen students' mathematical senses to make
connections with various mathematical concepts (Mohamad et al., 2009).
Mohamad et al. (2009) further stated that the use of correct language facilitates
students to communicate with mathematics and correct their misunderstanding
of mathematical terms used in the classroom. Communication is part of the
process of learning mathematics, and effective communication will create
meaningful understanding in subjects taught to students.
Using the correct mathematical language is one of the essential skills in the
process of teaching and learning mathematics, in addition to many other skills
such as procedural skills and problem-solving skills (Ministry of Education
Malaysia, 2014). It is also an essential element in the aspect of classroom
communication in effective mathematics teaching. Effective communication in
mathematics refers to the ability to convey information, and to understand and
apply mathematical notations and language correctly (Idris, 2005). Students
need to use the correct language and mathematical symbols to ensure that
mathematical ideas can be correctly interpreted (Ahmad et al., 2006). Also,
mastering the language of mathematics can help learners to understand
mathematical concepts more efficiently and help students solve various
mathematical problems at a higher level (Riccomini et al., 2015). Thus,
understanding and mastering mathematical terms and languages can help
students shape their mathematical senses and logic (Ryve et al., 2013).
Improving mathematical language skills is an essential aspect of teaching

mathematics, especially at the primary school level. This process is a continuous
process throughout one's education (Mahmud et al., 2020a). Thus, mastering
mathematical language enhances students' ability to use mathematical
vocabulary correctly and helps students to communicate mathematically in
developing their overall mathematical skills (Morin & Franks, 2009). Providing
strong mathematical language support can enhance students' skills in solving
various mathematical problems as well as in developing students' ability to
clarify their ideas in mathematics language. Riccomini et al. (2015) explained
that there are three primary purposes for emphasizing the language of
mathematics. First is to help the understanding and memorization of the
meaning of a mathematical word in the long-term memory. The second is to
help students become fluent and retain the meaning of the word over time. The
third is to assist students in using the mathematical language efficiently and
accurately to clarify, thus allowing the formation of the concepts and
mathematical relationships.

397
There are many ways that teachers can use to implement the language of
mathematics, such as repeating the mathematical terms frequently during the
duration of learning (Morin & Franks, 2009). They further explained that this
would indirectly help build sharper memory of the term introduced and allow
the student to pronounce correctly each word introduced. However, the best
application of mathematical language should be combined with visual
stimulation for a better understanding of the meaning or terms of mathematics
introduced (Kanapathy, 2016). Lasiun (2016) explained that the application of
mathematical concepts supported by visual stimuli could help students improve
their mental reflection skills on a mathematical topic.
There is also a traditional way used by the teacher, which directly provides
information to students on the term or mathematical language emphasized.
However, this is found to be more teacher-centered and lack the active
involvement of students in the learning process. Hence, among the approaches
that teachers can use are through oral questioning strategies (McAninch, 2015).
Through oral questioning, students will be more stimulated to actively think and
to provide more information regarding the topics being discussed (Mahmud,
2019). Hence, the teaching of the mathematical language will be more active and
help students' thinking to better understanding. Critical thinking is one of the
factors that need to be considered to improve teaching performance of teachers
(Sulaiman et al., 2017). Also, Riccomini et al. (2015) suggested some specific
techniques to help students increase the vocabulary of mathematics, i.e. (a)
explicit vocabulary instruction, (b) mnemonic strategies, (c) fluency building
through multiple exposures, (d) games-like activities, and (e) technology
applications. Besides, Marzano (2005) also proposed six important ways of
incorporating mathematical language into teaching, as shown in Figure 1:
Figure 1: Concept map based on six recommendations by Marzano (2004) for effective
vocabulary instruction
However, students' poor understanding of mathematical language may make it

difficult for students to understand the mathematical concepts they have learned
and to discourage them from solving various mathematical problems (Purpura
& Reid, 2016). Students cannot understand the different terms and symbols that
are important in mathematical sentences. This may indirectly undermine
students' confidence to learn mathematics to the extent that it can cause

398
mathematic anxiety (Morin & Franks, 2009). Also, there have been studies
mentioning that students' weaknesses in understanding mathematical language
well may lead to mathematical phobias (Okafor & Anaduaka, 2013). Students
need to understand the language of mathematics to assist the students'
mathematical learning process better. Further research is needed on how the oral
questioning process implemented in mathematics teaching can help students
improve their mastery of the language of mathematics. This is because oral
questioning is widely used in the teaching of mathematics (Mahmud, 2020).
Little is known about the language of mathematics and how it is applied

through the oral questioning process. According to a study by Mohamad et al.
(2009), teachers still do not understand the importance of emphasizing
mathematical language to students, and mathematical language is seen as less
important than the mastery of mathematical concepts and skills. A previous
study by Mahmud et al. (2020b) on oral questioning also found that teachers
were less concerned with the application of mathematical language as compared
to the cognitive aspects. Hence, this study was conducted to describe how oral
questioning in the mathematics teaching process was used as a means to
enhance students’ mathematical language. This general question entails two
findings, (1) the oral questioning in the mathematics teaching process and (2)
how it enhances students’’ mathematical language.
2. Methodology
This study was a qualitative study. The case study method was chosen to help
the researcher gain an in-depth understanding of enhancing mathematical
language in the process of oral questioning in mathematics teaching in primary
schools. The study involved six participants from six different schools in a
district that were selected using a purposive sampling technique. Multiple
sources of data were collected, including two interviews (Appendix 1) (i.e.,
initial interview and stimulated-recall interview) for each teacher, non-
participant observation, and field notes by the researcher for each interview and
observation. The researcher developed instruments for observation and initial
interviews while instrument for stimulated-recall interviews was adapted from
McAninch's (2015) study. This study used semi-structured face-to-face
interviews (Creswell, 2014) as a guide to the researcher to ensure that the
interview process aligns with the objectives and research questions.
The interview questions developed by the researcher are based on the theoretical
framework and literature available in the previous study will ensure that the
researcher did not miss every critical point that was the focus of the research. All
the instruments used in this study were reviewed and validated by six experts in
the field of mathematics education. The use of various data collection techniques
allows the researchers to triangulate the data at the analysis level while also
confirming the results obtained (Creswell, 2013). In this study, the analysis was
conducted using the continuous comparative method where data from the
verbatim interviews were compared between each study participant and
analyzed using Atlas.ti 8 software through open coding, axial coding and
selective coding for themes and subthemes (Kolb, 2012). Miller et al. (2012)

399
stated that the validity and reliability of a study refer to the extent to which the
study's findings can accurately and consistently represent the phenomenon
studied. Therefore, the researcher had used several methods to enhance the
validity and reliability of the study using the triangulation method, member
checking and peer review.
3. Findings
The ages of the research participants ranged from 27 to 50 years old (Table 1).
Teacher Ana, Teacher Nadia and Teacher Ada were in their twenties, and all of
them have less than four years of teaching experience. On the other hand,
Teacher Raha, Teacher Azah and Teacher Roza were more than 40 years of age
and had more than 20 years of teaching experience. All the participants obtained
undergraduate degrees in Mathematics Education. Hence, the participants were
considered to have the credibility, knowledge and skills to teach mathematics.
Table 1: Educational Background and Teaching Experience of the Participants

Ana Nadia Ada Raha Azah Roza
Age 28 27 28 46 50 44
Mathematics Teaching Experience 4 3 4 20 23 23
Academic Qualification Bachelor’s Degree in Mathematics with Education
Based on the findings, it is found that there are various strategies used by
teachers in the oral questioning process to apply mathematical language to
students. Excerpts from the teacher’s observations as well as excerpts from the
interviews conducted support each of the explanations discussed in the findings.
Examples of labels for observations are [Azah, P3/12452-12723] where ‘Azah’
(participant's name), ‘P3’ (third observation for Teacher Azah) and ‘12452-12723’
(sentence numbering in the observation document analyzed). For interview
transcripts, the researcher used the label ‘SRI’ or ‘II’ where ‘SRI’ refers to the
stimulated-recall interview while ‘II’ refers to the initial interview. For example,
the label [Roza, SRI3/4751-5047] refers to 'Roza' (participant's name), ‘SRI3’
(third stimulated-recall interview), and ‘4751-5047’ refers to the sentence
numbering in the interview transcript document. Besides, for the data involving
field notes, the researcher labelled it as 'NL' such as [Ada, NL/17082018] where
'Ada' refers to the participant, NL (field note) and '17082018' refer to the date
that the field note was taken, which was August 17, 2018.
Applying mathematical language in the process of oral questioning conducted

in the process of teaching mathematics
a) Asking students to pronounce the information in the question correctly
The study found that teachers emphasized the ability to pronounce words,
mathematical phrases as well as giving information contained in the question
given. This was strongly emphasized by Teacher Roza based on the excerpt of
the follow-up interview conducted with her in which she explained that "...
students must know to mention if they have units, decimal points, correct
numbers, what operations, how to write symbols." [Roza, SRI3/4538-4671].
Teacher Azah also expressed the same opinion that students need to emphasize
the correct pronunciation. Teacher Azah said, “this is a way for us to introduce

400
students to the aspects of mathematics language and important words that

students need to understand in learning mathematics” [Azah, SRI1/2117-2991].
Besides, Teacher Azah also stated that it is important to emphasize the
pronunciation as highlighted in her explanation as follows:
“For example, when it comes to decimals, it is important to read and
pronounce the decimal numbers correctly. For weak students, it is
usually when we tell them to read; they will read like fourteen-point
twenty (14.20). It was supposed to be fourteen point two zero, so the
student mispronounced it. So we want to correct how to read decimal
numbers and indirectly help students to remember the concept of
decimal numbers” [Azah, SRI 2/12496-13084].
Based on these explanations, the study found that teachers have the opportunity
to correct students' mistakes and weaknesses by correcting the pronunciation of
the student and teacher can also be joining the students in recalling the lessons
learned to help students solve math problems better.
b) Ask students about mathematical terms and keywords

Also, participants asked questions on mathematical terms, phrases and
keywords to help students understand the requirements to answer questions
found in a text [Ana, NL/ 09082018]. In this context, questions relating to terms,
phrases and keywords were introduced and emphasized to students as factual
or descriptive information as well as reinforcing mathematical vocabulary. This
can be seen based on the verbatim example of a teacher's teaching, as shown
below:
Teacher: Okay. What is the name of this fraction? A whole
number meets a proper fraction, what does it mean?
What kind of fraction is that? It is a mixed fraction.
Please remember.
[Ana, P1/10745-10844]
Teacher: Who knows what volume is? What do we mean by

volume?
[Nadia, P3/300-396]
Based on the verbatim transcription of the lesson, Teacher Ana asked the
students questions about the term fraction. Similarly, Teacher Nadia had also
emphasized on the term by asking about volume [Nadia, NL/25092018]. These
questions are examples of conceptual terms that teachers often refer to in their
teaching. Questions related to the term are commonly repeated by teachers to
help students understand and then form a coherent mental framework based on
their understanding. The participants also explained that the terms related to the
mathematical concepts being discussed were the fundamental concepts that
students had to understand before proceeding to the next concept. Teacher Ada
told this during the stimulated recall interview on the teaching that she had
conducted earlier on:
Teacher Yes, the purpose of the question is to give students an
understanding of the mathematical terms and what the
'perimeter' really means before continuing to teach.

401
Researcher Oh, okay. So in Year 4, the student did not know what
the perimeter meant?
Teacher They may know but a year has passed, and perhaps most
of them have forgotten the mathematical concepts they
have learned. So teachers need to stimulate their
thinking to help them recall essential terms in math.
[Ada, SRI 1/10419-10532]
c) Restate in own words

It was also noticed that some teachers restated mathematical phrases in their
own words. They used some other words/terms for the mathematical terms
that they are teaching. For example, in Teacher Azah's teaching, the word ‘mole’
replaced phrases such as ‘decimal point' and the phrase 'moving decimal point'
was replaced with the word 'worm' [Azah, NL / 16102018]. Teacher Ana used
the word 'a yo-yo' to replace the phrase unknown number and the multiple ten
phrases with the words 'special number' [Ana, NL / 09082018].
Teacher Azah expressed her view that using her own words to explain the
mathematical concepts could help students to understand them more effectively
while assisting the students in remembering the terms more easily:
“… The words I use or rephrase in my own words are meant to make it
easier for students to understand and remember. Because it's a bit
difficult for them to remember using the term moving the decimal
point."
[Azah, SRI 1/1190-1768]
d) Asking students using verbal-cloze questions

Based on the observation and verbatim analysis of the teaching, there were also
questions based on terms and keywords that teachers asked students in the form
of 'verbal cloze' which is a ‘fill in the blank’ question. The question is a short-
form question that allows students to fill in the blank orally to complete the
sentence. Emphasis on the correct vocabulary of mathematics is vital to help
students better understand the content of learning.
Teacher: A typical square has…?
Student: Same long side
[Ada, P1/5427-5493]
Teacher No…7 means seven-point….?

Student Zero
[Ana, P1/13269-13333]
The verbatim excerpts from the lesson above are examples of ’fill in the blank’
questions posed by Teacher Ada and Teacher Ana in their teaching sessions. In
the example given by Teacher Ada, the students emphasized on the concept of
‘same long side’ for a square. Verbal-cloze questions also serve as a reflection for
students to provide the teacher's desired answer [Ana, NL / 09082018]. This is
evident when Teacher Ana also used the ‘fill in the blank’ question to explain the
decimal using the keyword 'zero'.

402
e) Ask questions repeatedly

The study also showed that teachers often emphasized mathematical language
by repeating terms, phrases or concepts through oral questions. In this context,
teachers often ask questions about new facts or words introduced in
mathematics teaching. The following excerpt shows examples of how teachers
repeat questions to emphasize words in their application of mathematical
language:
Teacher What is the name of this line? (Teacher shows students
the parallel lines drawn on the whiteboard)
Student Parallel lines. (students answered as a group)
Teacher Okay again. What's the name of this line?
Student It is a parallel line
Teacher Okay, Adib. What is the name of this line? (The teacher
directs a student to answer the question)
Student Parallel line.
Teacher Okay. Good.
[Nadia, P2/4718-4790]
Based on the above excerpt, the questions were asked repeatedly to ensure that
students fully understand the new word that was introduced by the teacher and
was supported by diagrams to help students’ understanding. This was stated by
Teacher Nadia, "so that students can really remember the words or concepts that
are explained to them and they will also understand better when teachers use
diagrams as visual support" [Nadia, SRI2 / 3746-4118].
Besides, questions such as these are often asked in the form of oral quizzes to
increase students’ interest and participation. Questions such as mathematics
formulas and basic facts are frequently asked by teachers to ensure students are
familiar with the words and to facilitate students to solve a variety of
mathematical problems.
Teacher Well. I will ask questions. Who can answer, please raise
your hand? Okay. Please name the fraction I will
3
mention. The first question is 4?
Student Proper Fraction
Teacher 8
Good. 3?
Student Improper fraction
Teacher Good … 2 9?
4
Student Mixed fraction

Teacher Okay. Good.
Based on the above excerpt, teachers give quizzes to help students remember
important mathematical terms related to these types of fractions. Teacher Ana
explained, "teachers need to ask students regularly and frequently so that they
can remember the math terms. Thus, they will be familiar with the words in the
exams." [Ana, SRI1 / 3617-3718].

403
f) Using seeking-clarification questions

In helping students improve their fluency in mathematical language, the
participants had also frequently asked questions to help clarify student thinking
and explore the origins of students’ thinking, mathematical concepts and the
content of the lessons being taught. In this way, students will try to explain their
answers to teachers using the correct mathematical language. Here is an
example of how teachers use questions to ask for clarification in mathematics
teaching:
Student 15 meters.
Teacher How do you get 15 meters? Please explain.
Student 1.5 meter multiply by 10, so we get 15 meters.
Teacher Okay good. The answer is 15 meters.
[Roza, P2/3049-3422]
Teacher So, how we can find length MR, RS, SN?

Student We have to divide by 3.
Teacher Okay. Please explain?
Student Because we have three equal parts.
[Nadia, P1/9672-9831]
Based on the examples of the quotations in the verbatim transcriptions of

Teacher Roza and Teacher Nadia’s teaching, the researcher found that teachers
used questions to ask for clarification, by asking students to explain how they
got the answer and to encourage students to provide a sound mathematical
explanation. Teacher Roza said that by asking students to explain their answers,
students would try to use mathematical language to explain their answer to
teachers.
“This is a time when students can try to speak and practice the
mathematical language. So, when they get used to it, they will be more
fluent in using the mathematical language.” [Roza, SRI3/1166-1400]
Also, questions asking for clarification can play a role in helping teachers gain
information and understand the extent to which students are developing and
understanding the content of the lessons discussed [Azah.NL/18102018]. The
information is used by teachers as assessment information to make decisions
about the teaching process, as explained by Teacher Azah, "... so we can assess
the students' knowledge, and from there, we can make the decision to continue
or to repeat.” [Azah, SRI 1/2570-2953].
4. Discussion
The findings showed that there were a variety of approaches used by a
mathematics teacher to encourage fluency of mathematical language to students
through oral questioning. As discussed earlier, oral questioning plays a
significant role in helping students to improve their skills and understanding of
mathematics learning (Mahmud et al., 2019; Wong, 2015). Thus, it is not
surprising that oral questions are also used by teachers in improving students'
mathematical language skills. The findings showed that teachers asked students
to extract information contained in the text of the question by emphasizing on
the correct pronunciation of the mathematical terms and vocabulary. The ability

404
to correctly pronounce the terms and vocabulary in mathematics is one of the

essential things to be acquired before students are provided with the explanation
on the meaning of the words. This helps students to understand the
mathematical concepts they have learned. For example, teachers asked students
on how to state decimal numbers correctly. There may be students who state
decimal number '2.56' (two-point five-six) as 'two-point fifty-six'. This allows
teachers to correct the mistakes of the students and at the same time, the teacher
can also help students to recall previous lessons. This indirectly fulfills one of the
learning standards that teachers need to meet during the mathematics teaching
process, which is the ability to pronounce the correct math phrase (Ministry of
Education Malaysia, 2014).
Teachers were also asking keyword-related questions specifically in text-related

questions in teaching mathematical language to students. This is in line with a
study by McAninch (2015) that found that teachers also used questions related to
mathematical terms and keywords as one of the ways to apply mathematical
language to students. The emphasis on keywords in mathematical problem
solving is one of the essential criteria in the language of mathematics that helps
students understand the needs of a given mathematical problem in solving a
problem. A good understanding of mathematical keywords can have a
significant impact on the development of students' mathematical language skills
as well as the development of mathematical comprehension itself (Mohamad et
al., 2009). Vocabulary for keywords such as 'amount', 'balance', 'difference',
'more than' and 'less than' will help students better understand mathematical
problems. Thus, continually asking students about the keywords and terms used
in a mathematical question can provide students with guidance in solving the
mathematics questions and at the same time, improve students' understanding
and skills in mathematics. This is supported by Riccomini et al. (2015) who
stated that the ability to effectively communicate (expressively and receptively)
through the language of mathematics requires mathematical understanding; a
robust vocabulary knowledge base; flexibility; fluency and proficiency with
numbers, symbols, words, and diagrams; and comprehension skills.
However, students' difficulty in understanding mathematical language can have

a significant impact on mastery of mathematical concepts encountered by
students (Mohamad et al., 2009). This is because the findings of this research
showed that there are teachers who restated terms in their own words in
mathematics teaching. Marzano (2004) also stated that restating in own words
can help in students understanding of vocabulary. For example, Teacher Azah
used the word 'mole' for ‘decimal point’ and the word 'moving decimal point'
was replaced with the word 'worm'. Besides, replacing mathematical terms with
other words is also seen as a form of communication support in the mathematics
teaching process (Riccomini et al., 2015).
However, the researcher thinks that, in helping students to develop fluency in

mathematical language, teachers should use standard mathematical language or
mathematical terms in a more dynamic, flexible and creative way so as not to
confuse students understanding. In this case, teachers need to be wise in

405
selecting techniques that are appropriate to the students’ ability to apply

standard mathematical language to students so that students' relational
understanding can be better stimulated. Ahmad et al. (2006) explained that
confusion about mathematical terms is a problem that students face, and this
makes it difficult for students to understand and use mathematical terms. This is
because mathematics term is the standard term used in any mathematics
curriculum. This should be taken seriously because in global mathematical
assessments such as TIMSS and PISA, standard language and mathematical
terms are used. This may create difficulty for students in understanding the
terms used.
Teachers also used verbal cloze questions as a hint if students cannot express
using the correct vocabulary. This is a short-form question in the middle of a
sentence to allow students to fill in the blank orally to complete the sentence.
This is in line with the oral questioning framework introduced in Chin's (2007)
study in which teachers reflect on oral questions posed to encourage students’
response. Thus, by trying to guess the words through the teacher-provided
reflections, they can train students to try to recall the math term that they had
previously learned. Therefore, it can prepare students to strengthen their
proficiency and ability in the language of mathematics.
Studies have also found that teachers frequently ask questions to improve
students' memory and understanding of math terms. Joseph et al. (2012)
emphasized that by regularly stimulating students to repeat new words,
students can enhance their fluency in mathematical language. This will allow
students to be more prepared for the essential things to be tackled in solving
various math problems, as well as instilling their confidence, as they are already
familiar with the mathematical terms that are regularly repeated to them
(Mahmud et al., 2020b). However, repetition should also be supported by visual
stimuli, such as using diagrams or various concrete materials to help students
create a clearer picture of the mathematical terms being emphasized. It indirectly
strengthens students' visualization skills in solving mathematical problems
where visualization skills are the cognitive or mental processes of an individual
that connects internal constructs with things that are happening in their
environment. Applying visualization skills can help students understand
mathematical concepts and help students solve various mathematics problems
(Tambychik & Meerah, 2010).
The study also found that teachers also asked questions that require students to
clarify their answers. The asking questions approach requires the teacher to ask
the student to explain further the answer given to the teacher. This finding is in
line with the results of McAninch (2015) and Paul and Elder (2007) who had
found similar findings. In this context, the teacher asks the students to think
again and justify the answer. This indirectly provides the opportunity for
students to practice the use of mathematical language by trying to explain the
answer given. Thus, when students can inform teachers in the correct language
of mathematics, it will help them to understand the mathematics questions or
problems better and to plan for the solutions. Not only that, by asking questions

406
to ask for clarification from students, it also promotes high-level thinking and
communicative competencies such as clarification, submission and justification,
as well as a need for students to participate in meaningful and genuine
conversation and teaching exchanges between students and teachers (Gaspard,
2013; Kaya et al., 2014; Shahrill & Clarke, 2014). It is also an application of
mathematical language elements in which students' communication skills in
mathematics can be improved.
Thus, teachers can develop students‘ mathematical language through the

implementation of oral questioning in mathematics teaching in many ways.
Students need to be exposed to a better understanding of mathematical language
in order to ensure a better understanding of mathematical concepts. Failing to
apply mathematical language skills will make it difficult for students to solve
more complex mathematical problems and impede their ability to think at a
higher level. The traditional method of providing students with a direct
explanation of the standard mathematical language does not encourage students
to think and even lessens interaction between teachers and students. The use of
oral questioning to improve students ' mathematical language is, therefore seen
as a more meaningful approach as it works more effectively to encourage
students to think and increase student’s involvement in the mathematics
teaching process.
5. Conclusion
It is found that oral questioning plays a significant role in helping students
develop their comprehension of mathematical terms, based on the discussions
that have been made. This study highlighted the various approaches used by
mathematics teachers in primary schools to help students improve their
mathematical language skills through oral questioning. It also provided an
overview of the impact of mathematical language mastery on students to ensure
that students can better understand mathematical concepts. This indirectly
provides a new perspective about the role that oral questioning plays in
mathematics teaching. Thus, oral questioning is not only used to enhance
students' thinking but also plays a significant role as an effective means of
helping students improve their mastery of mathematical language. This study
also seeks to expand the literature of the research by providing a deeper
understanding of how teachers in mathematics can develop the language skills
and mastery of mathematics for students. This is important because oral
questioning takes up most of the mathematical teaching processes that have
been implemented (Wilen, 1991). Rich development and understanding of
mathematical language are essential for students to actively engage with the
planned teaching activities and help them develop meaning about mathematics.
Teachers should always use oral questioning to provide students with the best
possible support for their understanding of mathematical language, rather than
simply providing them with direct explanations during the teaching and
learning activities. Consequently, the researcher proposes further studies to be
conducted on how oral questioning process can be successfully implemented in
improving students' mathematical language skills.

407
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Appendix 1
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Initial Interview: Background Information and Philosophy of Questioning
I. Introduction
A. Explain why participant was selected
II. Focus
A. To obtain a general philosophy of their purpose(s) of questioning in

the classroom
III. Interview Questions
A. How long have you been teaching?
B. Tell me about the students you are currently teaching.
a. How does the culture of your classroom support quality

questioning?
C. How would you describe your teaching philosophy?
a. Is your classroom student-centered? What are the student and

teacher roles in your mathematics classroom?
D. What do you know about teacher questioning as an instructional

practice?
E. How would you describe your philosophy of questioning in the

classroom?
F. Do you have any sort of classification of questions in your mind?

Explain.
G. What are your criteria for judging whether or not your questioning is
eliciting the desired outcomes?
H. Do you think about your questions or question asking anytime

outside of class? When and in what ways?
I. How do you respond to student answers? What types of feedback do

you give? How do students expand upon correct answers? How do
students interact with one another and initiate questions?
J. What experiences have influenced how you ask questions in the

classroom?
(Questions were taken from McAninch, M. J. (2015). A Qualitative Study of

Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Questioning, Responses, And Perceived Influences.
University of Iowa.)

410
Stimulated-Recall Interview: Reflective Interview on Instructional Decision

Making
I. Introduction
A. Explain what an SR interview is
II. Focus
A. Question asking during the videotaped teaching episode
III. SR Rules
A. Can stop video at anytime
B. Distinguish between actual recall and new observations
IV. Orient
A. Participant gives brief description of purpose of teaching episode
B. SR addresses following issues:
1. Teacher’s perspective on what happened in the episode
2. What teacher was trying to accomplish
3. What information were choices based on
V. Questions (asked each time tape is stopped)
A. Can you recall any of your thoughts when you asked that question?
B. Did anything that occurred in class influence your decision to ask that
question? Explain.
C. What information did you base that decision on?
D. How did you decide which responses were appropriate?
E. Was there anything else you thought of doing at that point but
decided against?
What influenced this decision?
F. Would you like to share anything else about this teaching episode?
VI. Thank participant again for their time and interest.
(Questions were taken from McAninch, M. J. (2015). A Qualitative Study of

Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Questioning, Responses, And Perceived Influences.
University of Iowa.)

411

Vol. 19, No. 5, pp. 411-422, May 2020
STEM Education in Malaysia towards

Developing a Human Capital through
Motivating Science Subject
Fazilah Razali, Umi Kalthom Abdul Manaf and Ahmad Fauzi Mohd Ayub
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Selangor, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1203-1010
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4793-8165
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4313-2922
Abstract. This paper focuses on the motivational factor in learning science

encompassing the elements of self-efficacy, self-determination, intrinsic,
grade, and career. These factors identified from previous research have a
direct influence on the conception of careers related to Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) among students. This
study is a quantitative study using two surveys: Motivational Science
Questionnaire (MSQ II) and career interest in STEM from the STEM
Student Questionnaire (S-STEM). The questionnaire was modified and
tailored to the purpose of this investigation. The objective of this research
is to determine motivation as the main factor in science to develop
students’ interest in a STEM career among secondary students in
Malaysia. A total of 419 Form Four students were the respondents of this
study. The results show that motivation of indirect science learning can
influence the development of Form 4 students’ interest in STEM careers.
The data were analyzed using the Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
method which is in line with the self-determination theory to determine
the strong influence of motivation on students’ career. The result shows a
very high influence of motivation towards science with a significantly
high variance of 51% on the development of interest in STEM-related
careers among Malaysian students.
Keywords: STEM; science curriculum; structural equation modelling

(SEM); careers; Malaysia
1. Introduction
Reeve (2015) has defined the elements of Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics in the education system as follows: science is a study related to
nature, while technology serves as a tool to change the natural world to meet the
needs and wants of society. Engineering uses mathematics and science to produce
technology in which Mathematics represents the language of numbers, patterns,

412
and relationships that relate to science, technology, and engineering as a whole.

Although there are various definitions used to translate STEM into the education
system, the goal of the STEM education system is to build the capacity of every
student to meet the needs of the STEM industry and is an ongoing process (Halim,
2018). The awareness of the importance of science has been given the necessary
attention, especially in the education system to produce more labour who are
skilled in STEM to support the country’s economy. This effort will bring about a
positive impact on students’ involvement as a result of early exposure to the
importance of scientific knowledge and its relation to STEM careers, if channelled
in a more transparent and structured manner. Due to the emphasis of STEM
careers, the Ministry of Education (MOE) seriously took up the suggestions of the
National Education Blueprint (PPPM) 2013-2025. The idea to change the existing
curriculum to the Standard Secondary School Curriculum (SSSC) is by
strengthening and introducing STEM in the education system of Malaysia as one
of the pillars in the new curriculum.
Students' motivation for science is more meaningful when students have an

awareness of science for everyday life necessities. The motivation for science
among students plays an essential role in enabling the consistency of students’
career choice in the field of STEM (Duschl, 2019). Motivation is also an essential
element of the long-term need for science learning based on self-determination
theory that includes elements of self-efficacy, self-determination, achievement,
and intrinsic motivation to achieve learning goals (Lee, 2017). Furthermore, Guan
et al. (2016) emphasize that motivation can provide ongoing internal support
throughout STEM students' exploration. The motivation for high science also
provides students with the opportunity to develop an ongoing interest in STEM
careers (McFadden & Roehrig, 2020). Therefore, the importance of motivation in
refining students' needs in the learning process of STEM career development is
essential for the unity of students’ knowledge and preparation in the STEM
industry sector.
The formation of a new and established curriculum will only be meaningful if it
is in line with the students’ readiness to master knowledge in science. At the same
time, students can use the knowledge to build up their interest in STEM and
directly will fulfil students' career aspirations (Li et al., 2020). STEM needs to be
translated in teaching and learning holistically to students' so that they develop a
positive attitude towards STEM as well as to increase 21st-century learning skills
among them (Bergeron & Gordon, 2015; Zeynep, Dokme & Unlu, 2016). Besides,
the ability of teachers to understand students' needs can also help develop the
students’ motivation and potential (Dare, Ellis & Roehrig, 2018).
2.1 Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory is a macro motivational theory of humans that is
essential across domains including parenting, education, physical activities, and
work management or tasks (Deci, Olafsen & Ryan, 2017). The self-determination
theory is also a comprehensive framework which stresses on the students’
tendency towards doing something of their interests based on their knowledge

413
and skills (Beerenwinkel & von Arx, 2016). Therefore, motivation to study science
is the ability of students that will also influence the formation of positive
reinforcement which influences autonomous motivation and controlled
motivation (Nguyen & Deci, 2016).
Autonomy involves behaviours that are followed by will based on the

environmental pressures which influence motivations towards a more positive
outlook. Intrinsic motivation is autonomous motivation that when students are
interested in a particular matter, they will try to pursue it. On the contrary,
controlled motivation involves behaviours to reach on pressure or influence that
concern a specific action and the hope on students’ performance. Autonomous
motivation and controlled motivation are both components in motivation that
influence students’ interest and motivation in choosing a preferable career
(Olafsen et al., 2017). In conjunction with the importance of theory to encourage
the formation of positive motivation, especially towards a more specified Science
curriculum by correlating it with careers in the scientific field (Dare, Ellis &
Roehrig, 2018).
2.2 Motivation towards Science and STEM Career

Motivation in learning refers to ways of students think about themselves by taking
account of students’ preparedness in-process and self-learning activities which
are also able to give students consistency towards focused learning (Hora &
Oleson, 2017). Motivation to learn has two categories which are 1) intrinsic
motivation related to self-perception and environmental influences, 2) extrinsic
motivation is controlled by performance, rewards, and learning objectives of
students (Adegboyega, 2018; Gagné & Deci, 2005).
Therefore, students need to know the relationship between Science curriculum

which is learned with the needs to achieve career aspiration among students to
increase their motivation to continue learning Science (Sheldrake, 2016; Soni &
Kumari, 2015). Besides, motivation is the element of self-determination to make
efforts in learning science and have the potential to encourage the formation of
interest better towards a science career (Leung, 2020). Therefore, motivation is
vital in ensuring that input received by students is used to see science to the needs
of producing STEM skilled labour.
Also, motivation is essential to influence choice and students’ consistent

involvement in science stream and careers in STEM-related fields (Duschl, 2019).
Thus, the importance of motivation will always be the primary matter in the
learning process to achieve the actual curriculum goals. Moreover, high
motivation will not only help students to succeed but also will assist students in
seeing the value in science curriculum learned with the direction of forming career
interest for the future (Beerenwinkel & von Arx, 2016; Hamjah, Ismail, Rasit &
Rozali, 2011; Khong, Hassan & Ramli, 2017).
Motivation in learning science is needed to ensure students can use the science
knowledge capacity and skills in forming careers that are in line with the students’
interest. Furthermore, this research investigates motivation in science among

414
Form 4 students of Science stream in a national secondary school situated in

Selangor for the Malaysian context. The emphasis of students’ STEM-related
careers (a) determines science motivation is significant towards the formation of
STEM-associated careers, (b) whether the influence of science motivation gives
impacts and its contribution towards the establishment of STEM-related careers
among science-stream students in Malaysia.
3. Methodology
3.1 Research and Respondents

The study was conducted in a densely populated state in Selangor, Malaysia.
Through random selection, ten districts (Hulu Selangor, Gombak, Petaling
Perdana, Petaling Utama, Hulu Langat, Sepang, Klang, Kuala Langat, Kuala
Selangor dan Sabak Bernam) are represented. The study covered 419 Form 4
science stream students in Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan in Selangor using the
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling. This method is suitable to describe
the population of science students in Selangor into sub-populations. The location
was selected based on the information sought from Table 1, in which it reported
that Selangor was the first state in the country to be exposed to STEM information.
Table 1: Population Distribution and Secondary School Students in Selangor

Distribution of Total Number of Number of Secondary
population Secondary Schools School Students
6,140.1 272 404,835
The research respondents were random selected from these schools (Table 2).
However, this research does not substantiate further on gender since it is merely
additional information in the study to observe a balanced sample of Malaysia,
especially Selangor students who took a science stream in secondary schools.
Table 2: Result of the descriptive analysis based on the gender of a sample of students
Gender Frequency Percentage
Male 196 46.8
Female 237 53.2
Total 419 100.0
3.2 Research Instrument

The Science Motivation Questionnaire II (SMQ II) (Appendix 1 & 2) is a
psychometric tool used to assist students in identifying motivation in learning
science to achieve good mastery in scientific knowledge. Students will be able to
see the importance of motivation in learning science on the formation of their
future careers (Glynn et al., 2011). This survey aims to measure students’
motivation in science. The questionnaire had 25 items encompassing five sub-
constructs: intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, self-determination, achievement,
and career in order to measure students' motivation in pursuing a STEM career.

415
Each construct consists of 5 items. This survey measures every single scope of
STEM career fields such as engineering, science, technology, space, agriculture,
and mathematics. The survey has been adapted in the Malay language to suit the
items with the students’ environment which is the primary language of
instruction in the Malaysian education system. The questions are presented in an
interval scale of 1 (strongly disagree) to 10 (strongly agree). Respondents need to
choose answers by checking the range based on the accuracy of the question and
their abilities. This study is a full-fledged quantitative research. After the data
were collected, the researchers analyze it using the Structural Equation Modelling
(SEM) method.
3.3 Procedures
Before the fieldwork, the instrument must go through the reliability and validity
procedure through a pilot study to ensure reliable and valid data to the next
analysis step. Expert validation for the questionnaire was carried out in terms of
the scale used and item content to represent construct implementation prior to the
pilot study. Three experts from the teaching profession and STEM have validated
the SMQ II and S-STEM (STEM Career) instrument.
From the pilot study analysis based on the correlation of minimum value scores
of each item with the total scores is in accordance with the constructs in this study.
This validating method is in line with the theory introduced by Nunally (1967).
Based on Nunally & Bernstein (1994), the correlation value that is over .25 has a
high validity. Therefore, SMQ II instrument is valid because it shows the
correlational mean value of each item with the total score according to the
construct of each instrument over .25 and can be measured appropriately in Table
3. The Cronbach's alpha value instruments presented in this research have high
reliability and validity (Table 3) as well. According to Sekaran (2013), an alpha
value over .80 is considered good, and therefore the instrument is reliable.
Table 3: Summary of Validity and Reliability Report for the instrument

Correlation of Mean Value between Cronbach
Instrument
Scores of Each Item with Total Score Alpha
Science Motivation
.591 0.972
Questionnaire II (SMQ-II)
S-STEM (Career STEM) .543 0.811
4. Results
4.1 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)
The data will then be analyzed using Structural Equation Model (SEM) to measure
the direct influence and effects of motivation in science which is also a latent factor
in the formation of interest in STEM-related careers. Before looking at the direct
impact of the science motivation, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) is used to
determine the data of science to fulfil the fixed indices. In general, the
measurement model satisfies the majority index compatibility value of a model
for each category, thus, this measurement model is suitable and a good model
(Schreiber et al., 2006).

416
Figure 1 shows the measurement model in CFA on the data of science motivation
through the SMQ II and shows that science motivation can fulfil at least one index
for each category. The figure shows the symbol KERSTEM (STEM career) and
MOTIVASI (motivation) with the element of EFI (self-efficacy), KEN (self-
determination), INT (intrinsic), GRE (grade) and KER (career). The modification
process has been implemented on the measurement model to ensure the items
that have a low loading factor and the only question (item) with the necessary
loading factor to fit the indexes measurement model (Awang, 2015).
*Motivation (Motivasi) and STEM Career (KERSTEM)

Figure 1: Measurement Model on Science Motivation and STEM Related Career
Based on the analysis result, it shows that the measurement model passed the
majority fit index value that involved all three categories which were Chisq,
RMSEA, CFI, TLI, Chisq/df, and the value of p (Figure 1). As stated by Schreiber
et al., (2006), a measurement model that fulfils the majority of the model fit
indexes value shows that it is a good and acceptable model.
Table 4: Index of Measurement Model Compatibility based on Hair Index et al. (2010)
Acceptable Index of
Category Name of Indexes
Indexes Measurement Model
Chisq > 0.05 942.880
1. Absolute fit RMSEA < 0.08 .067
GFI > 0.90 .854
AGFI > 0.90 .824
2. Incremental CFI > 0.90 .912
fit TLI > 0.90 .901
NFI > 0.90 .870
3. Parsimonious
Chisq/df < 0.50 2.806
fit
CFI > 0.90 .912
4. The goodness
TLI > 0.90 .901
of fit index
GFI > 0.90 .854

417
Table 4 shows that the measurement model can fulfil the majority of fixed indexes.
Based on Hair et al. (2010), compatibility indexes to evaluate the model needs to
achieve one of the indexes from the category in Table 5. Therefore, the study has
made a majority of index values, at least one index, fit into each index category,
which is the value indexes based on Chisq (X2), RMSEA, CFI, TLI, and Chisq/df.
However, the index value is advisable to measure the compatibility index on the
measurement model in CFA which is RMSEA, CFI, and Chisq/df for continuous
data (Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen, 2008; Hu & Bentler, 1998). Research involves
continuous data and has fulfilled the majority of the index needed for the
compatibility measurement model to analyze the determining factors.
Table 5: Category for each index

Category Index
Absolute fit RMSEA or GFI
Incremental fit CFI or TLI
Parsimonious fit Chisq/df
Goodness of fit index CFI or TLI or GFI
4.2 Validity and Reliability of the Measurement Model

As soon as the CFA procedure for a particular measurement model is completed,
it is essential for several steps to be conducted as a procedure for the validity and
reliability of constructs. The evaluation of uni-dimensionality, validity, and
reliability of the measurement model is needed before the formation of the model
structure. Uni-dimensionality is achieved by discarding items which have a low
loading factor. The new model in the modification process and the item discarded
the operation until the fitness indexes achieve the desired levels.
Validity needs are achieved based on the following criteria: convergent validity -
AVE ≥ 0.50 (Table 6); construct validity - to fulfil the level of indexes required;
discriminant validity - there are no overlapping items (MI) discarded or “free
parameter” for all the research constructs (Table 6). Reliability requirements occur
during specific processes, as follows: internal reliability - Alpha Cronbach ≥ .70
(Table 6) and composite reliability - CR ≥ 0.6 (Table 6).
Table 6: Confirmatory Factors Analysis for Scientific Motivation Construct

Discarded Alpha Cronbach
Construct CR ( ≥ 0.6) AVE ( ≥ 0.5)
items (> 0.7)
M13, M16,
Scientific motivation .956 .96 .54
M23, M24
Interest in STEM-related K1, K5, K8,
.807 .89 .50
careers K11, K12
The value of average extracted variance (AVE) and composite reliability

coefficient (CR) were related to the quality of measurement. To avoid
misconceptions, it is necessary to understand the AVE and CR along with their
relation to validity and reliability. The formulas of CR and AVE for scientific
motivation and interest in STEM-related career are:
CR = (ΣK)2 / [ (ΣK)2 + Σ1 – K2)]; AVE = ΣK2 / n.

418
Table 7: Correlation between measurement constructs of the instrument.

Constructs Science motivation STEM career interests
Science Motivation *.734 **.731
STEM career interests **.731 *.707
* Square root of AVE
** Correlation between constructs (<.85)
The coefficient values shown in bold in Table 7 are the square root of two AVE
values for each construct. The model achieved the discrimination validity when
the coefficient values in bold are high in values compared to the values in the rows
and columns that represent correlational values for each construct based on the
measurement (Awang, 2015).
4.3 Structural Model

The structural model connects the two independent variables to the dependent
variable. This structural model represents the magnitude and direction of
influence between two sets of the latent variable by enabling the researcher to
evaluate the relationship between variables based on the impact measured in the
model. The structural model is defined as the relationship between the latent
variables by using the maximum likelihood method (Hair et al., 2010). The
structural model serves to create specifications related to latent variable influences
on other latent variables in the model directly. The structural model can also
contribute specifications regarding how a latent variable can predict other latent
variables in a similar model. Besides, the strength of SEM is to analyze the
relationship amongst other latent constructs that are involved in the SEM
technical model with the SEM techniques that can give more accurate solutions
(Hair et al., 2014).
*Motivation (MOTIVASI) and STEM Career (KERSTEM)

Figure 2: Structural Model between Motivation to Learn Science and STEM Careers
Figure 2 shows the result of objective testing to determine the influence directly
on motivation towards the formation of interest in STEM-related careers. The

419
screening to answer the objective measurement which is to assess the significance

of scientific motivation on students’ interest in STEM-related careers and either
the scientific motivation influence and its contribution to the formation of
students’ interest in STEM-related careers among science stream students in
Malaysia. In response to the study objectives (a) of the Standard Regression
Standard (Table 8), the high standard deviation of .713 as well as the influence of
scientific motivation also significantly directly influence students' interest in
STEM careers with p-value = .001. Additionally, the direct impact of independent
variable and determination of moderator influence is significant at p < 0.05 as well
as the foundation of the rows in Science Social fields (Aytekin et al., 2016).
Table 8: Standardized Regression Weights
Constructs Estimate S.E. C.R. P

<---
KERSTEM MOTIVATION .713 .062 9.612 ***
The second objective was to study the influence of motivation in science and its
contribution to the formation of interest in STEM-related careers among science
stream students in Malaysia. This objective can be explained through the variance
obtained for the Squared Multiple Correlation (R2) which is .509 or 51%. The
general effect of the R2 variance is estimated to be significant when R2 is 0.30 or
30% contribution (Kline, 2011). This estimation is by the independent variable to
the dependent variable. Thus, it is agreed that science motivation has a strong
influence and can expect a large contribution towards the formation of interest in
STEM-related careers among Form 4 science stream students in Selangor.
5. Discussion
The analysis conducted showed that science motivation has a significant direct
influence in explaining the importance of science motivation towards the
formation of STEM-related careers among students. Besides, motivation in
learning science directly influences the environmental adaptability of students’
learning process in choosing study programs related to STEM careers (Fazilah et
al., 2020). The results have also shown that the combination of elements such as
self-efficacy, self-determination, intrinsic motivation, grades, and career are
needed to measure science motivation more thoroughly to inform students’
interest towards STEM-related careers. Therefore, it is essential to integrate the
element of science motivation in lesson planning to provide new inputs to the
students through the knowledge of science for the future (Khodabakhszadeh et
al., 2018). The finding for effects of the direct influence also showed high impacts
and the immense contribution of science motivation towards the formation of
interest in STEM-related careers. The variance of 51% shows the strong influence
of science motivation on the formation of interest in STEM-related careers among
Form 4 science stream secondary schools’ students in Malaysia. This study has
been able to explain precisely the validity and the importance of science
motivation to improve students’ tendency to join learning programs in the STEM
fields when they will enroll for tertiary education. Nevertheless, further studies
need to be done to address more variables that can attract students’ interest in
STEM careers.

420
6. Conclusion
These findings can become a reference for different streams as well as STEM fields
especially to determine students’ motivation towards science to develop an
interest in STEM careers because the questionnaire used in this study focuses on
self-determination, grade, efficacy, intrinsic motivation, and career. STEM is a
broad field, but some modifications must be done in terms of content,
demographic questionnaires, and theories to adapt it the environment or research
issues. The STEM field impacts unlimited model usage among science stream
students. Other streams such as Technical Communication Graphics,
Supplementary Science, Agriculture, Home Science, Design, Computer Science,
and Sports Science are also considered a STEM field at the secondary level.
Research on the need for scientific motivation using Structural Equation Modeling
(SEM) analysis of students' interest in STEM careers provide a new dimension in
science curriculum research. The addition of predictive variables based on
students’ needs influence the model's consistency index and can contribute
significantly to the impact of curriculum innovations for student commitment
towards increasing STEM engagement.
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Appendix 1
Student Attitudes toward STEM Survey (S-STEM)
Middle and High School
Appropriate Use
The Middle/High School (6-12th) S-STEM Survey is intended to measure changes
in students’ confidence and efficacy in STEM subjects, 21st century learning skills,
and interest in STEM careers. The survey is available to help program
coordinators make decisions about possible improvements to their program.
The Friday Institute grants you permission to use these instruments for
educational, non- commercial purposes only. You may use an instrument as is, or
modify it to suit your needs, but in either case you must credit its original source.
By using this instrument you agree to allow the Friday Institute to use the data
collected for additional validity and reliability analysis. The Friday Institute will
take appropriate measures to maintain the confidentiality of all data.
Recommended citation for this survey:

Friday Institute for Educational Innovation (2012). Middle and High School STEM-
Student Survey. Raleigh, NC: Author.
The development of this survey was partially supported by the National Science
Foundation under Grant No. 1038154 and by the Golden LEAF foundation.
The framework for part of this survey was developed from the following sources:
Erkut, S., & Marx, F. (2005). 4 schools for WIE (Evaluation Report). Wellesley, MA:
Wellesley College, Center for Research on Women. Retrieved April 5, 2012 from
http://www.coe.neu.edu/Groups/stemteams/evaluation.pdf
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook

Handbook, 2010- 11 Edition.
DIRECTIONS
There are lists of statements on the following pages. Please mark your answer
sheets by marking how you feel about each statement. For example:
Neither
Strongly Agree nor Strongly
Example 1: Disagree Disagree Agree Agree
Disagree
I like engineering.
○ ○ ○ ○ ○
As you read the sentence, you will know whether you agree or disagree. Fill in
the circle that describes how much you agree or disagree.
Even though some statements are very similar, please answer each statement.
This is not timed; work fast, but carefully.
There are no "right" or "wrong" answers! The only correct responses are those that
are true for you. Whenever possible, let the things that have happened to you help
you make a choice.
PLEASE FILL IN ONLY ONE ANSWER PER QUESTION

Your Future
Here are descriptions of subject areas that involve math, science, engineering
and/or technology, and lists of jobs connected to each subject area. As you read
the list below, you will know how interested you are in the subject and the jobs.
Fill in the circle that relates to how interested you are.
There are no “right” or “wrong” answers. The only correct responses are those that
are true for you.
Not at all Not So Very

Interested
Interested Interested Interested
1. Physics: is the study of basic laws
governing the motion, energy, structure,
and interactions of matter. This can include
studying the nature of the universe.
(aviation engineer, alternative energy
○ ○ ○ ○
technician, lab technician, physicist,
astronomer)
2. Environmental Work: involves learning
about physical and biological processes
that govern nature and working to
improve the environment. This includes
finding and designing solutions to
problems like pollution, reusing waste and
recycling. (pollution control analyst, ○ ○ ○ ○
environmental engineer or scientist, erosion
control specialist, energy systems engineer and
maintenance technician)
3. Biology and Zoology: involve the study
of living organisms (such as plants and
animals) and the processes of life. This
includes working with farm animals and
in areas like nutrition and breeding.
○ ○ ○ ○
(biological technician, biological scientist,
plant breeder, crop lab technician,
animal scientist, geneticist, zoologist)
4. Veterinary Work: involves the science of
preventing or treating disease in animals.
(veterinary assistant, veterinarian, livestock
○ ○ ○ ○
producer, animal caretaker)
5. Mathematics: is the science of numbers
and their operations. It involves
computation, algorithms and theory used
to solve problems and summarize data.
(accountant, applied mathematician,
○ ○ ○ ○
economist, financial analyst, mathematician,
statistician, market researcher, stock market
analyst)
6. Medicine: involves maintaining health
and preventing and treating disease.
(physician’s assistant, nurse, doctor,
nutritionist, emergency medical technician,
○ ○ ○ ○
physical therapist, dentist)
7. Earth Science: is the study of earth,
including the air, land, and ocean.
(geologist, weather forecaster, archaeologist, ○ ○ ○ ○
geoscientist)
8. Computer Science: consists of the
development and testing of computer
systems, designing new programs and
helping others to use computers. (computer
support specialist, computer programmer,
○ ○ ○ ○
computer and network technician, gaming
designer, computer software engineer,
information technology specialist)
9. Medical Science: involves researching
human disease and working to find new
solutions to human health problems.
(clinical laboratory technologist, medical
scientist, biomedical engineer, epidemiologist,
○ ○ ○ ○
pharmacologist)
10. Chemistry: uses math and experiments
to search for new chemicals, and to study
the structure of matter and how it behaves.
(chemical technician, chemist, chemical
engineer)
○ ○ ○ ○
11. Energy: involves the study and
generation of power, such as heat or
electricity. (electrician, electrical engineer,
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
(HVAC) technician, nuclear engineer, systems
○ ○ ○ ○
engineer, alternative energy systems installer
or technician)
12. Engineering: involves designing,
testing, and manufacturing new products
(like machines, bridges, buildings, and
electronics) through the use of math,
science, and computers. (civil, industrial,
○ ○ ○ ○
agricultural, or mechanical engineers, welder,
auto-mechanic, engineering technician,
construction manager)
Appendix 2
SCIENCE MOTIVATION
QUESTIONNAIRE II (SMQ-II)
© 2011 SHAWN M. GLYNN, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, USA
In order to better understand what you think and how you feel about your science
courses, please respond to each of the following statements from the perspective
of “When I am in a science course…”
Statements Never 0 Rarely 1 Sometimes 2 Often 3 Always 4
01. The science I learn is relevant to my life.

02. I like to do better than other students on
science tests.
03. Learning science is interesting.
04. Getting a good science grade is
important to me.
05. I put enough effort into learning science.
06. I use strategies to learn science well.
07. Learning science will help me get a good
job.
08. It is important that I get an "A" in science.
09. I am confident I will do well on science
tests.
10. Knowing science will give me a career
advantage.
11. I spend a lot of time learning science.
12. Learning science makes my life more
meaningful.
13. Understanding science will benefit me in
my career.
14. I am confident I will do well on science
labs and projects.
15. I believe I can master science knowledge
and skills.
16. I prepare well for science tests and labs.
17. I am curious about discoveries in science.
18. I believe I can earn a grade of “A” in
science.
19. I enjoy learning science.
20. I think about the grade I will get in
science.
21. I am sure I can understand science.
22. I study hard to learn science.
23. My career will involve science.
24. Scoring high on science tests and labs
matters to me.
25. I will use science problem-solving skills
in my career.
Note. The SMQ-II is copyrighted and registered. Go to http://www.coe.uga.edu/smq/ for

permission and directions to use it and its discipline-specific versions such as the Biology
Motivation Questionnaire II (BMQ- II), Chemistry Motivation Questionnaire II (CMQ-II), and
Physics Motivation Questionnaire II (PMQ-II) in which the words biology, chemistry, and physics
are respectively substituted for the word science. Versions in other languages are also available.
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IJLTER.

Society for Research and Knowledge Management

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

Aims and Objectives

The main objective of this journal is to provide a platform for educators,

Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are very happy to publish this issue of the International Journal of

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

We are grateful to the editor-in-chief, members of the Editorial Board

The Editorial Board is composed of renowned people from across the

We will endeavour to ensure the reputation and quality of this journal

Editors of the May 2020 Issue

Aesthetic Education as a Topical Direction of Preparation of a Modern Specialist ................................................... 231

Peer Tutorial: Championing Students at Risk ................................................................................................................. 352

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Social Pedagogy as a Necessary Basis for

Abstract. This paper aims to examine the importance of social pedagogy

Keywords: teachers; continuing training; social pedagogy; social

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©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

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3.2. Social pedagogy’s Connection to Practice

Figure 1: The Diamond Model (Eichsteller & Holthoff, 2011)

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To summarize, according to Anderberg (2020) the review shows the global

3.3. Teachers continuing training

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In summary, in Greece, according to Asimaki, Sakkoulis and Vergidis (2016),

3.4. The value of teachers’ continuing training

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4. The results of the analysis

Secondly, is of great importance for teachers to come up with those principles of

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enterprise, supporting the development of social pedagogy through scientific

5. Discussion and conclusion

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Crisis. International journal of social pedagogy, 4(1), 24-42.

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International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Game-Based Learning Platform and its Effects on

Abstract. In the 21st century, gamified learning is found to be essential

Keywords: gamification; grammar; Kahoot!; present tense; ESL

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to accomplish the main objective of the National Philosophy of Malaysian

In parallel with the existing trends in the Malaysian curriculum, the

Present tense verb learning is relatively difficult to be mastered by young ESL

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Various educational applications can be utilised by educators to transform

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Kahoot! has become a popular online game used by educators as a stimulating

Students must register at https://kahoot.it. A unique game PIN number is

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of English when they are engaged in gamified learning. It promotes a

Kahoot! is packed with the elements of gamification, such as leaderboards,