SLIDE 1 DIVERSITY OF LIFE, on this chapter these includes the following topics:

• THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

• EVOLUTION OF LIFE
• CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS
• INTRODUCTION TO FUNGI, PROTIST, BACTERIA, ARCHAEA
• HUMAN BODY ORGAN SYSTEM

SLIDE 2 THE EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY OF LIFE ON EARTH

Before Life Began
How old is the Earth?
4.5 billion years
Big bang- gravity causes dust particles to condense
Meteors for millions of years.
How hot would the earth be?
Earth has to cool down- steam escapes and rain allows collection of water.
Earth now has atmosphere of Ammonia, Methane, water vapor, CO₂ and Nitrogen.

SLIDE 3 ….. How do you explain that there are no Earth rocks older than 3.8 billion
years?
Earth had not yet cooled, so no rocks had solidified yet. Older rock may have been
destroyed by plate tectonics or erosion.
What Evidence do Scientists use? Yes through Fossils! The Trace, the Mold, the Cast,
the Amber, the Imprint, and the Petrified
SLIDE 4 Scientist organize Earth's history into four eons: the Hadean, the
Archean, the Proterozoic, and the Phanerozoic. An eon is the largest division of
geological time. The primarily defined divisions of time are eons, the Hadean, the
Archean, the Proterozoic and the Phanerozoic. The first three of these can be referred
to collectively as the Precambrian supereon. Each eon is subsequently divided into
eras, which in turn are divided into periods, which are further divided into epochs.
SLIDE 5 First eon is Hadean. The name “Hadean” comes from Hades, the
ancient Greek god of the underworld due to the “hellish” conditions on Earth at the time:
the planet had just formed and was still very hot due to high volcanism, a partially
molten surface and frequent collisions with other Solar System bodies.
Second eon is Archean eon. During the Archean Eon, methane droplets in the
air shrouded the young Earth in a global haze. There was no oxygen gas on Earth.
Oxygen was only in compounds such as water.

SLIDE 6 The Proterozoic eon was the longest eon, lasting nearly 2 billion
years. From the Greek word, protero means "first ", Zoic means "animal“. The
Proterozoic is notable for the increase in multicellular life. Life Begins at sea! At the end
of this eon, the first animals appeared in the fossil record. The first three eons are
grouped into a “super eon” called the Precambriam.
The Phanerozoic eon , the eon in which trilobites and ammonites populated the seas.
It is also the eon in which Earth's life-forms emerged from the ocean and became visible
on land. Phaneros, from ancient Greek means “visible”. The Phanerozoic is the most
recent eon, encompassing the time from the beginning of the Paleozoic era until the
present. This is the eon in which trilobites and ammonites populated the seas. It is the
which tectonic forces created and separated—the supercontinent Pangea.

SLIDE 7 How do scientist find out what animals lived millions of years ago?
Dating of rocks ( radioisotopes)
Dating of carbon material from plant remains (carbon isotopes)
Rock layering gives the order of events
Tree ring research

SLIDE 8 EVOLUTION OF LIFE……… The diversity of life on Earth

today is the result of evolution. Life began on Earth at least 3.5 to 4 billion years
ago, and it has been evolving ever since. At first, all living things on Earth were
simple, single-celled organisms. Much later, the
first multicellular organisms evolved, and after that, Earth’s biodiversity greatly
increased.

SLIDE 9 Scientists change and shape our world by developing explanations

and making sense of the things we do not know or do not understand in our world (and
outside of our world).  For example, Louis Pasteur's controlled experiment that
investigated the question, "Can microorganisms (germs) generate spontaneously?" has
completely changed modern medicine.  Pasteur proved that microorganisms do not
grow randomly, and that microorganisms must travel through the air or through direct
physical contact in order to grow.  

As result of Pasteur's experiment, billions and billions of lives have been saved.  For
hundreds of years now, doctors around the world make sure to wash their hands and
sanitize facilities to keep disease-causing germs from spreading.  In our school, we
know always to wash our hands before and after experimenting, and to cover our
mouths when sneezing.  

SLIDE 10 (read the picture) The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis suggests that life

arose gradually from inorganic molecules, with “building blocks” like amino acids
forming first and then combining to make complex polymers.

SLIDE 11 The Miller-Urey experiment provided the first evidence that organic

molecules needed for life could be formed from inorganic components.

SLIDE 12 Carolus Linnaeus (Karl von Linné)-- Linnaeus classified all known
organisms according to the greater or lesser extent of their similarities (i.e., he
defined morphospecies).  Each form was designated by 2 Latin names--
genus and species.   The framework of this Linnaean system of classification is still
used in the biological sciences to designate newly discovered species and to indicate
relative evolutionary distances.  The first edition of Systema Naturae was only 12 pages
long.  Subsequent editions grew longer and longer as Linnaeus named more species. 
By the 12th and final edition, he realized that his goal of naming all species was not
going to be completed.
Buffon, George Louis Leclerc, Comte de -- Buffon speculated about the origin of the
Earth.  He assumed that the core was predominantly molten iron.  Based on his
estimate of the cooling rate of iron spheres, he concluded that the Earth must be at
least 75,000 years old.
SLIDE 13 (Jean-Baptiste Lamarck )Lamarckism, a theory of evolution based on the
principle that physical changes in organisms during their lifetime—such as greater
development of an organ or a part through increased use—could be transmitted to their
offspring. Lamarck proposed that acquired characteristics were inheritable. For
example, as a giraffe stretches its neck to browse higher in trees, the continuation of the
habit over an extended period results in a gradual lengthening of the limbs and neck.

SLIDE 14 (read the picture)

SLIDE 15 Homologous structures are structures that were inherited from the same
body part of a common ancestor. They look different and are often used differently by
the descendants. The pictures show the forelimbs of a human, a cat, a whale, and a
bat. Despite having a different look and function, the same set of bones is present in
each structure.
When animals from different groups with different ancestors live in the same habitat
they can sometimes form similar structures that have a certain function. This is because
of the similar way of life in their respective habitats. However, since they have different
ancestors and belong to different groups these structures tend to be very different
anatomically despite their similar functions.  These are called analogous structures.

SLIDE 16 A vestigial structure is one that serves no apparent purpose but was
inherited from a common ancestor. The structures were functional in the ancestor.
Vestigial structures are often homologous to structures that function normally in other
species. Therefore, vestigial structures can be considered evidence for evolution, the
process by which beneficial heritable traits arise in populations over an extended period
of time. The existence of vestigial traits can be attributed to changes in the environment
and behavior patterns of the organism in question. As the function of the trait is no
longer beneficial for survival, the likelihood that future offspring will inherit the “normal”
form of it decreases.
Evidence for early forms of life comes from fossils. By studying fossils, scientists can
learn how much (or how little) organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
Fossils provide a snap shot of the past and allow us to study how much or how little
organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.

SLIDE 17 The study of one type of evidence of evolution is called

embryology, the study of embryos. An embryo is an unborn (or unhatched) animal
or human young in its earliest phases. Embryos of many different kinds of animals:
mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc. look very similar and it is often difficult to tell
them apart. Many traits of one type of animal appear in the embryo of another type
of animal. For example, fish embryos and human embryos both have gill slits. In
fish they develop into gills, but in humans they disappear before birth.

This shows that the animals are similar and that they develop similarly, implying
that they are related, have common ancestors and that they started out the same,
gradually evolving different traits, but that the basic plan for a creature's beginning
remains the same.

SLIDE 18 Biogeography, the study of the geographical distribution of organisms,

provides information about how and when species may have evolved of how and why
organisms live where they do. It provides more evidence for evolution.

SLIDE 19 Scientists examine the nucleotide of DNA and amino acid sequences of
proteins from different species. Closely related species share higher percentages of
sequences than species that are distantly related. Similarities and differences between
the "same" gene in different organisms (that is, a pair of homologous genes) can help
us determine how closely related the organisms are.

SLIDE 20 Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900–1975) was a key author of the Synthetic

Theory of Evolution, also known as the Modern Synthesis of Evolutionary Theory, which
embodies a complex array of biological knowledge centered around Darwin’s theory of
evolution by natural selection couched in genetic terms.

SLIDE 21 the initial molecule which first managed to reproduce itself and thus

gained an advantage over other molecules within the primordial soup.[13] As replicating
molecules became more complex, Dawkins postulates, the replicators became the
genes within organisms, with each organism's body serving the purpose of a 'survival
machine' for its genes.
Dawkins writes that gene combinations which help an organism to survive and
reproduce tend to also improve the gene's own chances of being replicated, and, as a
result, "successful" genes frequently provide a benefit to the organism. An example of
this might be a gene that protects the organism against a disease. This helps the gene
spread, and also helps the organism.
SLIDE 22 Evolutionist Lynn Margulis showed that a major organizational event in the
history of life probably involved the merging of two or more lineages through
symbiosis.In her article, Margulis hypothesized that “three fundamental organelles: the
mitochondria, the photosynthetic plastids and the (9 + 2) basal bodies of flagella were
once themselves free-living (prokaryotic) cells.” That mitochondria and plastids might
have originated endosymbiotically from prokaryotic progenitors was not at the time a
new idea, having first emerged in various forms in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
before fading from mainstream biological view.

SLIDE 23 Evolutionary scientists Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed
another explanation, which they called "punctuated equilibrium." That is, species are
generally stable, changing little for millions of years. This leisurely pace is "punctuated"
by a rapid burst of change that results in a new species and that leaves few fossils
behind.

According to this idea, the changes leading to a new species don't usually occur in the
mainstream population of an organism, where changes wouldn't endure because of so
much interbreeding among like creatures. Rather, speciation is more likely at the edge
of a population, where a small group can easily become separated geographically from
the main body and undergo changes that can create a survival advantage and thus
produce a new, non-interbreeding species.

This hypothesis predicts that the fossil record at any one site is unlikely to record the
process of speciation. If a site records that the ancestral species lived there, the new
species would probably be evolving somewhere else. The small size of the isolated
population which is evolving into a new species reduces the odds that any of its
members will be fossilized. The new species will only leave fossils at the same site as
the old one if it becomes successful enough to move back into its ancestral range or
different enough to exist alongside its relatives.

SLIDE 24 Speciation is the process by which new species form. It occurs when

groups in a species become reproductively isolated and diverge. In allopatric speciation,
groups from an ancestral population evolve into separate species due to a period of
geographical separation.

SLIDE 25 Microevolution refers to changes that occur within a single species.

Speciation means division of one species into two or more. And macroevolution refers
to the larger changes in the variety of organisms that we see in the fossil record. 
Macroevolution evolutionary changes that happen over very long periods of time. This
usually refers to the development of large new branches of life, such as vertebrates or
mammals.
microevolution evolutionary changes that happen on a small scale, often within a single
species, such as a change in the frequency of a particular allele within just a few
generations.

SLIDE 26 Human evolution began with primates. Primate development diverged

from other mammals about 85 million years ago. Various divergences among apes,
gibbons, orangutans occurred during this period, with Homini (including early humans
and chimpanzees) separating from Gorillini (gorillas) about 8 millions years ago.
Humans and chimps then separated about 7.5 million years ago. Skeletal structure of
humans and other primates. A comparison of the skeletal structures of gibbons,
humans, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans.
SLIDE 27 Comparison of skull features among early humans.A comparison of Homo
habilis, Homo erectus, Homo floresiensis and Homo naledi skull features.

SLIDE 28 ….

SLIDE 29 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS….. The scientific ordering or

systematic arrangement of living organisms in a hierarchical series of groups on the
basis of their relationships (morphological, evolutionary and other characteristics) is
called biological classification.

SLIDE 30 Aristotle developed the first classification system, which divided all known
organisms into two groups:PLANTS and ANIMALS.Aristotle then divided each of these
main groups into three smaller groups.

CAROLLUS LINNAEUS was explorer who was the first to frame principles for defining
natural genera and species of organisms and to create a uniform system for naming
them (binomial nomenclature).

Robert Whittaker proposed a classification system based on five kingdoms: Monera

(prokaryotes), Protista (chiefly protozoa and algae), Fungi (molds, yeasts, and
mushrooms), Plantae (plants), and Animalia (animals). Whittaker's system was widely
accepted until the 1970s, when further studies led to the division of Monera into two
kingdoms—Bacteria and Archaea.
SLIDE 31 …. (READ THE PICTURE)

SLIDE 32 …. (READ THE PICTURE)

SLIDE 33 … (READ THE PICTURE)

SLIDE 41 … FUNGI

A group called the decomposers grow in the soil or on dead plant matter where they
play an important role in the cycling of carbon and other elements. Some are parasites
of plants causing diseases such as mildews, rusts, scabs or canker. In crops fungal
diseases can lead to significant monetary loss for the farmer. A very small number of
fungi cause diseases in animals. In humans these include skin diseases such as
athletes’ foot, ringworm and thrush.

SLIDE 42 Protists are a group of all the eukaryotes that are not fungi, animals, or
plants. As a result, it is a very diverse group of organisms. The eukaryotes that make up
this kingdom, Kingdom Protista, do not have much in common besides a relatively
simple organization. Protists can look very different from each other. Some are tiny and
unicellular, like an amoeba, and some are large and multicellular, like seaweed.
However, multicellular protists do not have highly specialized tissues or organs.

Bacteria lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other internal structures and are

therefore ranked among the unicellular life-forms called prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are
the dominant living creatures on Earth, having been present for perhaps three-quarters
of Earth history and having adapted to almost all available ecological habitats. 

SLIDE 43 All prokaryotic cells were called bacteria and were classified in the
prokaryotic kingdom Monera. However, their classification as Monera, equivalent
in taxonomy to the other kingdoms—Plantae, Animalia, Fungi, and Protista—
understated the remarkable genetic and metabolic diversity exhibited by prokaryotic
cells relative to eukaryotic cells.

SLIDE 44 Archaea is derived from the Greek word archaios, meaning

“ancient” or “primitive,” and indeed some archaea exhibit characteristics worthy of that
name. 

SLIDE 45 HUMAN BODY ORGAN SYSTEM

The 11 organ systems include the integumentary system, skeletal system, muscular
system, lymphatic system, respiratory system, digestive system, nervous system,
endocrine system, cardiovascular system, urinary system, and reproductive systems.

SLIDE 46 The hair lubricates the scalp, which secretes pheromones and
cools or warms our heads. The nails protect our fingers, which are a major tool used for
protecting ourselves and providing ourselves with food, shelter, and sensations. The
skin leaves us most vulnerable when it is compromised by open wounds, allowing
infectious agents into the body.

The skeleton provides the framework and shape to our bodies. It also connects to our
major muscles to allow movement. Bones store minerals such as calcium and create
blood cells in the soft bone tissue called marrow. Bones can break easily without
enough calcium and are subject to such diseases as arthritis;
cancers; scoliosis; osteoporosis, gout; bursitis; fractures and breaks; and amputations.

SLIDE 47 MUSCULAR
Skeletal, or voluntary muscles, are responsible for carrying out the actions and
movements caused by messages sent from our brains through our nervous system.
Skeletal muscles are also responsible for maintaining posture and producing heat.
LYMPHATIC’
It also houses the white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in protecting our bodies from
infection. Diseases and disorders specific to the lymphatic system
include anemias; leukemia; tuberculosis of the lymph nodes; Hodgkin’s disease; and
other blood disorders.

SLIDE 48 RESPIRATORY --- Diseases and disorders of the respiratory system

include allergies; rhinitis and sinusitis; laryngitis; COPD; pleurisy; bronchitis;
emphysema; asthma; sarcoidosis; fibrosis; asbestosis; pulmonary vascular diseases;
fungal or bacterial infections of the lungs; sleep apnea; tuberculosis of the respiratory
system; and lung, throat, and other respiratory cancers.
Digestive --- Diseases and disorders of the digestive system include diverticulitis;
gastritis; pancreatitis; cholecystitis; cirrhosis; hepatitis; liver cancer; irritable bowel or
colon syndromes; Crone’s disease; and hemorrhoids.

Slide 49 NERVOUS SYSTEM

Diseases and disorders of the nervous system include paralysis; Parkinson’s Disease;
palsy, embolisms; thrombosis; arteriosclerosis; polio; myelitis; ALS; meningitis; Multiple
Sclerosis; muscular tics; Huntington’s Disease; cancers of the brain, spinal cord or
nerves; epilepsy, seizure disorders; narcolepsy;  migraine headaches; peripheral
neuropathy; and traumatic brain injury.
Endocrine --- Diseases and disorders of the endocrine system include Type 1 & Type 2
Diabetes, hypoglycemia, Addison’s disease; Cushing’s syndrome;
hyper/hypothyroidism, thyroid cancer; and other active cancers of the endocrine glands.

SLIDE 50 CARDIOVASCULAR -- Diseases and disorders associated with the

cardiovascular system include myocardial infarction; coronary bypass surgery;
arrhythmias; valve replacements; pacemakers; transplants; heart diseases (ischemic;
hypertensive; arteriosclerotic); hypertension; aneurysms; fistulas; arteriosclerosis;
anaphylaxis shock; varicose veins; cold weather injuries; and sarcomas of the blood
vessels.
URINARY --- Diseases and disorders of the urinary system include nephrosis, bladder
cancer, urethritis, bedwetting (enuresis), urinary and kidney stones and infections, renal
failure, incontinence, blood in the urine, and interstitial cystitis.

SLIDE 51 REPRODUCTIVE --- Diseases and disorders associated with the female
reproductive systems include breast cancer, removal of breast or lumpectomy;
hysterectomy; pregnancy complications; endometriosis; ovarian or cervical cancers; and
diseases or injuries of the vulva, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, or ovaries.