Vol 19 No 12 December 2020

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Vol.19 No.12
International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research
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Vol. 19, No. 12 (December 2020)
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VOLUME 19 NUMBER 12 December 2020
Table of Contents
Analysis of Lesson Plans from Rwandan Physics Teachers .............................................................................................. 1
Kizito Ndihokubwayo, Irénée Ndayambaje and Jean Uwamahoro
First-Year Accounting Student Teachers’ Perceptions of their Classroom Learning Environment ........................... 30
Mapuya Medson
How Adolescent Students with Disabilities and /or Complex Needs Perceive the Notion of Resilience: A Study
in Greece and England ......................................................................................................................................................... 43
Maria Georgiadi, Stefanos Plexousakis, Josie Maitland, Elias Kourkoutas and Angie Hart
Reshaping the University Curriculum through the Visiting Lectureship ..................................................................... 70

Valentyna I. Bobrytska, Hanna V. Krasylnykova, Nina G. Batechko, Nataliia А. Beseda and Yevhenii S. Spitsyn
Teaching Children with Special Needs in Nigerian Regular Classes: Impact of Gender, Marital Status, Experience,
and Specialty ......................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Kingsley Chinaza Nwosu, WP Wahl, Hasina Cassim, Emmanuel Nkemakolam Okwuduba and Gloria Uzoamaka Nnaemeka
Attainment of the Immediate Program Graduate Attributes and Learning Outcomes of Teacher Candidates
towards Global Competence Initiatives ........................................................................................................................... 106
Gilbert C. Magulod, Leonilo B. Capulso, Josephine Pineda Dasig, Micheal Bhobet B. Baluyot, John Noel S. Nisperos, Ethel
Reyes-Chua, Mahyudin Ritonga, Randy Joy M. Ventayen, Assel Khassenova, Mashraky Mustary and Supat Chupradit
The Development of Instructional Leadership Scale of Elementary School Principals in Indonesia ...................... 126
Agung Purwa Widiyan, Saowanee Sirisooksilp and Pennee Kantavong Narot
Unlocking the Cultural Diversity Black Box: Application of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies in University
Classrooms in Zimbabwe .................................................................................................................................................. 146
Norman Rudhumbu
A Conceptual Research Model for Investigating the Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on Students’
Teacherpreneurial Competencies and Intentions in Preservice Teacher Education .................................................. 163
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan, Reyaz Malik and Claudia Méndez Alarcon
Curriculum Structure and its Influence on Content Knowledge of Economics Student Teachers .......................... 190
Mothofela R Msimanga
Questions in English Medium Instruction Undergraduate Lectures in a Sri Lankan University: Why are they
important?............................................................................................................................................................................ 208
Abdul Majeed Mohamed Navaz
Exploring Pre-Service Teachers’ Emotional Competence and Motivation for the Choice of a Teaching Career ... 230
Tea Pavin Ivanec
Convergence or Divergence in EFL Teachers’ and Learners’ Beliefs on Using Smartphones in Learning English:
The Case of Master1 Students - University of Tlemcen (Algeria) ................................................................................ 246
Fatima Zohra Belkhir-Benmostefa
Investigating Predictors of Academic Plagiarism among University Students .......................................................... 264

Sumayah Nabee, Joash Mageto and Noleen Pisa
Reimagining the Sustainable and Social Justice Mathematics Classrooms in the Fourth Industrial Revolution ... 281
Tshele J. Moloi and Mogalatjane E. Matabane
Efficacy of Teachers’ In‐Service Training for Increasing Their Knowledge of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder in Eastern Region, Saudi Arabia ....................................................................................................................... 295
Tareq Melhem
1

Vol. 19, No. 12, pp. 1-29, December 2020
https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.12.1
Analysis of Lesson Plans from Rwandan Physics

Teachers
Kizito Ndihokubwayo*
African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS)
University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2566-8045
Irénée Ndayambaje
Rwanda Education Board (REB), Rwanda
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5300-9063
Jean Uwamahoro
African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS)
University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE), Rwanda
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1730-6685
Abstract. Lesson planning is a crucial roadmap guiding the teacher before

the implementation of the lesson. In the current study, we aimed at
reviewing pedagogical documents used by Rwandan physics teachers.
We gathered 32 lesson plans related to optics topics from five teachers
and analyzed them using the lesson plan analysis protocol (LPAP) and
lesson plan evaluation form (LPEF) jointly. We have found that teachers
do not prepare these documents as required by the newly introduced
competence-based curriculum. Teachers plan for low levels of Bloom's
cognitive and affective taxonomy domains and do not follow effective
inquiry techniques along the stages of the lesson activities. A detailed
discussion on each teacher’s practice was provided, and we hope it can
serve as a qualitative overview on teaching and learning planning for
effective classroom implementation. Due to the importance of
pedagogical documents on effective teaching, we went through a
rigorous validation process and suggested a model lesson plan to be
consulted by any physics teacher (please see Appendix C). We
recommend that teachers consult this lesson plan and prepare
accordingly before class.
Keywords: pedagogical document; lesson plan; physics teacher;

competence-based curriculum
* Corresponding author: Kizito Ndihokubwayo; Email: ndihokubwayokizito@gmail.com
©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

2
1. Introduction
Any teacher in any subject needs to prepare the lesson before implementing it in
the classroom. There are many types of pedagogical documents that teachers need
as their daily instruments. These include the scheme of work, lesson plan, class
diary, mark sheet, attendance list, notebook, evaluation notebook, exercise
notebook, and so forth. However, these documents are importantly used for
different purposes according to different teachers and education systems across
the world. A system of training teachers in the Rwandan education system date
back to colonialism around the 1900s, when formal education was introduced.
Before competence-based curriculum (CBC), the knowledge-based curriculum
(KBC) also emphasized much on effective PDs. However, the current CBC (REB,
2015b) focuses on learner-centered as one of the millennium development goals
implemented in 2000 (Abbott, Sapsford & Rwirahira, 2015; Nsengimana et al.,
2020). As of 2016, all teachers were required to shift from knowledge-based
approaches and adapt to competence-based approaches. Except for content
knowledge, others related to pedagogical knowledge, instructional tool, and
methods have all shifted towards learner engagement related approaches,
including the ways of preparing PDs.
Pedagogical documents are essential because they guide teachers to the expected
destination. For instance, the work (SW) scheme guides teachers in a whole year
or term (REB, 2015c). SW focuses on unit planning, while lesson plan (LP) focuses
on topic planning (REB, 2015a). SW consists of what a teacher will teach in a term.
It is a well-scheduled document in the form of a bunch of lessons, while an LP is
a sheet of paper showing what the teacher will follow during a class of one or two
periods (REB, 2017). Jacobs, Martin, and Otieno (2008) refer to a lesson plan to a
teacher's day-to-day teaching practice focusing on pedagogical knowledge. PDs
are vital because they guide teachers' daily work. The scheme of work should be
well prepared to guide the teacher to schedule the lesson for an extended time
frame, while a lesson plan should be well prepared to reflect what will be done in
a real classroom. An investigation carried out in Rwanda during learning optics
showed the low performance and conceptual understanding of geometric optics
(Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro & Ndayambaje, 2020a) and physical optics
(Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020). Therefore, we were interested in analyzing these
documents used by some physics teachers to check the way teachers prepare their
PDs, mainly LPs. Planning is key for any teacher for his/her professional
development (Ruys, van Keer & Aelterman, 2012). Pramoolsook and Magday
(2019) and Sawyer and Myers (2018) assume that a lesson plan is a precise
reflection of what arises in the classroom. Thus, a link between teacher’s planning
and students’ outcome should arise. This study will help teachers to value the
preparation before the class takes place using various LP tools. Teachers generally
prepare the lesson plans for evaluation purposes by school administrators
(Causton-Theoharis, Theoharis & Trezek, 2008; Sawyer & Myers, 2018; Theoharis
& Causton-Theoharis, 2011), such as monitoring classroom curriculum
implementation. However, they can serve as a roadmap to teachers for effective
classroom implementation. They can also ensure that lesson plans are available
and clear for substitutes in case the teacher is absent (Jacobs et al., 2008). The LPs
include references to page numbers to be covered in the textbook, problems to be
assigned as homework, and lists of standards or objectives to be covered during
the lesson delivery.

3
The use of both lesson plan analysis protocol (LPAP) and lesson plan evaluation
form (LPEF) is limited to LP only. Therefore, classroom observation should serve
as a supplement to obtain data about the program under investigation. The lesson
plan tools are used to prescribe the components of a program in terms of
established models quantitatively and help determine the program's level of
implementation (Boikhutso, 2010; Pramoolsook & Magday, 2019). A lesson plan
analysis tool is a scalable and broader lens to support other tools that measure
teaching behavior, such as classroom observation. However, it does not show
evidence about lesson enactment until post-lesson information is delivered (Diem
& Thathong, 2019; Jacobs et al., 2008).
1.1 Research problem

It is essential to check what was planned before observation. The literature shows
a strong relationship between teacher planning and student outcomes, as it is
assumed that the teacher's lesson plan reflects the classroom activity (JICA, 2020).
Therefore, LPs would be useful in program evaluation, such as tracking CBC
implementation and teacher assessment. The SIIQS† project initiated lesson plan
analysis through lesson study activity in Rwanda; however, there have been no
studies evaluated of lesson plans for the physics CBC. Consecutive studies done
in Rwanda found gaps both in pedagogical document preparation and classroom
teaching practices. For instance, Byusa, Kampire, and Mwesigye (2020) found that
the teachers do not take the PDs as their guide; instead, they only care about
presenting them to education authorities such as district education officers,
headteachers, or deputy headteacher in charge of studies. Ndihokubwayo,
Uwamahoro and Ndayambaje (2020b) observed 42 physics classes using the
RTOP tool and found that reformed teaching is 53% and teachers are running out
of time and do not care about inquiry instruction. Nowadays, the inquiry is
gradually receiving considerable room in many developing countries' science
curriculum though it is at its early stage in Rwanda (Mugabo, 2012).
1.2 Research questions

This study aims at reviewing Rwandan physics teachers’ lesson plans in line with
the following research questions:
i) To what extent do physics teachers' lesson plans reflect on a

competence-based curriculum?
ii) How do physics teachers prepare their lesson plans based on cognitive
and practical Bloom Taxonomy's domains?
iii) Do physics teachers introduce inquiry-based planned instruction in
their lesson plans?
This study bridges the gap between teacher lesson preparation and real classroom
practices. It shows teachers an effective way of lesson planning. Therefore, we
hypothesize that there will be no difference among teachers in terms of lesson
preparation. This research's novelty is that we designed and validated a model
lesson plan that any teacher can refer to.
†
SIIQS: Project for Supporting Institutionalizing and Improving the Quality of School-Based In-
service Teacher Training Activity

4
2. Methods and Procedures

This is basic and applied research (Orodho et al., 2016). It is basic in a way that it
adds knowledge of Rwandan physics teachers’ lesson planning to existing
literature while is applied in a way that we have designed a model lesson plan for
teachers’ references. We have used a mixed methodology to present the data.
Thus, we have documented the characteristics of the lesson plans and discussed
the variability among teachers.
2.1 Sample scope

To carry out this study, we got an ethical clearance from the research and
innovation unit at the University of Rwanda College of Education (URCE) for and
research permission from distinguished districts. We, in May 2019, have visited
two schools in Kigali and the Eastern province, Rwanda. Our sample targeted 11
physics teachers from four districts in Rwanda selected purposively from schools
accommodating advanced level—grade 10 and 11—science, including physics
subject. We invited them to share with us the taught lesson plans related to optics.
These LPs should have been used in the last term (from middle January and early
April 2019). Eight teachers shared with us their lesson plans in hand or online.
Three of eight teachers shared the LPs that are not relevant. One teacher shared
mathematics LPs; two teachers shared LPs of mechanics related topics such as
"Kinematics and simple harmonic motion," "Simple harmonic oscillation (Simple
pendulum)," "Simple harmonic oscillator (Mass suspended from a coiled spring)"
and "Representation, characteristics, and properties of sounds waves." Among
these two teachers, one shared LPs related to optics but from 2018. We did not
consider all of these LPs from three teachers for our analysis. Thus, our analysis
took a case of five physics teachers' lesson plans. We have collected 32 LPs,
representing approximately 54% of the sampled teachers (Appendix A).
2.2 Data sources

We used two necessary LP analysis tools to carry out this study. The LPAP of
Ndihokubwayo et al. (2020) and the LPEF of Ferrell (1992). LPAP analyses nine
elements of a competence-based lesson plan. These 9 LPAP elements consist 27
items (Ndihokubway et al., 2020). The nine elements are sub-sectioned into three
stages: preliminary elements, the body of the content, and the accessories. "A
Lesson Plan Evaluation Form (LPEF) was developed to provide systematic
quantitative data about classroom functioning (Ferrel 1992, p. 23)." The LPEF
involves three models—curriculum, Bloom Taxonomy domains, and inquiry
techniques—of learning used in developing a curriculum where each lesson plan
is scrutinized to determine the level to which it reflected the discerned curriculum
elements (Ferrell, 1992). The developer of LPEF used the Inquiry Model to weigh
the degree to which the LPs reflected a chance to gather and organize data and
formulate and test hypotheses. The LPAP components align with LP format for a
competence-based curriculum (REB, 2019) while LPEF calls upon the inquiry-
based physics instruction (Ferrell, 1992) and illuminates the outcome from teacher
planned teaching practices.
2.3 Reliability analysis

In analyzing these 32 LPs, we read all the documents and classified them
according to the reserved scales (see Table 1). We used SPSS version 23.0 to
analyze both reliability tests and data presented in the results section.

5
Table 1: LPAP scales (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020)

Explanation Scale 1 Scale 2 Scale 3 Scale 4
Item1 Related to Key Unit Competence Not written Written but not related to Written in summary and related Written in full and related to syllabus
(KUC) syllabus to syllabus
Item2 Related to the format of the lesson More than three Triple Double title Single title
title
Item3-4 Relationship between lesson title Definitely not Probably not Probably yes Definitely yes
and time, and the connection to
the syllabus
Item5 Related to Instructional Objective Not written Written but Not related to Written and related to the topic Written and related to the topic and
(IO) the topic content
Item6 Number of IO components None One to two Three to four All five
Item7 Related to Special Education Not written "none" or "-" or the teacher Describe only Write the number and describe
Needs (SEN) writes a number only
Item8 Addressing SEN Not addressed Not clear where it was Addressed in IO or Description Addressed in Introduction to the lesson
addressed of Teaching and Learning (Intro), or Lesson development (Dev), or
Activity (DTLA) Conclusion of the lesson (Concl))
Item9 Related to DTLA Not written Written but not related Written but does not show well Written and shows well what will be done
what will be done in the lesson in the lesson
Item10-12 Writing the content of the lesson Not written Written but unclear (or not Written but not describe (outline) Written and well described
related)
Item13-14 Stages of the development and Components Not clear/not identifiable Other components apart from Components outlined in "Note" are
conclusion sections outlined in "Note" those outlined in "Note." present
are absent
Item15-23 Teaching resources (TR), Not visualized Visualized but not clear At least one is visualized and More than one is visualized and clear
Formative assessment (FA), clear
Active learning techniques
(ALT)in the content of the lesson
Item24 If visualized, was the ALT used Definitely not Probably not Probably yes Definitely yes
with purpose?
Item25-26 Generic competences (GCs) and Not written Not clear Outlined only Outlined and described
Cross-cutting issues (CCIs)
Item27 Teacher self-evaluation (TSE) Not written Written but not clear The teacher writes a simple word The teacher well describes with the next
"well or not well done" step

6
The criterion validity check has shown that the data from the LPAP were
consistent with data from other more standardized evaluation tools such as
Lesson Plan Evaluation Form (LPEF) and Science Lesson Plan Analysis
Instrument (SLPAI). A positive correlation (Pearson product-moment coefficient
r > .50) was detected across "Lesson approaches" of LPAP, "Inquiry techniques" of
LPEF, and "Student inquiry" of the SLPAI items.
Each lesson plan was assigned a number and separately rated by two raters from
the African Center of Excellence for Innovative Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) based at the University of Rwanda College
of Education (URCE); among them, one is the first author of this study. These
raters are experienced in analyzing lesson plans and are familiar with the LPAP.
The Spearman's rho among the raters was computed and found to be .81, while
the weighted kappa was found to be .72 across 27 LPAP items. Thus, the raters
did not differ in the way in which they rated the lesson plans.
The preliminaries (item1-9) got a reliability coefficient of .92 (and a weighted

Kappa of .87) across 32 LPs averaged from two raters. The body of the content
(item 10-24) got a reliability coefficient of .79 (and a weighted Kappa of .69), while
the accessories (item 25-27) got .58 (and a weighted Kappa of .48). Table 2 presents
detailed interrater reliability among 9 LPAP elements.
Table 2: Interrater reliability statistics across LPAP elements

LPAP elements Spearman's rho Weighted Kappa
(K)
Key unit competence 0.871 0.875
Title of the lesson 0.857 0.742
Instructional objective 0.969 0.968
Special Education Needs 1 1
Lesson description (DTLA) 0.897 0.758
Lesson stages 0.412 0.324
Lesson approaches 0.980 0.869
Generic competences and Cross-cutting 0.369 0.214
issues
Lesson evaluation 1 1
The inter-rater reliability for LPEF was similarly based on the same LPAP raters
scoring a sample of the same 32 LPs. The Spearman's rho among the raters was
computed and found to be .93, while the weighted Kappa was found to be .79
across all selected LPEF items.
Alongside rate agreement among raters, Cohen's Kappa is used to remove

agreement by chance (Cohen, 1988). Its interpretation is moderate when K is >.5,
reasonable when K is >.7, and excellent when K is >.8. For ordinal data, the
Spearman-Brown coefficient is considered, and a weighted Kappa is computed to
provide an ordinal outcome.

7
To supplement our study results, we have crafted and validated a model lesson
plan that any physics teacher can refer to (see Appendix C).
3. Data Analysis and Results

Each rater has rated all 32 LPs into four LPAP scales according to each of the 27
LPAP items. We have averaged the results from both raters and computed means
for each item. All teachers did not use the REB LP format. This is the reason why
tracking the steps of inquiry techniques was difficult. The new REB LP format
appears in the textbooks printed in 2019 (REB, 2019). However, teachers did not
yet adapt themselves to it. This may be the lack of emphasis from REB. Teachers
should be well informed of their roles. This format has segments in the
development and conclusion sections of the LP, where the development section
of the LP comprises discovery activities, presentation learners' findings
production, and exploitation of findings/production, and the conclusion section
comprises conclusion/summary and assessment/homework.
It can be found that there is a variety rate across all 27 items on a 4-point scale.
Thus, some items were rated one (on scale 1) while others were rated four (on
scale 4). This is to clarify that, for instance, most of the teachers did not write SEN
or wrote "none" or "-" or a number only and scored below an average score of 2.0.
However, none of this written SEN was addressed in the body of the lesson. Thus,
both raters rated this item on scale-1. However, they connect the lesson title to the
syllabus—as both raters rated this item into the scale-4. In other words, teachers
consult the syllabus in formulating the lesson topic. All teachers write the IO in
all the LPs, although they miss some components, mostly condition and standard
(see Table 3).
Table 3: LPAP mean scores from two raters

Mean Mean Mean SD
Rater1 Rater2 Rater1 Rater1
&2 &2
Item1 Written KUC and how it is written 3.6 3.7 3.6 0.95
Item2 Format of the lesson title 3.8 3.8 3.8 0.46
Item3 Lesson title time-bound 3.2 3.8 3.5 1.11
Item4 Syllabus connected to the lesson title 4 4 4 0
Item5 Written IO and how it is written 4 4 4 0
Item6 Number of IO components 3.5 3.4 3.5 0.5
Item7 Written SEN and description 1.8 1.8 1.8 0.84
Item8 Addressed SEN and the place where 1 1 1 0
it is addressed
Item9 Written DTLA and how it is written 3.1 3.1 3.1 1.31
Item10 Lesson introduction 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.42
Item11 Lesson development 3.5 3.5 3.5 0.5
Item12 Lesson conclusion 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.42
Item13 Components of the lesson 1.8 1.1 1.4 0.53
development
Item14 Components of the lesson conclusion 2.1 1.3 1.7 0.91
Item15 TR in Introduction to the lesson 1.3 1.3 1.3 0.67

8
Item16 TR in Development of the lesson 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.14

Item17 TR in Conclusion of the lesson 1.6 1.6 1.6 0.92
Item18 FA in Introduction to the lesson 2.6 2.7 2.6 0.76
Item19 FA in Development of the lesson 3.1 3.1 3.1 0.64
Item20 FA in Conclusion of the lesson 2.9 3 3 0.28
Item21 ALT in Introduction to the lesson 2.9 2.9 2.9 0.44
Item22 ALT in Development of the lesson 3.1 3.2 3.2 1.01
Item23 ALT in Conclusion of the lesson 3.2 3.2 3.2 0.68
Item24 If visualized, was the ALT used with 4 2.3 3.1 1.17
purpose?
Item25 GCs 4 3.7 3.8 0.37
Item26 CCIs 3.9 3.6 3.8 0.62
Item27 TSE 2.6 2.6 2.6 0.83
Active learning techniques (ALT) were mostly provided than formative

assessment (FA) and teaching resources (TR) (refer to Appendix B for more
detail). They were observed mostly in the Development and Conclusion of the
lesson than in the Introduction. This was reflected by the high percentage of LPs
in the Development of the lesson (47%) and the Conclusion of the lesson (28%).
The TRs were not visualized compared to FA and ALT in both parts of the
lesson—Introduction, Development, and Conclusion. This was reflected by the
highest percentages of LPs rated into scale 1 "not visualized"—Introduction
(87.5%), Development (37.5%), and Conclusion (68.8%) (see Figure 1).
% of LPs
0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0%120.0%
TR in Introduction of the lesson
TR in Development of the lesson
Lesson Approaches
TR in Conclusion of the lesson

FA in Introduction of the lesson
FA in Development of the lesson
FA in Conclusion of the lesson
ALT in Introduction of the lesson
ALT in Development of the lesson
ALT in Conclusion of the lesson
If visualized, was the ALT used with purpose?
Scale1 Scale2 Scale3 Scale4
Figure 1: Distribution of LPs into the Lesson Approaches group. Scale-1 "Not
visualized" scale-2 "Visualized but not clear" scale-3 "At least one is visualized and
clear" scale-4 "More than one is visualized and clear." On the "If visualized, was the
ALT used with purpose?" the scale-1 is "Definitely not," scale-2 is "Probably not"
scale-3 is "Probably yes," and scale-4 is "Definitely yes."
The descriptive statistics associated with LPAP scales across five physics teachers
are reported in Table 4. We evaluated the assumption of normality to satisfy

9
distribution in these five teachers; the Skewness and Kurtosis were found
negative. Skew is about distributional symmetry, while Kurtosis is the thickness
of the tails and the center of the distribution (Blanca, Arnau, López-Montiel, Bono
& Bendayan, 2013). Thus, the data are not normally distributed; instead, they are
negatively skewed. Teachers are mostly ranked towards the scale-4 of LPAP.
Similarly, the data are negative Kurtosis distribution as the data in distribution is
short and wide.
Table 4: Descriptive statistics

Mean Std. Variance Skewness Kurtosis
Deviation
Statistic Std. Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic
Error
MeanTeacher1 2.778 .1945 1.0105 1.021 -.496 -.858
MeanTeacher2 2.926 .1910 .9924 .985 -.691 -.716
MeanTeacher3 2.919 .1803 .9368 .878 -.664 -.370
MeanTeacher4 2.892 .2035 1.0576 1.118 -.655 -.843
MeanTeacher5 2.639 .2182 1.1337 1.285 -.416 -1.253
In order to test the hypothesis that teachers plan their lesson similarly, we
performed the correlation analysis and analysis of variances (ANOVA). A .929
Cronbach alpha coefficient was found. Thus, the correlation is highly positive
among five teachers. The independent between-groups ANOVA did not yield a
statistically significant difference, F(26, 4)=1.386, p=.244. Thus, we retain a null
hypothesis of no difference between teachers in terms of LP preparation. The
teachers' means are crossly related, ranging from Teacher 5 (M=2.639) to Teacher
2 (M=2.926).
Among 32 LPs, only four LPs open the Introduction of the lesson by revising the
last lesson. This is important from the constructivist point of view in a way that
students should build on existing knowledge. Analyzing deep the formative
assessment and active learning techniques, we employed the LPEF tool to
compute scores on cognitive and affective levels of Bloom taxonomy to respond
to the FA and the inquiry techniques as an ALT for most experiment-based LPs.
The digits under table 4 are average scores from two raters at a 1-to 4-point Likert
type scale from 1 "the item was definitely not appeared" to 4 "the item has
definitely appeared."
From the Bloom taxonomy perspectives' cognitive level, teachers plan for only
delivering knowledge and assure that understanding is set in. This is shown by
the mean score (4.0) across all 32 LPs. Even the application of what was learned
was found below the average of 2.0. Similarly, at the adequate level of Bloom
taxonomy perspectives, teachers care for making their students receive
information (M=4.0) and attend (M=4.0) to and respond (M=3.1) asked questions
(see Table 5).

10
Table 5: Results from the Lesson Plan Evaluation Form 1: Definitely not, 2: Probably not, 3: Probably yes, and 4: Definitely yes
Cognitive Level of Bloom Taxonomy Affective Level of Bloom Taxonomy Inquiry techniques
LP code
Comprehension
Characterizatio
Data collection
Hypothesizing
Organization
organization
Responding
Application
Knowledge
Hypothesis
Evaluation
Attending
Receiving
Synthesis
Analysis
Valuing
testing
Data
n
PT1A 4 4 1 2 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT1B 4 4 1 2 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT1C 4 4 1 2 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT1D 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT1E 4 4 4 2 2 2 4 4 4 1 3 2
PT2A 4 4 3 2 1 1 4 4 3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1
PT2B 4 4 3 2 1 1 4 4 3 1 3 1 3 3 1 1
PT2C 4 4 1 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT2D 4 4 1 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT2E 4 4 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT2F 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT2G 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1
PT2H 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1
PT2J 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1
PT3A 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 3 1 1 1
PT3B 4 4 2 2 1 2 4 4 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 1
PT3C 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 1 1 1
PT3D 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

11
PT3E 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
PT3G 4 4 2 1 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1 4 3 1 1
PT3I 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT3K 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT3M 4 4 2 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
PT3N 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 1 1 1
PT4A 4 4 2 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 3 2 4 2
PT4B 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 2 1
PT4C 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3
PT4D 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3
PT4E 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3
PT4F 4 4 3 2 3 3 4 4 2 4 2 2 3
PT5A 4 4 1 1 1 1 4 4 2 1 1 1
PT5B 4 4 2 1 1 3 4 4 2 1 1 1
Mean 4.0 4.0 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.8 4.0 4.0 3.1 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.6 1.1
St. Dev 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.0 0.0 0.8 1.0 0.7 0.4 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.3

12
The space with no number refers to LPs that were not related to experimentation.
We then noted that other LPs would implement inquiry techniques. However,
such practice was not visualized. It seems that teachers are not aware of inquiry-
based learning techniques and those who are aware of them think that it can only
be implemented in experiment related lessons. Our results show that the use of
inquiry techniques was below the average of 2.0. Contrary wise, in the Ferrell
(1992) study, the LPEF analysis findings indicate that teachers follow an excellent
teaching practice during their lesson planning. Only in four LPs, the teacher
planned to ask students to hypothesize or predict the outcome of observation (see
Table 5). This is in line with a study by Ndihokubwayo, Uwamahoro &
Ndayambaje (2020), who, via RTOP results, found that teachers do not promote
prediction among students. The inquiry is associated with science, a complex
activity involving observation, questioning, examining various sources of
information to reveal what is already known in the light of experimental evidence,
investigating inferences by gathering/analyze/and interpret data, proposing
answers and explanations, and communicating the outcome (Mugabo, 2012).
4. Discussion of Practical Implication

Teacher 1 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit; the learner should
be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4.
Teacher 1 fully used group formulation in all LPs, where he emphasized on

mixing girls and boys as a criterion of the group formulation. This may be caused
by the gender inclusion expected in the 8 CCIs (REB, 2015b). This inclusion is
subtle. However, teachers should go beyond this and ensure that boys and girls
have the same learning rights. Contrary wise, Teacher 4 mentioned it. He wrote:
"gender balance: boys and girls are given equal responsibilities." Teachers should
also emphasize the inclusion of able students and struggling students to employ
a specific ALT purposively (refer to Appendix B for more detail). In presenting
the results, the teacher only uses the group leader. This act may discourage other
students and pressure the group leader. It is better to randomly select the
presenter so that everyone is ready to work as none knows who will present the
group findings. In describing the competences to be accommodated, the teacher
usually mentions: "skills in organizing scattered data to develop systematic,
observation, and detailed presentation"; however, in the teacher or students'
activity, there was not appearance of any doing an experiment, observing nature
or inquiry. He also wrote that "skills in report presentation, for example, in
Microsoft PowerPoint" while in the teacher or student activities, it appears
presenting on the blackboard. An LP serves as a map guiding the teacher during
the teaching process (Ndihokubwayo et al. 2020). However, it seems it is a
formality. For instance, in the "learning materials" place, the teacher mentions
some materials such as a calculator, internet connection. However, he does not
describe how they will be used in the main lesson (teacher and learner activities).
Straessle (2014) found that many teachers use written lesson plans but they do not
often refer to them during class delivery. Therefore, teachers need to take LPs as
their road map toward effective lesson delivery. Teachers should write their
lesson plan with full consideration. They should revise it to check everything is in
place. Refer to a model lesson plan in Appendix C3 as a standardized and full
lesson plan.

13
Teacher 2 planned the lessons from the KUC "by the end of this unit, the learner should
be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4, and
"the learner should be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.
Teacher 2 outlined the activities to be done by students and teachers. She took the
students into experiments and discussion of results through group work. She said
the teacher should do the first activity of the experiment while students do the
next step. However, this is good; however, this is good; she may be sure that
students cannot do even the first step if the teacher guides them skillfully. She
outlined the GCs and CCIs without explaining how they will be catered and
achieved. Thus, their role according to each and specific activity is lost. Teacher 2
differs from Teacher 1 in the way that she planned for the experiment, although
she did not provide the name of an experiment to be done or specifies its steps.
The teacher considered writing a lab report as an assessment during the
Conclusion of the lesson. The study of Amanda G. Sawyer showed that teachers
vary in the choices of resources for lesson planning due to their different
experiences.
be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" and "by the end
of this unit, the learner should be able to analyze the function of the simple and compound
microscope" from S4.
In the lesson on Measuring the focal length of the convex lens, the teacher set the
IO well (refer to Appendix B for more detail). For instance, he wrote, "given lenses
and other necessary apparatus, learners should be able to determine the focal
length of a convex lens effectively." This is in line with the Straessle (2014) study,
where teachers did not differentiate among the components of lesson planning,
although they care about clear learning objectives than other components.
Most of the time, the teacher introduces before learners are assigned to the group
works. He then emphasizes that students should follow his explanation actively.
In some of the LPs, the teacher described the SEN though he did not address them
in the lesson development. For instance, he wrote, "some students are quick while
others are slow in learning." Somewhere he even specifies the number "five
students have difficulties in understanding English" or "five students have
disruptive behavior." Always the teacher summarizes or concludes the lesson, and
students take notes.
be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.
Most of all the teachers used a particular ALT without purpose. For instance,
Teacher 4 started by assigning students into groups. The use of such group work
should take a source, for example, after assigning students with individual work,
and the teacher notices difficulties among students to perform the given activity
or exercise. Most of the teachers ask questions in the Conclusion and expect
students to respond to those questions. However, these questions are not
mentioned. These questions or exercises should be different from what was
discussed in the lesson to avoid memorization and promote thinking. Thus,

14
students should use what was learned to answer questions or perform exercises
and not copy what they learned. This will increase their critical thinking as they
achieved competence, and the lesson will be viewed at a wide-angle (to be used
in various contexts). Our results show that teachers do not plan for a significant
assignment that reflects students' context and the use of what was learned clearly.
The Straessle (2014) study revealed that when creating assignments, teachers use
real-world connections significantly more frequently than any other facet. This
real-world context should be reflected when teachers emphasize allowing
students to connect themselves and what they learn to their real-life situations.
Moreover, this is well outlined and recommended in the syllabus (REB, 2015a)
daily use.
Teacher 4 planned to request students to interpret their results. This is very

important in promoting critical thinking. It alerts students that observation or
experimentation is not a standalone lesson objective; instead, a further inference
of the results is necessary to get the meaning of what they learn. Most of the
teachers care about critical thinking as a GC. Only teacher 4 emphasizes long-life
learning. For instance, "students will develop long-life learning by taking the
initiative to update knowledge and skills with minimum external support." This
is very crucial to motivate such senior five students to look further in their future.
It may help them to plan for their future studies and career.
Teacher 4 describes the "DTLA" well. For instance, in the lesson of "measuring the
Plank's constant," he wrote the DTLA: "using an electronic circuit containing a
LED power supply, digital millimeter, and a digital voltmeter, learners with the
help of the teacher describe how to measure Plank's constant." This may guide
anyone who reads the LP (for instance, before observing class) on what will be
done during the teaching and learning process. Teacher 4 encourages the students
to make a prediction. This helps students to observe and think by relating their
prerequisite knowledge to a new observation. Teachers outline what will be done
in the lesson but do not describe what and how they will be done. In the case of
teaching activity, if, for example, the teacher is not available to teach the lesson,
Deputy Of Studies will not have an opportunity to assign another teacher to teach
such lessons as it is not well and fully elaborated.
be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses" from S4 and "by
the end of this unit, the learner should be able to analyze the nature of light" from S5.
Teacher 5 planed to provide short notes to students and give time to copy notes.
He is brief in planning all the LP steps, even in writing the KUC in full. Thus, he
shortened the KUC. He wrote, "explain the properties of lenses."
Most of the teachers start the introduction section by asking students questions
about the previous lesson. None of the teachers uses the LP format segmenting
the development section into discovery activities, presentation learners' findings
production, exploitation findings production, and the conclusion section into
conclusion/summary and assessment/homework. This shows why all LPs show
a poor description of activities to be done during the teaching and learning
process. Thus, if the teacher fills the LP format by planning for these components

15
of development and conclusion sections, the LP would be clearer and directive to

any other teacher or any classroom observer.
5. Conclusion and limitations

In this study, LPAP findings showed that physics teachers' lesson plans do not
reflect well on the competence-based curriculum. Teachers do not follow the REB
LP format, do not cater to slow learners, and are reluctant to use effective active
learning techniques. There is no need to limit teachers on which lesson plan
format to use; however, REB needs to guide them effectively during in-service
teacher training. Probably, what is essential is not the format, rather what to
consider while planning a lesson. Our findings show that the LPEF analysis
indicates that teachers do not use higher levels of the cognitive and affective
domains. Teachers do not consider following inquiry techniques too. Data from
the lesson plan analysis should be supplemented by classroom observation.
Although reviewing lesson plans added little to the accuracy of rating a teacher's
performance, however, this is a reasonable prediction that if a good preparation
were considered, the reformed teaching would also increase. The limitations of
our study lie on small sample disabling us to generalize our results. Therefore,
further studies should focus on the scheme of work as an important pedagogical
document and check its alignment to the lesson plan with a sounding teachers’
sample as well as lesson delivery.
Acknowledgment
This research was financially supported by the African Center of Excellence for
Innovative Teaching and Learning of Mathematics and Science (ACEITLMS) of
the University of Rwanda (UR). We would like to extend our gratitude to the
individuals who evaluated the lesson plan presented in this research. Without
their comments, critics, and views, the lesson presented would not have rich
information and fruitful to our dedicated teachers. This is why Ms. Pascasie
Nyirahabimana, Mr. Hashituky Telesphore Habiyaremye, Mr. Jean Nepomscène
Twahirwa, Mr. Jean de Dieu Nkurikiyimana, and Ms. Jeannette
Nyirahagenimana, all their inputs are acknowledged. We highly appreciate the
editor and reviewers from IJLTER; their comments and suggestions were valuable
and helped us improve this study. We also thank Mr. Fidèle Ukobizaba and Miss
Juliette Itangishatse, who commented on the manuscript before sending it to the
IJLTER for review and publication. This work was also inspired by JICA experts
that worked for the SIIQS project; therefore, they are acknowledged.
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Appendices
Appendix A: Pedagogical document reviewed

We have requested LPs from 11 teachers. We analyzed 32 lesson plans from five
teachers, where 24 were from S4 while eight were from S5. Fourteen LPs were
single lessons of 40 minutes period, 10 were double periods of 80 minutes each,
while 8 had triple periods of 120 minutes each.
Table A1: Lesson Plans collected alongside the optics content

no Topic Date Min
S4 lesson plans
1 Magnification of the lens, Power of the lens, and 6/2/2019 40
exercises on formula of the lens
2 Determination of the focal length of the lens 8/2/2019 40
3 Refraction through a prism (deviation of light by a 15/2/2019 40
prism)
4 The angle of minimum deviation and 16/2/2019 40
determination of the refractive index
5 Summary (Exercises) of all topics in this unit by 21/2/2098 40
giving exercises

18
1 Minimum deviation angles in prisms 6/1/2019 40

2 Physical features and types of thin lenses 21/1/2019 40
3 The image formed by a thin lens 23/1/2019 40
4 The formula of a thin lens 28/1/2019 40
5 Refraction of light through a prism 29/1/2019 40
6 Angles of minimum deviation and refractive index 30/1/2019 40
7 Deviation of light by a small angle of the prism 4/2/2019 40
8 Refractive index of the material 5/2/2019 40
1 Thin lens 25/1/2019 80
1 Thin lens equation 22/1/2019 120

2 Measurement of the focal length of a convex lens 29/1/2019 120
3 Defects of lenses and their correction. 5/2/2019 120
Refraction through prism
4 Refraction through a prism, a term associated with 7/2/2019 120
refraction through a prism
5 Deviation of light rays by a glass prism. 12/02/2019 120
The angle of minimum deviation and
determination of the refractive index
6 The angle of minimum deviation of a glass prism 14/2/2019 120
7 Lens maker's equation (Full lens equation) 19/2/2019 120
8 Definition of an optical instrument and angular 25/2/2019 80
magnification, the human eye, and visual angle
9 Formation of the image by a lens camera 28/2/2019 120
Slide projector
10 The terrestrial telescope, Galilean and reflecting 11/3/2019 80
telescope
S5 lesson plans
1 Compton effect and photon interaction 25/1/2019 40
1 Wave and particle nature of light 18/1/2019 80
1 The measure of Planck's constant 22/1/2019 80

2 Representation, characteristics, and properties of 28/1/2019 80
sounds waves
3 Blackbody radiation 31/1/2019 80
4 Guidelines for doing physics practical 31/1/2019 80
5 Compton effect and photon interaction 7/2/2019 80
6 Electron microscope 12/2/2019 80
Appendix B: Lack of IO and Presence of TR, FA, and ALT among

reviewed LPs
In this appendix, we presented what IO components lacked in LPs written by five

teachers (Table B1) and the presence of TR, FA, and ALT among five teachers' LPs
(Table B2).
Table B1 Lack of IO

19
Condition Who Action Content Standard/criterion

T1 5 4
T2 5 10
T3 1
T4 1 1
T5 2 2
Table B2 The presence of TR, FA, and ALT

TR FA ALT
T1 Pen, Pencil (1) Questioning (5) Group discussion (4)
Pen, Pencil, Prism (2) Group activities (2) Group activities (2)
Pen, Pencil, Prism, Calculator (2)
T2 Prism, pens, paper (3) Questioning (9) Lab activities (1)
Ruler, textbooks (1) Group activities (8) Discussion (2)
Charts (2) Group activities (9)
Blackboard, Chalk Board (1) Presentation (2)
Demonstration (1)
Providing examples
(1)
T3 Chalks, notebooks, figures Questioning (5) Group activities (9)
Chalks, notebooks, figures, Group activities (5) Presentation (3)
experiment protocol
Chalks, notebooks, pens. Exercises, quiz (4)
Chalks, notebooks, pens, prism
Calculator, notebooks, pens,
Equilateral Glass Prism
Calculator, notebooks, pens.
Chart, simple microscope,
Calculator, notebooks, pens.
Lens Camera, slide projector, pens
(2)
T4 String Questioning (6) Group discussion (4)
White and black clothes, sunlight Presentation (2)
(2)
Marbles Group activities (1)
Simple magnifying glasses Brainstorming (3)
Roleplay (4)
Note-taking (6)
T5 Questioning (2) Group discussion (2)
Presentation (1)
Roleplay (1)
Note-taking (2)
Appendix C: Model Lesson Plan
Preparation for class may take many forms. Notably, there are 2 phases before a
teacher enters the class and the other two after he/she enters the class. These are
pre-plan, lesson planning, and lesson delivery, and teacher assessment (REB,
2017). The pre-plan is when a teacher thinks about what he/she will do, what is

20
needed, which method, materials, or teaching aids he/she will use, how he/she
will cater to students, manage class, including varieties among students. After
pre-planning mentally, the teacher needs to plan on the paper. This is the lesson
planning phase.
To write the model Physics LP, we have chosen to only focus on one topic
(Determination of the refractive index of the prism) and planned to be taught in 2
periods (see Table C1). We consulted the syllabus (Rwanda Education Board,
2015a, pp. 23-24), student textbook (Birindwa & Atwebembeire, 2016b, pp. 49-58),
and the teacher's guide (Birindwa & Atwebembeire, 2016, pp. 1-2 and 18-20).
Table C1 Scheme of work for Unit 1 Thin lenses
s/n Syllabus Student's book Teacher's guide (no of
periods)
1 Characteristics of lenses Characteristics of lenses Types of lenses and
2 Types of lenses: (pp. 4-6) their characteristics (2)
converging (double Terms used in lenses
convex, plan convex, (pp. 7-11)
convex meniscus) and
diverging (double
concave, plano-concave,
concave meniscus)
3 Refraction of light through Refraction of light Terms used in lenses,
lenses. through lenses (p. 12) refraction of light by
Properties of images lenses, Images formed
formed by lenses (pp. by lenses (2)
13-16)
4 Ray drawing and Ray diagrams and Ray diagrams and
properties of images properties of images images formed by lenses
formed by lenses for an formed (2)
object located at different by lenses (pp. 16-19)
positions. Ray diagrams for a
convex lens (pp. 20-23)
5 Graphical determination Accurate construction Graphical determination

of the focal length of of ray diagrams (pp. 23- of the focal length of a
lenses 24) convex
Lens (2)
6 Thin lens equation, Power The thin lens formula Thin lens formula
of lens, magnification, and (pp. 24-25) (equation), the sign
sign convention. The sign convention (p. convention (2)
25)
Derivation of the lens Magnification, Power of
formula (pp. 26-29) the lens (2)
Magnification (pp. 29-
30) Determination of focal
Applications of the lens length of a concave lens
formula (pp. 30-33) (2)
Power of the lens (p. 33)
Determination of the
focal length of the lens
(pp. 34-37)

21
7 Lens combination and Combination of lenses Combination of lenses,

effective focal length (pp. 37-40) and effective focal
8 Derivation of lenses Defects of lenses and length of the lens
formulae their corrections (pp. combination (2)
9 Defects and correction of 40-42) Defects of lenses and
lenses their corrections,
10 Applications of combined refraction
lenses through glass prisms
11 Refraction through prisms Refraction through (Introduction and terms
prisms (pp. 43-44) associated with
12 Terms associated with the Terms associated with refraction through the
refraction of passing refraction through a prisms) (2)
through a prism prism (pp. 44-45)
General formulae for
the prism (pp. 45-49)
13 Deviation of light rays by Deviation of light by a Determination of
a glass prism. prism (pp. 49-51) refractive index of the
14 The angle of minimum The angle of minimum prism;
deviation and the deviation and Deviation of light by the
determination of the determination of prism, Minimum
refractive index of a prism refractive index n of a deviation,
material of the prism Determination of
(pp. 51-53) refractive index of a
The angle of minimum material of a
deviation and the glass prism using
refractive index n of the minimum deviation (2)
material (pp. 53-54)
Deviation of light by a
small angle prism (pp.
54-57)
Determination of
refractive index of a
material of a prism (pp.
57-58)
15 Dispersion of light by a Dispersion of light by a Dispersion of light,
prism prism (pp. 58-59) Applications of total
16 Applications of total Applications of total internal
internal reflection of light internal reflection of reflection by a prism (2)
by a prism light by a prism (pp. 59-
60)
Use of prisms in
periscopes (pp. 60-61)
17 Problem-solving related to Exercises (pp. 62-68) Problem-solving related
combined thin lenses and to combined thin lenses
refraction of light and
refraction of light (2)
The unit of thin lenses comprises 17 topics (REB, 2015a, pp. 23-24) to be completed
in 24 periods (one period is 40 minutes). Six topics are related to prism—refraction
through prisms, terms associated with the refraction of passing through a prism,
deviation of light rays by a glass prism, angle of minimum deviation and the

22
determination of the refractive index of a prism, dispersion of light by a prism,

and applications of total internal reflection of light by a prism.
Table C2 is the sample lesson plan. This is one LP (Table D1) from sampled 32
LPs. It is the one we referred to during preparing the model physics lesson plan
(Table C3).
Table C2: Sample LP

23
Note that the lesson plan we drafted is in the format recommended by the REB.
We followed their format, but the content was prepared as an example by
ourselves to support the LP under Table C2. So, the mistakes or misinformation
that may be brought by our content has no way to be attributed to REB or teacher's
LP under Table C2. However, we have validated it to the extent it can serve as a
model lesson plan to be consulted by any physics teacher for proper planning.
Our LP draft was shared with seven people. These were three URCE assistant
physics lecturers (among them one teach teaching methods in addition to
physics), one consultant who worked for the SIIQS3 project, and three master
students at ACEITLMS/URCE who were physics teachers in secondary schools
before 2019. After receiving their validation reports (five reports from five people
who responded to our request), we have considered their suggestions and input
to enrich our LP draft and provide the current model LP (see Table C3).
3
SIIQS refers to the Project for Supporting Institutionalizing and Improving the Quality of SBI
(School-Based In-service Teacher Training) Activity. This project was piloted jointly by Rwanda
Education Board (REB) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) from 2017 to 2019

24
Table C3: Model lesson plan
School name: ………X……………………….. Teacher's name: …………X……...................................................

Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson No Duration Class size
No
I 12 February Physics Senior 4 1 10 of 12 80 Minutes 45
2019 PCB
Type of Special Educational Needs to be catered for in this One student has visual impairment (short-sightedness) while ten students are
lesson and number of learners in each category slow to understand physics concepts together with the other seven students fear
mathematical formulae
Unit title Thin lenses
Key Unit Competence By the end of this unit, the learner should be able to explain the properties of lenses and image formation by lenses
Title of the lesson Determination of refractive index of the Prism; Deviation of light by the Prism, Minimum deviation, Determination of
refractive index of a material of a glass prism using minimum deviation
Instructional Objective Through experiments using materials such as glass prism of refracting angle 60 o, a sheet of paper, soft board, pins, and
pencils, ruler, and protractor; through a series of exercises; learners should be able to:
• determine the refractive index of a material of a prism correctly.
• measure the angle of deviation d accurately
• plot a graph of deviation d against the angle of incidence accurately
• clearly explain the deviation formula and minimum deviation produced by a prism and its relationship with the
refractive index
• determine the refractive index of a material of a glass prism using the minimum deviation formula easily.
Plan for this Class This lesson will be conducted inside the classroom
(location: in / outside)
Learning Materials Glass prism, pins, white papers, soft board, pencils, ruler, protractor, calculators, notebooks
(for all learners)

25
References Physics for Rwandan secondary schools Learner's Book 4, Fountain Publishers
Timing for each step Description of teaching/learning activities
In groups, students perform experiments to determine the refractive index of the prism. The Generic competences
teacher provides materials, gives instructions, and guides students while students are busy and
working towards lesson objectives. Cross-cutting issues to
be addressed
Teacher's activities Learner's activities +
a short explanation
Teacher's activities
1. Introduction Ask questions about the previous lesson: Answer to asked questions GC: Communication
(10 min) -In optics, a prism is a transparent material like skills will be developed
-Describe a prism as an apparatus that refracts light glass or plastic that refracts light. At least two of through answering
-Write and interpret the Snell's law and the angle of the flat surfaces must have an angle of less than questions
the prism 90o between them. The exact angle between the
surfaces depends on the application. CC: Inclusive Education
Guide students in answering questions and will be catered for
clarifying for better conceptual understanding. -Note that given i1, r1, and i2, r2 as angles of throughout the lesson
incidence and refraction at F and G as shown and
n is the prism refractive index, then Snell's law
Identify students with poor understanding (slow holds. That is; Sin i1 = n sin r1, and Sin i2 = n sin
learners). Make sure everyone understands before r2.
the next lesson; otherwise, consider them in the
next lesson. Angle A: This is called the refracting angle or
angle of the prism. It is the angle between the
Make sure students with short-sightedness are inclined surfaces of the prism. r1 + r2 = A.
sitting in front.

26
2. Development Form groups (seven groups of 6-7 students) by Follow instructions and form groups as GC: Cooperation will be
of the lesson considering a mixture of both boys and girls, requested. developed through
(65 min) smart and slow learners. working together
Participate actively in groups by helping performing experiment
2.1 discovery Give instructions on what they are going to do each other to perform experiments and
activities (20 (experiment). following the procedure referred to in GC: Interpersonal
min) textbooks. relations and life skills
Assign different experiment tasks to different will be developed by
groups of students in order to keep time and call Experiment 1 (to be done by group 1, 4, and supporting each other
attention. 7) perform experiment
Determination of refractive index of a material
of a prism (activity 32, p. 57 student's book)
Ask students to follow the procedures and
record findings in their notebooks. Remind them Experiment 2 (to be done by group 2 and 5)
that they have different tasks and be ready to teach Deviation of light by the prism (activity 30, p.
their colleagues what every group did and found. 50 student's book)
Experiment 3 (to be done by group 3 and 6)
Guide each group to achieve expected results Minimum deviation (activity 31, p. 51 student's
and monitor the experiment procedure. book)
Note down the difficulties that groups face and Ask for guidance and record data on the
individuals' capabilities to learn which groups notebook.
will present in the next session.

27
2.2 presentation learners' Make sure students respect the time and spare GC: Communication skills
findings production time for them to share their findings. will be developed during
(15 min) students presentation
Depending on the teacher's notes (during
monitoring experimentation), assign one of the Group 1 or 4 or 7 shares what they did GC: Creativity and
groups who performed experiment 1 to related to experiment 1 in front of the innovation will be
present on what they did and found. It is class developed through
better to allow the group that got difficulties Group 2 or 5 shares what they did generating the ideas in
in order to raise discussion in the next session. related to experiment 2 in front of the case of being challenged
Let the group that faced more challenges take class
the first floor to present and turn those Group 3 or 6 shares what they did
challenges into an opportunity to better related to experiment 3 in front of the
understand concepts. class
Other students follow actively and

participate in discussions by asking for
clarification.
2.3 exploitation findings Start the discussion by motivating the rest of Ask clarification, and others respond GC: Cooperation and
production (20 min) the class to challenge the presenters. Interpersonal relations
and life skills will be
Guide discussion of students. Discuss the presented findings. developed through
discussion and
Give an activity for all the groups. This will Derive the relation between minimum challenging each other
make students use what they found in the deviation and the refractive index of the
experimentation. material: GC: Critical thinking and
problem solving will be
Activity: Determination of refractive index of a n = 𝑆𝑖𝑛
(𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛+𝐴)
/𝑆𝑖𝑛
𝐴 developed
material of a glass prism using minimum deviation 2 2
through the derivation of
by working out exercises as group work. formula and solving
exercises

28
Guide the learners to derive the relation Derive the formulas and use them in the
between minimum deviation and the exercises on notebooks and a chalkboard GC: Lifelong learning will
refractive index of the material by specifically (work through exercise on page 60 in be developed through
encouraging students that fear mathematical student's book). exploiting other
formulae. opportunities available to
It is better the teacher presents at least two better improve the
diagrams of the prism, the first one in the normal knowledge as well as
way and the second one at minimum deviation so skills
that they explore the difference between them and
the students can measure the angles of those two
prisms and then find the conditions for minimum
deviation in addition to that the teacher must help
the students to be familiar in the derivation of 4
formulas of prism before attacking minimum
deviation.
Monitor how they use what was learned to
adapt to a new situation in solving exercises.
If possible, the teacher must clarify the presentation
of students by adding scientific information.
He/she can show a video to the students for good
exploration and clarification.

29
2.4 conclusion/ summary Call for volunteer students to sum up what Groups evaluate each other GC: Interpersonal
(10 min) was learned. Students share what they learned new in relations and life skills
A better way is to call some students whom you the lesson will be developed through
found had some challenges. Propose what to do for a better challenging each other;
Another way is to ask one student from groups that understanding. therefore, this will
did, let say, experiment 1 to talk about what he/she promote the Development
learned from the work done by students who did of the higher-order
experiment 2 or 3. Share the importance of today's lesson. thinking skills
Another better way is to ask everyone to write a
summary of today’s lesson. Share how to apply what they learned in GC: Lifelong learning will
Help students contextual and appreciate the everyday life. be developed via
competences gained and skills got in today's contextualizing the
lesson. Record notes on the individual learned concepts
notebook.
Motivate learners to record notes.
3. assessment /homework Assign homework as an individual work. Record the homework in an individual
(5 min) notebook.
Teacher self-evaluation The lesson was well done; about ten students still have difficulties in mathematical formulae; before the next lesson
(lesson 11: Dispersion of light), I will make corrections of homework by engaging them during the first 15 minutes.

30

First-Year Accounting Student Teachers’

Perceptions of their Classroom Learning
Environment
Medson Mapuya
Sol Plaatje University. Kimberley. South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7331-5113
Abstract. This study assessed the perceptions of first-year accounting

student teachers about their classroom learning environment. The study
was prompted by studies which argue that the academic performance of
students is correlated with their perceptions of the learning environment
and the context in which teaching and learning takes place. The
population for the study was first-year Accounting students at a
university of technology in South Africa. The study employed a mixed-
method approach, and data were collected from students using a
Constructivist Learning Environment Survey (CLES) which covered 42
items. The findings from the quantitative part of the study revealed that
the students view their learning environment positively. Evidence to this
effect is demonstrated by the mean obtained in the categories of the
learning environment which were all above three. The themes which
emerged from the qualitative findings also corroborated the quantitative
findings. However, the qualitative data further reveal that the students
felt far away from issues directly related to their teaching and learning.
Consequently, a more student-participative approach to the planning and
designing of instruction is recommended to mitigate the identified
challenges.
Keywords: Student teachers; Learning environment; Perceptions;

Constructivism
1. Introduction
Actually, it has been acknowledged that the performance of first-year accounting
student teacher in accounting is to some extent unsatisfactory as shown in the
results of the second semester of 2016. The average class performance in
Accounting was 51%, while it was 69% in Business Management and 67% in
Economics. This is a very low class average as compared to the other two major
subjects which form part of the programme. Furthermore, in the final exam of
2016, there were twenty-one students who sat for the re-evaluation examination
in Accounting 1 against three in Economics 1 and none in Business Management
©2020 The author and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

31
1. Nationally, this problem is highlighted in the statistics provided by Masondo

and Fengu (2019), Raborife (2017) and Seepe (2005), the National Council on
Higher Education, (2013), as well as the sentiments of Mapuya (2018) and Makola
(2016). Since Accounting 1 is a compulsory module in the programme, students’
poor performance in this module has raised some concerns and thus necessitated
this study. Based on the exiting literature, it has been found that such a failure is
closely associated with learners’ perceptions and the outlooks they have towards
the learning environment. Hence, the present research paper discusses what the
literature says about the issue under investigation, and attempts to find out first-
year accounting students teachers’ perceptions about their classroom learning
environment. In this concern, the investigator put forward the following research
question:
1. How do first-year Accounting student teachers perceive their classroom
learning environment?
2. Theoretical Framework
Masondo and Fengu (2019) and Hodgson, Lam and Chow (2010) argue that first-
year students need to adjust from highly structured and supportive learning
environments in their secondary schools which promote learning dependence to
a complex learning environment at university which emphasizes autonomous
learning. To this effect, Killen (2016), Mapuya (2018), and Millet (2015) warn that
the perceptions of students about their learning environment have a significant
impact on their transition to university life and their overall development and
academic progression. Furthermore, Killen (2016) and Millet (2015) agree that the
dynamics of adjusting to the social, academic and learning environments
constitute the difference between a negative and positive experience for most first-
year students. These dynamics also influence how students ultimately perceive
the learning environment.
2.1. Meaning of a Learning Environment

The term ‘learning environment’ has been approached differently by different
researchers. To start with, it is used to refer to a few contextual aspects or elements
of the teaching and learning process (Mapuya, 2018). It refers to the social
atmosphere or climate in which teaching and learning takes place (Killen, 2016;
Rankin, 2005; Millet, 2015; Arisoy, 2007). It also denotes the physical setting of the
classroom and its social norms (Litmanen, Loyens & Lonka, 2014). Lastly, it refers
to the physical activities in the classroom, the teaching strategies used in the
teaching and learning process, the type of learning in which students are engaged
and the assessment methods used to evaluate teaching and learning (Doppelt,
Christian & Schunn, 2008; Cleveland & Fisher, 2014). These definitions offer a
more holistic and comprehensive all-inclusive view of the learning environment,
but the one put forward by Doppelt et al. (2008) and Cleveland and Fisher (2014)
is found to be more relevant and applicable to this study.

32
2.2. Benefits of Knowledge about the Learning Environment and Why it is

Necessary
The learning environment includes several elements such as social relationships,
the classroom interactions, the general approach to learning activities and the
physical attributes of the classroom that contribute to learning. It comprises what
is perceived or experienced by both the students and the lecturer and stands out
to be a learning variable which can exacerbate or mitigate academic success of
students (Abraham, Ramnarayan, Vinod, & Torke, 2008; Bakhashialiabad et al,
2015). A comprehensive description of the learning environment should
incorporate the culture within a lecture hall and its existing ethos, distinctive
features and student interactions. It should also include how the lecturer
organizes the educational environment to enhance and stimulate teaching and
student learning, the type of learning in which students are engaged and the
assessment methods used to evaluate teaching and learning (Litmanen et al., 2014;
Doppelt et al., 2008; Cleveland & Fisher, 2014). Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015)
corroborated with the view of Du toit (2018) who contended that the contextual
variables of the teaching and learning process and the psycho-social engagements
in the classroom have a significant effect on the students’ ability to learn and
achieve their goals.
Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) provided a two-side view of the learning

environment which includes both the physical and psychological aspects to
illuminate the implications for teaching and learning. They identified the physical
domain of the learning environment which refers to variables such as facilities,
spaces, ventilation, furniture, lighting, and all the other features which influence
the students’ comfort and safety and ultimately their learning experience and
personal development. On the other hand, the psychological environment focuses
on the variables within the classroom context in terms of the social relationships
among the stakeholders in the classroom. This is also referred to as the classroom
social interactions and relationships.
Most researchers and educational psychologists who have explored the learning
environment through the socio-ecological paradigm developed by Moos (1974)
subscribe to the conclusion that the learning environment can be a powerful
indicator of academic achievement of students and their attitudes (Myint & Goh,
2001; Brown, Williams & Lynch, 2011; Penlington, Joyce, Tudor & Thompson,
2012; Arisoy, 2007; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). The
dominant view that emerged from investigations in chemistry, physics, biology
and mathematics education corroborates with the finding that the perceptions of
students regarding the climate and atmosphere in which they learn is a major
qualifier of differences in academic achievement than factors related to the
characteristics of students (McLoughlin& Luca, 2004; Abraham, Ramnarayan &
Torke, 2008; Lin, 2003; Bakhashialiabad et al., 2015; Lakhan & Ekundayo 2013).
2.3. Research on Learning Environments

Many studies have been conducted on the learning environment and how it is
related to the academic performance of the students. Among others, the
investigations by Radovan and Makovec (2015), Dahlin, Fjell & Runeson (2010),
Nel, Nel & Hugo (2010), Urdan (2004) and Bakhshialiabad, Bakhshi &

33
Hassanshahi (2015) have produced compelling evidence to argue that a significant

relationship exists between students’ perspectives of the learning environment,
and the development of their cognitive and effective domains and their overall
academic performance.
Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) confirmed that meaningful and successful learning

is positively correlated to the students’ perceptions of the learning environment.
Penlingthon, Joyce, Tudor and Thompson (2012) indicated that studies on
learning environments have connected the perceptions of students about their
learning environment to their quality of learning. In other terms, students tend to
learn much better and more efficiently when they have some positive perceptions
of their learning environment. Rakici (2004) claimed that the students’ attitudes
towards teaching and learning activities are directly associated with their
perceptions of the learning environment in their classrooms.
Den Brok (2006) and Arisoy (2007) added that gender is a significant factor that
consistently influenced the students’ perceptions of the learning environment,
irrespective of the interest in the learning environment. Rakici (2004) and Den
Brok (2006) revealed that girls rated their learning environment and the teacher’s
interpersonal behaviour more favourably than their male counterparts. The girls
who participated in an investigation by Arisoy (2007) showed positive
perceptions that are superior to those of boys. However, they were also more
motivated to learn than the boys. These claims were later reinforced by Brown,
Williams and Lynch (2011) whose findings demonstrated that female students
indicated a more positive perception of the learning environment than males. It
was also found that the students viewed the learning environment of male
educators as more cooperative than that of female educators. Also, male educators
were also rated as being stricter in the classrooms than female educators.
With regard to the above said, Arisoy, (2007) and Rakici (2004) suggested that
Moos (1974) developed the socio-ecological approach to illustrate the influence
the environment has on the perspectives of individuals who occupy it and how it
can be modified to improve their quality of life. As observed by Lakhan &
Ekundayo (2013), Moos (1974) argued that the psychosocial environment has
three central dimensions that focus on the majority of settings in which people
find themselves in their daily lives, namely: a relationship dimension, a personal
development dimension, and systems maintenance and systems change
dimension.
2.4. The Relationship Dimension

Rodavan & Makovec (2015) and Lakhan &Ekundayo, (2013) asserted that the
relationship dimension assesses and evaluates the degree to which students are
involved in the learning environment. It considers the extent to which students
assist and support each other to promote their education. In the same line of
thought, Rakici (2004) contends that the relationship dimension is concerned with
the nature and type of interactions and relationships between the people who
occupy a given environment. Rodavan & Makovec (2015) further note that this
dimension emphasizes the nature, quality and power of personal relations in any

34
given context. These relations can either be negative or positive, depending on the
effect they have on both the students and the lecturer. Den Brok, (2006) agreed
with Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) in which the elements which Moos (1974)
included in this category evaluate and examine the types and levels of personal
relationships among the students in the classroom.
2.5. The Personal Development Dimension

The personal development dimension evaluates and analyses the degree to which
the learning environment creates and offers students opportunities to develop
their self-esteem and self-enhancement. It covers all the aspects through which the
learning environment encourages the growth, development and promotion of
students. Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) suggested that at the university, this
dimension includes competition, academic success and task orientation. Rakici
(2004) complemented and added that under this dimension, self-discovery, anger
aggression and personal status are also important qualifiers. Lakhan & Ekundayo,
(2013) subscribed to an earlier view of autonomy by Allegrante, Hanson, Sleet &
Marks (2010), in which they agreed that autonomy assesses the degree to which
students are encouraged to be independent and self-sufficient scholars. This view
of autonomy is consistent with a social constructivist oriented teaching and
learning approach. It is also in harmony with the graduate attributes envisaged
by the Central University of Technology (CUT), Free State and some of the
educational imperatives of the National Curriculum Statement (Grades R - 12),
and the Curriculum Assessment Policy Statement (2015). Moos (1974) identified
the variable of autonomy under the personal development dimension to be
particularly prevalent and important in universities.
The practical orientation of the personal development dimension looks at the

degree to which the learning programme prepares and orients students towards
training for employment, focusing on the future and working towards the
achievement of concrete goals (Den Brok, 2006). This is also consistent with the
CUT graduate attributes and the educational goals and objectives pronounced in
the National Curriculum Statement (Grades R - 12) and the Curriculum
Assessment Policy Statement (2015). All schools and universities continuously
strive to realize and achieve the practical orientation of the learning environment.
Arisoy (2007) and Lakhan & Ekundayo, (2013) pointed out that the personal
problem orientation element of the personal development dimension evaluates
the extent to which students are encouraged to be conscious of their feelings and
problems and make attempts to understand them. This is an important element
of the learning environment, especially in light of the complex and diverse nature
of the various problems encountered by first-year students in universities as
identified by Pieterse, (2015), Makola (2016), Bojuwoye, (2002) and Bitzer, (2003).
2.6. The Systems Maintenance and System Change Dimension

The third dimension of the environment as propounded by Moos (1974) is the
systems maintenance and system change dimension. This dimension
encompasses components such as organization, order, clarity in expectations of
both the students and the lecturer and control of the environment and physical
comfort. Rakici (2004) further noted that it also includes innovation of the learning
environment at the university and that student influence is a variable which is

35
related to system change at universities. Radovan and Makovec (2015) added that
the system maintenance and system change dimension refers to the rules, the
surveillance mechanisms, the ability and manner in which the system responds to
changes. These changes can be in terms of learning needs and the overall
strategies used to implement into the curriculum. They are reflected and shown
in the differentiation of lessons, how clear the classroom rules and instructions are
and how differences in terms of thinking are accepted in the classroom. This
further affirms the need to create classroom learning environments which
embrace students’ diversity and always keep pace with their individual needs.
With reference to the above said, the relationship, personal development and
systems maintenance and change dimensions of the learning environment
directly affect how students perceive that specific environment, their learning
experience and ultimately their academic success (Bakhashialiabad et al, 2015;
Brown et al., 2011; Penlingthon et al., 2012). In this regard, specific reference must
be made to Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) who hypothesized that the contextual
variables and realities of the teaching and learning process point to the efficiency
of the education process.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
An exploratory mixed-methods research design was used in this study. It was
indeed found to be compatible and consistent with the theoretical framework of
the study and the set research question. This method also enabled the researcher
to collect both quantitative and qualitative data which were required to answer
the research question. As advanced by Creswell (2013), combining both
quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study results in a comprehensive
understanding of the problem being investigated than can be achieved by either
method alone.
3.2. Participants
The participants of this study were 112 first-year Accounting students at a
University of Technology in South Africa.
3.3. Research Instruments

A constructivist learning environment questionnaire was used to collect data from
the respondents. The administration of this questionnaire also enabled the
researcher to measure how first-year accounting student teachers perceived their
teaching and learning context through the use of a five-point Likert-type scale.
Quantitative data were obtained from the ratings given by the students to each of
the 42 statements posed to them while qualitative data were gathered from the
open-ended section of the constructivist learning environment questionnaire.
This research instrument was adapted to be used in this study because its
developers have tested it for reliability and validity, and therefore the researcher
wanted to test its applicability to university students in South Africa. Although it
was initially developed and intended for secondary school students, it was found
to be useful and relevant to first-year students because there is a small gap in
terms of transition between them and the secondary school students (Aldridge,

36
Fraser, Bell & Dorman, 2012). It was also used by Walker and Fraser (2005) and
Aldridge, Fraser, Bell and Dorman (2012) in various investigations which also
sought to obtain the perceptions of students about their learning environments
and learning experiences.
3.4. Data Collection Procedure and Analysis

The questionnaires were administered by the researcher in person. To guarantee
a 100% return rate for the questionnaires, the researcher and the students
unanimously agreed that the questionnaires would be completed in class during
a free double period. The students handed in the questionnaires immediately after
completion. As noted by Creswell (2012), the first step in processing data from
Section B of the questionnaires used in this study was editing. The editing of the
questionnaires comprises of three main checks, namely completeness, accuracy
and uniformity. To ensure that every question was answered, the researcher
conducted a completeness check. On the other hand, to determine whether all
questions had been answered as accurately as possible, an accuracy check was
carried out. A uniformity check was meant to establish the extent to which all the
students have interpreted the questions and instructions in a similar way (Cohen,
Manion & Morrison, 2013).
The responses to the open-ended section of the questionnaires were coded before
being assigned unique codes for further analysis. Babbie (2013) notes that this
coding process requires the researcher to provide interpretations of responses, a
requirement which can lead to misinterpretation and researcher bias (Manion &
Morrison, 2013). Measures of central tendency and descriptive statistics
(McMillan & Schumacher, 2010; Terre Blanche et al., 2011; Johnson & Christensen,
2014) were used to analyze and describe the students’ ratings of the various
statements that were presented to them
4. Findings
The study findings are presented on the complete questionnaire used in the study.
However, when discussing the findings, reference will only be made to findings
on learning to learn (shared control) and learning to communicate (student
negotiation). These are the sections of the questionnaire which directly address
the research question posed in the study.
Table 1. Presentation of students’ ratings of 42 statements

Statements Mean Standard
Deviation
A. LEARNING ABOUT THE WORLD (Real Life,
Personal Voice)
In this class
1 I learn about the world outside of school. 4.21 0.75
2 My learning starts with problems about the world outside 3.62 1.19
of school.
3 I learn how Accounting can be part of my out-of-school 4.32 0.83
life.

37
4 I get a better understanding of the world outside of 4.07 0.98

school.
5 I learn interesting things about the world outside of 3.91 1.02
school.
6 What I learn has nothing to do with my out-of-school 2.48 1.40
life.
B. LEARNING ABOUT ACCOUNTING (Uncertainty)
In this class
7 I learn that Accounting cannot provide perfect answers to 3.14 1.42
problems.
8 I learn that Accounting has changed over time. 3.58 1.30
9 I learn that Accounting is influenced by people's values 3.42 1.37
and opinions
10 I learn about the different Accounting concepts used by 3.63 1.33
people in other cultures.
11 I learn that modern Accounting is different from the 3.58 1.44
Accounting of long ago.
12 I learn that Accounting is about inventing theories. 3.38 1.36
C. LEARNING TO SPEAK OUT( Critical voice)
In this class
13 It is acceptable to ask the teacher "Why do we have to learn 4.24 1.15
this?"
14 It is acceptable to question the way I am being taught. 4.27 0.98
15 It is acceptable to complain about activities that are 4.34 1.03
confusing.
16 It is acceptable to complain about anything that prevents 4.46 0.87
me from learning.
17 It is acceptable to express my opinion. 4.63 0.74
18 It is acceptable to speak up for my rights. 4.32 1.08
D. LEARNING TO LEARN (Shared control)
In this class
19 I help the lecturer plan what I am going to learn. 2.74 1.33
20 I help the lecturer decide how well I am learning. 2.77 1.28
21 I help the lecturer decide which activities are best for me. 2.60 1.38
22 I help the lecturer decide how much time I spend on 2.62 1.40
activities.
23 I help the lecturer decide which activities I do. 2.36 1.29
24 I help the lecturer assess my learning. 2.94 1.50
E. LEARNING TO COMMUNICATE (Student
negotiation)
In this class
25 I get the chance to talk to other students. 4.43 0.84
26 I talk with other students about how to solve problems. 4.47 0.84
27 I explain my ideas to other students. 4.21 0.93
28 I ask other students to explain their ideas. 4.31 0.89
29 Other students ask me to explain my ideas. 4.08 0.97
30 Other students explain their ideas to me. 4.22 0.93
F. ATTITUDE IN LEARNING ACCOUNTING
(Commitment)
In this class
31 I am interested in Accounting lessons. 4.98 0.19

38
32 I am willing to learn. 4.63 0.88

33 What we do in this Accounting class is important to me. 4.82 0.68
34 I try my best. 4.82 0.54
35 I pay attention. 4.77 0.57
36 I enjoy Accounting lessons. 4.70 0.61
G. LECTURER SUPPORT IN LEARNING
ACCOUNTING
In this class
37 The lecturer is friendly to me. 4.56 0.91
38 The lecturer helps me with the work. 4.31 1.02
39 The lecturer is interested in my problems. 4.00 1.32
40 The lecturer goes out of his/her way to help me. 4.15 1.24
41 The lecturer moves around the class to talk to me. 4.14 1.27
42 The lecturer considers my feelings. 4.01 1.27
3.9 1.05
Reference is made to Section D: Learning to Learn (Shared control) of the
questionnaire presented in Table 1 above. This section displays the students’
responses which reveal that they perceive the learning environment as sometimes
enabling them to learn, while they believe that they seldom help the lecturer to
decide their learning. These findings highlight the fact that the prevalence and
amount of collaborative learning and lecture support in teaching and learning
activities are underscored. All the means to statements that are presented to the
students in this category are below 3.0, which is a factor of some concern. These
findings also indicate that the conditions in the classroom are perceived by the
students as not promoting their personal development dimension or the systems
maintenance and systems change dimensions of the socio-ecological model. The
results also do not conform to the notion of autonomy and active involvement of
students for active learning (Abraham et al., 2008; Bakhashialiabad et al., 2015;
Visser, & Vreken, 2013). The students’ concerns in this regard are also raised in the
focus group interviews in their responses to questions on the personal dimension
of their learning environment.
Section E: Learning to Communicate (Student negotiation) in the above Table 1

presents the perceptions of first-year accounting student teachers on the degree to
which the variables in the teaching and learning context permit students to
negotiate and engage actively with other students in teaching and learning
activities. This category represents the relationship dimension of the socio-
ecological model of learning environments.
Table 2. E. learning to communicate (Student negotiation)

Statements Mean Standard
Deviation
In this class
1. I get the chance to talk to other students. 4.43 0.84
2. I talk with other students about how to solve problems. 4.47 0.84
3. I explain my ideas to other students. 4.21 0.93
4. I ask other students to explain their ideas. 4.31 0.89
5. Other students ask me to explain my ideas. 4.08 0.97
6. Other students explain their ideas to me. 4.22 0.93
Overall Mean 4.29 0.90

39
As shown, the students’ ratings of all the individual statements in this category
scored a mean of 4, which means that the learning environment often promotes
student negotiation and their ability to communicate in the classroom. Under this
category of learning to communicate and student negotiation, the students seem to
be unanimous that communication in the classroom and among them is very
satisfactory. This is demonstrated by the means to each statement which are all
above 4.20 and all the standard deviations which are below 1. These responses
indicate that students perceive their classroom learning environment to be very
helpful and supportive to their negotiation, communication and open dialogue in
the learning process. This is one of the most fundamental principles and pillars of
social constructivism and the relationship dimension of the socio-ecological model
of the learning environment. The lecturer should maintain and sustain the good
work being done under this category.
5. Discussion
An overall mean above 4.00 from the quantitative findings implies that the
students have rated the specific statements under the broad category in the
affirmative. Thus based on the data from the quantitative and qualitative parts of
the data collection instrument, first-year accounting student teachers show that
they have some positive perceptions about most aspects of their leaning
environment. This confirms the findings of earlier studies by Dorman (2012),
Litmanen et al. (2014) and Cleveland & Fisher (2014) in which the study
participants demonstrated relatively high levels of satisfaction with their learning
environment. Similarly, the students indicated that they perceive the classroom
learning environment as supportive. However, similar to the findings of
Bakhashialiabad et al. (2015) and Radovan and Makovec (2015), it was also found
that the students felt alienated and marginalized from the designing and planning
of their academic activities and the overall classroom instruction. This is actually
revealed by the low means and overall mean in the category of learning to learn
which were all below 3. This quantitative finding of students being excluded from
issues relating to their teaching and learning as signified by an overall mean below
3.00 is also consistent with the students’ qualitative responses where most
students indicated that they need to be more actively involved in matters relating
to their teaching and learning.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the learning experiences of students have some significant
implications on how students ultimately perceive the atmosphere and the setting
in which they engage in teaching and learning activities. As such, students
formulate perceptions about the learning environment based on their experiences
in that particular learning environment. It is thus imperative for teacher educators
and universities to ensure that the curriculum is implemented in ways that
promote positive perceptions about the learning environment.

40
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43

How Adolescent Students with Disabilities and

/or Complex Needs Perceive the Notion of
Resilience: A Study in Greece and England
Maria Georgiadi and Stefanos Plexousakis

University of Crete, Greece
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6846-0156
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8463-1365
Maitland Josie
University of Brighton, England
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7932-6465
Elias Kourkoutas
University of Crete, Greece
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1346-5344
Angie Hart
University of Brighton, England
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5034-5950
Abstract. Adolescents with behavioral and learning difficulties are at

increased risk in relation to psychological and social well-being. This
study aimed to investigate the views and experiences of adolescent
students, diagnosed with a variety of complex needs such as behavioral,
emotional and learning difficulties, to explore potential risk and
protective factors that they perceive can enable or constrain resilience.
Participants in the study were adolescents both from the UK (n=12) and
Greece (n=14), all of whom were receiving additional learning and
psychological support in their school settings. A qualitative research
design employed the ‘draw and write’ technique in addition to face-to-
face semi-structured interviews. Data analysis identified the protective
and risk factors that adolescents associated with resilience. Two distinct
categories of protective factors emerged from the data: a) personal
(positive thoughts, nutrition and achievements) and b) socio-ecological
factors (significant others, activities, pets, places). Risk factors were also
divided into two categories: a) personal (negative thoughts and feelings
and health problems) and b) socio-ecological factors (relational
problems). Findings highlight the complex interplay between personal
and socio-ecological factors in building resilience in adolescents who are
at increased risk in relation to psychological and social well-being.

44
Keywords. Resilience; adolescence; complex needs; adversities; risk/

protective factors
1. Introduction
Defining resilience is far from straight forward (Olsson et al., 2015). Since the
emergence of the construct, researchers have contributed to multiple re-workings
of the concept of resilience (O'Dougherty et al., 2013). Critique of the concept has
focused on the ambiguity of the terminology and instability of the construct, due
to the degree of heterogeneity of responses to identified risk and protective factors
(Cameron et al., 2019; Lather, Ciccheti & Becker, 2007).
The flowchart (Figure 1) summarizes key developments in the field of resilience
research and supports discussion on how the proposed research expands the
current literature. Early identification of the phenomenon of positive adaptation
in the face of adversity was highlighted by researchers in the 1970s. Studies in the
field of health sciences discovered that some children, who were deemed to be ‘at
risk’ from developing psychopathology, functioned unexpectedly well
considering the perceived odds stacked against them.
This ‘first wave’ of resilience research could be seen as a response to dominant
‘deficit’ biomedical models of the time that sought an accurate understanding of
pathology as opposed to how ‘problems were averted, resolved or transcended’
(O’Dougherty et al., 2013).
As the second wave of research emerged, the focus shifted to the role of strengths
and protective factors in fostering resilience, leading to a developmental
‘strength-based’ approach, which, in schools, centered on increasing self-esteem,
and the development of pastoral support systems such as school counselling
(Akos & Galassi, 2008), focus groups and peer mentoring.
As the existing literature highlights, a range of ‘protective factors’ are thought to
‘alter responses to adverse events so that potential negative outcomes can be
avoided’ (Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012, p. 2298) and significance is given to socio-
ecological influences on the child rather than purely the biological
predeterminants.
Subsequent waves of resilience research therefore moved beyond the attributes of
the individual to consider the impact that the social and cultural context can have
on resilience; it apportioned responsibility between parents, carers, schools,
communities and other organizations that influence the child as opposed to
merely ‘responsibilising’ the individual who is facing disadvantage (Hart et al.,
2016). Lerner et al. (2013) refer to resilience within a paradigm of relational
developmental systems theory. That is to say, they conceptualize resilience as a
dynamic construct that responds to ecological factors and, as such, is malleable
over time and context. Through this interpretation, resilience can be regarded as
emerging from a kind of ‘ordinary magic’ (Masten, 2018), through which a
combination of protective mechanisms can result in an extraordinary adaptive
quality that buffers against adversity to defy the odds stacked against some
children.

45
Inevitably, the introduction of intervention-based research as part of the third

wave of resilience literature was heavily school-based and focused on the rich
potential to foster resilience in the school setting. Resilience is highly correlated
with academic achievement (Werner & Smith, 1992) and many protective factors
in the school environment can be seen to buffer or mediate risk, for example,
opportunities to contribute and take responsibility, develop a sense of belonging
and core self, as well as experience caring relationships, high expectations and
positive influences (Benard, 1991; Henry, Sheffield Morris & Harrist, 2015).
Figure 1. Development of the concept of resilience across the waves of research Adapted
from ‘Uniting Resilience Research and Practice With an Inequalities Approach’, by Hart
et al. (2016). Copyright © 2016 by the authors. Adapted with permission.

46
Multiple studies trialed projects which aimed to capitalize on ‘critical turning

points’ including the transition from primary to secondary education,
adolescence, and school completion. These key phases are considered vital
opportunities to foster ‘systems of influence’ (Masten & Obradović, 2008; Riley &
Masten, 2005) around the individual that might negate early life adversity and
promote long-term well-being. By increasing opportunities for competence and
developing positive and meaningful relationships, contextual protective factors
are thought to foster personal growth in spite of adversity (Luthar, 2006).
This important shift away from the earlier focus on individual characteristics,
placed significant focus on acknowledging the dynamic interplay between
elements of the microsystem made up of peer, family and school relationships and
wider contextual influences such as social, cultural and political factors. Existing
resilience literature provides powerful support for the potential of schools to
drastically improve the outcomes of people within the system, in spite of adverse
conditions (Lerner et al., 2013). Understanding the complexities of the dynamic
matrix of systemic influences enables schools and those involved in supporting
children and young people to carefully consider how conditions of adversity and
disadvantage can be reinforced or negated by the system they are a part of. Being
more explicit about the environmental aspects influencing resilience has been the
focus of contemporary applied resilience researchers in the field (e.g. Hart,
Blincow & Thomas, 2007), both in terms of developing strategies and resources
that can be used by parents, carers and practitioners to make practical
interventions and in terms of empowering young people to make ‘resilient
moves’.
To this end, Hart, Blincow & Thomas (2007) have built on theoretical discourse
and synthesized existing measurement tools to produce the Resilience Framework
(Figure 2). This comprises five conceptual areas (basics, belonging, learning,
coping and core self) and each of these suggests approaches for practitioners to
help them to improve the resilience of children and young people.
Basic, Belonging and Learning are related to strategies and practices for working
directly with children but also involve practitioners strategically linking with and
reaching out to others. Coping and core self interventions consist of a set of micro-
therapeutic approaches designed for direct work with individuals which is a
distinct feature between them. While Core self focuses on working at a deep
intrapersonal level, Coping provides children with strategies to manage better at
a specific time rather than waiting for some deeper personal transformation to
occur. The framework draws together existing resilience literature and lived
experience of supporting children considered ‘at risk’, and it was developed with
school, social care and health practitioners, alongside parents, carers and young
people. The Resilience Framework is underpinned by ‘noble truths’ of accepting,
conserving, commitment and enlisting and it adopts a strengths-based approach
reflecting key theories from positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi,
2014). It echoes core tenets of psychological developmental theory including Deci
and Ryan’s Self Determination Theory (1985) and co-regulation theory (Moreno,
Sanabria & López, 2016).

47
Figure 2. Resilience Framework. From Resilient therapy: working with children and
families, by Hart, Blincow & Thomas ( 2007). Copyright © 2007 by the authors.
Reprinted with permission.
Importantly, the Resilience Framework acknowledges the impact wider systems

can have in negating risk factors and promoting resilience, for example
addressing the universal need to feel safe, have access to good nutrition, outdoor
exercise, good enough housing, enough sleep and positive relationships with
supportive adults. Clearly unequal access to such protective factors may further
disadvantage some children and young people, compounding risks posed by
additional behavioral or learning needs; this clearly indicates the relationship
between resilience and social justice (Hart et al., 2016). This research has
responded to earlier critique of the dangers of utilising ‘resilience’ as a ‘vehicle for
the responsibilisation of individuals in place of social structures and governing
institutions’ (Hart et al., 2016) and is particularly relevant in relation to the
increasing accountability of teachers and the raised expectation of academic rigor
that does not always account for the complexity of contextual disadvantage.
1.1 Promotion of school-based resilience

Whilst enormous leaps have been made in resilience-related research, there is a
need to consider how to situate these ideas explicitly in an academic context and
ensure that school policy adequately reflects current understanding. In the UK,
policies like Every Child Matters (DFE, 2003), Future in Mind (2012) and, more
recently, the jointly authored ‘Transforming children and young peoples’ mental
health provision’ Green Paper (DHSC & DfE, 2017) represent progress in the
extent to which policy co-ordinates health and education service provision to
reduce risks and intervene early to promote resilience. In Greece, Law 3699/2008

48
indicates that services are working together to consider collective responsibility

to ‘reduce risk and maximize opportunities’ for every child, irrespective of
background or disadvantage.
In 2016, Hart et al. (2016) proposed the Boingboing framework of resilience
research that seeks to interrogate the relationship between personal well-being
and social equity, building on work by Prilleltensky and Prilleltensky, (2006).
Overcoming adversity is aligned with a desire and actions to change in some way
the conditions that have led to adversity; it exposes the impact of inequalities as a
priority and acts to increase control over personal outcomes by challenging
culturally imposed conditions of adversity. This approach is particularly relevant
for the school community in the current climate of perceived lack of teacher
autonomy and limited participation of both school staff and students in policy
formation. In addition, seeking to close the attainment gap between
disadvantaged students and their peers is a continuing policy priority both in
Greece and the UK.
The potential of school communities to foster resilience has led to the proposition
of the concept of ‘Academic Resilience’ (Hart & Williams, 2015), which has been
defined as ‘students achieving good educational outcomes despite adversity’
(What is Academic Resilience : Young Minds, 2015) .
Existing school-based resilience-building interventions tend to be costly for
schools, and often involve external practitioners delivering a time-limited
programme that may only have a limited impact in the local context, especially
after support is withdrawn (Mcpherson et al., , 2016). To this end, the Academic
Resilience Approach (ARA) has been developed as a whole-school approach to
improving outcomes for the most disadvantaged students, by promoting
resilience throughout the school system (Hart & Williams, 2015).
Hart and Williams (2015) propose that in order to promote academic resilience
most effectively, schools require evidence-based methods of early intervention to
support children at risk of underachieving academically or experiencing mental
or emotional difficulties. Although aspects of the Resilience Framework (such as
secure attachment relationships) have been shown to negate the impact of adverse
conditions for children from high-risk backgrounds who face constellated
disadvantage (Hart, Blincow & Thomas, 2007), taking a resilient perspective as a
whole-school approach is fundamental to achieving a sustainable positive impact.
The ARA provides free online resources globally that support schools to develop
a locally meaningful whole-school approach including: audit and planning
materials and practical strategies that foster resilience across the school
community, aiming to have a positive impact especially for children and young
people facing adversity.
1.2 Fostering resilience in ‘at-risk’ children and adolescents

It is known that children and adolescents who face difficult psychosocial
conditions are at increased risk given the associated adverse physical and
psychosocial circumstances which can potentially affect their well-being and
outcomes at cognitive, mental, emotional and behavioral levels (Smith, Foley &
Chaney, 2008). It is well-established that the presence of psychosocial difficulties
can be interrelated with the existence of a diagnosed disability (Theron, 2016).

49
Therefore, it appears that children living in adverse psychosocial conditions may

be at risk of further psychological, emotional, and social/behavioral difficulties
which could have a concentrated negative impact, destabilising their otherwise
typical developmental trajectories (Smith et al., 2008).
In her research, Theron (2016) uses mixed methods to explore the voices of 181
marginalised rural black South African adolescents about what gives them
positive adjustment in their daily lives. The research aims to identify the
supportive processes which are thought to facilitate positive adjustment to
disadvantaged life-worlds and how contextual and cultural realities shape such
processes. The findings mention the importance of both socio-ecological and
contextual factors, including the importance of women as significant figures for
promoting resilience due to the absence of men. The relational importance of
educational and social services provided is also highlighted; this is also identified
by other studies in different cultural contexts. In their research with 28 Sesotho-
speaking adolescent girls from the Free State Province of South Africa, Jefferis &
Theron (2017) aimed to explore the views of adolescent girls on how teachers
facilitate their resilience. According to their findings, characteristics such us
providing guidance and active listening helped these girls to think positively
about their futures. Li et al. (2018) interviewed 11 Chinese adolescents facing
contextual adversity in order to capture their understanding of pathways leading
to resilience. Their findings identify the social environment (such as school and
family) alongside positive life goals and self-confidence as attributes of resilient
Chinese female adolescents.
According to a qualitative study focusing on how orphaned children from parents
with HIV/AIDS in South Africa (Ogina, 2012) perceive the notion of resilience,
the emerging themes included risk factors such as isolation and stigma and
protective factors such as positive relationships, personal assets and
environmental resources.
1.3 Fostering resilience in children and adolescents with complex needs

There are relatively few studies with a specific focus on how resilience is fostered
in children/adolescents with disabilities (Abelev, 2009; Yoshikawa et al., 2012).
Furthermore, very little is known about how children and adolescents with
disabilities themselves perceive the notion of resilience or the factors that they
consider to be involved in building resilience. They are often left out of research
because involving them can present extra methodological challenges for
researchers. Furthermore, their individual characteristics are not always easy to
aggregate into large data sets which will result in what are seen by researchers as
prestigious publications (Hart et al., 2015). Disability is itself a complex and
contested term, but in this paper, ‘disabilities’ refers to a known need for
additional support which a child or young person is receiving through specialised
educational services. These needs encompass social and communication
difficulties including those experienced by young people with an autism
spectrum condition, emotional and behavioral difficulties, and cognitive learning
disabilities.
Harðardóttir, Júlíusdóttir & Guðmundsson's research (2015) explored how
secondary school students with learning difficulties understand resilience. The

50
authors interviewed ten students with learning difficulties in order to capture

their experiences of school settings and identify the helpful factors or obstacles in
their learning progress. The main themes that emerged were: the difficulty these
students experienced in understanding problems they faced, the stigma of
labeling, and the importance of support from others (including teachers and
friends) as a resilience-building mechanism.
Lyons and Roulstone (2018a) aimed to articulate children’s narratives about the
potential risk factors to well-being for children with speech and language
disorders. The eleven participants identified potential risk factors associated with
communication difficulties and academic achievement and suggested that hope,
positive relationships and agency were important protective factors for their well-
being.
The current research has focused on how adolescents who have been diagnosed
as having complex needs, behavioral, emotional, developmental and learning
difficulties, conceptualise resilience and identify personal and socio-ecological
factors that can be considered as either risk or protective factors for building
resilience essential for long term well-being. Emergent research also calls for
greater emphasis on challenging the conditions of adversity by increasing the
participation of marginalised groups as a way of overcoming disadvantage and
contributing to social change. As Ungar (2005, p. 441) indicates, ‘we would do
better helping children if we spent more time asking them to tell us what they
need’. To this end, the purpose of the present study is to identify young peoples’
perceptions of risk and protective factors using the ‘Draw and Write’ technique
and semi-structured interviews, with the aim of making a valuable contribution
to the literature and making recommendations to inform special education
professionals, parents, carers and other practitioners regarding effective support
for this specific population.
It is crucial to address the fact that in many studies, the focus is on parents’,
teachers’ and professionals’ views of children’s experiences, rather than the direct
experiences of the child or young person. Understanding the concerns, ideas,
beliefs and metaphors of children through their drawings and dialogue is
important because it may be a vehicle for improving our adult understanding of
their world. Consequently, this could help in the formation of support strategies
in order to improve the mental health and well-being of these children (Pridmore
& Bendelow, 1995;Patrick & Wyckoff, 2018). It is crucial to hear the voices of
adolescents with special educational needs/disabilities in order to understand
their perspectives in terms of decision-making and intervention programmes that
are focused on them (Jönsson 2018; Palikara et al., 2018).
2. Method
This study employed a qualitative, narrative approach to collect the perceptions
of adolescents with additional behavioral or learning needs. The qualitative case
study design was employed to enable the researcher to interact with the
adolescents, in order to explore their lived experiences and personal reflections
on the concept of resilience (Petty et al., 2012).
In this qualitative study the ‘Draw and Write’ technique was employed in
combination with semi-structured interviews (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995), as a

51
way of gaining insight into children’s understanding of the concept of resilience

(see Appendix 1). Traditionally, children’s drawings have been used in clinical
settings for diagnosis and therapeutic purposes (Pridmore & Bendelow, 1995).
The ‘Draw and Write’ technique is an exploratory method that has been used by
several researchers in the field of health psychology and education (Campbell et
al., 2010; Farmer & Porcellato 2016; Khair, Meerabeau & Gibson 2015).
Undertaking research with children and adolescents with a variety of disabilities
can sometimes be challenging. These children and young people may face
difficulties relating to their literacy, cognitive understanding of what is being
asked, or communication difficulties that inhibit their responses. Creative or
visual data collection gives children the opportunity to explain, in their own
words, the meanings of their views, enabling the researcher to understand them
(Ogina, 2012). According to Pridmore & Bendelow (1995, p. 473) ‘this technique
inverts the more traditional top-down methodology to a bottom-up approach and
has the potential to enable all children [as long as they are at least able to draw] to
participate’. This technique lends itself well to being adapted for different cultural
contexts and for children with a range of additional needs.
2.1 Participants
The study was conducted in Greece and England. The participants in this study
were 12 adolescents from one UK school and 14 adolescents from one Greek
school. The participants were attending sessions with psychologists and had been
diagnosed with a variety of complex needs including: Social, Emotional, and
Behavioral Difficulties (SEBD); Speech, Language and Communication Needs
(SLCN); Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD); Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). The average age of
the participants was 13 years and 8 months. IN total, 21 boys and 5 girls took part.
The two researchers (one from Greece and one from England) were known to the
participants as existing members of staff who had been working with them prior
to the research. A safe, secure environment and confidentiality (subject to any
safeguarding concerns) were established by the researchers, which helped the
children to cooperate and feel free to express themselves to people with whom
they were familiar. Regarding any concerns for participants’ well-being,
researchers worked with school leaders, safeguarding leads and existing
therapeutic and psychological support services to ensure that appropriate follow
up could be made where necessary.
2.2 Procedure
University research ethical permission was sought for the study as part of a wider
study applying resilience-based practices. Parents/carers signed a letter of
consent for their child to participate in the study. The study was then explained
to young people who were asked if they wished to take part ; they were informed
that they could choose not to take part or withdraw whenever they wanted to and
for any reason. The adolescents were guided through the schedule of the activity
and were asked to express any difficulty in understanding the task questions or
what was expected of them. The researchers explained to the participants that
their role was to share their perceptions as accurately as possible and help to better

52
explain how young people similar to them might understand and experience
resilience.
As soon as the children had completed the activity, they handed in their responses
to the researcher. To relieve any possible anxiety which may have emerged from
thinking about and discussing ‘sensitive’ material, an informal conversation was
facilitated in order to alleviate possible stress, provide reassurance and determine
the need for any subsequent support. Children were able to discuss and reflect on
their drawings and answers in a warm and trusting atmosphere, which also
helped the researchers to gain a deeper understanding of their responses and
ensure accurate interpretation, by checking with participants on their own
intentions.
The participants received a blank A4 paper, pencil, eraser and colours. The
instructions to the participants were: ‘Draw a person like yourself. It doesn’t
matter how well you draw, that is not important. What does this person think
about their life in the future? When this person that you draw face difficulties in
life, what helps them overcome these difficulties? What helps them to find
courage in life? Write as much as you want in the space provided, explaining your
drawing. If you have a difficulty in writing I can write for you’. The process lasted
approximately 45 minutes. The researchers used the drawings and the comments
they wrote on their drawings to facilitate interviews and clarify in depth what the
participants meant. The follow-up questions included: ‘What is your drawing
about?’ ‘Who is that?’ and ‘What do you mean by saying this…’
2.3 Data Analysis

The collected data were obtained from children’s and adolescents’ drawings and
narratives, followed by individual interviews (Jefferis & Theron, 2017; Kim, 2016;
Søderberg, 2006). Categories and themes were identified in a process of open
coding, along with the demographics of the total sample including gender,
background, and known difficulties of each child.
The data analysis procedure was based on the ‘three Cs’ proposed by Lichtman
(2006, p. 168): ‘from coding to categorizing to concepts’. Analysis therefore
facilitated the identification of core categories, emerging patterns and themes in
three key stages. After the initial open coding, and a secondary revision in order
to collapse or combine the codes, an initial list of categories was developed, which
was refined again based on additional re-reading of the data to include sub-
categories. Lastly, the categories and subcategories were translated into themes.
Throughout the data analysis process, researchers were guided by both the
drawings and participants’ own interpretations of the drawings in order to retain
the intended meaning in the final emergent themes. This iterative data analysis
process is illustrated in Figure 3.
While we questioned adolescents about their drawings, they were encouraged to

determine the deeper meanings of their works through the ‘Draw and Write’
technique. This approach enabled the researchers to explore their deeper
experiences and identify themes through their responses. Reliability was ensured
by using an oral data eliciting method based on the information provided by the
adolescents regarding their drawings. By decoding the data and the emerging

53
themes with constant reflection on these explanations, it was possible to check for
accuracy and clarify comments related to participants’ drawings. To increase the
depth and accuracy of collected data, the researcher triangulated information
from the drawings, narratives and interviews of the adolescents.
A verification procedure was applied in order to improve the reliability (Creswell,

2014), accuracy of interpretation and credibility of the findings. To verify the
findings, the researchers undertook several procedures including: (1) using a peer
code to document themes and quotes in the data; (2) conducting multiple
meetings with emerging opportunities to review researcher bias and develop
protocols before beginning data collection; and (3) developing a modified member
checking process that allowed for an external audit of themes within the data.
The researchers also developed a shared protocol for the interview process to
assure uniformity in the interviews in order to allow for a review of any
subconscious bias related to working with adolescents who had disabilities or had
experienced adversities. The transcripts from the interviews were decoded
verbatim in order to avoid any bias in terms of what adolescents reported in their
drawings (Campbell et al., 2010; Khair, Meerabeau & Gibson, 2015 ; Kuhn, 2003;
Dasarraju et al., 2016; Farmer & Porcellato, 2016).
Descriptive
evaluation of
•FIRST STEP
drawings and
narratives
Interpretation of
drawings and
narratives and
•SECOND STEP
identification of
risk and protective
factors
Interpretation of
drawings,
narratives and •THIRD STEP
trancriptions of
interviews
Figure 3. Procedure of analysis of research data
3. Results
Two main categories emerged from the data: risk factors and protective factors.
Sub-categories of these themes were personal and socio-ecological factors, as
illustrated in Figure 4.

54
Figure 4. Themes identified from the analysis
In both the drawings and interviews, participants described situations and

activities that they valued and perceived as protective factors at a personal level.
These included: i) positive thoughts; ii) nutrition; iii) achievements. Protective
factors at a socio-ecological level were perceived as: i) people (significant others);
ii) play and activities; iii) pets; and iv) places.
In the drawings and interviews, adolescents described the following risk factors
and difficulties at a personal level: i) negative thoughts and feelings (fear and low
self-esteem); and ii) health problems. Two risk factors at a social-ecological level
were identified as difficulties with: i) family; and ii) peers.
3.1 Protective Factors

a) Personal factors
Positive thoughts and hope were identified as personal protective factors by six
adolescents (two from England and four from Greece). Participant 15 stated:
‘I feel like my optimism tank is refilling and I find my own good life and
I have new dreams and new goals in life. I want to live!!!’
Participant 16 reported many positive thoughts and feelings that facilitated his
optimism. For example:
‘People love you! Don’t give up! My passions are not weaknesses! Do not
stop believing! My wounds make me a better person! My past does not
represent me! You have a role in life, nothing is impossible!’
(see Figure 5).
Nutrition was mentioned by one participant from Greece (Participant 22; he

described how good and healthy food helps him keep calm.
Achievements were mentioned by two participants (one from Greece and one from
England). For example, Participant 19 stated: ‘I am very proud because I managed to
win a gold medal in water polo.’

55
b) Socio-ecological factors
People (significant others) were mentioned by 11 adolescents (five from England
and six from Greece). Participant 13 reported:
‘The thing that gives me strength in life is a hug from those I love, like my
girlfriend, and that empowerment makes me believe that I can succeed in
life. Deep inside I know I can do it but I am afraid to believe it.’
Participant 14 mentioned: ‘my parents help me to be strong and powerful and to have
everything I need.’
Participant 26 reported ‘my mother always helps me with homework so I can overcome
any difficulties and I feel very happy.’
Play and activities were mentioned by eight participants (three from England and
five from Greece). They reported watching TV and doing sports.
Participant 1 explained:
‘in my drawing, I’ve put how to deal with difficulties – with friends
playing football, playing with toys (dinosaur and cowboy), sleeping and
sometimes asking family or friends to support you…sometimes you can’t
do that if they are part of the problem.’
Participant 4 mentioned that:

‘on the coping side I have said that drawing, colouring, working one-one
and asking for help are ways I can concentrate. Having something to
remember someone by can make saying goodbye easier.’
Participant 5 stated that play could also be a distraction from adversity:

‘in my drawing I have put that you can forget about your problems for a
while or play X Box to distract yourself.’
Pets were mentioned by three participants (one from England and two from
Greece). Participant 18 reported that a dog could make her really happy (see
Figure 6).
Participant 8 reported: ‘I have drawn me with my dog. She is always with me and calms
me down when I need it.’
Places were reported by seven participants (five from Greece and two from
England) who mentioned playgrounds and rooms in their house as particularly
safe places to be, the beach as a relaxing place, the gym as a place to release
tension, and their favourite tree as a source of comfort. Participant 18 mentioned
her support from family as related to her comforting favourite places, which gave
her courage to fight in life. She stated: ‘When I returned back in home, I like enjoying
the comfort of my warm bed.’
Participant 5 mentioned ‘also I go to a dark corner of my room and sit in the dark and
think of my holiday’, indicating that memories of favourite places could also be
considered a protective factor.

56
Figure 5. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 16
Left: They don’t want you! You will fail, my self-confidence hides my vulnerability. My
peacefulness hides a storm. My strength is an illusion. You cannot dream all the time!
Right: They love you. Don’t give it up. Don’t stop believing. My passions are not
weakness. My wounds make me wiser. My past does not represent me. You have a role.
Nothing is impossible!
3.2 Risk Factors

The written answers and drawings were categorised into: a) personal and b) socio-
ecological factors.
a) Personal factors
According to our findings, negative thoughts and feelings were mentioned by six
participants in England and nine participants in Greece. Issues related to health
problems were identified by two adolescents from England and one participant
from Greece (see Figure 7).
Participants mentioned that negative thoughts and feelings (such as fear, low self-
esteem) negatively influence their well-being and are a cause of sadness.
Participants described a range of negative thoughts. For example, they reported
uncertainty in relation to their performance at school, uncertainty about the
future, perceived pressure from school, fear of failure and anxiety about achieving
future goals related to studies.
For example, in this excerpt, Participant 15 reported feeling overwhelmed by

feelings of desperation and disappointment: ‘Sometimes I do feel that everything is
drawn around me and I feel so lonely.’
Participant 6 stated ‘when I thought about difficulties, I thought that actually, just
staying alive in this world can be a struggle. Having to put up with school can be bad as
well.’
Participant 7 stated: ‘I can’t think of how to say it or what exactly is difficult. But I have
drawn killing yourself. It’s a way to fix everything because then everything is over.’
Participant 13 described negative emotions as a barrier to good experiences: ‘I

could be feeling great, going for walks, doing activities, studying at university, socializing,
be relaxed and with no worries! But something is stopping me…a fear, an anxiety, a
sorrow…’

57
Pressure to achieve was mentioned; for example, Participant 14, reported

‘Sometimes karate makes me feel so much pressure and makes my life difficult.’
Participant 4 explained: ‘on the difficulty side I have drawn a clown, who is a funny sort
of joker type. It is a female clown with a beard. She finds it hard to say goodbye to someone
she knew really well. Also, she finds it hard to concentrate.’ (see Figure 8).

Left: I will not manage it. I will mess it all up! My teacher gives on my
Nerves. My mother is Nervous all the time.
Right: When I return back Home I go into my bed and I will watch television with my
Family so I take courage to carry on in life. If I had a dog, I would be very happy.

Left: One day, all will be over. I can’t stand it any more! How thing will be when I will
be finished? Is it worth it? Can I manage to succeed to the University? Women…
Right: What am i doing now? Will i be succeeding going to the University finally? I can
do whatever i want!
Women...
Participant 16 appeared to be reporting internal voices resulting in continuous

pessimism. He reported that these voices mentioned: ‘Forget it! Why don’t you
abandon it? They don’t want you! My self-esteem hides a lot of vulnerabilities. You will
not manage in life! My tranquility hides a storm! My sense of power is an illusion! You

58
spend your vital oxygen and your time is running out! What is the reason to exist? You
can’t day dream all the time!’
Health related problems were mentioned by three participants. Health problems

were referred to as a struggle and the medication process as an unwanted
procedure. For example, Participant 8 reported: ‘I have drawn a person with an
inhaler. I use an inhaler and it’s something I don’t like.’
Participant 5 mentioned a difficult condition with his brother which had been a
cause of anxiety: ‘what is happening with my brother, I worry that he might die.’
a) Socio-ecological factors
Ten participants (five from Greece and five from England) mentioned difficulties
they were facing with family and peers.
Participant 1 mentioned: ‘The mum or dad is walking out of the door. I have also put
someone dying and children laying flowers at the grave. On the other side I’ve put how to
deal with that – friends playing football’ indicating the protective factors he perceived
were a buffer against adversity.
Participant 5 mentioned: ‘in my drawing I have written that friends can sometimes
make life difficult. Bullies killing you and death are also hard because people are saints’,
demonstrating the context-specific nature of protective and risk factors. In this
example, peer relationships, commonly referred to as a protective mechanism,
could also be a risk factor.
Participant 10 explained how he was facing the negative comments of his peers
and gave advice for how to manage this difficult situation:
Figure 8. Drawing and accompanying words of Participant 9.

‘In the difficulties there are family problems. The mum or dad is walking out of the door.
I have also put someone dying and children laying flowers at the grave. On the other
side I’ve put how to deal with that – friends playing football, playing with toys
(dinosaur and cowboy), sleeping and sometimes family or friends to support
you….sometimes you can’t do that if they are part of the problem.’

59
4. Discussion
This study, based on the narratives and drawings of adolescents with complex
needs, aimed to articulate the notion of resilience from the perspective of Greek
and English young people with a range of emotional, behavioral and learning
needs. The ‘Draw and Write’ technique has been previously applied by other
researchers (Grove et al., 2018; McWhirter, 2014; Noonan et al., 2016; Pinquart,
2019) in a variety of situations. As in previous research, this study demonstrated
the ‘Draw and Write’ technique as an effective data collection tool to explore the
views and perspectives of children and young people with additional needs.
Emergent themes fell into the categories of risk and protective factors, at both
personal and socio-ecological levels, that influence the resilience of adolescents
who face a variety of emotional, behavioral and learning difficulties. Similar
findings with children/adolescents with adversities or disabilities have been
reported by Ogina (2012) and Lyons and Roulstone (2018).
A significant number of adolescents in our research mentioned positive thoughts
and a sense of hope as a pathway to greater resilient. This finding is consistent
with previous research that recognises hope as an important resilience factor for
young people more generally (Li, Bottrell & Armstrong, 2018; Masten, 2018;
Pienaar et al., 2011; Pretorius, 2018).
The supportive role of teachers as a significant resilience factor was mentioned by
many of the participants in this study. This finding agrees with the findings of
several related studies with young people more broadly (Jefferis and Theron,
2017; Zolkoski and Bullock, 2012) indicating that teachers can facilitate resilience
as key social-ecological stakeholders when they give guidance, inspire hope for
the future and establish good relationships/partnerships with their students.
This study also provides crucial information about the important role of parents,
not only to protect disabled adolescents from stress and adversities, but also in
promoting the well-being of the whole family system (Masten, 2018). As such, it
adds to other studies that have demonstrated the crucial role of adult caregivers
in relation to young people more broadly (Dauenhauer et al., 2010). Children and
adolescents living with families in adverse conditions often have far fewer
resources and access to services which could help them to deal with their vital
needs. Daily financial stress affects their lives and those families are more likely
to experience poor health, low education, partnership conflicts, violence and low
performance at school (Abelev, 2009). In addition, social isolation from the larger
community often leads to children and adolescents being marginalised from
large-scale resources, social stimuli and good quality health care.
As Masten (2018) mentions, the latest studies on intervention models to promote
resilience in children and families are now focusing on positive goals, resources,
processes and outcomes and shifting away from deficit-based models of
treatment. Interventions strategies are now focusing on mitigating adversity (e.g.
a parent’s aggression), enhancing resources (e.g., health resources) and facilitating
protective resources (e.g. improved family relationships) (Zolkoski & Bullock,
2012).
This study provides various data extracted from adolescents’ drawings and

60
narratives which emerge from the diverse experiences and multiple realities of
adolescents living with a disability/complex needs. Emerging realities clarified
risk and protective factors and facilitated an understanding of how resilience is
formed in these adolescents. Echoing previous findings related to young people
with complex needs (Curtin et al., 2016), this study reveals a lack of material and
psychological support for children and adolescents who experience a form of
disability. Although some of the adolescents in our research reported material
support from their families and relatives, there was a significant lack of
engagement in loving, caring and emotional bonding relationships between them
and the significant others in their lives. Our findings are supported by another
similar study (Pienaar et al., 2011) which reported isolation and several emotional
problems in addition to economic difficulties.
Our research promoted the emergence of adolescents’ narratives through their
drawings in relation to their emotional needs and their relationships with
significant others. It was found that adolescents emphasised their loving and
caring relationships with their families, peers, teachers and others as well as the
positive characteristics of their socialisation through their skills, objects, places,
activities, future expectations and problem solving as protective factors. This
research also found an emphasis placed on positive relationships as a significant
protective factor by adolescents with complex needs. More specifically having
loving, caring and supportive relationships was reflected as a major ‘weapon’ of
adolescents living with complex needs which helped them to stay on the surface
of functional living. Our research concurs with previous researchers working with
typically developing adolescents (Li et al., 2018) in that adolescents can use their
individual as well their socio-ecological resources as vital components to build
their pathway to resilience. Many of our study’s adolescents made use of personal
coping mechanisms in the face of adversities; these were often linked to their own
emerging optimism regarding their future life, positive thoughts and feelings as
motivation as well as reminding themselves about all the people who stand on
their side. Our research also concurs with previous studies (Masten & Barnes,
2018) which have emphasised the role of functional attachment-relationships as a
vehicle which helps to defend against adversities and buffer risk factors. The
participants in this study differed from typically developing adolescents in terms
of their views on how they formed the construct of resilience, not only because of
their complex needs but also because of their concerns about potential social
marginalisation (Lyons & Roulstone, 2018).
This study used drawings as a tool and a specific form of visual method to
facilitate and explore the experiences of adolescents living with complex needs in
order to reflect on their self-perceptions of the notion of resilience and to describe
their own problem solving in the context of their vulnerable circumstances.
Facilitated through a drawing technique, adolescents revealed their lack of
emotional support from family and peers, which emerged as a major risk factor.
On the other hand, empowering relationships with significant people like parents,
brothers, friends, classmates, teachers were identified as protective factors that
offered fundamental material and emotional needs and benefits. The current
study emphasises the vital need for positive relationships as a defense in the lives
of adolescents who feel emotionally deprived and lonely. Such relationships
could derive from family context, educational environment as well as friends and

61
peers in school and they potentially trigger all short of beneficial resources at an
individual emotional level. As Li et al. (2018) state, parents in Western societies
play an important role in helping their children to develop resilience with the
support they provide at practical and emotional levels. Important others, such as
teachers, seem to play a crucial role too, because it appears that they have a
positive effect on academic achievement and on the development of positive
behaviors (Li et al., 2018). However, drawings and narratives of adolescents
revealed diverse experiences and different experiences of vulnerability. We can
identify an emerging repeating pattern/theme reflecting a transformation in the
thinking of adolescents and the forming of a new identity in terms of future
problem solving and a new vision from a position of vulnerability to a more
optimistic vision of the future. Our argument is that in order for adolescents to
find the resources they need and become more resilient, they have to adopt both
new and different socialisation strategies, as well as motivating themselves and
making use of their inner potential and all their dynamic personal traits, as new
patterns to compensate for the absence of emotional and material needs, taking
into account the dangers of utilising ‘resilience’ as a vehicle for the
responsibilitasion of individuals in place of social structures and governing
institutions (Hart et al., 2016).
4.1 Cultural Considerations

During adolescent development, it is normal for youths to face risks and negative
life experiences at different points in time. Research suggests that environmental
variables in an adolescent’s ecology play an important part in their mental health
outcomes and that the cumulative effect of multiple risk factors is associated with
adolescent development (Hart et al., 2016).
The results of our research indicated that, irrelevant of gender, age, cultural and
social status, all adolescents, both in Greece and England, perceived some
common themes and patterns in terms of protective factors. However, the extent
to which protective factors were effective in overcoming adversities and building
resilience varied according to the current resources available to them in terms of
loving and caring relationships and supportive adults, who facilitated the
transformation from vulnerability to a more dynamic problem solving and
positive perception of their future.
Adolescents who experienced a lack of social support systems were more likely
to refer to places, pets and objects as protective factors, whereas those who lived
in a more supportive environment described a more connected form of resilience
(e.g. socio-ecological factors) in which the external environment facilitated a
positive personal outlook and perspective. Future research should explore and
clarify the nature of the resilience which is being fostered both in terms of self-
protective forms as well as more connected forms.
The above results suggest that any group of adolescents and any adolescent at an
individual level is capable of developing mechanisms of resilience, regardless of
their adversities and a lack of support from their social systems, even those who
live with severe adversities and disabilities compared to adolescents who live in
wealthier and better resourced communities. Adolescents with the highest levels
of resilience protective factors are able to invest a large amount of psychological

62
effort in their development (Van Breda, 2017) offering them an optimistic

perspective of their future life.
From a global perspective, it is an important to note that feelings of anger,
hopelessness and loneliness are an adolescent phenomenon. Yet, in this study,
however poor an individual’s resources were, there was an emerging sense of an
interpersonal community from families and friends present in the lives of the
adolescents, which acted as a major self-defense network in terms of adversities.
Given the importance of cultural influences and their impact on the resilience
development process, resilience can have a major role as long as parents, carers,
teachers and other supportive adults communicate and manage stressful
situations and adversities according to the cultural context. Our research findings
emphasise the protective role of parents and peers, and are best understood as a
form of dynamic interplay between risk and protective factors within a micro-
community of parents and peers. Our study concurs with previous research (Ilias
et al., 2019) that argued that the process of resilience requires the functioning of
many interacting systems within and around the parents and the micro-ecological
environment, which operate at different levels.
Risk factors at the socio-ecological level, like poverty, emotional isolation, and
family instability, do share clear commonalities both in Greece and England, as
reflected in the drawings and narratives of the adolescent participants in this
study. Similarly, personal qualities such as a positive attitude towards the future,
and an ability to persevere seem to have a positive relationship with managing
negative thoughts, health issues and other vulnerable situations in adolescents’
lives. The above factors consist of dynamic interplay which have significant
implications for working with youth who face complex needs and/or have
disabilities. Understanding these factors, we attempted to identify implications
for future practice.
It is a common truth that cultural variations play an important role in every aspect
of the resilience process, since cultural issues can affect family and school practices
in terms of building resilience in order to form expectations of adolescent
behaviour which fit ‘into their culture, community, or society’ (Masten & Barnes,
2018, p. 6).
4.2 Implications for Practice

Our key research findings regarding the perception of resilience could have
significant implications for interventions for adolescents with complex needs and
seem to be crucial in order to facilitate their transition to adulthood. A multilevel
approach which focuses on the developmental stage of the adolescents in order to
enhance their resilience should include ‘assets and resources as the center for
change’ (Zolkoski & Bullock 2012, p. 2300). According to these authors, to help
adolescents with disabilities overcome barriers to a successful transition to
adulthood, intervention programmes should focus on the: a) individual level
(social skills, self-efficacy etc.); b) family level (e.g. family cohesion); and c) social
environment (e.g. supportive teachers, relationships with peers) (Zolkoski &
Bullock, 2012). To add to these dimensions, and more controversially, it is also
important to consider supporting children and young people to advocate for
themselves for social change and to take part in activist activities that challenge

63
their adversity contexts. This has the potential to be resilience building and is in
line with the definition of resilience proposed in the ‘Beating the odds and
changing the odds’ concept of ‘Boingboing resilience’ (Hart et al., 2016).
Ecological factors could offer resources and potential development to reassure
individuals not only in terms of personal safety but also social growth.
Social/ecological factors play a major role in the establishment of emerging
resilience to sustain personality development. This is a significant research
finding for schools and social welfare institutions providing vital care and
resources to children and adolescents, emphasising that positive and enabling
relationships, which constitute the fundamental ground of the ecological context,
can be created and cultivated even in the most adverse and deprived communities
(Zolkoski & Bullock, 2012).
Building on the principles and practices of the Academic Resilience Approach that
we explored in the first part of this article, school personnel should encourage and
nurture relationships with children and adolescents, modelling healthy social
skills for mature patterns of living. This will enable the internal and external space
to be secured for children to feel valued and understood and to promote their
welfare, creating bridges and connected communities of social support for the
most disadvantaged individuals (Callaghan, Fellin & Alexander, 2019; Hart &
Williams, 2015). Individual mentors could connect individuals with a whole
community of external supporters as well as with family members. A community
around the child should be created to meet their needs, so these supportive
relationships can extend beyond immediate family and school staff. Building a
connected community of relationships can begin to take place even in the play-
ground and does not always require specific funding or any infrastructure.
Schools could become the shelters where families could absorb the necessary
support, so as to function appropriately, and could be available for families in
need, by offering human resources and social skills through parents’ groups. In
line with the UK’s Future in Mind approach and Greece’s (Law 3699/2008) school
mental health practitioners and social workers could work more closely with
families (Future in Mind, 2012). In particular, in Greece since 2013 (Law,
4115/2013) school psychologists and social workers have been providing support
to public schools for all vulnerable students who need it. Hence, their bond could
become more intimate in the context of a local community and their role become
more meaningful and influential in establishing a resilience framework adopting
a symbolic, beneficial parental role. Promoting children’s and adolescents’
resilience could be the productive valuable outcome of that intense bond between
all working parties in the residential settings of connected communities.
Our research findings also imply that qualified practitioners could be given more
training on the fundamental concepts of resilience, including those which
challenge notions of responsibilising individuals. This would help ensure that
they are in a position to promote effective individual health and social human
development and benefit, tackling all risk factors and creating protective
resources. Our ethical responsibility is to create ‘resilience-informed care’ and
practice so we can create and utilise strengths-based models and interventions
(Patrick & Wyckoff, 2018). Continuing personal and professional development for
school personnel is vital. This would support their own resilience to provide

64
better services and for many of them, change their focus from a ‘deficit’ model to
a positive health development one (Masten and Barnes, 2018).
Going forward, a transdisciplinary, inter-professional framework is needed to
mitigate risk and promote resilience in adolescents (Yu et al., 2018). Young
people’s views, and indeed leadership in creating it, should be central to this
framework to maximise its efficacy and relevance. A ‘test and learn’ experiment
in this regard relating to the application of Hart et al.’s Resilient Therapy approach
is underway across a whole town in Blackpool, UK
(www.boingboing.org.uk/reflections-big-resilience-together-blackpool/). It has
become known as the first pilot for a ‘Resilience Revolution’. Here, the
‘transdisciplinary’ approach goes beyond aspiring towards interprofessionalism.
Rather, a community development approach is being instigated involving
everyone in the town who wants to participate as a co-leader, whether a young
person, parent, carer, policy maker or practitioner. Effective preparation, practice,
and policy for resilience requires collaboration and coordination across systems,
with strategic consideration of the best targets, timing, and alignment of
interventions. Many systems contribute to resilience as children and adolescents
develop, and in turn, they enhance the future resilience of their communities and
societies (Masten & Barnes, 2018).
4.3. Limitations and Future Research

The small sample size presents a major barrier to generalising the results of the
present study, and these research findings could rather be seen as tendencies.
Furthermore, the research was conducted in just two schools (one in Greece and
one in the UK) and therefore the results may not be representative of all students
with complex needs in Greece and the UK. Nonetheless, the findings of this study
remain a useful tool for explicating the phenomenological experiences of
resilience among adolescents with a variety of difficulties.
It is hoped that the results of the current research could contribute to the literature
providing valuable material to better inform special education professionals on
how to work more effectively with this population. Emergent research calls for a
greater emphasis on challenging conditions of adversity by increasing the
participation of marginalised groups as a way of overcoming disadvantage and
contributing to social change (Ungar, 2005). This assertion is just as pertinent for
school staff.
Future resilience research is required to clarify and explore more deeply the
presence and the role of protective and beneficial relationships in managing,
against the odds, vital emotional and material needs for the most disadvantaged
children and young people, especially those who have complex needs. In
addition, future research, of the nature conducted in this study, should include
parents’ and teachers’ views on resilience in order to allow for triangulation of the
data and produce more holistic results. It could also help in a comparison of
adolescents’, their parents’ and teachers’ perceptions both in Greece and the UK.
Drawing has been revealed in this study as a useful tool for phenomenological
enquiry and therefore future research could include that research tool to enhance
the research perspectives.

65
5. Conclusion
The current study highlights the importance of integrating the voices of children
and adolescents with complex needs, so that it is possible to identify, from their
own perspectives, potential risk factors for their well-being but also protective
factors that can help them be more resilient. In that way, we can promote and
apply protective strategies not only at an individual level but also in an
environmental context (family, school, community) in order to enhance the well-
being of individuals and help them to achieve academic success.
It is very important to identify the unique individual resilience characteristics and
profile of each child and adolescent, as well his/her social/ecological and cultural
environment. This enables a search for emerging risks and protective factors since
the ways in which the identified themes manifest will be culturally and
contextually specific. School-based psychoeducation programmes and
therapeutic interventions could stimulate appropriate and developing skills to
equip children and young people with the necessary social skills and problem-
solving capabilities to tackle life’s challenges and adversities on behalf of
themselves and, potentially, on behalf of their peers. This would support the
transformation from a passive situation to more active and independent living
(van Breda, 2017).
Acknowledgments. The research in this paper was produced as part of the work
undertaken through the successful Economic and Social Research Council funded
Imagine programme (Grant Number ES/K002686/1 and ES/K002686/2) and
subsequent 2015/2016 funded Designing Resilience activities. Thanks are due to
all the co-researchers and participants involved in that study including
academics, parents, carers, service users, practitioners and young people.
Contributions. MG, SP designed and conducted the study in Greece, wrote the
manuscript, developed and performed the analysis. JM conducted the study in
UK and edited the manuscript. EK & AH reviewed and edited the manuscript and
approved the final version of the manuscript.
Conflict of Interest. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a
potential conflict of interest.
Funding. The present study was funded as part of the work undertaken through
the successful Economic and Social Research Council funded Imagine programme
(Grant Number ES/K002686/1 and ES/K002686/2) and subsequent 2015/2016
funded Designing Resilience activities.
Ethics Statement. Ethical approval was granted by the University of Crete and
University of Brighton. Imagine was a five year Economic and Social Research Council
(ESRC) project funded through the Research Councils UK Connected Communities
programme. It ran from 2013-2017. Written informed consent was obtained from
parents of participating adolescents and children. All parents of participants gave
written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

66
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Appendix 1
INTERVIEW PROMPT QUESTIONS
1. Can you please draw a child like yourself?

2. What do you think this child is thinking about himself and his future?
3. When this child is facing difficulties in his life, what helps him/her to
overcome these difficulties?
4. What helps him/her to find courage in his life?
5. Draw and write. (If you need help, I can write for you.)

70

Reshaping the University Curriculum through

the Visiting Lectureship
Valentyna I. Bobrytska
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1742-0103
Hanna V. Krasylnykova
Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4846-722X
Nina G. Batechko
National University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine,
Kyiv, Ukraine
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3772-4489
Nataliia А. Beseda
National University “Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic”, Poltava, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1454-1938
Yevheniy S. Spitsyn
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8385-4789
Abstract. The purpose of the study is to investigate how visiting

lectureship is capable to reshape and improve the university
curriculum for four different majors such as educational policy,
instruction, healthcare, and technology. The research is significant
because it addresses some current challenges forming a crisis of
higher education such as an instructional challenge, a fiscal challenge,
a birth rate-related challenge, and a graduate employment challenge.
This study combines exploratory and quasi-experimental research
methods, and Baseline Study Survey Questionnaires (BSSQ),
Questionnaire to Measure Research Skills (QMRS), The students’
research activeness checklist, Professional Self-development Critical
Reflection Scale (PSCRS), along with Self-directed Learning Skills
Scale (SLSS) are the research instruments used in this study. The
sample used are 184 (169 students and 15 lecturers), and key data are
drawn from the assessment of students’ research skills and
activeness, professional self-development, self-directed learning and
self-education skills, and professional socialisation by students
themselves and their teachers before and after the intervention. The
stakeholders’ perceptions of visiting lectureship such as students,

71
lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations are studied

using the focus group interviews. It is found that visiting lectureship
reshapes and improves the university curriculum of four different
majors namely: educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and
technology. Add to this, visiting lectureship positively influences
students’ research activeness, professional self-development, self-
directed learning & self-education skills, and professional
socialisation, and it is positively perceived by students, lecturers, and
representatives of the host organisations. Visiting lectureship also
increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of
instruction. Besides, it benefits the potential employers as these are
involved in the educational process at the early stage of the
programme in its design and updating, which will result in a more
competent and competitive staff for them to hire.
Keywords: Higher education institutions; Visiting lectureship;

University curriculum; Professional training
1. Introduction
Visiting or guest lectureship and professorship are becoming trendy at
universities for two main reasons . First, it seems economically advantageous
because a short-term contract basis of the invited experts and professors is less
costly and more flexible for the institutions, and second, it provides the students
the opportunity to learn from those who practically succeeded in the students’
future professional field (Bobrytska, 2017; Leventhal-Weiner, 2015). The
involvement of leading and experienced practitioners in the educational process
is aimed at benefiting the students with updated job-related knowledge and
real-life job experience (Nikolayeva, 2018; Rajesh, 2017). However, the core
(credit-bearing) disciplines that are of practical job-related purpose for the
students are often delivered by lecturers who are ‘bookish professionals’ in the
field they are performing in (Chan, 2018). Even more importantly, the university
curriculum is found to be overcrowded with theoretical disciplines that are quite
arguably applicable in real-life professional settings (Adolfsson, 2018). The over-
theorisation of studies discourages students from self-development in their
professional field, demotivates them as student researchers, and causes a certain
extend of disrespect to the lectures (Kormoczi, 2019). The above mentioned has
created a potential gap for the research which is to address the topic of
reshaping the university curriculum through the visiting lectureship to influence
students’, professional self-development, self-directed learning and self-
education skills, research activeness, and professional socialisation. The research
is also significant because it addresses some current challenges forming a crisis
of higher education such as an instructional challenge, a fiscal challenge, a birth
rate-related challenge, and a graduate employment challenge (Drozdowski,
2020).
2. Literature Review
The social constructivist approach to learning that is based on visiting or guest
lectureship serves as a theoretical framework for the study (Al-Huneidi &
Schreurs, 2012; Yadav, 2016). It is based on learning from the interactive

72
environment created by the instructor or the guest speaker (Ardiansyah &

Ujihanti 2018; Fernando & Marikar, 2017). Visiting or guest lectureship and
professorship sessions are seen as one of the applications of the social
constructivism approach to creating a structured educational environment to
train tertiary students as professionals-to-be (Hover & Hicks, 2017; Mohammed
et al., 2020). The visiting or guest lecturers can be both academic and non-
academic experts who are involved in sharing their expertise, job-related, or
research skills and knowledge (Guest lecturer, 2020). The tenured position for
visiting lectures is found to be quite often offered at universities (Himmelsbach,
2019).
In the literature, the guest speaker sessions and/or visiting lectureship at higher
educational institutions are found to be revealed as an extra-curriculum framed
learning component that is organised in the non-formal educational settings
(Xhomaqi et al., 2019). The online environment based on the guest online
lecturing is also seen by the researchers and educational practitioners as a
pedagogic tool, which is capable to improve the quality of university education
in various ways such as positive emotions motivating students to learn,
alternative opinions, and expertise of the guest speakers combined with less
academic (conventional) teaching methods (Varvel, 2020). The reshaping of the
curriculum-driven by the introduction of visiting lectureship is found to be
consistent with the concept of the critical approach to the curriculum upgrade
(Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). According to Foley et al. (2015), critical pedagogy is
supposed to transform the curriculum in a way it provides a model to build the
learning environment where the obtained knowledge is given a meaning that
comes from negotiations and debates.
The purpose of the study is to investigate how visiting lectureship is capable to

reshape and improve the university curriculum for four different majors such as
educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and technology. In this light, the
following research questions sought to explore:
1) How does visiting lectureship influence students’ research activeness,
professional self-development, self-directed learning & self-education skills, and
professional socialisation? and
2) How do students, lecturers, and representatives perceive the visiting
lectureship of the host organizations?
3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design
The study is divided into six phases that utilised two designs namely: the
exploratory and quasi-experimental ones. The phases include a baseline study,
pre-test phase, intervention, post-test phase, focus group surveys, and data
processing phases (see Fig 1.).

73
Phase 1 Baseline study (4 weeks, 𝑛 = 431 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑟𝑠)
Survey: purposes: a) to evaluate feasibility of reshaping the curriculum. b) to identify perceptions

of the students’ engagement in their specialism-related component of studies and applied
research in terms of the students’ research activeness, professional self-development, self-directed
learning & self-education skills, and professional socialisation.
Transitional steps
Pre-test phase (≈4 weeks) 1. Data collection tools design. Assessment of the
1. Sampling.
Phase 2 2. Pre-test measurements to
credibility and eligibility of tools.
2. Informed consent from the students and lecturers
identify the sample homogeneity. obtained.
3. Data processing.
3. The approval of the intervention programme by
the Board of Academics.
Phase 3 Intervention phase (20 weeks)

1. Conventional training + lectures delivered by vising speakers
at universities and online. Controlled
2. Mind sessions conducted by the invited lecturers and speakers.
observations
3. On-site hands-on experiences
4. Mentoring (job-embedded experiences)
5. Professionalism-related workshops
Phase 4 Post-test phase (2 weeks)

1. Monitoring the variables.
2. Data consolidation.
Phase 5 Focus group interviews (≈3 weeks)

1. Recording the interviews.
2. Transcribing the audio.
3. Synthesising the data.
4. Consolidating the data.
Phase 6 Data processing phase (≈3 weeks)

1. Data consolidation.
2. Data computation.
3. Data interpretation and reporting.
Figure 1: Research design that is based on six stages such as a baseline study,
pretestphase, intervention, post-test phase, focus group surveys, and data processing
phases
The research lasted for 9 months. The baseline study takes place on June 2019.
The intervention lasted from October 2019 to the end of March 2020. The post-
test measurements and focus group interviews are both administered online in
June 2020. Phase six of the study is conducted during September 2020. The
baseline study survey is anonymously administered online to the students and
lecturers of ten universities in Ukraine such as National Pedagogical
Dragomanov University, Kyiv; National University “Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava
Polytechnic”, Poltava; the National University of Life and Environmental
Science of Ukraine, Kyiv; Khmelnytskyi National University, Khmelnytskyi;
Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, Kyiv; Dnipro Academy of
Continuous Education for Dnipropetrovsk Regional Council, Communally-
Owned Institution of Higher Education, Dnipro; Kherson State University,
Kherson; Kryvyi Rih Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih; Vinnytsia Mykhailo
Kotsiubynskyi State Pedagogical University, Vinnytsia; and Sumy State

74
University, Sumy. The institutions for the baseline study are intentionally
selected to cover four different educational programmes that were intended to
qualify the students in educational policy, instruction, healthcare, and
technology. These are chosen because they correspond to the research team
members’ majors.
3.2. Research Methods and Data Collection Instruments

This study combines exploratory and quasi-experimental research methods. The
exploratory methodology is used because it helps in analysing participants’
opinions and perceptions expressed in words and actions (Mohajan, 2018;
Aspers & Corte, 2019). The quasi-experimental research method on the other
hand is employed to complete the quasi-experiential measurements. Important
data are drawn from the assessment of students’ research skills and activeness,
professional self-development, self-directed learning & self-education skills, and
professional socialisation by students themselves and their teachers before and
after the intervention. The stakeholders’ perceptions of visiting lectureship such
as students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations are studied
using the focus group interviews (See Appendix A). Baseline Study Survey
Questionnaires (BSSQ) on Perceived Students’ Engagement in Specialism-related
Studies for the student and lecturer respondents (See Appendixes B & C) is the
research tool used in this study. The students’ research skills are measured using
a Questionnaire to Measure Research Skills (QMRS) which is designed and
validated by Alvarado et al (2016). The students’ research activeness is assessed
by their scientific supervisors using the checklist (See Appendix D). A
Professional Self-development Critical Reflection Scale (PSCRS) is indeed
originally designed and validated to be a psychometrically sound tool which is
purposefully used as a self-report questionnaire to measure the variable of
students’ professional self-development (see Appendix E). When drafting this
research tool, the research team uses the ideas of Nickel (2013). Self-directed
learning and self-education skills are measured with the Self-directed Learning
Skills Scale (SLSS) that is constructed and validated by Ayyildiz and Tarhan
(2015). The Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS) being
outlined by Curran et al (2008) is modified to make measurements of the
professional socialisation variable (see Appendix F).
The Voyant Tools which are accessed through the link: https://voyant-
tools.org/, are used to analyse the text corpus of teachers’ observation reports
obtained from the controlled observations. The consolidated data drawn from
the measurements of the variables were computed using the IBM SPSS Statistics
(25.0.0.1) package.The QMRS includes 20 items to cover such skills as
information seeking and processing, managing data, and developing scientific
information (Alvarado, León & Colon, 2016). The benchmark values for the
reliability of the QMRS are proved to be as follows: Cronbach's alpha coefficient
for the total scale was .91. The value for the domain of information seeking and
processing was .891. It was .711 for managing the data domain. It was supposed
to be .687 for the domain of developing scientific information.

75
The BSSQs, the checklist for students’ scientific supervisors, RIPLS, and the focus
group survey questionnaire are all validated by three Ph.D. experts in Social
Studies. The tools are assessed for face validity, content validity, the internal
consistency using Cronbach’s Alpha. The Principal components analysis is also
conducted to measure the validity of the tools. The three level-scale is suggested
by the experts to unify the measurements and is applied to the tools that are
designed for the study. For the BSSQs, it was 80-125 = a high rate of
engagement; 51-79 = a moderate rate of engagement; 25-50 = low rate of
engagement. It was 25-35 = a high rate of activeness; 13-24 = a moderate rate of
activeness; and 7-12 = a low rate of activeness for the checklist for the scientific
supervisors to assess the students’ research activeness. For the PSCRS, it was 17-
25 = a high rate of Ss’ critical reflection on self-development; 10-16 = a moderate
rate of Ss’ critical reflection on self-development, and 5-9 = low rate of Ss’ critical
reflection on self-development. For the RIPLS, it was 17-25 = a high rate of Ss’
readiness; 10-16 = a moderate rate of Ss’ readiness, and 5-9 = low rate of Ss’
readiness.
3.2.1. The Focus Group Survey Questionnaire (𝑁 = 11)

It is based on 5 open-ended questions (See Appendix A )that are framed to cover
different aspects of the respondents’ perceptions of the programme reshaped to
incorporate activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest
lecturers. The respondents are randomly sampled for the interview. Each
question in the interview is conducted via the phone and iss recorded and then
transcribed. The responses were grouped according to the themes that were
assigned by the experts with the code.
3.3. Sampling
Random sampling is used for the respondents to answer anonymously the
questions from the online survey questionnaire used in the baseline study. The
sample included 431 students and lecturers of ten universities. The invitation to
take part in the survey is sent by email. The email addresses of students and
lecturers were enquired from the Dean's offices of the institutions. The
convenience sampling technique is actually used to hire students, lecturers, and
representatives of the host organisations for the intervention phase of the study
(Taherdoost, 2016). The students and lecturers of five universities are the
subjects for the intervention. These universities are as follows: National
Pedagogical Dragomanov University (NPDU), National University “Yuri
Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic” (NUPP), National University of Life and
Environmental Science of Ukraine (NULESU), Khmelnytskyi National
University (KNU), and Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv (TSNUK).
The Sample size calculator that can be accessed via the link:
https://www.surveysystem.com/sscalc.htm#two, is used to compute whether
the number of hired students and lecturers is adequate for the experiment. It is
found that the sample size of 184 individuals (169 students and 15 lecturers) is
sufficient for the experiment if 𝑀𝑂𝐸 (margin of error) is 5.48 and confidence
level is 95%. The demographic characteristics of the students and lecturers are
presented in Table 1.

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Table 1: Demographic features of the sampled students (𝑁 = 169) and lecturers (𝑁 = 15)
Institution 𝒑−
Feature %
NPDU NUPP NULESU KNU TSNUK 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆*
Gender Males 3 11 15 52 6 51.47 𝑝
(students) Females 20 33 1 15 13 48.53 < 0.001
Gender Males 2 1 1 2 2 53.33 𝑝
(lecturers) Females 1 1 2 2 1 46.67 < 0.001
Age 18-25 2 44 16 37 2 59.76
(students) 26-30 9 0 0 3 7 11.24
31-35 5 0 0 12 6 13.60
0. 512
36-40 5 0 0 7 4 9.46
41-45 2 0 0 6 0 4.73
46-59 0 0 0 2 0 1.21
Age 26-30 0 0 1 2 0 20.00
(Lecturers) 31-35 1 0 0 0 1 13.34
36-40 0 1 1 0 1 20.00 0. 491
41-45 1 1 0 1 1 26.66
46-59 1 0 1 1 0 20.00
Note: S=students; L=lecturers; NPDU=National Pedagogical Dragomanov University,
NUPP=National University «Yuri Kondratyuk Poltava Polytechnic», NULESU=National
University of Life and Environmental Science of Ukraine, KNU=Khmelnytskyi National
University; TSNUK=Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv; * the result is
significant at 𝑝 < .05.
The pre-intervention measurements in students’ research skills and activeness,

professional self-development, self-directed learning and self-education skills,
and professional socialisation using the below instruments show homogeneity
among the students.
Selection of the guest speakers and visiting lecturers

Both participants and the research team are involved in the process of selecting
the guest speakers and visiting lecturers. The criteria for shortlisting them are as
follows:
a) strong brand in the media as an expert in the field;
b) background and experience;
c) charismatic character; and
d) age (30 to 50 years old).
The selection process is conducted in three important stages. First, searching the
information about them on the web. Second, holding negotiations with them to
reach consensus concerning the purpose of the study and their role in it, and
third, polling the students to find out which speaker they are exposed to meet.
The host organisations are also put on a vote to identify whether the students are
interested in visiting them or not.
3.4. A Brief Outline of the Programmes

The key data about the educational programmes that are used as the
experimental base are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2: Data about the institutions, educational programmes, and organisations that
provided visiting speakers and hosted students
Duration
Institution Organisations to provide
(head of the Programme Qualification visiting speakers and to host
programme) students
Directorate of higher education and

adult education and Directorate for
1 year and 4
strategic planning and European
NPDU “Educational
months
Educational expertise integration for the Ministry of
(Dr. V. I. policy” Master’s
and consultancy Education and Science of Ukraine, and
Bobrytska) programme
National Agency for Quality
Assurance of Higher Education of
Ukraine
Poltava State Experimental Prosthetic
and Orthopedic Enterprise;
“Skalyansky Clinic” Medical Centre,
3 years and 10 months
LLC.; Poltava City Centre for

“Physical Comprehensive Rehabilitation for
therapy, Assistance to a Persons with Disabilities;
NUPP occupational physical therapist or Rehabilitation centre for children with
(N/A) therapy” an occupational organic lesions of the nervous system
Bachelor’s therapist of Poltava Regional Children's Clinical
programme Hospital; “Sunflower” Training and
Rehabilitation Centre, NGO; “3rd City
Clinical Hospital for Poltava City
Council”, Communally-owned and
subsidised enterprise
“Automation
and computer-
5 years and 4
Engineers in "Greenhouses of Ukraine" Association,

integrated
months
NULESU technologies”
automation and “Greenhouse” Combine, PJSC; “S-
(N/A) computer-integrated Engineering” Company; Siemens,
Bachelor’s &
technology Schneider Electric
Master’s
programme
“Technology of Khmelnytsky Centre for Vocational
Instructor,
1 year and 4
light industry Education in the field of services;

KNU production control
months
products Scientific and Methodological Centre

(Dr. H. V. engineer,
(garments)” for Vocational Education and Training
Krasylnykova) clothing designer &
Master’s of Engineers and Instructors in
technologist
programme Khmelnytsky Region
Khmelnytskyi National University,
Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine; Dnipro
Teaching of
Academy of Continuous Education for
humanitarian
Dnipropetrovsk Regional Council,
disciplines,
“Pedagogics of Communally-Owned Institution of
TSNUK educational
2 years
higher school” Higher Education, Dnipro; Kherson

(E. Spitsyn, disciplines,
Master’s State University, Kherson; Kryvyi Rih
Ph.D.) natural disciplines,
programme Pedagogical University, Kryvyi Rih;
social and
Vinnytsia Mykhailo Kotsiubynskyi
behavioural
State Pedagogical University,
disciplines
Vinnytsia; Sumy State University,
Sumy
3.5. Ethical Considerations

The informed consent and the consent for voluntary participation are obtained
from the sampled students and lecturers prior to the study. The confidentiality
and anonymity of their personal data are given high priority so that the
participants and visiting lecturers are not subjected to the harm of their
reputation and public image. The survey questionnaires are drafted and edited
to avoid misleading, biased, discriminatory, or offensive formulations. The

78
questionnaire for a focus group interview is designed to identify whether the

views of the stakeholders involved in the study contradict.
4. Results
The study finds that visiting lectureship is capable to reshape and improve the
university curriculum for four different majors such as educational policy,
instruction, healthcare, and technology. This is proved by a series of
measurements made in the baseline study whose aim is to identify whether the
experiment is feasible, and in the pre-intervention and post-intervention stages
to identify what changes visiting lectureship brought to the variables. The latter
is followed by the administration of the focus group surveys to boost the validity
of the above measurements. The below sub-sections present the results obtained
at different phases of the study.
4.1. Baseline study Results

As mentioned above, the randomly chosen students and lecturers are surveyed
using the originally designed questionnaire (see Appendix B). The key purpose
of the baseline study is to evaluate whether the reshaping curriculum is a
feasible solution. In this concern, it serves to identify how the students perceived
the extent of their engagement in their specialism-related component of studies
and applied research, and learn about how the lecturers perceived the extent of
students’ engagement in their specialism-related component of studies and
applied research. Hence, the baseline study survey results shown from the
perspective of students and lecturers are presented in Figure 2.
Students' perspective Lecturers' perspective
High rate of
engagement
Moderate rate
of engagement
Low rate of
engagement
Figure 2: The baseline survey results shown form the perspective of students and
lecturers
As can be seen in Fig 2., the rate for the perceived students’ engagement in
specialism-related studies as assessed by the students is mostly moderate, while
that rate is mostly low from the lecturers’ perspective.
4.2. Pre-test and Post-test Measurements

The pre-test and post-test results of measurements that are based on the QMRS,
PSCRS, SLSS, RIPLS are dosplayed in Table 3.

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Table 3: The pre-test and post-test measurement results based on QMRS, PSCRS,
SLSS, RIPLS (𝑁 = 169)
Pre-test Post-test
Tool 𝒕 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆* 𝒑 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆*
𝜇 SS 𝜇 SS
QMRS 41.31 1592.77 50.54 771.23 –2.37125 .013049
PSCRS 38.23 1294.31 55.15 969.69 –4.44225 .000086
SLSS 44.08 992.92 62.85 929.69 –5.34641 <.00001
RIPLS 43.31 2286.77 61.67 129.69 –4.96435 .000023
Note: 𝜇 – Mean; 𝑆𝑆 – Sum of squares; *significant at p < .05.
Students experience a positive change in all the variables under this study. The
Mean values in Table 3 suggest that there is the most noteworthy improvement
in the Ss’ self-directed learning and self-education skills with an increase in
values by 18.77 points. The second greatest change is in Ss’ readiness for
interprofessional learning (the professional socialisation variable) which
signifies the difference of 18.36 points in pre-test and post-test measurements.
The third significant change occurred in students’ professional self-development
intentions with 16.92 points of increase. The least change takes place in Ss’
research skills with a positive shift of 9.23 points in this domain.
4.3. The assessment results of the students’ research activeness by their

scientific supervisors (ETCS-based)
Table 4 reflects the average students’ scores for essays and research work.
Table 4: Results of the assessment of the students’ research activeness by their

scientific supervisors
Pre-test Post-test
𝒕 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆* 𝒑 − 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆*
𝜇 SS 𝜇 SS
69.46 1305.23 83.62 605.08 –4.04469 .000235
Note: 𝜇 – Mean; 𝑆𝑆 – Sum of squares; *significant at p < .05.
As can be seen in Table 4, the Mean scores for essays and the student research
also imply that sampled students experienced a positive change.
4.4. The Controlled Observations Reports

The results of the analysis of the text corpus of teachers’ observation reports
obtained from the controlled observations using the Voyant Tools are presented
in Fig. 3 and Table 5. In fact, Figure 3 shows the distribution of the mostly used
words in teachers’ observation reports. As displayed, the five most frequently
used terms are benefits, job, practical, related, and specialism.

80
Figure 3: Distribution of the mostly used words in teachers’ observation

reports
The analysis of the correlation of terms is presented in Table 5.
Table 5: Results of the analysis of the correlation of terms

Term 1 Term 2 Correlation Significance*
efficient → class/training 1 0
benefits → Practical 0.843 0.0021
interesting → Specialism 0.763 0.0101
job → Related 0.762 0.0103
activities → Research 0.758 0.0352
specialism → Research 0.739 0.0391
job → Benefits 0.717 0.0416
Note: the significance of .05 or less indicates a strong correlation; Correlation: the closer
the value is to +1, the stronger the correlation is.
As can be observed from Table 5, teachers’ observation reports emphasise the

effectiveness and benefits of the visiting lectureship for the students’
occupational development and their research activity.
4.5. Focus Group Survey Results (𝑁 = 11 respondents)

The focus group includes 2 representatives of the host companies, 2 lecturers, 2
guest speakers, and 5 students. For the first question, all respondents appreciate
the activities and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers. Some
of their quotes were as follows:
[…the training sessions were based on the real cases…]
[…the programme included on-site assignments at host organisations
that were quite challenging and beneficial in terms of the students’
future job functions…]
As for the second question, students reporte that they have benefited
professionally. The lecturers and guest speakers confesse that this teaching
experience is a challenge to them because they need to update their teaching
skills and knowledge along with reshaping the curriculum. The representatives

81
of the host companies state that they could select the appropriate future
employees for their organisations.
In the third question , the lecturers and speakers admit that they need more time
to design lesson plans and training sessions. Students also acknowledge that the
deadlines are quite tough to some extent. However, the host company
representatives find nothings to criticise.
In reference to the fourth question, all the respondents state that they would
become a referee for the programme reshaped in that way because the
programme reshaped them as professionals and individuals.
As far as the last question is concerned, the lecturers suggest inviting the
international speakers while the students proposed to use more media and
technology, but the representatives of host companies advise launching the
fundraising initiatives.
5. Discussion
The study is novel into two domains. First, it upgrades and updates the
university curriculum of four different majors such as educational policy,
instruction, healthcare, and technology through the use of visiting lectureship.
Second, it identifies that the changes that have occurred in students’ research
activeness, professional self-development, self-directed learning and self-
education skills, and professional socialisation are due to the use of visiting
lectureship. The results obtained from the baseline study survey read that the
rate for the perceived students’ engagement in specialism-related studies as
assessed by the students is mostly moderate, while that rate is mostly low from
the lecturers’ perspective. These suggest that the programme curriculum needs
improvements and use of visiting lectureship could be incorporated in the
programme to upgrade the content and teaching methods. The pre-test and
post-test results of measurements that are based on the QMRS, PSCRS, SLSS,
RIPLS prove that there is a positive change in all the variables under this study.
Due to the intervention, there is the most noteworthy improvement in the Ss’
self-directed learning and self-education skills with an increase in values by
18.77 points.
The second greatest change is in Ss’ readiness for interprofessional learning (the
professional socialisation variable) which indicates the difference of 18.36 points
in pre-test and post-test measurements. The third significant change occurres in
students’ professional self-development intentions with 16.92 points of increase.
The least change takes place in Ss’ research skills with a positive shift of 9.23
points in this domain. The results of the analysis of the text corpus of teachers’
controlled observation reports prove the effectiveness and benefits of the visiting
lectureship for the students’ occupational development and their research
activity. The focus group interview also concludes that visiting lectureship is
positively perceived by students, lecturers, and representatives of the host
organisations.It is therefore safe to record that visiting lectureship positively
influences not only the students but also the other educational stakeholders.

82
More explicitly, it increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of

instruction. Add to this, it benefits the potential employers as these are involved
in the educational process at the early stage of the programme in its design and
updating, which will result in a more competitive staff for them.
The results of the study align with the preceding research. It agrees with Khan
and Zhang (2017) who consider the visiting lectureship leverage of upgrading
the curriculum to bring benefits to the guest lecturer, students, and university.
However, they emphasise that the recruitment process of guest speakers seems
to be a challenge for the universities because of the curricula factor requiring the
selection of a practitioner who is both an expert and a skilled instructor/trainer.
The current study also agrees with James Jacob et al. (2015), who proves that
both programme curriculum and teaching practices could be improved through
applying a joint analysis approach based on sharing feedback between teachers
and students. The scientists argue that holding special events such as seminars
of visiting lecturers, workshops and best practices-to-share showcasing can be
also beneficial for the educational stakeholders as these facilitate the open
exchange of ideas and innovative practices in both learning and instruction. It is
consistent with Nikolayeva (2018) who finds that guest speaker presentations
delivered at the preparatory stage of the fulfillment of the students’ research
projects show a positive impact on students’ motivation and quality of their
course papers.
6. Conclusion
It is found that visiting lectureship reshapes and improves the university
curriculum of four different majors such as educational policy, instruction,
healthcare, and technology. Visiting lectureship positively influences students’
research activeness, professional self-development, self-directed learning and
self-education skills, and professional socialisation, and it is positively perceived
by students, lecturers, and representatives of the host organisations. Visiting
lectureship increases lecturers’ motivation to provide a higher quality of
instruction. Besides, it benefits the potential employers as these are involved in
the educational process at the early stage of the programme in its design and
updating, which will result in a more competent and competitive staff for them
to hire. The results of the research imply that this instructional model can benefit
all educational stakeholders through upgrading instructional methods,
institutional fiscal management, and graduate employment opportunities.
Further research is needed to investigate its impact on of the interprofessional
learning.
7. Recommendations
It is also recommended to start with the needs analyses of the students and
selecting the guest lectures through enquiring about their portfolio of trainings.
Furthermore, it would be advisable for guest speakers to attend several lectures
before conducting their sessions.

83
Acknowledgement
We are grateful to the visiting speakers, guest lecturers and experts for valuable
expertise in the evaluation of all outputs being obtained from the study. We are
also thankful to all the sampled students, lecturers for their diligence, positive
attitude, and encouraging behaviour that made the study smooth to complete.
Conflicts of Interest
No conflicts of interests of legal, financial, or commercial nature are reported by
the authors.
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Appendix A
1. What is your general impression of the programme accompanied by activities
and events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers? Why?
2. How did you personally benefit from the programme reshaped in this way?
Suggest your reasoning.
3. What disappointed or discouraged you from participating in the activities and

events delivered by visiting speakers and guest lecturers? Why?
4. Would you become a referee for the programme reshaped in this way? Why?
5. What would you change to the programme to make it more beneficial for the
students?

86

Teaching Children with Special Needs in

Nigerian Regular Classes: Impact of Gender,
Marital Status, Experience, and Specialty
Kingsley Chinaza Nwosu

University of the Free State, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8856-7938
WP Wahl
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1771-7863
Hasina Cassim
University of Venda, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5168-8656
Emmanuel Nkemakolam Okwuduba

University of Malaya, Malaysia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2158-3300
Gloria Uzoamaka Nnaemeka

Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2623-7714
Abstract. This study investigated the impact of teachers’ gender, marital

status, years of experience, and specialty on their willingness to include
children with special needs (CWSNs) in their classes. We adopted a cross-
sectional survey design. Using a convenience sampling technique, 316
teachers from 15 state-owned secondary schools in Awka South Local
Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria participated in this study.
Data were analysed with mean, t-test, and ANOVA. Findings showed
that teachers were willing to include CWSNs in their classes, and only
teachers’ specialty showed a significant impact on teachers’ willingness
to teach CWSNs. It was concluded that aspects of the teacher socio-
demographic variables that may affect their willingness to include
CWSNs are those that could influence their competence. Limitations of
studies were highlighted.
Keywords: socio-demographic variables; special needs; inclusive

education; regular classes

87
1. Introduction
Diversity tolerance in classrooms has been advocated in current literature on
inclusive education. One of the most preferred approaches to respecting
individual needs and ensuring optimal development of all learners in classrooms
is the inclusive education approach (Dea & Negassa, 2019; Greene, 2017; Oladele,
Ogunwale, & Dafwat, 2016), given its benefits to both typically and atypically
developing students (Cate et al., 2018). Underlying this perspective is the fact that
schools necessarily are places for enhancing an individual’s potential by ensuring
equal educational opportunities (Chao et al., 2017). However, there is a
perception that inclusive education, in many nations, is not adequately
implemented, due to diverse conceptual interpretations (Braunsteiner & Mariano-
Lapidus, 2014; Dudley-Marling & Burns, 2014; Global Partnership for Education,
2018; Schuelka & Johnstone, 2011). This has led to the exclusion of vulnerable
students from regular classrooms.
One of the factors that have bolstered the exclusivity of children with special
needs (CWSNs) in regular classes is the teacher factor. Teachers have been found
to argue that the inclusion of children with disabilities in their classes can
undermine their productivity (Greene, 2017). Many factors are associated with
teachers’ non-receptivity of CWSNs in regular classes, namely the challenges
posed by trying to provide education that could satisfy diverse individual needs
(Limaye, 2016), teachers’ perceived competence (Cate et al., 2018), institutional
challenges such as weak policies and legislative challenges (Unachukwu &
Nwosu, 2019), cultural beliefs (Eskay, Eskay & Uma, 2012), and teachers’ attitude
towards inclusion (Eskay, Eskay & Uma, 2012; Obisesan, 2020). These five aspects
concerning the teacher factor are important, because they highlight the current
challenges facing inclusive education in Nigeria.
The Nigerian government is a signatory to several international

agreements/arrangements that support inclusive education (Obisesan, 2020;
Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). However, predominant in the Nigerian context is
the integration of CWSNs in regular classes (Oluremi, 2015a) - a position that does
not always support fully inclusive educational practices. According to Oluremi
(2015b), CWSNs in Nigeria may be rejected by some teachers because they lack
the requisite training and the confidence to handle them. Training and
experiences of teachers have been noted as crucial in the implementation of
inclusive educational practices (Oluremi, 2015b), since these factors are likely to
affect the attitude of teachers towards inclusionary practices in regular classes.
This link between training and experiences and the attitude of teachers is
important because teachers are seen as pivotal in the implementation of inclusive
education (Cate et al., 2018). Given this vital role, there is a growing research
interest to understand factors that impact the receptivity of CWSNs by teachers
(Cate et al., 2018; Gilor & Katz, 2018; Low, Ng, Hui & Cai, 2019). However, these
studies mostly concentrate on the teachers’ attitudes, self-belief systems, and
subjective norms concerning inclusive practices (Gilor & Katz, 2018; Low et al.,
2019). It appears that the socio-demographic characteristics of teachers have not
been fully considered in efforts to understand their willingness to include CWSNs

88
in regular classes. These shortcomings in the existing body of literature make it

difficult to derive any concrete generalization about how different variables
concerning the teacher could influence inclusive educational practices, especially
in a developing context like the Nigerian society. In line with the research finding
of Dea and Negassa (2019), and Dev and Kumar (2015), we consider socio-
demographic variables – such as gender, experience, and the specialty of the
teacher – as crucial to teacher disposition to inclusive education. In a bid to
address the limitations in current research, and contribute to knowledge
regarding teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in Nigerian regular
classrooms, we investigated how gender, marital status, level of experience, and
specialty of teachers influence their receptivity to CWSNs. We believe the
findings of this study will inform policies on training and retraining of teachers
for effective inclusive educational practices and avoidance of rejection of CWSNs
in regular classes. Practitioners could tailor-make interventions (training
programmes) to take into consideration the unique needs and dispositions of
regular teachers so that they will be willing to teach and provide emotional and
adaptive support to CWSNs. It is clear that training teachers without taking into
consideration their individual experiences, exposures, prior learning, gender, and
marital status may be counter-productive, as literature is replete with evidence
that teachers’ socio-demographic variables impact their teaching effectiveness.
In this section, we report on a review of the education of CWSNs in the
Nigerian context, to establish what the efforts to implement inclusive
education entailed, and to identify factors impacting its effective
implementation. Thereafter, we endeavoured to understand how teacher
socio-demographic variables could be linked to teacher inclusive education
practices, identifying existing gaps. Hence, the literature review is
organized in the following sub-sections:
2.1 Educating CWSNs in the Nigerian Context

Researchers have noted that Nigeria has not met its obligation for full-inclusive
education (Oluremi, 2015b; Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). Various factors have
impeded the implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, such as socio-
cultural issues like the belief that disability has to do with curses and punishment
from the gods (Eskay et al., 2012). These cultural beliefs affect teachers’ attitudes
towards CWSNs and constrain policy implementation with regard to the effective
education of CWSNs (Eskay et al., 2012; Obisesan, 2020). Other factors that have
mitigated against proper inclusion of CWSNs in regular classes include the
following: inadequate adaptive facilities (Oluremi, 2015a), negative social
attitude, unfriendly school environment, inadequate funding, inadequate human
resources and training for teachers, lack of awareness of inclusive education, and
policy and legislative issues (Adebisi et al., 2014; Onukwufor & Martins, 2017).
The fact that these factors have been allowed to strain the effective
implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, recently has raised questions
about the prioritization thereof.

89
Concerns about the prioritization of inclusive education have a bearing on the

general failure to implement relevant policies, perceived as deficient, amidst a
sub-optimal school system. Igbo et al. (2014), for instance, place the failure to
educate CWSNs efficiently and inclusively in Nigeria against the backdrop of
even children without special needs not having been adequately provided with
quality education. This is why most challenges undermining general education in
Nigeria also are found in special needs education but at a very disturbing rate
(Igbo et al., 2014). Thus, the issue of sub-optimal education in the general school
system seems to be intensified when it comes to the education of CWSNs. Though
there have been concerted efforts globally to educate all persons, notwithstanding
their unique characteristics in an inclusive setting, this noble idea has failed to be
realized in Nigeria. Furthermore, although Nigeria has policies that spell out the
need for inclusive education, researchers have noted deficiencies in the policy
framework and the legislative provisions (Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). This has
perpetuated segregation and constrained Nigeria from implementing integration
arrangements in educating CWSNs. Therefore, the majority of CWSNs are not
educated in an inclusive education setting. Hence, it becomes pertinent to
ascertain teacher factors that could impact their willingness to include children
with disabilities in their regular classes. In this regard, teachers’ socio-
demographic variables in inclusive education practices are vital.
2.2 Teachers’ Socio-Demographic Variables and Inclusive Education Practices
Understanding the impact of teacher demographic variables on teacher
instructional practice, effectiveness, and student outcome – in both regular and
special classes – has attracted the attention of researchers, specifically over the
past ten years (Amadi & Allagoa, 2017; Dea & Negassa, 2019; Efanga, Ikpe &
Idante, 2014). One of the reasons that could be adduced for expending these
research efforts is the fact – underpinned by a significant body of literature – that
individuals’ behaviours are affected by their social and biological attributes
(Abdullahi, 2019; VanderStel, 2014). Abdullahi (2019:3) elaborately
conceptualized socio-demographic variables as ”the sociological and
demographic attributes acquired by an individual(s) in a population that
determine his/her socio-demographic positions or niches, socio-demographic
roles, as well as the correlating socio-demographic advantages he/she attains and
succeeds”. The notion of socio-demographics includes several variables such as
gender, age, marital status, income, education, family, ethnicity, religion, and so
forth (Abdullahi, 2019; Rughinis & Huma, 2015). For teacher education research,
it could be conceptualized as attributes that demonstrate the socio-demographic
positions of the teacher.
Researchers also have demonstrated how socio-demographic variables impact

teacher retention and willingness to stay in the profession (Efanga et al., 2014),
effectiveness in classroom management (Amadi & Allagoa, 2017), and students’
academic/literacy development (Ellis, 2011). Studies that concentrated on special
needs education reported on teachers’ socio-demographic features, such as
teachers’ years of experience, specialty, teaching area, age, pre- and in-service
diversity training, and gender, which impact their inclusive educational practices,
perspectives, self-efficacy, and attitudes (Boyd, 2017; Dea & Negassa, 2019; Dev &
Kumar, 2015; LaVergne et al., 2012; Shaukat, 2012). In their study, for example,

90
LaVergne et al. (2012) demonstrated how Texan agricultural education teachers’

teaching area, ethnicity/race, gender, and school setting (rural, suburban, and
urban) significantly impacted their perceptions about, and barriers and solutions
to problems hampering the smooth move to inclusive education in an agricultural
education programme. In the same vein, Shaukat (2012) found that the following
factors accounted for significant mean differences in teacher self-efficacy in
inclusive education: the type of school teachers are trained to teach at, the nature
of their own educational programmes (B.Ed. general/special education, or M.Ed.
general/special education),their level of training, and their experience in teaching
CWSNs.
Furthermore, Dev and Kumar (2015) found that teachers’ gender, age, and
educational level accounted for significant differences in their perception of the
integration of children with learning disabilities (CWLDs) in regular classes, while
teaching experience and teaching field made no significant differences in their
perception. What was interesting was that they reported that female teachers were
more favourable towards integrating and more patient with CWLDs than their
male counterparts. Teachers who were older than forty years and those with
postgraduate qualifications showed a more positive inclination to integrating
CWLDs in their regular classes. Song, Sharma and Choi (2019) also found that the
completion of a compulsory course in special and inclusive education improved
pre-service teachers’ inclusive self-efficacy, intentions, concerns, and attitude.
This shows that experience and exposure to rudiments in inclusive education can
impact teachers’ competence belief systems. It could, therefore, be inferred from
the literature that, since perceptions of teachers on inclusive education could be
impacted by socio-demographic variables, teachers’ willingness to include
CWLDs in regular classes also could be impacted by such variables. Therefore, as
Nigeria is making advances to full inclusive education, understanding teacher
socio-demographic variables that could impact the receptivity of CWSNs in the
Nigerian context becomes pertinent. It is this gap in the literature that the present
study intended to close.
3. Theoretical Model
Studies have indicated that a large number of factors impact the effective
implementation of inclusive education (Adebisi et al., 2014; Eskay, 2012; Oluremi,
2015b; Onukwufor & Martins, 2017; Unachukwu & Nwosu, 2019). Prominent
among these factors in the implementation of inclusive education of CWSNs is the
teacher factor. Literature has shown that several studies have been conducted on
teacher attitude to, and belief system on the inclusion of CWSNs in their regular
classes. We also conceptualized that teacher socio-demographic variables such as
teachers’ gender, marital status, experience, and specialty will impact their
willingness in teaching CWSNs, given that behaviours are reflections of social and
biological characteristics (Abdullahi, 2019; VanderStel, 2014). This is framed based
on previous work that associated teacher inclusive education practice for children
with visual impairment with teacher socio-demographic variables (Dea &
Negassa, 2019). We extended this to general inclusive education practice within
the scope of willingness to teach, and to provide emotional and adaptive support
to CWSNs in regular classrooms. This is diagrammed in Figure 1 below:

91
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Teacher Demographic Variables and Willingness

to Include CWSNs in Regular Classes
4. Objective of the study

With the study we aimed to evaluate teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in
their regular classes and to determine how their socio-demographic
characteristics impact their willingness to include them in regular classes. This
arises given that both the biological and sociological background of an individual
could affect his behaviour. To inform policies and teacher training for effective
inclusive educational practice in Nigeria, understanding the impact of teacher
socio-demographic variables on their willingness to include CWSNs in their
regular classes deserved to be studied. Regarding the willingness to include
CWSNs in regular classes, we investigated teachers’ willingness to teach them as
well as their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs.
Our specific objectives, therefore, were to:
a) Investigate the willingness of teachers to teach CWSNs and provide them
with emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes; and
b) Determine the impact of teachers’ gender, marital status, experience and
specialty on their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with
emotional and adaptive support in their regular classes.
4.1 Research question and hypothesis

For a proper guide for the investigation, one research question was posed while a
hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. Our research question was:
To what extent are teachers, in their diversity, willing to teach CWSNs and
provide them with emotional and adaptive support in the regular classes?

92
The hypothesis was:

Ho: Teachers’ gender, marital status, years of experience, and specialty make no
significant difference to their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with
H1: Teachers’ gender, marital status, years of experience, and specialty make
significant difference to their willingness to teach CWSNs and provide them with
5. Method
To understand the impact of teachers’ demographic characteristics on their
willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes, the researchers adopted the
quantitative research paradigm as an approach to the investigation. This section
is organized under research design, participants, instrument, method of data
collection, and analysis.
5.1 Research design

We used a cross-sectional survey research design. Through the cross-sectional
survey we aimed at determining the behavioural characteristics prevalent among
a population by sampling a cross-section of the population at a point in time (cf.
Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000; Stockemer, 2019). We wanted to understand the overall
picture of how willing teachers were to include CWSNs in their regular classes,
hence the need for a design that would enable us to sample across the population.
We collected data with the intention of possible generalization of the findings to
the population.
5.2 Participants
The sample for our study comprised 316 teachers in public schools in Awka South
Local Government Area of Anambra State, Nigeria. Teachers who were employed
by government and those employed by Parent-Teachers Associations (PTAs) were
sampled for the study. National Youth Service Corps members and student
teachers who were doing their service year in the sampled schools were not
included in the study. The convenience sampling technique was used, but we did
not merely select available teachers, but also teachers who gave their consent after
we had explained the essence of the study to them. The researchers visited the
individual schools and approached the teachers in the staff rooms. Available
teachers were handed the questionnaire. Some of the teachers reported that they
were busy at the time but made appointments with the researchers to complete
the questionnaires. When we revisited the schools, teachers who had not been
available during the previous visit were approached and given the questionnaire
to complete. We distributed 317 copies of the questionnaire in 15 public schools
sampled for the study. Three hundred and sixteen teachers completed the
questionnaire; thus one teacher dropped out of the study. The sample
characteristics of our respondents are tabulated in Table 1:

93
Table 1: Respondents’ Characteristics
Variable Characteristics Number Percentage

Gender Female 247 79.4%?
Male 64 20.6%
Marital Status Married 190 61.1%
Single 121 38.9%
Widowed 0.00 0%
Teaching Experience Mildly experienced (Less than 4 yrs.) 88 35.2%
Moderately experienced (5-10yrs) 97 38.8%
Highly Experienced (11 yrs. and more) 65 26.0%
Teachers’ Academic NCE 25 8.9%
Qualifications Degree 241 80.6%
Master’s Degree & PhD 33 11%
Area of Specialization Arts Education 88 28.9%
Social Science Education 72 23.7%
Science Education 110 32.2%
Business Education 34 11.2%
The majority of the participating teachers were female (79.4%), and more than half
of them were married. Regarding experience, 26% had more than ten years’
experience while 35.2% could not really be regarded as experienced teachers as
they had less than five years’ teaching experience. The results indicated that most
teachers’ highest academic qualification was a first degree (80.6%), while 11% had
master’s and PhD degrees and the remaining 8.9% were NCE (National
Certificate in Education) holders. With regard to their field of specialty it was
found that the sciences topped the list (36.2%), followed by arts and social
sciences (28.9% and 23.7% respectively), while only 11.2% specialised in business
education.
5.3 Instruments
The data collection instrument used was an integrated version of the Teacher
Willingness to Teach Challenging Children Questionnaire (TWTCCQ) (Low et al.,
2019) and the behavioural component of the Teachers’ Multidimensional Attitude
towards Inclusive Education Scale (TMATIES) (Mahat, 2008). We integrated these
instruments to broaden the concept in such a way to include elements that had a
bearing on both teaching and the provision of emotional and adaptive structures.
Therefore, we referred to the questionnaire as the ‘Teacher Willingness to Include
CWSNs Questionnaire (TWICWSNsQ)’. We conducted an exploratory factor
analysis (EFA) on the questionnaire to determine the underlying structures of the
ten items in the instrument. Missing data were deleted listwise, the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin (KMO) measure was .882, the Bartlett test of sphericity was significant at
0.000, showing that running an EFA on the items was justifiable given that they
adequately correlated. The initial communalities ranged between .331 and 0.599.
Rotation showed the first factor accounted for 25.64% of the variance, the second
factor accounted for 21.21%. The range of the factor loadings is between 0.521 and
0.737. Factor 1 is for teaching support for CWSNs while factor 2 is for emotional
and adaptive support. The internal consistency index using the Cronbach Alpha
coefficient indicated that the first cluster has a .78 index, while the second cluster
has a .83 reliability index.

94
5.4 Data Collection and Analysis

We distributed the data collection instrument among teachers in public schools
through the direct delivery technique. We visited the schools and explained to the
teachers the essence of the research, whereafter we sought their consent to
participate in the study. Participants were assured of confidentiality, as no
provision was made on the questionnaire for teachers’ names or staff
identification numbers. They also were informed explicitly that they could leave
the study if and when they deemed it fit. Those who consented to participate in
the study were given copies of the questionnaire to complete.
Data were analysed using the IBM SPSS, version 26. Missing values were handled
by default in SPSS. At the data entering stage, missing values were coded 999. The
main analysis was preceded by the testing of statistical assumptions such as a
normality test and homogeneity of variances and handling of missing data.
Missing data were deleted listwise by SPSS default. The Shapiro-Wilk test showed
that the distributions in the two clusters were significant, p < .05, while Levene’s
test showed that all the distributions were non-significant, p > .05, indicating that
variances were homogenous. Given the large sample size and that variances in
distributions were homogenous, we continued our analysis with a t-test and
analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistics. Violation of normality assumption has
been shown to cause no harm in t-test analysis (Rochon, Gondan & Kieser, 2012).
The results of the normality test are presented in Table 2 and Figures 2-5 below.
Table 2: Tests of normality on teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular

classes
Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk
Statistic Df Sig. Statistic Df Sig.
Willingness to teach .155 314 .000 .954 314 .000
children
Willingness to provide .131 314 .000 .951 314 .000
emotional and adaptive
support
a. Lilliefors Significance Correction
Figure 2: Normal Q-Q Plot of teaching CWSNs

95
Figure 3: Detrended Normal Plot of Teaching CWSNs
Figure 4: Normal Q-Q Plot of Provision of Emotional and Adaptive Support for
CWSNs
Figure 5: Detrended Normal Plot of Provision of Emotional and Adaptive

Support for CWSNs

96
6. Results
The results of the data analyses are provided in the tables and figures below,
each followed by a brief discussion.
Table 3: Item by Item Analysis of Teachers’ Mean Responses on their Willingness to

Teach and Provide Emotional and Adaptive Supports to CWSNs
S/N Items Min Max Mean SD
Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs Cluster
1 I am willing to teach behaviourally 1.00 4.00 3.14 .66
challenging classes
2 I wouldn’t mind teaching academically 1.00 4.00 3.20 .63
weak children
3 I am prepared to teach the naughtiest 1.00 4.00 2.96 .82
students
4 I am ready to teach at-risk kids 1.00 4.00 2.82 .78
Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive Support to CWSNs Cluster
5 I am willing to encourage students with 1.00 4.00 3.31 .66
disabilities to participate in all social
activities in the regular classroom
6 I am willing to adapt the curriculum to meet 1.00 4.00 3.37 .64
the individual needs of all students
regardless of their ability
7 I am willing to include students with a 1.00 4.00 3.01 .76
severe disability in the regular classroom
with the necessary support
8 I am willing to modify the physical 1.00 4.00 3.09 .72
environment to include students with a
disability in the regular classroom
9 I am willing to adapt my communication 1.00 4.00 3.29 .71
technique to ensure that all students with
emotional and behavioural disorders can be
successfully included in the regular
classroom
10 I am willing to adapt to the assessment of 1.00 4.00 3.31 .63
individual students for inclusive education
to take place.
Table 3 depicts the mean responses of teachers on the two clusters. In cluster one,
referring to teaching CWSNs, mean scores showed that teachers agreed that they
were willing to teach these children in their regular classes. Items 3 and 4 had the
lowest mean scores showing that teachers’ willingness to teach the naughtiest and
at-risk kids reduced.
Furthermore, teachers strongly agreed that they were willing to provide

emotional support as well as to adapt the environment, curriculum, and
assessment to include these children in their regular classes. The mean responses
ranged from 3.01 to 3.37.

97
Table 4: T-test Statistic Table on Mean Differences according to Respondents’ Gender

and Marital Status in their Willingness to Teach and Provide Emotional and Adaptive
Support for CWSNs
Std.
Variables Demographic Mean t df sign
Deviation
Teachers’ willingness to teach Male 3.07 .51 .664 308 .507
CWSNs Female 3.02 .58
Teachers’ willingness to provide Male 3.26 .49 .481 307 .631
emotional and adaptive support Female 3.23 .51
to CWSNs
Teachers’ willingness to teach Married 3.07 .56 1.606 308 .109
CWSNs Single 2.96 .56
Teachers’ willingness to provide Married 3.22 .52 -.674 307 .501
emotional and adaptive support to Single 3.26 .48
CWSNs
Table 4 shows that male teachers (M = 3.07, SD = .51) had a non-significant

marginally higher mean score in willingness to teach CWSNs in regular classes
than their female counterparts (M = 3.02, SD = .58), t(308) = .664, p >.05. On
teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in
their regular classes, male teachers (M = 3.26, SD = .49) had a non-significant
marginally higher mean than their female counterparts (M = 3.23, SD = .51), t(307)
= .482, p < .05.
Similarly, Table 4 shows that married teachers (M = 3.07, SD = .56) had a non-
significant marginally higher mean score on willingness to teach CWSNs in
regular classes than their unmarried counterparts (M = 2.96, SD = .56), t(308) =
1.606, p >.05. On teachers’ willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support
to CWSNs in their regular classes, married teachers (M = 3.22, SD = .52) had a non-
significant marginally lower mean score than their unmarried counterparts (M =
3.26, SD = .48), t(307) = -.674, p < .05. Results showed that gender and marital
status did not significantly influence the teachers’ willingness to teach and
provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.
Table 5: ANOVA Test on Differences in Teachers’ Willingness to Include

CWSNs in Regular Classes Based on Level of Years of Experience
Measure Level of years of experience
Mildly Moderately Highly
experienced Experienced experienced
M SD M SD M SD F(2,247) Sign.
Teachers’ Willingness to 3.03 .62 3.00 .48 3.16 .51 1.869 .156
Teach CWSNs
Teachers’ Willingness for 3.25 .49 3.20 .51 3.32 .50 1.014 .364
Emotional and Adaptive
support to CWSNs
ANOVA statistics in Table 5 showed no significant main effect of teachers’ levels

of the years of experience on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 1.869,
p > .05, or their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs,

98
F(2, 247) = 1.014 p >.05. Therefore, teachers’ years of experience did not have a
significant impact on their willingness to teach and provide emotional and
adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.
Table 6: ANOVA Test on Differences in Willingness to Include CWSNs in

Regular Classes Based on Qualifications
Measure Highest Qualification
NCE Degree M.Ed & PhD
M SD M SD M SD F(2, 247) Sign

Teachers’ Willingness to Teach 2.88 .64 3.07 .54 2.96 .63 1.60 .204
CWSNs
Teachers’ Willingness for 3.08 .48 3.25 3.25 3.37 .54 2.52 .082
Emotional and Adaptive
support to CWSNs
ANOVA statistics provided in Table 6 show no significant main effect of teachers’

highest qualification on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 1.60, p > .05,
or their willingness for emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs, F(2, 247), p
>.05. Therefore, teachers’ qualifications did not have a significant impact on their
willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in
their regular classes.
Table 7: ANOVA Test on Differences in Willingness to Include CWSNs in

Regular Classes Based on Teacher Specialty
Measure Specialty
Arts Soc. Science Science Business
Education Education Education Education
M SD M SD M SD M SD F(2,247) Sign
Teachers’ Willingness to 3.07 .56 3.04 .53 3.11 .60 2.75 .45 3.86 .010
Teach CWSNs
Teachers’ Willingness 3.23 .57 3.24 .48 3.32 .46 3.24 .50 2.43 .066
for Emotional and
Adaptive Support to
CWSNs
ANOVA statistics in Table 7 show that teacher specialty had a significant main
effect on their willingness to teach CWSNs, F (2, 247) = 3.86, p < .05, and their
willingness for emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs, F(2, 247) = 2.43 p >.05.
Posthoc analyses using the Bonferroni test indicated significant differences in
teachers’ willingness to teaching CWSNs among teachers who specialized in
science education and those who specialized in business education (p. <.05); and
also between those in arts education and business education (p < .05). Therefore,
teachers’ specialty had a significant impact on their willingness to teach, while it
did not have a significant impact on teachers’ willingness to provide emotional
and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular classes.

99
7. Discussion
Our study was aimed at investigating Nigerian teachers’ willingness to include
CWSNs in their regular classes and how their socio-demographics could impact
their inclusive education willingness. This was informed by the fact that some
teachers in Nigeria, despite the global trend towards educating CWSNs in
inclusive education settings, are still not so receptive to the idea of inclusion. For
effective implementation of inclusive education in Nigeria, there must be teachers
who have not just received training in inclusive education but also teachers who
are willing to accept CWSNs in their classes. This becomes significant, given that
teachers are the bedrock for inclusive education implementation (Cate et al., 2018).
Our findings indicated that teachers were willing to teach and provide a
supportive environment for CWSNs in their classes. This was manifested in the
high mean scores in the responses. Teachers also were more willing to provide a
supportive environment than to teach CWSNs. This might have been informed by
their perception of what CWSNs needed most. Granted is the fact that for effective
teaching of CWSNs in regular classes, there must be emotional and adaptive
support in which the teachers will be empathic to the students. Researchers are of
the view that support and adaptation are very important in inclusive education,
and that inclusive education demands such competencies to be developed and
nurtured among the general teachers (Buli-Holmberg & Jeyaprathaban, 2016).
Teachers must also be willing to adjust their instructional approaches, curriculum,
and assessment practices to accommodate CWSNs.
A closer examination of the mean scores revealed lower scores in teachers’
willingness to teach students with behavioural problems and at-risk students.
Teachers might have their reservations about this group of students. Also, at-risk
students are more demanding and teachers might have been cautious in their
responses here. This aligns with research that shows that the nature of a disability
may affect the way and manner in which the teacher may be receptive to the child
(Cassady, 2011). There is the tendency among teachers to be willing to teach
children they perceive to have the competence to handle, since this has been
shown to influence teachers’ receptivity of CWSNs in their classes (Cate et al.,
2018).
Findings on teachers’ socio-demographics showed non-significant effects on their
willingness to include children in the classes, except for teacher specialty.
Concerning gender, male teachers had a non-significant marginally higher mean
score for their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support
to CWSNs in regular classes than their female counterparts. Thus, this study
accepts the null hypothesis that teachers’ willingness to teach CWSNs and
provide emotional and adaptive support for them in their regular classes do not
significantly differ as a result of their gender, marital status, experience, and
specialty. Our finding contradicts several similar studies that have shown that
female teachers are more inclined to inclusive education practices, stating that
they are more patient with CWSNs (Dev & Kumar, 2015). Our findings showed
that both male and female teachers were willing to include CWSNs in their classes.
The difference in the mean responses could have been by chance, since it is not
statistically significant.

100
Based on the findings, teachers’ marital status had no significant impact on their
willingness to teach CWSNs in regular classes, though those who were married
were a little bit more willing than their unmarried counterparts. On teachers’
willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs in their regular
classes, married teachers had a non-significant marginally lower mean than their
unmarried counterparts. Though our finding is not statistically significant, it
shows that married teachers are more willing to teach CWSNs, while teachers
who are not married are more willing to provide emotional and adaptive support.
Current literature shows extremely limited studies on marital status and inclusive
education practice. Thus, there is currently very little empirical evidence that
teachers who are married may be more willing to engage with children than their
unmarried counterparts, given that having children has a way of mellowing
teachers (Odanga, Aloka, & Raburu, 2015).
Our findings indicated that the level of years of teaching experience had no
significant impact on teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes.
This contradicts the findings of similar studies such as those of Dea and Negassa
(2019) and Dev and Kumar (2015), that showed that teachers’ years of experience
was a significant factor in inclusive education practice such as collaboration with
other professionals and their perception of inclusive education.
Furthermore, teachers’ highest qualifications did not have a significant impact on
their willingness to teach and provide emotional and adaptive support to CWSNs
in their regular classes. This implies that regardless of the qualifications with
which the teachers sampled for this study were teaching with, they were all
willing to include CWSNs in their classes. This may be the opposite of the
common assumption that the higher their qualifications the more willing teachers
may be to participate in inclusive education practices. However, exposure to
compulsory courses in inclusive education could close the gap that might be
generated by differences in qualifications. Song et al. (2019) found that the
completion of a compulsory course in inclusive education improved teachers’
competencies in inclusive education practice.
In our study it was found that teachers’ specialty had a significant impact on their
willingness to teach CWSNs in their regular classes, while it did not have a
significant impact on their willingness to provide emotional and adaptive support
to CWSNs in their regular classes. Posthoc analyses showed the significant
differences in teachers’ willingness to teaching CWSNs occurred among teachers
who specialized in science education and those who specialized in business
education; and between those in arts education and business education. Similar
studies have shown that the area of study of a teacher could affect teacher
inclusive education practice. Dea and Negassa (2019) found that teachers with a
specialty in special education practise more individualized teaching than those
who have not had special education training. It could be that the knowledge a
teacher has concerning CWSNs could influence his/her willingness to teach them.
Therefore, specialty areas that could expose the teacher to underlying biological
and environmental factors affecting CWSNs, are likely to impact teachers’
receptivity of CWSNs in regular classes. It might be that the fields of sciences and
arts could impact on teachers’ willingness to accept CWSNs in their classroom
rather than the specialty area of business education, as those teachers in sciences

101
might have been more informed about the biological issues related to disabilities.
Teachers that majored in the arts might be more susceptible to exhibiting a
humanistic approach to teaching CWSNs.
8. Conclusion and Limitations

Our study has made significant contributions to understanding which factors
might impact teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular classes in
Nigeria. This appears to be the first study that has examined the teachers’ socio-
demographic variables that might have an effect on their willingness to include
CWSNs in their regular classes within the Nigerian context. Taking cognisance of
these variables may influence policies regarding training and retraining teachers
for inclusive education in Nigeria.
Our study showed that teachers in Nigeria reported that they are willing to
include CWSNs in their regular classes and that their sociodemographic
characteristics did not impact their willingness significantly, except in the case of
their specialty. It was concluded that aspects of the teacher socio-demographic
variables that may affect their willingness to include CWSNs are those that could
influence their competence.
This has significant implications for the implementation of inclusive education in
Nigeria. Since the teachers are willing to include CWSNs in regular classes, a need
exists for the logistics to be finalised and for further training of teachers and others
involved to ensure that effective inclusive education is implemented and
maintained in Nigeria. This will make available education that can cater for the
needs of all Nigerian children. The finding that only the area of specialty resulted
in significant differences in teachers’ willingness to include CWSNs in regular
classes implies that the teacher education curriculum should be reviewed to
ensure that irrespective of a student teacher’s area of specialization, content
should be included in the curriculum that will ensure that teachers are prepared
and willing to include CWSNs in their regular classes.
Granted, our study has made a significant contribution to the literature on
inclusive education, but still it was limited by specific factors. First, an exclusively
quantitative research approach was used; results could have been substantiated if
there was a possibility of triangulation of findings. For more robust findings,
future studies should adopt both quantitative and qualitative designs. Second, the
majority of our respondents were female teachers which could ensue data bias.
The generalization of this finding to areas without such a lopsided teacher
population concerning gender, may be difficult. We believe this study provided a
sound starting-point for further work on the issue if inclusive education in African
schools, as it emphasised the importance of teachers’ attitude to educational
approaches, and more specifically education for CWSNs.
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Appendix A
Section A: Bio-data
Please respond to the following by ticking (√) in the boxes provided below as the
items describe you.
Gender: Male Female
Marital Status: Married Single Widowed
Year of Experience ------------------------
Highest Qualification: NCE B.ED/BA/B.Sc M.Ed/MA/M.Sc
Ph.D
Area of Specialization: Arts Education Social Science Education Science
Education

105
Business Education
Section B: Teacher Willingness to Include CWSNs Questionnaire

(TWICWSNsQ)
Instruction: Respond to the following items to indicate how willing you are to
teach children with special needs in your class by (√) in the responses provided.
S/N Items SA A D SD
Teachers’ Willingness to Teach CWSNs Cluster
1 I am willing to teach behaviourally challenging
classes
2 I wouldn’t mind teaching academically weak

children
3 I am prepared to teach the naughtiest students
4 I am ready to teach at-risk kids
Teachers’ Willingness for Emotional and Adaptive

Support for CWSNs Cluster
5 I am willing to encourage students with
disabilities to participate in all social activities in
the regular classroom
6 I am willing to adapt the curriculum to meet the

individual needs of all students regardless of
their ability
7 I am willing to include students with a severe

disability in the regular classroom with the
necessary support
8 I am willing to modify the physical environment

to include students with a disability in the
regular classroom
9 I am willing to adapt my communication

technique to ensure that all students with
emotional and behavioural disorders can be
successfully included in the regular classroom
10 I am willing to adapt to the assessment of

individual students for inclusive education to
take place.

106

Attainment of the Immediate Program Graduate

Attributes and Learning Outcomes of Teacher
Candidates towards Global Competence Initiatives
Gilbert C. Magulod Jr.

Cagayan State University, Philippines
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8385-683X
Leonilo B. Capulso Mahyudin Ritonga

City College of San Fernando, Philippines Muhammadiyah University of West Sumatera,
San Matias National High School, Philippines Indonesia
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2984-6590 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1397-5133
Josephine Pineda Dasig Randy Joy M. Ventayen

University of Perpetual Help DALTA, Philippines Pangasinan State University, Philippines
Micheal Bhobet B. Baluyot Assel Khassenova

Technological University of the Philippines, Manila Astana Medical University, Kazakhstan
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0716-023X https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2328-6924
John Noel S. Nisperos Mashraky Mustary

Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University- Sophia University, Japan
South La Union Campus, Philippines Begum Rokeya University, Bangladesh
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1397-5133 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5700-725X
Ethel Reyes-Chua Supat Chupradit

Emilio Aguinaldo College Cavite, Philippines Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Abstract. This paper focuses on assessing the immediate program

graduate attributes and learning outcomes for the teacher preparation
towards global competence initiatives. It describes the students'
retrospection, which will serve as a basis for the program's strategic
enhancement. This study employed a descriptive survey of 75 teacher
candidates in the Philippines. Findings revealed that the top five highest
program graduate attributes are lifelong learner, responsive teacher,
ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi-literate educator.
Simultaneously, the bottom five are effective communicator, value-laden
educator, instructional material developer, classroom manager, assessor
and evaluator, and curriculum planner and implementer. Grade in

107
experiential learning courses spelled the difference in the acquisition of

graduate attributes. Implying that students with high academic
performance perceived themselves to have a high level of acquisition of
the Immediate Graduate Attributes (IGA). Retrospection of the
respondents showed excellent satisfaction with the research and
extension services, educational counseling program, and the instructors
and professors' qualities while family and relatives were influential in
choosing teaching as career preparation. Finally, parents' satisfaction and
geographic locations are important factors that affect the teacher
education program enrollment. This study will serve as reference in
designing teacher education initiatives towards internationalization.
Keywords: Graduate Attributes; Immediate Program Learning

Outcomes; Teacher Education; Retrospection; Global competence
1. Introduction
To respond to the growing demand for education in the 21st Century, UNESCO
(2015) reported that one of the global problems facing the educational system is
the shortages of specialized teachers who have the personal and professional
attributes to deal with students of varying needs. Cobbold (2015) asserted that the
most significant public policy issue facing countries worldwide is employing
sufficient highly qualified teachers. Governments are striving to develop their
educational systems to become an essential catalyst for student achievement
through quality teacher education preparation (Darling-Hammond et al., 2010.
Meyer & Norman 2020, Rubach & Lazarides, 2020, Teo 2019, Top et al., 2021). For
decade studies, the influence of teachers on student achievement is so evident that
they are considered the most significant learning element inside schools (Bruce et
al., 2020, Hannaway & Mittleman, 2011, Harris & Sass, 2011, Hu et al., 2021, Koc
& Celik 2015, Metzler & Woessmann, 2012, Reeves, et al., 2017, Shen, et al., 2020,
Wang et al., 2020).
The previous international experience is no less noticeable in the Philippine

context. Teacher Education Institutions in the Philippines and the rest of the
ASEAN countries are fundamentally focusing their efforts to produce competent
and high caliber graduates who will fill the country's teaching human resources
needs. Professional discipline like teaching necessitates different subject courses'
alignment to the Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) standards for Teacher
Education Institutions. The track towards OBE defines the attributes of quality
teacher education graduates in the Philippines. Quality learning is contingent
upon quality teaching. Hence, enhancing teacher quality becomes of utmost
importance for a long term and sustainable nation-building. Just recently, the
adoption and implementation of the Philippine Professional Standards for
Teachers (PPST) in the Philippines also paved the way to set out clear expectations
of teachers along well-defined career stages of professional development from
beginning to distinguished practice. It aims to engage teachers to embrace a
continuing effort to attain proficiency actively; and apply a uniform measure to
assess teacher performance, identify needs, and provide support for professional
development. The PPST was used as a basis for all learning and development
programs for teachers to ensure that teachers are adequately equipped to

108
implement the K to 12 program effectively. It can also be used for the selection
and promotion of teachers. All performance appraisals for teachers shall be based
on this set of standards. This becomes the basis for developing the identified
generic attributes of university graduates competent, self-disciplined, and
universally adept. Students’ retrospection and satisfaction also play an essential
role in the university's effective operation, particularly in developing graduate
attributes.
This study is anchored on Human Capital Theory focusing on education as

investment and Braun’s Theory of correlation between education and
industry/professions, emphasizing that the formation of knowledge and skills in
the educational system is associated with labor, human resources productivity,
and innovation. The need to assess the immediate level of acquisition of the
program graduate attributes and course learning outcomes, including the
retrospection of the students in studying, will provide essential intervention
schemes for the improvement of the Teacher Education program to make more
responsive to the attainment of the teacher education program educational
objectives and its compliance to OBE system.
Graduate attributes refer to the university's expectations of their students

regarding their sets of knowledge, skills, and attitudes in which the students
develop throughout their stay with the higher educational institution (Bowden et
al. 2000, Hill, Walkington & France 2016, Barrie 2006). Hence, such graduate
attributes go beyond the professional expertise and knowledge, reflecting the
university's core values towards the graduates' preparation as the catalyst of
societal development. Studies conducted on pre-service teachers' graduate
attributes are still limited (Harrison & Ballantyne, 2005). In Australia, Hudson,
Hudson, Fell and Shipway (2016) investigated the graduate standards of pre-
service teachers found out that the pre-service teachers lacked the confidence to
use techniques to promote maximum engagement of students with disabilities;
show instructional comprehension. Pop (2015) also explored how pre-service
teachers understand their teacher preparation and learned that students had a
necessary teaching experience to develop their technical and personal values and
attributes. Beltman et al. (2015) examined the individual orientation of early pre-
service teachers, finding that service teachers have described themselves as
teachers who have good learning opportunities, who have productive interactions
with their students, and are sure of themselves as teachers. Sheridan (2011) also
examined teacher's pre-service expectations of teacher competence using a mixed-
method analysis, concluding that teachers felt that a well-advised teacher wants
their students to recognize and make their teaching meaningful.
Institutions of higher education and teaching programs, in particular, are still

seeking to enhance the standard of their teaching and graduation performance
(Deneen et al., 2013). Outcome-Based Education (OBE) presents a structure to
concentrate and coordinate the program on preset, explicitly specified learning
objectives for students. In many fields of integrated expertise and skills gained by
students during this program, it was seen as an essential change in education
theory and practice (Tam, 2014; Biggs, 2014; Barrie & Prosser, 2004). For Spady

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(1994), the creation phase of OBE offers proof of understanding. It covers school
results and consequences. Studies on outcome-oriented higher education such as
Akir, Eng, and Malie (2012), Lui and Shum (2012), and Lam (2009) have shown
that OBE-structured students are more successful students than traditional
students. Biggs and Tang (2007) claimed clearly that a results method targets and
integrates the elements of an instructional framework with students' predicted
success. For that strategy, learning environments are "backward designed"
(Wiggins & McTighe, 2005; Webb, 2009) to synchronize with and help achieve
performance.
Higher education literature has considered it essential to measure student

satisfaction due to lower inscription pressure, decreased expenditures, limited
fiscal resources, and intensified competition from government and private
funding (Li et al. 2005, Schuh, 2009, Herdlein and Zurner 2015). Machado et al.
(2011) have confirmed that student retention is a global obstacle to reach students.
Kottler (2010) states that the individual's satisfaction is the affective framework
for a substance or operation. When results and standards align, greater
satisfaction is anticipated. According to Hermans et al. (2009), student satisfaction
is critical to the institution's competitive sector. Therefore, Moro-Egido (2009)
concludes that satisfaction is fundamental if students are perceived as buyers of
education as a public good. The Commission of the European Communities' study
(2006) stressed that higher education institutions would accept reforms if they are
to remain successful in the new world. Gruber et al. (2010) and Osfield (2008) also
argued that universities would meet the needs of a changing and varied student
population. As the student becomes more a customer, institutions that rely on
classroom learning and study must be more mindful of the students' satisfaction
(Gruber et al., 2010).
Objectives of the Study:

This study assessed the extent of acquisition of the course program attributes and
learning outcomes of teacher education graduating students and their
retrospection on studying. Specifically, it aimed to: (1) assess the level of
acquisition of the course program attributes and program learning outcomes; (2)
Test the difference in the level of acquisition of the course learning outcomes when
grouped according to the profile variables of the respondents; (3) determine the
retrospections of the respondents on their: (3.1.) satisfaction on the quality of
services of the university; (3.2) agencies through which the degree programs
learned; (3.3) reasons of enrolling in the degree programs; (3.4) factors affecting
the enrolment of the respondents to the teacher education degree programs.
Results of this study offer a basis for strategic program enhancement of the degree
program.
2. Methodology
Research Design
The descriptive survey research design was employed to determine the extent of
the course program's attributes and learning outcomes of teacher candidates and
their retrospection on studying at a higher learning institution. It surveyed and
systematically described the respondents' characteristics and perceptions about

110
their level of competencies and skills acquired upon finishing their degree
programs in the College of Teacher Education.
Respondents, Research Instruments, and Procedure

Data of the study were surveyed and generated from the sampled 75 teacher
candidates. To ensure equal representation of the participants, the researcher
employed systematic sampling was used. Raosoft was used to compute the
sampling size set with a margin of 5%, 95% level of confidence, and 50% response
distribution. Raosoft online software was accessed through this weblink
http://www.raosoft.com/samplesize.html. The use of Raosoft as a sampling
package provides power values to given sample size and alpha levels to avoid
Type I and Type II errors (McCrum-Gardner, 2010; Omair, 2014). The complete list of
the class population was requested to the dean's office with the university
authorities' approval. A systematic sampling technique was employed. The
following research ethics considerations guided this study. First, the university
ethics committee approved data privacy and informed consent forms to be signed
by the study respondents. Second, the researcher conducted an orientation on the
purposes of the research before administering the instruments. Thirdly, the
anonymity of the respondents and the institution was observed by not mentioning
names.
The tool in collecting research data was a research questionnaire constructed by

the researcher in which items were adopted from the Outcomes-Based Education
syllabi consisting of the program graduate attributes and program learning
outcome statements of the College of Teacher Education. The items in the survey
questionnaire were arranged in sequence into four parts. Part I elicited the
personal profile of the respondents. Part II measured the level of acquisition of the
program attributes and program learning outcomes. Part III identified the
retrospections of the respondents of their studies in a higher learning institution.
The questionnaire was self-made, and it was validated before its administration
to reduce errors in the measurement process. As to the study's research procedure,
permission was sought from concerned authorities before conducting the study.
As ethical procedures, informed consent forms were accomplished. Discussion
about the study's objectives and significance was conducted to the group, and
their voluntary participation was sought. The administration of the research
instrument lasted for two weeks, after which tabulation of research data was
carried out.
Data Analysis
To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statics were used. Frequency,
mean score, standard deviation, ranks, and percentage distribution were used to
describe the study's variables. Independent sample t-test, one-way analysis of
variance was employed to identify the difference in the attainment of learning
outcomes when grouped according to profile variables. Post-Hoc Tukey HSD test
was used to confirm the significant difference between the mean responses of the
group. The scale of interpretation for the variables being measured to assess the
acquisition of the intended program attributes, course learning outcomes and
level of satisfaction followed the scale of 1 to 5 with 1 as the lowest and 5 as the
highest.

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3. Results and Discussion

Level of Acquisition of the Teacher Education Program Attributes of the
Respondents. This study assessed the level of acquisition of the program
attributes of graduating students of the teacher education program, which will
ensure the development of skills to better equip the future teachers for work
environment and employment.
Table 1. Level of Acquisition of the Course Program Graduate Attributes of the

college of Teacher Education
Program
Mean Std.
Graduate Program Learning Outcomes D.I. Rank
(n=75) Dev.
Attributes
CTEO 1 Manifest deep and principled
Subject matter understanding of educational
Expert concepts and theories in 3.69 0.66 HE 4
different areas aligned to
course.
CTEO 2 Make the classroom a
Classroom conducive and safe learning
Manager environment and implement 3.58 0.61 HE 8
appropriate pedagogical
approaches for diverse learners.
CTEO 3 Implement appropriate
Multi-literate pedagogical approaches for 3.67 0.66 HE 5
educator diverse learners
CTEO 4 Develop and use appropriate
instructional instructional materials for
3.61 0.72 HE 7.5
Material meaningful learning activities
Developer and experiences
CTEO 5 Plan, innovate and implement
Curriculum components of the curriculum
3.31 0.78 ME 10
Planner and based on the standards set by
Implementer regulating bodies.
CTEO 6 Employ a wide range of
Assessor and educational assessment tools
Evaluator and evaluate their effectiveness 3.57 0.70 HE 9
in improving the teaching-
learning process
CTEO 7 Communicate effectively in
Effective English, Filipino and Mother
3.63 0.71 HE 6
communicator Tongue in Various Academic
and Social Settings
CTEO 8 Model and practice professional
Ethical and ethical standards of the 3.70 0.65 HE 3
Educator teaching profession
CTEO 9 Exhibit desirable work ethics,
Value-laden personal traits and beliefs
3.61 0.58 HE 7.5
Teacher consisted of Filipino family and
universally shared values

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CTEO 10 Manifest excellence in crafting

Responsive and implementing programs
Teacher and activities that promote
social, cultural, economic, 3.93 0.68 HE 2
political, ecological and
technological growth and
development
CTEO 11 Exhibit passion for learning,
Lifelong professional growth, and 3.96 0.71 HE 1
Learner educational leadership
Grand Mean 3.66 High Extent
Legend: 4.20-5.00- Very High; 3.40-4.19- High; 2.60-3.39- Moderate; 1.80-2.59- Low;
1.00-1.79- Very Low
Table 1 generally presents that the teacher education graduating students in a

higher learning institution have a high level of the acquisition on the teacher
education program attributes reflected with the grand mean of 3.66. This means
that based on the respondents' assessment, they indicated a high understanding
of the personal and professional attributes to manifest as future professional
teachers. The top five graduate attributes are the lifelong learner, responsive
teacher, ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi-literate educator. The
bottom five were being an effective communicator, value-laden educator, an
instructional material developed, classroom manager, assessor and evaluator,
curriculum planner, and implementer.
A closer look at the data reveals that CTEO 11. Lifelong learner program graduate
attribute with IPO of exhibit passion for learning, professional growth, and
educational leadership obtained the highest mean of 3.96 (SD=0.71) ranked first
by the respondents. They generally viewed themselves to have capably valued
learning as essential characteristics of the 21st-century educator. As future
teachers, they emphasize value learning as part of their career preparation and
development.
Specifically, CTEO 10. The responsive teacher with IPO of manifest excellence in
crafting and implementing programs and activities that promote social, cultural,
economic, political, ecological, and technological growth and development as an
attribute was ranked second and rated with the mean of 3.93 (SD=0.68)
interpreted with high extent level of acquisition. This implies that the graduating
pre-service teachers have a high level of skill in this attribute. This connotes that
they are equipped with a responsive teacher's characteristics, particularly in
handling diverse learners with multi-cultural upbringing. Au (2009) shares that
were addressing students' individual needs is a critical concern faced by the
education sector since most of the teachers are not prepared to become responsive
to the students' needs.
Meanwhile, the ranked third was the CTEO 8. Ethical educator attributes with
IPO of the model and practices professional and ethical standards of the teaching
profession registered with the mean of 3.70 (SD=0.65) with the interpretation of a
high extent level of acquisition implies that the respondents manifest the ability

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to model and practice ethical standards in the practice of teaching profession.

Iroegbu and Adeleke (2017) declare that choosing a profession demands that the
person must of necessity learns, practice, and abide by the profession's
professional ethics. Awareness of the existing professional standards is indicative
of a professionals' likelihood of confirming ethical values under all possible
contingencies (Boon, 2011).
In like manner, CTEO 1. subject matter expert as a program graduate attribute

with program learning outcomes of manifesting deep and principled
understanding of educational concepts and theories in different areas aligned to
course ranked fifth with the mean of 3.69 (SD= 0.66) interpreted to have a high
extent level of acquisition. The finding clearly shows that the graduating pre-
service teachers have a high attribute of being a subject matter expert. They
emphasize the idea that content knowledge is important in becoming a teacher.
The knowledge on the subject matter taught and the skill to facilitate learning.
In addition, being a CTO 3. multi-literate educator with IPO of Implementing

appropriate pedagogical approaches for diverse learners was ranked sixth as
evidenced with the mean of 3.67 (SD=0.66) by the respondents. This finding
reveals that the pre-service graduating students show the inclination of being a
multi-literate teacher. They consider themselves capable of using different
effective models and strategies to integrate technology in the academic
environment. Palak and Walls (2009) have stated that university teacher training
should prepare students to focus on technology use classrooms. Magulod (2017)
recommends that pre-service teachers' training to the up-to-date advances in
teaching will make them effectively facilitate the learning process.
Moreover, CTE0 7. Effective communicator attribute with program learning
outcome of Communicating effectively in English, Filipino, and Mother Tongue
in Various Academic and Social Settings was significantly rated with 3.63 (SD=
0.71) registered in the seventh rank. The finding reveals that pre-service teachers
consider that good communication skill is a vital attribute that should be
developed. They are aware that having good communication skills is the basic
need of academic success among learners. Khan et al. 2017) found out that
teachers without good communication facilities can cause a low academic
performance level.
In addition, CTE0 9. Instructional-material developer graduate program attribute

with learning outcome of developing and using appropriate instructional
materials for meaningful learning activities and experiences obtained the mean of
3.61 (SD=0.58) ranked 7.5. This generally implies that the respondents can
recognize themselves as instructional material developers. Magulod (2017) noted
that designing, developing, and utilizing learning materials suited to the students'
individual needs is an indicator of an effective teacher in the 21st Century.
Instructional Materials are an essential tool in the process of learning.
In like manner, CTEO 9. Value-laden educator as program graduate attributes

with learning the outcome of exhibit desirable work ethics, personal traits and
beliefs consisting of Filipino family and universally shared values obtained the

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mean of 3.61 ranked 7.5. This implies that the respondents can positively
recognize the importance of possessing desirable personal and work values which
are important to become a professional teacher. They can recognize well their
value orientation. In the study of Celikoz and Cetin (2004) as cited by Necla (2016),
they found out that if pre-service teachers are oriented and capacitated to manifest
desirable attitude towards their career, the higher possibility of performing their
work properly when they will be in the field.
As to CTE0 6. Classroom manager program graduate attribute with learning

outcome of making the classroom a conducive and safe learning environment and
implement appropriate pedagogical approaches for diverse learners. It was rated
with the mean of 3.58, which ranked ninth among the attributes. This shows that
the pre-service teachers understand the effective utilization of classroom
management styles appropriate to different situations. Classroom management is
the teacher’s ability to manage learning activities, including social and
behavioural interaction (Martin, Yin & Baldwin, 1998).
As CTEO 6. Classroom assessor and evaluator registered with learning the

outcome of employ a wide range of educational assessment tools and evaluate
their effectiveness in improving teaching-learning process obtained the mean of
3.57 with high extent level of acquisition ranked ninth among the attributes. This
shows that the pre-service teachers understood utilizing different assessment
modes and processes to improve the teaching-learning process. Gronlund (2006)
notes that educational assessment skill is essential in the teaching profession. It
refers to the process used in the classroom by the teacher to obtain information
about students’ performance on assessment tasks.
Among the eleven program graduate attributes, CTE0 5. Curriculum planner and
implementer with learning outcome of Plan, innovate and implement
components of the curriculum based on the standards set by regulating bodies
(CHED, DepEd, PRC, TESDA, TEC) obtained the lowest mean of 3.31 moderately
acquired as a graduate attribute. This implies that this graduate attribute requires
actual experience of the pre-service teachers to attain to high extent since
designing and developing curriculum entirely is the work of teachers who are
already in the teaching service, and it requires the involvement of all stakeholders
to directly involve them in student instruction which is a vital piece in successful
curriculum development and revision.
The perception of the level of acquisition of the respondents' intended program

attributes to a great extent implies that teacher education graduates have the
personal and professional qualities as 21st-century educators. This finding of the
study further implies that the respondents are adaptable enough and prepare for
the modern teaching scenario and are equipped with the needed skills needed to
survive in the 21st-century teaching environment. Hence, enhancing the five
bottom graduate attributes should be conducted to ensure highly effective
teachers' development.

115
Test of Difference on the Level of Acquisition of the Intended Program

Attributes When Grouped According to the Respondents’ Profile Variables.
The significant difference in the level of acquisition of the IPA when grouped
according to the selected profile variables will provide a more conclusive result of
the extent to which the identified graduate attributes for teacher education were
strong and weak.
Table 2. The difference in the Acquisition of Intended Program Attributes when

grouped According to their Profile Variables
Profile Variables Intended Learning Decision
Outcomes (ILO)
Sex 0.939 ns Accept HO
Age 0.864 ns Accept HO
Weekly allowance 0.265 ns Accept HO
Type of HS Graduated from 0.311 ns Accept HO
Father’s Occupation 0.826 ns Accept HO
Mother’s Occupation 0.253 ns Accept HO
Father’s Education 0.0826 ns Accept HO
Mother’s Education 0.226 ns Accept HO
Family Monthly Income 0.409 ns Accept HO
Grade in Field Study Courses 0.038 * Reject HO
*= Significant at 0.05 level
Ns= not significant
Table 2 presents the difference in the level of acquisition of program graduate

attributes when grouped according to the respondents' profile variables. The
result of the test of difference showed that there is a significant difference on the
program graduate attributes of the students when grouped according to the
profile variables. Hence the null hypothesis of the study is rejected as 0.05 alpha
level. The only variable that explains the significant difference in the acquisition
of intended program attributes is the general point average in field study courses.
Result of the Post Hoc Tukey HSD test showed that those Pre-service teachers
with outstanding performance (91-93), very good performance (88-99), and with
good performance (85-87) significantly have the higher assessment of the level of
acquisition of intended program attributes compared to those with satisfactory
performance (76-78) and with fair performance (79-81). This generally implies
that pre-service teachers with the remarkable performance in their experiential
learning courses perceived themselves to have higher acquisition of the College
of Teacher Education's program graduate attributes.
The result means that when Preservice teachers have high grades and better
exposure in their field study courses, they also manifest high assessment on the
level of acquisition of the intended program attributes. The finding can also be
practically explained that those students with high academic performance tend to
have higher self-esteem and confidence. Keeping in view the findings of Arshad,
Zaidi and Mahmood (2015) that asserted that there is a strong association between
college students' academic performance and self-esteem. The table further
presents that regardless of students’ gender, age, weekly allowance, type of high
school graduated from, parents’ occupation, parents’ education, and the family

116
monthly income they have the same level of perception on the acquisition of their
intended program attributes.
Retrospections of Teacher Education Graduating Students in studying

Level of Satisfaction of the Respondents. The increasing need to identify students'
level of satisfaction with the university's different services and programs will
serve as evidence that there is a need for higher education institutions for
improvement and enhancement.
Table 3. Satisfaction Level of the Respondents

Mean Std. Descriptive
Areas
(n=75) Dev. Interpretation
1. Structure of the degree program 3.81 1.28 High
2. Topic contents of courses 4.61 0.67 Very High
3. Testing and grading system 4.00 1.18 High
4. Quality of instructors and
4.22 0.92 Very High
professors
5. Physical school environment 2.99 0.75 Moderate
6. Academic counseling and
4.30 0.82 Very High
guidance program
7. Quality of library resources 2.82 0.82 Moderate
8. Quality of equipment in the
2.76 0.43 Moderate
laboratories
9. Quality of Field study and student
3.69 1.25 High
teaching experience
10. Scheduling of classes 3.11 0.70 Moderate
11. Quality and size of rooms 2.54 0.50 Moderate
12. Provision for research and
4.60 0.49 Very High
extension
13. Provision for comprehensive
3.63 0.78 High
review classes
Composite Mean 3.62 High
Legend: 4.20-5.00- Very High; 3.40-4.19- High; 2.60-3.39- Moderate;
1.80-2.59- Low; 1.00-1.79- Very Low
Table 3 presents the satisfaction of the respondents with the services provided
by the program. This study reveals that students' overall assessment on the
program's quality of services was rated very satisfied with a mean of 3.62
interpreted as satisfied. The result infers that many respondents were highly
satisfied with the different services provided by the Campus. Hence, the need for
further improvement and the quality of the services provided will contribute to
the program's enhancement. Helgesen (2006) cites that higher learning
institutions, they are responsible for the overall management by enhancing the
students' level of satisfaction. In like manner, Browne et al. (1998) declare that the
curriculum's quality, performance, and relevance affect the students' satisfaction.
The study results that the provision of research and extension, academic
counseling program, and qualities of the instructors and professors were
important factors affecting teacher education ststudents' satisfaction. This shows
that student-teacher connection, students' learning experiences, student services,
and teacher preparedness contribute to the satisfaction of students in higher

117
education. The lowest was the physical environment, class scheduling, qualities
and sizes of classrooms, and library resources. This indicates that the university
still needs to improve its school environment by putting up more buildings and
adequate ancillary facilities to cater to the students' needs. According to Magulod
(2017), the school environment enhances students' academic capabilities. The
effectiveness of carrying out a meaningful program depends on the sufficiency of
the institution's physical environment.
Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned about the Program. To successfully

attract students, there is a need to identify the factors affecting the school of choice
among students.
Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned About the
Teacher Education Degree Programs (n=75)
friends (f=10)
3% 15% 13% family and relatives (f=20)
16% school campaign (f=16)

27%
print materials (f=4)
21% instructors/professors (f=12)

5%
website/facebook (f=2)
highschool teachers (f=11)
Figure 1. Percentage Distribution of Agencies to Which the Respondents Learned

about the Program
Figure 1 shows the percentage distribution of agencies through which the
respondents learned about the program. The figure clearly shows that most of the
respondents learned about the degree program through family and relatives,
obtaining the highest percentage of distribution of 27 percent (f=20) in the graph.
This generally implies that family and relatives greatly influence learning about
the College of Teacher Education's degree programs. The finding shows that
family and relatives, school campaign, instructors, and professors were the
significant agencies in which the respondents learned about the degree program
while the least agencies were print materials, website, and Facebook.
The finding generally implies that family and relatives were still influential in
choosing the teaching profession as the respondents' career preparation. The
result confirms the earlier study of Magulod (2017) that parents' influence in
career planning is still evident among college students. Hewitt (2015), concluded
that most people are taking careers that their parents favor. Hence, parents are
deeply involved in and influential to the college choices of their children. Further,
Workman (2015) noted that in the Philippines, parents ‘impact students' decision-
making when it comes to students' course preference since Filipinos
acknowledges the role of families in decision making in a particular career path.
The lowest percentage of contributors to the study learned the degree program
from website/ Facebook and print materials. Hence, there is a need for the

118
university to intensify its marketing strategy through the use of modern means of
reaching enrolment prospects. According to Bowen (2012) advertisements with
social media and other networks, strong alumni relations, success stories,
promotions, and campaigns offer useful marketing techniques to attract and
increase university students' enrollment. Further, Kotler and Keller (2009) also
view that the school's physical environment is also a factor of enrollment. This
indicates that through the practical application of marketing strategies, modern
means of reaching prospective clienteles to portray the university's good image
will enable the school to attract many enrollees.
Reasons for Enrolling the Teacher Education Degree Programs

The reasons for students towards their choice of school are an essential component
of the present study. It will uncover the motivation of students their reason for
taking teaching as a future profession. The finding will serve as the basis for
improving the university policy on admission and career guidance to promote
teaching as a profession.
Reasons of Enrolling the Teacher Education Degree

Programs (n=75) peer influence (f=6)
influence of parents and

relatives (f=18)
11% 8% inpired by a model (f=9)
13% 24% strong passion for teaching
profession (f=6)
8%
Prestige of teaching
12% profession (f=12)
16%
8% no better idea or particular
choice (f=6)
good grades in high school
subjects (f=10)
prospect for immediate
employment (f=8)
Figure 2. Percentage Distribution of Reasons of Enrolling the Teacher Education

Degree Programs
Figure 2 presents the respondents' reasons for enrolling in the College of Teacher
Education of the College of Teacher Education in a higher learning institution. The
graph revealed that most of the respondents enrolled in the program because of
parents and relatives' influence, obtaining the highest percentage distribution in
the figure of 24 percent (f=18). The least percentage distributions of 8 percent
belong to peer influence (f=6), no better idea on particular choice (f=6), and a
strong passion for the profession (f=6). It is also interesting to note the most of the
respondents who enrolled in the teacher education degree programs were
immediate family members of teachers. Hence, the result of this study shared the
finding of Abulencia et al. (2017), who explored the factors affecting students'
career choice to become teachers that early exposures to the role of teachers and
the influence of close family members contributed to the preference to pursue
education as a program in teacher education. Hence it was recommended that the
orientation program include parents and model teachers of the school to
strengthen the students' interest to pursue teaching.

119
Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the Teacher Education Degree Program

Data on the factors contributing to students' enrolment in the teacher education
degree programs will provide significant policy input for the institution on what
to improve in terms of its accessibility and reputation.
Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the Teacher Education

Degree Programs (n=75)
parent's satisfaction (f=14)
demographies and
5% proximinity to home (f=13)
reputation of the University
4% 12% 19% (f=11)
Affordable Price of Tuition
fee (f=10)
15% 17%
Economic conditions of
family (f=11)
13% 15% Facilities (f=3)
Availability of scholarship
(f=9)
admission program of the
university (f=4)
Figure 3. Percentage Distribution of the Factors Affecting the Enrolment to the

Teacher Education Degree Programs
Figure 3 presents the factors that affect the enrolment of respondents in the degree
program. The finding showed that the significant factor that affects the enrolment
of the teacher education degree programs is parents' satisfaction (f=14) obtaining
the highest distribution in the graph with 19 percent. The least contributors were
the university's facilities (f=3) and admission program (f=4), with both
distribution of 4 percent and 5 percent, respectively. The finding generally means
that parents' satisfaction and geographic locations are important factors that affect
college enrolment of the College of Teacher Education of In a higher learning
institution. Agray and Lampadan (2014) opine that for higher education
institutions to encourage students to enroll in their programs, there is a need to
determine the students' effective marketing strategy, socio-economic background,
orientation, and behavior. This study found out that parents' influence, the
university's reputation, demographics, affordable tuition fee, and economic
condition of the family were the highest factor affecting students' enrollment to
the teacher education program. The finding construes with Hagel and Shaw
(2008) provides a similar set of characteristics: reputation, proximity, and cost
were predictors of selecting a university. In like manner, Kusumawati,
Yanamandram and Perera, (2010) confirms that the other factors are job
marketability and parents’ satisfaction.
4. Conclusion
The study employed a descriptive survey research design to assess the level of
acquisition of the program graduate attributes, learning outcomes, and teacher
education graduating students' retrospection in a higher learning institution.
Results of the study revealed that Preservice teachers have a high level of
acquisition of the intended program attributes top five highest program graduate

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having the top five attributes of being a lifelong learner, responsive teacher,
ethical educator, subject matter expert, and multi-literate educator while the
bottom five were being an effective communicator, value-laden educator,
instructional material developed, classroom manager, assessor and evaluator, and
curriculum planner and implementer. Grade in field study courses spelled
difference on the acquisition of graduate attributes of the respondents. Further,
the respondents' retrospection showed that they were excellently satisfied with
the provision of research and extension, academic counseling program, and
qualities of the instructors and professors. Family and relatives were influential
in choosing the teaching profession as career preparation of the respondents.
Finally, parents' satisfaction and geographic locations are important factors that
affect college enrolment of the College of Teacher Education.
The current research limits teacher candidates' scope for one school year using the
descriptive survey to acquire intended graduate attributes and their retrospection
in studying. Hence, a follow-up study is appropriate when the respondents will
have their jobs to validate this study's results. Similarly, longitudinal tracking of
the graduates' cohort should be conducted to determine the different graduate
attributes' real outcomes. Moreover, a study looking at the relationship between
the respondents' employment status and graduate attributes is also recommended
for future studies. As an implication of the present study, Philippine universities
offering teacher education degree programs should effectively engage in the
employability agenda, emphasizing the development of intended program
attributes that should be seriously embedded in the realm of lifelong career
development among its faculty members students.
5. Implications to Teacher Candidates Preparation towards Global

Competence Initiatives
With these findings, the researchers present the following implications to teacher
candidates’ preparation towards global competence through a strategic program
enhancement as the proposed plan action. The following programs and activities
offered for strategic enhancement are: (1) intensive orientation of the teacher
education students on the program graduate attributes in the early stage of their
course; (2) collaboration for international student teaching immersions to develop
global perspectives of teachers with the focus of cross-cultural experiential
learning; (3) closer monitoring and supervision of on the implementation of
experiential learning courses of teacher candidates; (4) choice of international and
local faculty members to teach the subjects for teacher education; (5) continuous
training of professional education and general education faculty in integrating
the assessment of graduate attributes to all teacher education curricula with
emphasis of using internationally developed syllabi; (6) improvement of physical
learning and distance learning environment for teacher candidates; (7) Career
Guidance and Campaign for Parents; and Enhance the marketing strategies of the
Teacher Education program.

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7. References
Agray, L., & Lampadan, N. (2014). Determinant factors contributing to student choice in
selecting a university. Journal of Education and Human Development, 3(2), 391-404.
Akir, O., Eng, T. H., & Malie, S. (2012). Teaching and learning enhancement through
outcome-based education structure and technology e-learning support. Procedia-
Social and Behavioral Sciences, 62, 87-92.
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The Development of Instructional Leadership

Scale of Elementary School Principals in
Indonesia
Agung Purwa Widiyan, Saowanee Sirisooksilp and Pennee Kantavong Narot

Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5459-8007
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0960-7365
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3797-4119
Abstract. This research aims to develop a scale to measure the practice

of instructional leadership of elementary school principals in Indonesia.
A sequential mixed-methods approach was chosen involving 238 school
principals at public elementary schools in Bogor regency, Indonesia. The
new instructional leadership scale showed appropriate levels of
reliability and validity. The reliability of the developed scale was 0,875.
The construct validity was examined; second-ordered confirmatory
factor analysis was at a satisfactory level, Chi-square χ2=434.489, CFI
=.934, p=.113, TLI=.928, RMSEA=.019, SRMR=.046. Convergent and
discriminant validity were at an acceptable level as well. Qualitative
results concluded that there were three identities of instructional
leadership: instructional knowledge, attitude, and skills. By providing a
new scale to measure instructional leadership roles, it could help
navigate effectively that the roles of school leaders for learning reforms.
Keywords: Confirmatory Factor Analysis; Elementary School;

Instructional Leadership; Mixed Methods; School Principal
1. Introduction
A learning process has become a crucial factor in influencing school outcomes. It
articulated the ability of teachers to facilitate students, and it also described the
effectiveness of the role of the school principals in leading the school. Once, the
school can question what is learning? It will influence the results of other
academic works within the school relatively. Thus, educational practices that
happen in school might be exactly regarded as learning to learn. Biesta (2010)
proposed that the nature of learning is not only to ask about ‘what learning is’,
but it is more profoundly and related to the content (what is learned), its
relationships (from whom it is learned), and purpose (why it is learned).

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Also, Biesta (2010) suggested that the language of learning refers to

understanding something from someone for a particular reason. This new notion
of learning involved a very personal purpose for learning to take place. This
change asserts a different term of learning. Hence, the presence of someone to
teach necessarily must be capable to exert the meaning of teaching into
designing a learning environment or harnessing learning experience. Besides,
this alluring reflection of learning and teaching has significantly changed the
role of the school to become a learning community or space to learn. Therefore,
this perception leads to changes in educative practices, and the implementation
of instruction in the school has been shifted.
This shifting of instruction that occurred in the classroom should be led by a

school leader who can create a shared sense of purpose in the school and nurture
continuous instruction improvement. Those specific actions referred to a type of
leadership role which promoted collaborative work purported to facilitate
students’ learning (Suratno, 2012). In this regard, the roles of school leaders
relate directly to students’ learning achievement and improvement (Elizabeth
Dhuey & Justin Smith, 2014). To unpack these progressive roles, a school leader
requires a comprehensive understanding of the many facets and functions of
instructional leadership.
Instructional leadership is defined as leadership roles that put teaching and

learning processes in the school as a priority to enhance students’ learning
outcomes (Goldring, Preston, & Huff, 2012; Nettles & Herrington, 2007). As an
instructional leader, a school leader is identified to notice instruction as an
important component of feasible leadership practices (Murphy, 1990). Thus, one
scale to infer these roles of instructional leadership well-known as the PIMRS
(Principal Instructional Management Rating Scale) formulated by Hallinger,
Wang, Chen, and Liare (2015).
The PIMRS highlights the importance of functions of principals on students’

learning and other important outcomes. However, estimates of the PIMRS vary
by type of contexts and different settings. It is, therefore, highly recommended to
examine the additional scale to measure the roles of principals in different
cultural contexts as the learning processes that occur in a diverse classroom
environment as presented in many schools in Indonesia required distinct
measurements. Jawas (2017), for instance, stated that school principals in
Indonesia faced learning management issues where the learning process in daily
practices was significantly influenced by sociocultural determination.
Besides, Jawas (2017) summarized that the roles of the school principals to
understand the notion of learning culturally is needed. These consistent roles of
leadership will enable the school principals to make necessary changes to certain
conditions. To represent these new roles, another scale must be included,
replaced, or substituted to identify the successful practices of instructional
leadership.
This is not to argue for the effectiveness of new leadership scale development
against PIMRS. Meanwhile, to cover certain phenomena in which school

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principals are important to perform their roles for particular reasons that
establish positive effects on teacher’s performance and desired student learning.
Therefore, it is necessary to address that issue by changing the questions in the
scale from a focus on the principal to a focus on collective practical effort.
A significant amount of research has shown increasing evidence that principals

do influence student learning outcomes (Day, Gu, & Sammons, 2016; Leithwood
& Day, 2008). Studies are elaborated to help inform a new approach to the
curriculum preparation program for principals to ensure the efficacy of new
principals to serve as effective instructional leaders (Hayes & Irby, 2020; Vogel,
2018). Scholars have also measured the impact of cultural and organizational
context on the practices of principal instructional leadership using the PIMRS
(Ail, bin Taib, bt Jaafar, & bin Omar, 2015; Day et al., 2016; Hallinger &
Hosseingholizadeh, 2020).
However, most of those scholars did not reach the essential dimension of
instructional leadership for the specific characters of the sample or the issue. In
this regard, the new scale assumes that PIMRS has deficit capability to measure
as the change of the language of learning occurred within the school. For
instance, Sofo, Fitzgerald, and Jawas (2012) concluded that socio-cultural factors
of schools in basic education in Indonesia significantly influence the
effectiveness of the learning process. Hence, additional scale or replacement is
required to provide the school principals with standards that can navigate them
in improving student learning opportunities and achievement.
Research on the efficacy of instructional leadership has confirmed that

instructional leadership demonstrated by school principals influences what
teachers do in the classroom and students’ perceptions and experience of
schooling (Hoy & Hoy, 2006; Vogel, 2018). None of those research used the
specific issue and context of the sample such as student learning reform.
Understanding the specific issue and context by developing a new scale affects
the analysis and understanding that is predicated in this research. Hence, this
research believes that developing instructional leadership performed by
principals can improve understanding of the learning reform concept applied in
schools.
2. Research Objectives
The aims of this research were twofold; first, to examine the appropriate scale of
the instructional leadership from the perspective of school principals in
Indonesia. Second, to develop the instructional leadership scale that includes the
perceptions of teachers and principals.
3. Literature Reviews
This section describes the concept of instructional leadership to identify a
measurement model in the scale development process and to provide an
overview concept in framing a new scale that can be used to conduct this
research.

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3.1 Instructional Leadership of School Principals

Over the past decades, instructional leadership has been referred to as many
proposed types. Based on literary works, the defining characteristics of
instructional leadership can be summarized into two aspects. First, this research
defined instructional leadership as the roles or actions of school leaders in
leading schools, that is reflected in program activities, concerns in curriculum
development, teaching and learning values, and qualification (DeVries, 2017; E
Dhuey & J Smith, 2014; Gawlik, 2018; Lochmiller & Mancinelli, 2019; Mackey,
2016; Shaked, Glanz, & Gross, 2018; Terosky, 2016; Wright, 2010; Zhou & Li,
2015).
Second, instructional leadership is referred to as behaviors, beliefs, expectations,

and visions of school principals towards the instruction process in leading
schools (Ail et al., 2015; DeArmas, 2015; Hayes & Irby, 2020; Lear, 2017;
Simmons, 2019; Vogel, 2018). Both definitions above revealed common points
that explain leading learning in the school as purposive actions. However, the
leadership roles are formed by identifying learning objectives that are more
different from the common instructional leadership. Therefore, school principals
need specific roles to navigate the school to achieve its purposes.
The most cited definition of instructional leadership is the capabilities and

abilities of school principals who lead the school by conducting the roles that are
very concerned with exploring curriculum development, improving teachers’
competencies, and creating a positive learning climate for the student (Hallinger,
Wang, Chen, & Liare, 2015). It is based on the patterns most scholars regard and
reflect on goals, instruction, curriculum design, teaching and learning practices,
and organizational structures (Krug, 1992). However, there is not a clear
consensus about instructional leadership definitions and their dimensions. Even,
some scholars argued that most instructional leadership constructs were formed
by researcher perspectives more than considering the roles and actions to adjust
the effectiveness of the learning process in the school.
Applying self-determination, this research modified the existing instructional

leadership measurement models for suitability in the Indonesian context. It was
inspired by several scholars, including, first, P. Hallinger and J. Murphy, P.
Hallinger, W.-C. Wang, C. Chen, and D. Liare (Hallinger & Murphy, 2013;
Hallinger et al., 2015) proposed a widely used conceptual framework called the
PIMRS with three dimensions: defining the school mission, managing the
instructional program, and developing a positive school learning climate.
Second, Nettles and Herrington (2007) concluded seven consistent roles of

school leadership that had direct effects on student achievement: monitoring
school progress, building a shared mission and vision, creating a safe and
orderly academic environment, involving stakeholders, focusing on instruction,
setting high expectations for student performance and encouraging professional
development.
Third, Blase and Blase (1999) encouraged instructional leadership beyond the
observation process. This model of instructional leadership emphasized

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instructional coaching, professional development practices, and curricular

development practices that follow the classroom observation. Fourth, Robinson
(2011) suggested a five-dimensional framework for instructional leadership: (1)
establishing goals and expectations; (2) strategic resourcing; (3) planning,
coordinating, and evaluating teaching and the curriculum; (4) promoting and
participating in teacher learning and development; and (5) ensuring an orderly
and supportive environment. All dimensions depicted above are simplified into
the new scales as the modified measurement model. Hence, the results of
synthesizing all dimensions are necessary to figure out the potential appropriate
dimensions for Indonesian basic education.
Thus, the measurement model of instructional leadership used in this research

can be represented as a conceptual framework that covered five dimensions (see
Figure 1). Firstly, defining missions is measured by the ability to decide the role
and responsibility of all school’s elements as the way to achieve the vision and
the goals of the school (Ail et al., 2015; Avolio, 2007). Secondly, adopting an
innovative curriculum is reflected by the role of the school principal to provide
teachers with assistance and help for designing an innovative curriculum based
on school needs and character (Day et al., 2016; Elizabeth Dhuey & Justin Smith,
2014).
Thirdly, supplying professional development is displayed from the role of the

school principal to prepare teachers and parents with the program that can
upgrade their competencies to become more experienced teachers and educators
(Bolman & Deal, 2017; DeArmas, 2015). Fourthly, promoting a positive learning
climate is referred to as the role of the school principal to provide teachers and
students with the school environment including programs and facilities that are
effectively helping them out to teach and learn (Badri, Amani-Saribaglou,
Ahrari, Jahadi, & Mahmoudi, 2014; Halverson, Grigg, Prichett, & Thomas, 2007).
Lastly, conducting supervision is specified by indicators of the role of the school
principal to monitor teachers’ performance and students’ work by indicating the
needs and obstacles (Brazer & Bauer, 2013; DeVries, 2017; Glickman, Gordon, &
Ross-Gordon, 2014).
3.2 The Relevance of Instructional Leadership for Learning Improvement in

Indonesian Schools
The primary purpose of educational leadership has been regarded as the most
priority of the students’ adaptive learning which is reflected by accumulating
empirical evidence (Davies, 2005; Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005; Southworth, 2005).
Moreover, the presence of effective school leadership for school improvement is
necessary as it facilitates teachers and students with encouragement, appropriate
classroom activities, school culture, and organizational direction. All of which
affect successful teaching and adaptive learning that significantly influence
student outcomes are essential (Pitsoe & Letseka, 2013; Seashore Louis, Dretzke,
& Wahlstrom, 2010; Sergiovanni, 2015).
Hence, instructional leadership as the main core of leading learning emphasizes

a new conception of creating accountable learning systems in schools. It has

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underlined the mutual effect of teacher empowerment and students' learning

purpose.
In the context of Indonesian schools, the school principal is equipped with

several competencies to be qualified as a school leader. These competencies
including personality, management, entrepreneurship, supervision, and social,
are formulated and disclosed in the Regulation of the Ministry of Indonesian
National Education 2007 (Silalahi & Yuwono, 2018). This law introduces the
competencies that potentially can navigate the practices of principals’ leadership
towards school reforms.
However, to achieve school reform goals effectively, competencies are not

sufficient for the school principal to manage educational work in the school
reforms. School principals also require a type of leadership that can enable them
to demonstrate actions and practices of accountable learning processes
significantly and be responsible for building strong teams of teachers to
accommodate students’ needs adequately and lead in improving student
outcomes.
In other words, school reform in the Indonesian educational context is quite

specific and different. It was defined as a shift of pedagogical approaches
between teacher and students’ instruction from traditional methods into
reflective interaction with a particular purpose that intends to provide more
opportunities for students’ desires and needs (Jawas, 2017; Sofo, Fitzgerald, &
Jawas, 2012). It was clear for the objective of educational reforms must occur.
Therefore, the presence of a school principal who understands the impact of

instructional leadership that can help the school principal build the teachers’
capabilities and abilities to sustain instructional improvements is necessary
(Honig, Copland, Rainey, Lorton, & Newton, 2010). Likewise, the characteristics
of principals’ competence were mainly contained in the instructional leadership
dimension.
To sum up, this research argues that developing a new scale of instructional
leadership can bring enhancement of the practices of significant instructional
improvement in schools.
4. Research Method
This research was approached by using a sequential mixed method (Kroll &
Neri, 2009). It is typically characterized by an initial quantitative phase, which is
then followed by a qualitative data collection phase. Findings from the
qualitative study component are used to explain and contextualize the results
from the quantitative study component (Kroll & Neri, 2009).
This explanatory sequential mixed method has been widely utilized by many
empirical studies in the educational setting for developing scale (Yin, 2017).
Therefore, this research was divided into two phases; the first phase was
quantitative research to focus on the concept discovery of local perceptions and
practices of instructional leadership in Indonesian schools and calculate the
degree of importance on instructional leadership from survey exploration of

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school principals. The second phase was research development that included
collecting qualitative data from teachers, and school principals to integrate the
relevance of the findings with the sample.
Phase 1 Quantitative Research

3.1 Measures
A survey was applied with questionnaire items using the result of synthesizing
several theories related to the literature of instructional leadership in closed-
ended questions. The questions were constructed in the form of a checklist and
Likert-type questions. Checklist items asked the demographic characteristics of
the respondents. Likert-type questions measured the current frequency of
identified instructional leadership practices. The scale format was designed
using a five-point rating scale of lowest=1, low=2, neither low nor high=3,
high=4, and highest=5. In summary, the proposed instructional leadership scale
consists of 25 indicators with 5 items in each of five dimensions: defining
mission, adopting curriculum, supplying professional development, promoting
a positive learning climate, and conducting supervision.
This survey was conducted on the internet-based method. The period of the
survey process was approached from March 20 to May 10, 2020. This research is
impartial and independent; the responses from respondents were protected by
not revealing their answers in the research findings.
However, there is a key limitation that restricts this research. Although this
research applied quantitative procedure during the covid-19 pandemic, the
quantitative findings were done promptly well. The increase of online learning
across the archipelago (Rahiem, 2020) would practically ease the procedure of
quantitative data collection and at the same time would keep research data at a
manageable level.
A representative framework of instructional leadership scale that is appropriate

to the context of Indonesia was needed. There were three experts from Indonesia
and two experts from Thailand involved as they had over five-year experience in
the educational leadership field. They were interviewed to help build the item of
question and get a better understanding of the predictors towards the content
quality of the instructional leadership scale.
Before distribution, a pilot-test was conducted to measure the validity and

reliability. The validity of the questionnaires was established by examining their
content validity through experts’ judgment. Content validity was evaluated
based on the criteria of the extent to which statements or questions represent the
issue, and they are supposed to measure the quality and feasibility, considered
by the experts in the field (Kumar, 2005).
Besides, to measure the reliability, a questionnaire trial was applied to

independent groups of school principals. The questionnaires were distributed
through the Internet using google form. The groups were contacted through
their social media network before the delivery of the questionnaire for asking
their agreement to participate. SPSS Statistics 26 software was used to export the

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data, and Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha was calculated to measure the reliability
of all variables. The result of Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha for this principal
questionnaire was 0.875. This means that the questionnaire was reliable.
3.2 Population and Sample

A purposive sampling technique was used to select the 238 from the 588
elementary school principals. All school principals involved were currently
leading elementary public schools located in Bogor regency. The school that has
a high national examination score and a medium level of accreditation of school
is determined as the criteria for choosing the sample. To get the number of
samples, the Taro Yamane formula was employed to calculate the sample’ size.
3.3 Data Analysis

The construct validity of the scale was assessed in two approaches in this
research. First, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the
factorial validity of the scale. The measurement model was also assessed
through model fit by Chi-square test 𝛘2 and four other models fit indices: the
Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis index (TLI), the Root Mean-
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and the Standardized Root Mean-
Square Residual (SRMR). The thresholds of mentioned indices for satisfactory fit
suggested by R. Kline (Kline, 2016): p-value of Chisquare’s test > 0.05, CFI > 0.95,
TLI > 0.95, RMSEA < 0.08, SRMR < 0.08. Second, convergent and discriminant
validity were calculated. R. Kline, (Kline, 2016) suggested that the value of
intercorrelations among variables is considered convergent and discriminant
validity. For convergence validity, this research measured two particular items:
(1) Composite reliability (CR); and (2) average variance extracted (AVE). In
general, the value of composite reliability is more than 0.6 indicating that the
inherent consistency of all measurement questions is higher. The value of the
average variance extracted (AVE) is greater than 0.5 indicating that the
measurement questions can better represent the characteristics of each research
variable in the model (Carbrera-Nguyen, 2010). For discriminant validity, the
analysis can be performed by examining the square root of the AVE value. When
the square root of the mean-variance extraction rate of each measurement
question is higher than the correlation coefficient between the variables, it
indicates that there is a strong discriminant coefficient between the variables
(Brown, 2015). Thus, the discriminant validity of latent factor correlation among
most of the constructs has been verified to meet standards (Shaffer, DeGeest, &
Li, 2016).
Phase 2 Qualitative Research

3.4 Informants
All informants were purposely selected from the schools that met the given
criteria with different contexts, types, locations, and sizes in Bogor, Indonesia.
However, teachers and school principals in this step have an adequate strategic
character for research to develop the scales (Patton, 2002). In summary, six
schools were included in this research. The informants in this research on the
meaning of instructional leadership included teacher representatives (n=3) and
school principals (n=3). This research also considered some categories of the

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informants’ expertise such as teaching experience, leadership experience, as well

as willingness to be interviewed.
3.5 Procedures and data analysis

The interview method was utilized in this research. A semi-structured interview
was used for qualitative data collection. The instrument consisted of the items
based on the conceptual framework of the instructional leaders proposed by
several scholars (Blase & Blase, 1999; Hallinger et al., 2015; Krug, 1992; Robinson,
2011). For each construct to develop instructional leadership, the interview
questions were produced based on dimensions of instructional leadership
included defining missions, adopting innovative curriculum, supplying
professional development, promoting a positive learning climate, and
conducting supervision. The final interview instrument comprises 15 main
questions. Data collection was carried out using multiple methods because this
research was unable to conduct direct interviews due to the large-scale social
restrictions that were in place during the research period, data collection,
therefore, was completed by using the Google Meet application. The interview
process was organized from June 15, 2020, to June 29, 2020. All informants were
informed through a consent form before joining the interview. This research did
not reveal the identities of all informants and did not report their personal
information in the study findings.
In analyzing the data, transcription, coding, and thematic analysis were used in
this phase to develop the main categories regarding the roles of instructional
leadership. The research had identified subcategories, patterns, and
relationships among codes and summarized them into categories within the data
(Saldaña, 2016). In practice, the data was transcripted individually. After that,
the data and detailed data were transformed into a code. The primary aim of
coding was to establish a sense of categorical, conceptual, and theoretical
structure. Codes were clustered to form new codes that led to the identification
of themes. Finally, reviewing the categories to ensure the data appropriateness
and feasibility and choosing the final types to design items for the instructional
leadership scale were conducted.
5. Research Result
The results are presented in two main parts; the first part addresses the result of
confirmatory factor analysis to assess the factorial construct of instructional
leadership and respectively reported evidence of convergent and discriminant
validity. The final part explains the impact of analyzing the categories of
instructional leadership to generate the indicators.
5.1 Instructional Leadership constructs

Based on the analysis and synthesis results of literature on instructional
leadership involving seven lecturers who are experts in the area of educational
administration, they have validated the contents regarding their opinion
towards instructional leadership development (Güngör, 2018). The results
showed that the information that provided insights from the possible effects of
synthesizing became the items to measure the roles of instructional leadership

135
for further research. In summary, the developed instructional leadership scale,

therefore, consisted of 25 indicators with a five-point rating scale questionnaire.
Defining the Mission

(A1) Goal setting oriented, (A2) Effective Communication, (A3) Innovative delivery of
goals, (A4) Shared responsibility, (A5) Sense of belonging
Adopting Innovative Curriculum

(A6) Curriculum management, (A7)Curriculum cooperation, (A8) Disrupting teacher’s
empowerment, (A9) Curriculum assessment, (A10 ) Curriculum Strategic Development
Supplying Professional Development

Instructional (A11) Teaching analysis support, (A12) Learning collaboration initiative, (A13)
Leadership Financial analysis determination, (A14) Strategic community partnerships, (A15)
Pedagogical approach innovation
Promoting a Positive Learning Climate

(A16) Systematic learning procedure, (A17) Technology integration initiatives, (A18)
Establishment of school climate, (A19) Strategic community partnerships, (A20)
Reward establishment
Conducting Academic Supervision

(A21) Trust learning, (A22) Be flexible Monitor implementation, (A23) Evidence based
oriented, (A24) Innovative control approach, (A25) Measurable performance index
Figure 1. Dimensions of instructional leadership for the Indonesian education context
4.2 Construct Validity: Confirmatory Factor Analysis

The factorial validity, second-ordered confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was
examined as a part of construct validity. The result revealed the measurement
model provided a good fit to the empirical data, χ2 = 434.489, CFI =.934, p=.113,
TLI=.928, RMSEA=.019, SRMR=.046. As seen in Figure 2, all standardized factor
loading of both first and second-ordered construct were statistically significant
and reasonably robust with factor loadings ranging from .73 to .94 for observed
variables, as well as going from .57 to .98 for latent factors. Furthermore, the
variance of all subscale scores was explained by Instructional leadership
constructs with R2 ranging from .46 to .89, and the variance of all observed
variables was explained by each of the instructional leadership dimensions with
R2 ranging from .51 to .95. However, the five proposed dimensions of the
instructional leadership model concluded adequate to confirm the instructional
leadership construct.

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Figure 2. Second-ordered confirmatory factor analysis for the practice of instructional

leadership
4.3 Construct Validity: Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Convergent validity was examined by calculating loadings of all the indicators;
average extracted variance (AVE), composite reliability (CR), and discriminant
validity should be examined by measuring whether AVEs are higher than the

137
inner construct correlations. As shown in figure 2, the loadings of all the

indicators are above 0.7, indicating that the observed variables have high
convergent validity. Furthermore, there is a high correlation between the
observed variables and the latent variables. As can be seen in table 1, the
calculation of composite reliability is above 0.7 for all the variables, which means
that the scale has achieved good reliability and average variance extracted (AVE)
is more significant than 0.5 which indicates that the reliability of this model is
good (Shaffer et al., 2016) and implies that the latent factors have an ideal
convergence ability. Additionally, the square root of the mean-variance
extraction rate of each measurement question shown in table 1 is greater than
the correlation coefficient among the variables, which indicates that the
difference between each measurement variable is better (Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson, & Tatham, 1998). Thus, the discriminant validity of latent factors has
verified a satisfactory level of discriminant validity. Therefore, from these
results; it can be concluded that the developed instructional leadership scale has
an acceptable level of both convergent and discriminant validity.
Table 1. Validity analysis of Instructional Leadership

Composite
Construct Items AVE1 DM AC SP PL CS
Reliability
Defining Mission (DM) 0.94 0.71 0.84
Adopting Curriculum (AC) 0.83 0.59 0.53 0.77
Supplying Professional 0.93 0.69 0.67 0.65 0.83
Development (SP)
Promoting Positive Climate 0.93 0.70 0.77 0.71 0.75 0.84
(PL)
Conducting Supervision 0.96 0.75 0.62 0.62 0.65 0.62 0.86
(CS)
Note. AVE stands for average variance extract. * The bold numbers above are the square
root of AVE. The bold numbers listed diagonally are the square root of the variance
shared between the constructs and their measures. The off-diagonal variables are the
correlations among the constructs. For discriminate validity, the diagonal variables
should be larger than the off-diagonal variables.
4.4 Qualitative Result

Based on qualitative data analysis, this research summarized that the final
instructional leadership scale fell into three overarching categories, each with
related items of instructional leadership. The three identified themes are: (a)
knowledge, (b) attitude, and (c) practice/skills
This research utilized 25 indicators of instructional leadership (as shown in

figure 1 above) to be grouped into three groups, including knowledge, attitude,
and practice/skills. This research concluded that as an instructional leader,
school principals understand the ideas of instruction, the importance of teaching
quality, and their roles in influencing teachers’ performance as well as students’
outcomes. The following is an illustration of the codification result.

138
Figure 3. The result of codification
As can be seen in figure 3, it shows items of instructional leadership are mostly

grouped into knowledge, attitude, and skills. This research grouped those items
based on their similar meaning in categories. The notion of categories was
inspired by Kraiger, Ford, and Salas (1993) who emphasized that development is
started from knowledge, attitude, and skills. Hence, based on the result of data
categorization, this research discovered that instructional leadership skills were
the most concerned category of instructional leadership with 10 items, followed
by knowledge (9 items), and attitude (7 items).
However, there was an interesting report in which effective communication was

placed into two categories between knowledge and skills. This discovery
navigated this research to explore the perspectives and insights about the
relationship between knowledge, attitude, and skills of instructional leadership.
School principals who can communicate the reason for learning and instruction
indicate a knowledgeable school principal as an instructional leader. A voice
from the teacher explaining.
“Looking at the roles of a school principal who has played a very good job of
taking things into the school’s vision implementation and explaining it in a
way that we are then aware of it. We appreciated to the school principal who
knows how to relate to the teachers and understand how to enhance teachers’
responsibility on school development” (DA)

139
School principals are expected to be the leader of every student in school. To be

an effective leader, a school principal must understand and require a broad
improvement of skills and have a high level of confidence once spreading the
vision and missions.
“In my view, as students learn with teachers and school principals need to
understand that teaching and learning process in the classroom is very crucial
for each of us. We cannot let students grow without we know their expression
toward teachers and schools. Therefore, we try to provide stakeholders, parents,
and the community with the agenda that we are planning to do, share, and open
classroom processes. School principals are aware of the need for other
participants to get involved as the way to increase the sense of belonging toward
the school” (AM)
As can be seen from the statement above, the concern of instructional leadership
is to achieve a high degree of instruction, and this process requires an
understanding of the situation and asks the school principals to divide identity
in two ways. First, inside identity, and second, outside identity. These identities
included the items of instructional leadership to be replaced into specific for the
particular purposes of leading instruction.
Instructional leaders navigated school principals to understand how to work

collaboratively with teachers. This role of instruction requires awareness among
the subjects of school. The school principal has figured out one role to be
conducted.
“I am so appreciated once teachers are accepting my ideas. I have tried
suggesting them in a way they can understand. The previous one was very hard
for me to ask teachers to do what I recommended. However, since I kept my
commitment to learning purpose and decreasing my intention while I
experienced what teachers did, and I contributed what teachers have designed.
After several trials, they give me fruitful endeavors” (AA)
Other respondents, however, felt that all roles of instructional leadership must
be supported by the attitude that school principals need to show. This attitude
becomes the capital to play the roles of the instructional leader as stipulated by
this teacher.
“What makes me surprised is that the presence of our school principal in many
activities including classroom management was so fully responsible as it seems
to me it tells that “I am doing what I am saying”. She took a dominant role
when we discussed why students are happy to learn. She was committing to
making sure that the process of learning in our school comprehensively run
very well. We are not forced to do ‘teaching’ as we thought before. Moreover,
teaching is referred to be so meaningful activity that we have never felt before.
And this is because of our school principal. This awareness has been inspired by
our school leader” (W)
5. Discussion
The results revealed that the developed instructional leadership scale showed
adequate indicators both in reliability and validity. As for the validity of the
scale, the CFA results provided evidence deemed to confirm that five constructs
of instructional leadership capitalized by several scholars (Blase & Blase, 1999;
Hallinger et al., 2015; Krug, 1992; Robinson, 2011; Stronge, Ward, & Grant, 2011)

140
were suitable for Indonesian context. This evidence also indicates that the scale
is appropriate for assessing the practice of Instructional leadership.
Some results pointed out that some constructs of instructional leadership have a
lower value of R2 when compared to other constructs. It can be explained that its
indicators included unclear descriptions within similar questions, it was a
double perspective presented and was not relevant to their mindset and culture,
which implied those items might increase error variance within the
measurement results (Shaffer et al., 2016). Nevertheless, the convergent validity
result was a reasonable level with a high correlation between both the latent
factor and the observed variable score. The results can also explain why
discriminant validity is accurate. Since this research has found a high correlation
among constructs, it could be assumed that all constructs were measured by the
same high-level factor. However, the explanation of this research with this issue
is based on the authors’ viewpoint regarding the notion of instructional
leadership variables developed from the literature. The results of this research
provide practical implications for further research to utilize a well-developed
scale for measuring and determining the development of leadership.
This research also tried to conceptualize a model for preparing principals for
instructional leadership. In the Indonesian context, aspiring principals must do
on-the-job training admitting as a candidate before starting as a school principal.
Unfortunately, aspiring principals were not also well-prepared for instructional
leadership (Sofo et al., 2012), as the challenges that aspiring principals will face
forward would be different from the challenge they get during in-service
training. Hence, the developed instructional leadership model is needed in a
leading school in this advanced era. As the research conducted by Brazer and
Bauer (2013) which formulated a blended leadership, organizational theories,
and managerial tools, as well as pedagogical knowledge, to create a model for
enabling aspiring principal to become an instructional leader.
Hence, the results of this research proposed a developed instructional leadership

scale to inspire the principal preparation program to focus more on instructional
leadership. The essential dimensions of an effective principal as the leader can
be reflected from the roles and the actions of the school principal as instructional
leaders (Nixon, Packard, & Dam, 2013). This is important since the
understanding of how students learn, recognizing effective instructional
strategies, and classroom management techniques that focused on diverse
student learners will enable school leaders to transform school effectively
(Zepeda, 2014).
In this research, instructional leadership is forwarded to be distinguished into

three categories for the reason of development that is appropriate to the school
principal competence and Indonesian context. The first category was knowledge
which means that the instructional leadership model used is based on the
information occurring in school and utilizes it by giving an appropriate
response. For instance, this research indicated the item of goal setting oriented as
knowledge is articulated whether or not the school principal realizes and
understands the goal of learning and the purpose of teaching. This item needs

141
school principals to demonstrate their knowledge by exploring the notion of

their goal that they wanted to achieve. It is also related to the research conducted
by Mackey (2016) who concluded that every role of school principal needs to be
focused on students’ achievement in which school principals understand where
their students are, what the things that students want to be, and how to achieve
it.
In Indonesia, socio-culture has been dominant as a factor that influences how

school principal behaves, and it is in line with the result of research by Jawas
(2017) which stated that trust learning is defined as an attitude indicating that
school principal must pay attention to the condition and psychology of their
teachers and students. To build a relationship that can be started by showing
high integrity to the others, the school principal has an opportunity to ensure
their teachers and students to trust by making a decision that is entirely for
learning concern.
To play the roles of instructional leadership, a school principal is responsible for

the quality of instruction in every classroom. This attention stimulates school
principals to be capable and having the ability to at least solve the challenges
that school faced by the creative mind and specific ability. Therefore, the
presence of an instructional leader who can demonstrate strategic efforts to
provide students with appropriate and meaningful learning and transform the
school into a conducive place to learn is essential. This idea is agreed upon by a
result of research conducted by Honig, Copland, Rainey, Lorton, & Newton
(2010) which addressed teaching and learning improvement requires top-down
movement which school principals actively performed.
6. Conclusion
The result indicated that the instructional leadership scale developed in this
research is a five-point rating scale. The scale can be measured by five
dimensions including defining mission, adopting curriculum, supplying
professional development, promoting a positive learning climate, and
conducting supervision. This scale also showed a satisfactory level, both validity
and reliability. Whoever may be involved can achieve this scale to measure the
practice of instructional leadership to show informed evidence of their school to
enhance instruction. Since the newly instructional leadership scale is developed
based on the results of synthesizing theories; the results from the measurement
process can therefore provide insightful information regarding the nature of
instructional leadership that has been widely defined and elaborated. To assess
the practice of instructional leadership precisely based on the proposed
measurement model that is adequate to the context of elementary school
principals requires the scale that can represent the effects of instructional leader.
Besides, there was an identity shift for a school principal to play the roles of
instructional leader. The school principal must be able to understand three
categories included knowledge, attitude, and skills. This awareness towards
categories helps school principal to measure their performance as an
instructional leader.

142
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Educational Administration Experts for content
validity and thank Khon Kaen University as this research was supported by the
Khon Kaen University Scholarship for ASEAN and GMS Countries Personnel
Academic Year 2017. This research article was also a part of the dissertation. This
research was ethically approved by the Khon Kaen University Ethics Committee
in Human Research on March 19, 2020, with Reference No. HE633042. Written
informed consent was obtained from all of the participants.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest in the design of this research; in the
collection, analysis, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
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Unlocking the Cultural Diversity Black Box:

Application of Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
in University Classrooms in Zimbabwe
Norman Rudhumbu*
Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2536-5511
Abstract. The study investigated the mediating role of lecturers’

biographic factors and multicultural competences in the use of Culturally
Responsive Pedagogies (CRPs) to effectively teach culturally diverse
classrooms in universities. Studies show that culture has an influence on
student learning and that if it is not effectively managed, it can affect how
students learn. The study employed a quantitative approach that used
structured questionnaires for data collection from a sample of 370
lecturers selected from six universities using a stratified random
sampling strategy. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used for
data purification. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, One-
way ANOVA, multiple regression analysis, and correlation analysis.
Results showed that verbal and non-verbal communication, cultural
knowledge, classroom management, and student-teacher interaction
significantly influenced the application of CRPs by university lecturers. It
also emerged from the study that the application of CRPs has a significant
effect on diversity management in universities. Results further showed
that the use of CRPs by university lecturers is still work in progress due
to a myriad of challenges they face chief among which is a lack of cultural
competence skills. These results have implications to diversity
management in university classrooms in particular as well as in
universities in general.
Keywords: Culturally responsive pedagogy; cultural diversity; diversity

management; multicultural competences; classroom management;
cultural knowledge
1. Introduction
The purpose of the study was to establish how the university use CRPs to manage
diversity in university classrooms. The level of cultural heterogeneity in
university classrooms has become very high hence the need to manage diversity
in today’s classrooms in order to ensure effective teaching and learning has
*
Corresponding author: Norman Rudhumbu; Email: nrudhumbu@buse.ac.zw

147
become a must. Various studies show that university classrooms of today are
characterized by a diverse range of students in terms of the cultural backgrounds
(Wah & Nasri, 2019). Discriminatory teaching practices in these classrooms
however continue to have a negative influence on learning experiences of many
students that are referred to as others and are always othered (Taylor, 2018; Wah &
Nasri, 2019). At a general level, cultural differences are viewed in terms of
differences in race, ethnicity, religion, language, economic status, and sexual
orientation (Klen, 2015). Cultural differences in classrooms which affect how
students learn include differences in language, dress, assertiveness, collectivism,
performance orientation, competitiveness, future orientation, power distance and
risk avoidance among others (Levonius, 2016). These factors define and shape
how students learn behave, communicate, and interact with others in the
classroom (Klen, 2015). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy (CRPs) can therefore be
used to navigate these differences and the challenge of managing diversity in
classrooms. As a result, the need for university lecturers to be aware of cultural
differences among their students can be viewed as being very important for
effective teaching (Byrd, 2016; Maasum et al, 2014; Tarasawa, 2018). This means
that there is a need for lecturers to have a certain level of multi-cultural
competence for them to be able to deal with issues of cultural diversity in their
classrooms through the use of culturally responsive pedagogies.
The literature shows that a number of resource pedagogies arose during the 1970s
through to the 1990s aimed at finding the intersection between pedagogy, culture
and language (Richardson, 2018) and one such pedagogical point of intersection
was the culturally responsive pedagogy (CRPs) (Diaz, Suarez & Valencia, 2019;
Wah & Nasri, 2019). CRP is defined as a teaching approach that employs cultural
knowledge, prior experience, frames of references, and performance styles and
measures of cultural diversity in students to make learning encounters more
relevant to and effective for the students (Chinn, 2017; Powell et al, 2016). The
study was guided by the following research questions:
RQ1. What factors influence the implementation of CRPs in universities?
RQ2. What are the barriers to effective implementation of CRPs in universities?
RQ3. How significantly does the application of CRPs contribute to diversity
management in universities?
2. Literature review
2.1. Culture and Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
Culture has an influence on student learning and social adjustment and is defined
by Hitchcock, Prater and Chang (2009: 2) as “the shared learned meanings and
behaviours derived from living within a particular life activity” which according
to Maasum et al (2014) and Dorrington and Guy (2018), encompasses various
aspects that include customs and values, traditions, communication, attitudes,
beliefs, learning styles, rituals, behaviours as well as language. CRPs have been
consistently associated with various positive student academic outcomes such as
improved academic performance, development of positive attitudes and a sense
of self-awareness (Brown, 2019; Ladson-Billing, 2014; Paris, 2012). Responsive,
according to Dorrington and Guy (2018), means to react quickly and positively, to
respond with interest and enthusiasm, hence connotes receptiveness and

148
eagerness. CRPs also known as culturally appropriate pedagogies (CAPs)

therefore refers to a pedagogy that enables lecturers in universities to “quickly
and positively respond with interest and enthusiasm to the diverse cultures of
students” (Dorrington & Guy, 2018: 5). CRPs by definition are teaching
approaches that use cultural characteristics, experiences and perspectives of
culturally diverse students as catalysts for effective teaching (Cho, 2017; Kahu &
Nelson, 2018; Maasum et al, 2014; Richardson, 2018).
2.2. Research model and hypotheses formulation

The study is informed by the symbolic interactionist theory which developed by
Cooley (1902) and further improved by Mead (1934) among others. Interactionism
also called the symbolic interactionist theory or perspective is predicated on the
idea that in a social context, individuals create meanings and then act in some way
based on these subjective meanings (Essays UK, 2017). Verbal communication in
which words are the predominant symbols is key to subjective meaning making
(subjective interpretation) evident in social interactions in social contexts which
lead to different emotions (positive and negative) in people. These emotions result
in different ways of behaving and acting that have an influence, in the context of
classrooms, on continued participation in learning by students (Barker, Nyberg &
Larsson, 2019). Subjective interpretations from a social context such as a classroom
can contribute to positive emotions such as pleasure and excitement which
facilitate learning or to negative emotions such as worry, nervousness, and shame
among others, which disrupt learning (Fitzpatrick, 2018; Frydendal & Thing, 2019;
Lodewyk & Muir, 2017; Simonton & Garn, 2018; Wrench & Garrett, 2015). In a
nutshell, the symbolic interactionist theory argues that people behave and act the
way they do because of the meanings they attach to communicative stimuli from
a social context such as a classroom.
In the context of the current study, Figure 1 shows that the symbolic interaction
theory helps to inform lecturers in university classrooms about how certain
behaviours, actions, assumptions and expectations by them and students affect
how learning progresses in culturally diverse classrooms, especially with regards
to the quality of teacher-student interaction as well as student-student interaction.
A study by Krasnoff (2016) found opportunities for discussion sessions as well as
flexible groupings provide students opportunities for them to interact between
themselves as well as with the teachers thus ensuring that students of diverse
cultures are able to contribute to lessons.

149
Verbal and non-verbal

communication (VNC)
H1
Cultural knowledge (CK) Diversity
H2 CRP
application H5 management in
(CA) classrooms
Classroom management H3 (DMC)
(CM)
Student-lecturer H4
interaction (SI)
Figure 1: Research model adapted from the symbolic interactionist theory (Cooley
(1902) and Mead (1934)
In their separate studies, Ritzer (2014) and Haralambos and Holborn (2013) found
that the symbolic interaction theory helps lecturers in university classrooms to be
able to modify teaching to meet the learning needs of culturally diverse students
through the use of differentiated instruction thus successfully manage diversity
in classrooms. For lecturers to be able to do this, they must possess multi-
culturally competency. In two other separate studies by Mapolisa and Tshabala
(2014) and Mandina and Chiheve (2015), results showed that social context
symbols that lecturers use in classrooms that include gestures, words, labels,
streaming, grouping and paying more attention to certain groups of students, can
create either positive or negative emotions that affect learning in classrooms
because of the types of emotions they create in students.
The words, gestures and labels teachers and students use on some students, the
attention they give to other students and classroom management strategies the
lecturers reflective the level of multi-cultural competency they possess
(Dorrington & Guy, 2018) and this has an effect on teaching and learning (see
Figure 1). In their studies, Brown (2019) and Krasnoff (2016) found that classroom
management activities such as building a caring and supportive classroom
learning environment, setting a positive tone for all students as well as setting
clear expectations to encourage all students from diverse cultural backgrounds to
aim high lead to effective diversity management. Such contextual symbols are
interpreted differently (subjectively) by the diverse students in the classrooms in
a way that either facilitate or affect effective teacher-student and student-student
interaction in the classroom thus affect learning and effective management of
diversity in university classrooms in the end.
H1: There is a significant statistical relationship between implementation of CRPs in
university classrooms and verbal and non-verbal communication.
university classrooms and cultural knowledge of students by teachers.
university classrooms and classroom management.
university classrooms and effective student-teacher-interaction.

150
2.2.1. Culturally Responsive Pedagogies and diversity management

Various studies have shown that for lecturers to be able to effectively manage
diversity they should employ CRPs. Such pedagogies will ensure that teaching is
effective and more personally appealing and meaningful to students, and that
academic knowledge and skills development in students is situated within their
lived experiences and frames of reference (Chinn, 2017; Dreyfus, 2019; Rhodes,
2016; Salmelo-Aro, 2017;). Furthermore, a study by Maasum et al (2014) also found
that such teaching requires adequate knowledge by lecturers of cultural
knowledge (cultural backgrounds) of all their students as a base or starting point,
and should include the development of curricula that have cultural diversity
elements in their content. Separate studies by Powell et al (2016), Farmer et al.
(2016) and McKeown et al (2015) found effective management of diversity
requires teachers to make pedagogic decisions and implement teaching
approaches that (i) promote academic and social development of students, (ii)
encourage teacher-student interaction, (iii) build teamwork aimed diverse
students, and (iv) reduce competition in the classroom. These results are also
confirmed in studies by Gest and Rodkin (2011) and Trussell (2008).
In their study also, Powell et al (2016: 3) further found that to be able to effectively
manage diversity through the use of CRPs lecturers need to possess adequate
cultural knowledge, prior experiences, and frames of reference of their diverse
students in order to make their learning encounters in classrooms more relevant
and effective. In his study also, Krasnoff (2016) found that to be able to manage
diversity in their classrooms through the use of CRPs, lecturers should employ
approaches that satisfy the learning needs of different students’ epistemologies
particularly with regards to how students organize their world cognitively
through their diverse language and symbols. Dorrington and Guy (2018) and Gay
(2010) in their separate studies also found that for lecturers to effectively manage
diversity in their classrooms, they need to employ multiple pedagogies in which
they seek multiple perspectives from their students, acknowledge all their diverse
students’ comments, contributions and responses as well as use heterogeneous
cooperative groupings to build teamwork among diverse students.
university classrooms and diversity management.
3. Methodology
3.1. Research design
The study employed a quantitative research design. The purpose of the
quantitative research design in this study was to enable the research to discover
how a selected large sample of lecturers think (Creswell, 2015) about the
application of CRPs in universities. The use of the quantitative research design in
this study “allows for a broader study, involves a greater number of subjects,
enhances the generalization of the results and allows for greater objectivity and
accuracy of results” (Creswell, 2015: 27). Stratified random sampling approach
was used for selecting a sample of lecturers for the study. The purpose of stratified
random sampling approach was to ensure that each population from the six
universities is proportionately represented in the study (Creswell, 2015). There are
22 university in Zimbabwe from which six were selected using purposive
sampling strategies. The six universities have been in operation for more than ten

151
years and were considered possible rich sources of data based on how long they
have been operating. Lecturers in the six universities represented the target
population. A sample of 370 lecturers was selected to participate in the study. The
Research Advisors (2006) online sample size table at 95% level of confidence and
5% margin of error was used for coming up with the sample size from a combined
target population of 3479 lecturers from the six universities. The distribution of
370 lecturers were as follows: X1=51, X2=74, X3=47, X4=101, X5=64, X5=47, and
X6=37.
3.2. Research instruments

A self-constructed structured CRPs questionnaire was used for data collection in
the study. The questionnaire consisted of 74 items from five factors as follows:
Verbal and non-verbal communication-16, cultural knowledge-18 items,
classroom management-11 items, Student-teacher interaction-12 items, and
barriers to CRP implementation-17 items. Having 74 items for the five factors
ensured that each of the factors related to the application of CRPs in universities
was adequately researched on in the study. The purpose of using the quantitative
approach was to allow for a broader study that involves a greater number of
subjects, and that enhances the generalization of the results as well as allow for
greater objectivity and accuracy of results (Creswell, 2015) with regards to the
application of CRPs in universities.
The researcher used a questionnaire to ensure that a wide and diverse spectrum
of lecturers in the universities was able to give their views on their use of CRPs to
teach culturally diverse university students. The questionnaire was designed
using the 5-point Likert scale from Strongly Agree (SA) - 5, Agree (A) - 4, Not Sure
(NS) - 3, Disagree (DA) - 2 to Strongly Disagree (SDA) - 1. Since only words are
used when designing the questionnaire, this means that the technique used for
designing the questionnaire was qualitative while the data analysis was
quantitative. A criterion mean (CM) of 3 which was the average of the scales was
calculated for ease of analysis so that any mean score less than 3 showed
disagreement with a given statement while a score from 3 and above showed
agreement. 370 questionnaires were hand delivered to participants through the
offices of deans of respective universities. 227 questionnaires were returned
making a return rate of questionnaires of (61.4%) for the lecturers.
The instrument was validated using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). PCA
is defined as “the process of computing the principal components and using them
to perform a change of basis on the data, sometimes using only the first few
principal components and ignoring the rest” Eriksson, 2018: 12) .PCA is therefore
“commonly used for dimensionality reduction by projecting each data point onto
only the first few principal components to obtain lower-dimensional data while
preserving as much of the data's variation as possible” (Jaadi, 2019: 7). In the
current study, (PCA) employed the orthogonal rotation procedure using varimax
with Kaiser Normalization to summarize original data with minimum factors and
maximum coverage (Lever, Krzywinski & Altman, 2017; Jolliff & Cadima, 2016).
Items with factor loadings of less than .7 and eigenvalues of less than 1.0 were

152
omitted from further analysis to improve data clarity in line with the assertion of
Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson (2010).
3.3. Data analysis

A number of data analysis tools were used in the study. Descriptive statistics for
summarizing data through tables while One-way ANOVA, t-test and multiple
regression analysis were used to determine the nature of relationships between
the dependent variable and independent variables in the study.
4. Results
4.1. Biographic profiles of lecturers
Results in Table 1 show that more than half (57%) of the lecturers are above 40
years which shows that the institutions are populated by fairly mature lecturers
and this is also reflected in the years of experience where 62% of the lecturers have
more than 10 years of experience. There are more male lecturers (55%) than
female (45%) in the institutions which shows a problem of gender imbalance. Most
of the lecturers have master’s degrees (53%) with 40% having doctoral
qualifications and 12% having professional qualifications that include Chartered
Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) and Association of Chartered
Certified Accountants (ACCA). This shows that universities still have challenges
attracting doctoral qualifications holders and this may have ramifications on the
lecturers’ abilities to effectively teach and manage diversity at this level.
Table 1: Biographic characteristics of lecturers

Biographic characteristics Items N %
20 - 30 years 49 22
31 - 40 years 48 21
Age 41 - 50 years 72 32
51+ years 58 25
Gender Male 125 55
Female 102 45
Educational level Master’s degree 121 53
Phd degree 91 40
Others, specify: ACCA, 15 7
CIMA
Years of teaching experience Less than 5 years 47 21
5 – 10 years 33 17
11 – 15 years 74 33
15+ years 66 29

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4.2. Data validation using Principal Component Analysis

Table 2: Principal analysis on independent variables
Factors Mean SD Rotated % Variance KMO Cronbach’s Eigen
Values Factor Extracted alpha values
Loadings (VE)
Verbal 3.81 .723 .736 49.713 .806 .788 3.441
communication
Cultural 3.97 .649 .911 59.127 .725 .815 2.095
knowledge
Classroom 4.04 .715 .820 69.091 .831 .802 1.937
management
Student-teacher 4.36 .625 .738 62.827 .793 .751 1.519
interaction
Barriers to 4.15 .701 .820 63.550 .804 .811 2.883
implementation
of CRPs
Total Variance 57.629
Extracted (VE)
Results in table 2 demonstrate the PCA done to validate the scale items. Using the
SPSS Version 24, the PCA reduced the 74 scale items to 56 by removing all items
whose factor loadings were less than .7 and eigenvalues less than 1.0. Results
further show that the percentage variance extracted from the analysis nagged
between 49% and 69%and also the total variance extracted (VE) of 57.6%
demonstrated good convergence validity of the scale items. Furthermore, the
positive correlation matrix between scale items was a good demonstration of
adequate convergent validity of the scale items (Hair et al., 2017). Factor loadings
that ranged between .736 and .911 as well as Cronbach’s alpha values that ranged
between .751 and .815 demonstrated the presence of good convergent validity
(Hair et al., 2017). Cronbach’s alpha values that ranged between .751 and .815
demonstrated good internal consistence reliability of the scale items. The KMO
values which ranged between .725 and .831 demonstrated that sampling was
adequately done.
4.3. Application of CRP by university lecturers
Table 3: Barriers to CRPs application in university classrooms

Item N Mean SD
1. I always try to respond to all students during teaching 227 3.11 .692
2. I am always willing to learn from my students in 227 2.66 .680
terms of what they tell me, bring and show me in the
classroom
3. I always have time to know more about my students 227 2.37 .871
and their personal experiences
4. I always plan and prepare ahead of class in order to 227 4.11 .793
cater adequately for the different learning needs of all
my students
5. I always take time to reflect on my own experiences 227 2.81 .705
and biases regarding the way I teach all my students

154
6. I always use multiple teaching styles when teaching 227 2.79 .686
diverse students in my class
7. I always use the lecture style when teaching 227 4.01 .751
8. I always respond positively and constructively to 227 3.01 .706
9. I always take time to know the diverse cultures in my 227 2.11 .637
class in order to use the cultural knowledge to
connect what student know to new concepts and
content
10. I always react quickly and positively to all my 227 3.11 .691
students’ learning concerns
11. I always respond readily, with interest and 227 3.02 .671
enthusiasm when diverse students have learning
challenges
12. I use multiple, assessment methods for assessing 227 2.47 .652
13. I set clear expectations for diverse students to aim 227 2.41 .693
higher
14. I always ensure that the content I teach represents 227 2.49 .542
students’ multiple cultures, genders, religions and
nationalities
15. I always set rules for diverse students to work 227 2.15 .694
together in a supportive and cooperative manner
16. I always ensure equal access to learning opportunities 227 3.37 .638
by diverse students
17. I have received professional training on the teaching 227 1.01 .704
and management of diverse classes
CM = 3.0 Adapted from A validation study of the Culturally Responsive Teaching
Survey (Rhodes, 2017)
The criterion mean (CM) of 3.0 was used in this section to analyze the barriers to
the application of CRPs by university lecturers with any mean less than 3.0
showing that the item is a barrier to the implementation of CRPs in universities.
Results in Table 3 show that university lecturers faced a multiplicity of challenges
that act as barriers to their effective implementation of CRP as well as
management of diversity in their classrooms with the main challenge being that
most of them have not received any professional training in the application of
CRPs and management of diversity (M=1.01; SD=.704). Other major challenges
affecting how lecturers implement CRPs thus affecting how they manage
diversity in their classrooms include the following: always willing to learn from
their students during class (M=2.66; SD=.680), not taking time to know more
about their students and their personal experiences (M=2.37; SD=.871), not taking
time to reflect on their own experiences and biases regarding how they teach all
their students (M=2.81; SD=.705), not using multiple teaching styles when
teaching diverse students in their classes (M=2.79; SD=.686), not taking time to
know the diverse cultures in their classes in order to use the cultural knowledge
to connect what student know to new concepts and content (M=2.11; SD=.637),
not using multiple assessment methods for assessing diverse students in their
classes (M=2.47; SD=.652). Other challenges that act as barriers to effective
implementation of CRPs in order to manage diversity in their classes include the
following: not setting clear expectations for diverse students to aim higher

155
(M=2.41; SD=.693), not always ensuring that the content they teach represents
students’ multiple cultures, genders, religions and nationalities (M=2.49;
SD=.542), always using the lecture method for teaching (M=4.01; SD=.751), and
not always setting rules for diverse students to work together in a supportive and
cooperative manner (M=2.15; SD=.694).
4.4. Correlation analysis
Table 4: Correlation of independent and dependent variables

CA VNC CK CM SI BI
CRPs application in 1
classrooms
Verbal and non-verbal .601** 1
communication
Cultural knowledge .663** .637** 1
Classroom management .614** .371* .744* 1
Student-teacher interaction .782** .495** .388* .519** 1
Barriers to CRP -.641** -.513** -.571** -.319** -.271** 1
implementation
Sig. *p < .05; **p < .01(2-tailed)
CRPs application in classrooms (CA); Verbal and non-verbal communication (VC); Cultural
Knowledge (CK), Student-teacher interaction (SI), Classroom Management (CM), Barriers to
CRPs implementation (BI)
To measure the strength of association between independent variables and also

between the dependent variable (CRPs application in classrooms) and
independent variables (verbal communication, cultural knowledge, classroom
management, student-teacher interaction, barriers to CRPs application),
correlation analysis was performed. With regards to correlations between the
dependent and independent variables, results in Table 4 show that student-
teacher interaction has the highest positive correlation (r=.782; p < .01) with CRPs
application in classrooms which shows that effective student-teacher interaction
improves CRPs application in classrooms. This is followed by cultural knowledge
(r=.663, p < .01) and classroom management (r=.614; r < .01). Barriers to CRPs
implementation has the highest negative correlation with CRPs application in the
classroom which shows that as barriers increase, the ability of lecturers to apply
CRPs in classrooms decreases.
With regards to the correlation between independent variables, results in Table 4

show that classroom management and cultural knowledge have the highest
correlation (r=.744; p <.05) showing that as the cultural knowledge of students by
lecturers improve, so will also be their ability to manage their classes. The
correlation between cultural knowledge and verbal and non-verbal
communication is the second highest (r=.637, p <.01) showing that cultural
knowledge of students by lecturers leads to improvement in the way lecturers
verbally and non-verbally communicate with their students. Barriers to CRPs
implementation have a negative correlation with all the other independent
variables showing that these barriers have an overall negative influence on the
ability of lecturers to verbally communicate with diverse students (r=-.513; p <

156
.01), have adequate cultural knowledge of students (r=-.571; p < .01), manage
diverse classes effectively (r=-.271; p < .01), and also interact effectively with
students from diverse cultures (r=-.319; p < .01).
4.5. Hypotheses testing
Table 5: ANOVA on verbal and non-verbal communication and use of CRPs

Variables Source Sum of df Mean of F Sig.
squares squares
Within groups 1027.61 3 342.54 6.053 .000*
Non-verbal Between groups 11770.13 208 56.59
communication
Total 12797.74 211
Cultural Within groups 971.388 3 323.796 7.897 .003*
knowledge
Between groups 8529.612 208 41.001
Total 9501.000 211
Classroom Within groups 533.609 3 177.870 3.480 .000*
management
Between groups 10631.441 208 51.113
Total 11165.050 211
Student-teacher Within groups 841.308 3 280.436 8.241 .003*
interaction
Between groups 7146.151 210 34.029
Total 7987.459 213
*Sig. p < .05
Results in Table 5 show that all the factors namely non-verbal communication,
cultural knowledge, student-teacher interaction, and classroom management
with effective implementation of CRPs in university classrooms (p < .05 for all
cases). These results therefore show that all the four factors were predictors of
effective implementation of CRPs in university classrooms.
Table 6: ANOVA on application of CRPs and management of diversity

Source Sum of df Mean of F Sig.
squares squares
Within groups 837.125 3 279.042 11.400 .004
Between groups 5091.470 208 24.478
Total 5928.595 211
Sig: p < .05
Results in Table 6 show that there is a significant statistical relationship between

effective use of CRPs and management of diversity in university classrooms (F =
11.4; p = .004; p < .05). This shows that lecturers who are able to effectively apply
CRPs in university classrooms have a high chance of being able to manage
culturally diverse classes in universities.

157
Table 7: Multiple regression model

Model R R square Adjusted R Std. Error Durbin-
Square of the Watson
Estimate
1 .701a .4914 .4853 1.2053 1.575
Multiple regression analysis in Table 7 was conducted to establish the

contribution of independent variables (biographic factors, multicultural
competence and inhibiting factors) to variation in the application of CRPs in
university classrooms. The results in Table 7 show that the Adjusted R2 is .4853
which shows that 48.53% of variations in the way university lecturers apply CRPs
in their teaching of culturally diverse students is caused by the independent
variables while the remaining 51.47% is as a result of extraneous variables outside
the scope of this study.
5. Discussion
The purpose of the study was to establish factors influencing the implementation
of CRPs as well as how significantly the application of CRPs influences diversity
management in university classrooms. The study also identified factors that acted
as barriers to effective implementation of CRP in universities. The symbolic
interactionist theory by Cooley (1902) and Mead (1934) was used to guide the
stud. The theory highlighted four dimensions namely verbal and non-verbal
communication, classroom management, student-teacher interaction and cultural
knowledge as being important for the implementation of CRPs.
It emerged in the study that verbal and non-verbal communication has a

significant influence on the implementation of CRPs in universities. This means
that what people understand or believe they understand from words and symbols
that are communicated by the communicator has an influence on how they act or
react in a particular situation. A study by Barker, Nyberg and Larsson (2019) found
that different forms of communication produce emotions that result in different
ways of behaving and acting, which have an influence, in the context of
classrooms, on continued participation in learning by students. If some students
believe that the communication being done by either the teacher or some sections
of the class are demeaning to them or have some connotations of segregation, such
students may end up not participating in the learning process at all or at worst,
not coming to school. The words and symbols which teachers and students use
for communicating may have a significant effect especially on how the
marginalized students behave in the classroom. Confirming the above assertion,
separate studies by Fitzpatrick (2018) and Frydendal and Thing (2019) found that
subjective interpretations from a social context such as a classroom can contribute
to positive emotions such as pleasure and excitement which facilitate learning or
to negative emotions such as worry, nervousness, and shame among others,
which disrupt learning. Another study by Dorrington and Guy (2018) also found
that the words, gestures and labels that teachers and students use on some
students as well as the attention they give to other students, have a significant
influence on the levels of participation in the learning process by students who
may feel affected or neglected.

158
Results also showed that cultural knowledge of students by the teacher has a
significant influence on the implementation of CRPs by university lecturers.
Having a good understanding of the diverse cultures in the classroom helps
lecturers to come up with teaching content and activities that cater for the needs
of all students. To be able to understand how certain students learn and what they
actually consider as learning, lecturers need to have a full understanding of the
diverse cultures of these students. With this understanding, lecturers will then be
able to make decisions on which teaching methods to use, how to select content
to teach and what teaching tools to use. Lecturers who possess adequate
knowledge of diverse cultures of students in the classroom are referred to as
having multi-cultural competences who should mostly be able to use
differentiated instruction as allowed for in CRPs (Dorrington & Guy, 2018;
Haralambos & Holborn, 2013).
Results further showed that classroom management has a significant influence on

the implementation of CRPs in university classrooms. Classroom management is
important in the implementation of CRPs because it is about the decisions
lecturers make and actions they take to create environments that are support and
facilitate both academic and social-emotional learning. For students of diverse
backgrounds to be able to learn effectively, certain conditions that make them feel
safe, wanted, cared for and supported have to be in place. Studies by Farmer et al.
(2016) and McKeown et al (2015) found that for lecturers to be able to engage
diverse students in the learning proves, they need to establish conditions that
elicit the cooperation of their students. Such conditions according to separate
studies by Krasnoff (2016), Petty (2014) and Brown (2019) include all teaching in
the classroom respects and represents multiple cultures, genders, religions and
nationalities; being welcoming and focusing on students’ strengths rather than
weaknesses, providing students with clear criteria and standards for successful
task completion; and setting clear rules on how students of diverse backgrounds
interact in the learning process.
It further emerged in the study that student-teacher interaction has a significant

influence on the implementation of CRPs. Allowing for opportunities where
lecturers interact with their students as well as where students interact between
and among themselves is very important in the implementation of CRPs and in
encouraging all students to be involved in their learning. To provide
opportunities for interaction between the lecturers and students and also between
and among students themselves, lecturers need to use strategies such as class
discussions and group discussions. Such groupings according to a student by
Krasnoff (2016) need to be flexible for students of diverse cultures to be able to
interact with each other and learn to understand and appreciate each other’s
different cultures.
Results of the study also showed university lecturers faced a number of challenges
that affect effective implementation of CRPs to manage diversity in their
classrooms due to the fact that most lecturers had not received training on how to

159
implement CRPs. As a result of this lack of training, it was established in the study
that most of the lecturers lacked multi-cultural competency.
6. Conclusions
Based on the above results, it was concluded that the implementation of CRPs in
university classrooms in Zimbabwe was still work in progress owing to the
myriad of challenges lecturers faced during the implementation of CRPs. These
challenges ranged from a lack of understanding of the diverse cultures of the
students, a lack of training in diversity management to failing to create supportive
environments for students to learn. It was also concluded that classroom
management, cultural knowledge, student-teacher interaction, and non-verbal
communication had a significant influence on how CRPs was implemented by
university lecturers. It was further concluded that effective implementation of
CRPs in university classrooms was a pre-requisite for lecturers to be able to
effectively manage diversity. This, according to reviewed literature, meant that
for lecturers to be able to manage diverse in university classrooms through the
application CRPs, they need to have adequate knowledge of the different cultures
in their classes and the different CRPs they can utilize to be able to effectively
manage and teach the culturally diverse students in their classrooms. This further
means that lecturers for lecturers to be able to effectively apply CRPs to manage
culturally diverse university classes, they must demonstrate multi-cultural
competence by having adequate knowledge of cultural differences in their classes
and how to use that knowledge to create learning environments that satisfy the
learning needs of each of their students.
7. Recommendations
Based on the above results, it is recommend that university lecturers need urgent
training on how they can apply CRPs to manage cultural diversity in classrooms
to be able to make learning more meaningful and effective than currently. With
adequate knowledge and skills of how to use CRPs to manage diversity, lecturers
will become more confident, develop positive attitudes towards different cultures
and will be able to prepare better for teaching culturally diverse students.
Practical Implications of the study
The study has implications on both practice and policy. With regards to practice,
the study demonstrated that since university classrooms now consist of culturally
diverse students, and that it is possible to successfully teach such students if
lecturers use CRPs. These CRPs will ensure that individual learning needs of
students from different cultures are catered for. With regards to policy,
institutional management need to ensure that, as a matter of policy, lecturers use
CRPs for teaching to ensure that they effectively teach culturally diverse students.
Such a policy should also ensure that lecturers receive adequate training for them
to be multi-culturally competent so as to be able to apply CRPs when teaching.
Limitations of the study
The study was quantitative in nature with the purpose of reaching out to as wide
a number of lecturers as possible to solicit their views on the application of CRPs
in universities. For more depth, a qualitative approach could also have been used

160
as part of a mixed methods study. Further research therefore will require the use
of a qualitative approach for more depth on the topic.
Declarations:
Informed consent: Informed consent was obtained from all participants before the
commencement of the study.
Ethics approval and consent to participate: The study was given ethical approval and
consent by the Bindura University of Science Education ethics committee.
Availability of data and materials: There is no date and material associated with this
study to declare.
Competing interests: The researcher has no conflict of interest to declare in this study.
Funding: There is no funding to declare in this study.
Acknowledgements: The researcher wishes to send special acknowledgement to all
lecturers from the participating universities who made this study possible.
Methods: methods used in the study were carried out in accordance with relevant
guidelines and regulations.
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163

A Conceptual Research Model for Investigating the

Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on
Students’ Teacherpreneurial Competencies and
Intentions in Preservice Teacher Education
Olusiji Adebola Lasekan

Universidad Católica de Temuco, Temuco, Chile
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4244-4852
Reyaz Malik
Central University of Karnataka, Kalaburagi, India
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2443-5108
Claudia Méndez Alarcon

Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6327-934X
Abstract. This article seeks to develop a research model that can be

employed to study the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on
students' teacherpreneurial competence and intention as well as
employability. Based on the redefinition of the role of online
teacherpreneur as an online private tutor, instructional designer,
entrepreneur, and teacher leader, a qualitative literature review of
competencies for these roles was conducted. We merged the identified
competencies according to conceptual similarities. Our result is an online
teacherpreneurship competency adopted to formulate a research model
which is a customized measuring instrument for investigating the effect
of online teacherpreneurship training on preservice teachers’
teacherpreneurial competencies and intentions. This finding has
important implications for developing a template for students,
policymakers, and teacher educators needed to create online
teacherpreneurship courses, curricula, and evaluations.
Keywords: online teacherpreneurship; entrepreneurial intention; teacher

leadership; instructional designing; online private tutor
1. Introduction
Berry, Byrd and Wieder (2013) are among the first to incorporate a concept
of teacherpreneurship into academic writing. They describe teacherpreneurs as
teachers who cultivate and 'sell' their pedagogical talents while at the same time
seeking creative solutions to the challenges of the education sector. The increasing
rate of precarious employment in the education sector is a critical factor

164
compelling teachers to engage in this practice (Lasekan, Moraga & Galvez, 2020).
According to Palmer (2017), a teacherpreneur is a creative teacher who is both an
educator and an entrepreneur, working a flexible schedule to supplement his or
her income by creating and developing teaching and learning products. In sum,
teacherpreneurship can simultaneously enhance teachers' financial freedom while
fostering the quality of teaching and innovation in education (Syam, 2019). This
capability strengthens its pivotal importance in entrepreneurship education
studies.
Due to easy access to the internet in the past two decades, online education has
proliferated in numerous higher education institutions (Tao & Yeh, 2008). The
current COVID-19 ravaging the globe has compelled nearly all educational
institutions to adopt this teaching mode. Though several studies conducted in
different contexts have reported successful implementation of online education
with its positive impact on students learning outcomes (Allo, 2020: Tartavulea et
al., 2020), there are numerous reports on challenges hampering the successful
implementation of online teaching (Rajab, Gazal & Alkattan, 2020: Farooq, Rathore
& Mansoor, 2020). Nevertheless, it has been predicted that many higher
educational institutions will continue to offer online education after this post-
pandemic era because it provides flexible, convenient, and interactive methods of
instruction to students (Goh & Sandars, 2020). Also, considering the affinity
spaces such as Instagram and Facebook, where the increasing number of teachers
are sharing professional experience and instructional material for financial gain
(Carpenter et al., 2020). Thus, it can be argued that this transition and the new
phenomenon will cause more teachers to embrace online teacherpreneurship.
Though, Shelton and Archambault (2018) limit the scope of online
teacherpreneurs to teachers who market their original classroom materials and
ideas with colleagues and policymakers on social media such as Instagram and
Pinterest. However, considering the increasing growth of online private tutoring
business (Bray, 2006). It can be contended that online private tutoring should also
be one of the core competencies of online teacherpreneurship. Thus, it is crucial to
redefine the concept and competence of online teacherpreneurship and advocate
for its inclusion in the preservice teacher education curriculum. This can be done
by developing a model that assesses its education impact on students' learning
outcomes.
In entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurship competence and

entrepreneurship intention are the two strong predictors to determine a successful
entrepreneurship program (Sánchez, 2013). Both concepts can also be used to
assess the impact of online teacherpreneurship education. Therefore, this study
aims to conceptualize a research model that can be used to study the effect of
online teacherpreneurship education on students' perceived teacherpreneural
competences, teacherpreneural intentions, and perceived employability. After the
introduction, we present a literature review. The methodology follows them.
Based on the findings, we proposed an online teacherpreneurship competence
construct. We adopted it to conceptualize the research model to study the impact
of online teacherpreneurship education on teacherpreneural competencies,
intention, and perceived employability in preservice teacher education.

165
One of the ways every government is promoting entrepreneurship is through its
education. As a result of this, entrepreneurship education is becoming popular in
several higher educational institutions (Hattab, 2014: Al Mamun, Nawi &
Shamsudin, 2016). In the European Union (EU) countries, the education is critical
to the socio-economic development of the continent (Bacigalupo et al., 2016). In
Chile's case, the government believes that the commercial success of the small-
medium firms, which is vital to economic growth, depends on the successful
implementation of entrepreneurship education in the national curriculum
(Maldifassi, 2001). Entrepreneurship education is concerned with learning for,
through, and about entrepreneurship (Gibb, 2005). For this reason, it is claimed
that entrepreneurship education should be regarded as both a learning method as
well as learning material (Remes, 2001). Albornoz (2013) identified two teaching
goals of every entrepreneurship training. These goals include teaching how to
start a successful business and teaching to develop students' entrepreneurial
skills. Considering the subjectivity nature of entrepreneurship whose training is
extending beyond major business discipline to non-business courses such as
medical programs (Li, 2017), preservice teacher education programs (Deveci &
Seikkula-Leino, 2018), engineering programs (Duval-Couetil, Reed-Rhoads &
Haghighi, 2012), and postgraduate programs (Rae & Woodier-Harris, 2012),
several scholars are now advocating for teaching goals that focus only on the
enhancement of entrepreneurship mindset of students in all disciplines (Brand,
Wakkee & Van der Veen, 2007: Martin & Iucu, 2014). The aim is to connect the
worlds of education and work by improving students' ability to turn ideas into
action, which add benefit value for someone other than oneself (Bacigalupo et al.,
2016). Thus, it will be interesting to explore the impact of online
teacherpreneurship as a sub-dimension of entrepreneurship education in
preservice teacher education programs.
Entrepreneurship Competence (EC) and Entrepreneurship Intention (EI) are the

two key predictors of successful entrepreneurship programs. While EC is defined
as the general skills of an entrepreneur to carry out the job (Man et al., 2002), EI,
which is grounded on a theory of planned behaviour, is defined as the vocational
decision process undergoes by an individual to join an occupation as a salaried
earner or entrepreneur (Katz, 1992). Numerous studies on Entrepreneurship
Education (EE) have used these two concepts to evaluate entrepreneurship
programs (Sanchez, 2013: Hattab, 2014). A pretest-posttest quasi-experimental
design to assess the impact of entrepreneurship training on the students' EC
revealed that the students' proactivity, risk-taking, self-efficacy and self-
employment motive are fostered after the training (Sanchez, 2013).
A similar study to measure the impact of EE on the entrepreneurial intention

among Egyptian students established a positive relationship between EE and EI
(Hattab, 2014). Also, specific entrepreneurship competencies have been identified
to be the driver of EI. In a study conducted among students of Faculty of
Entrepreneurship and Business, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, competencies such
as the ability to identify income-generating opportunities, entrepreneurial skills,
creativity, and information-seeking skill have a higher impact on EI of students

166
(Al Mamun, Nawi & Shamsudin 2016). In addition, considering that some EE
programs are strictly designed to foster employability, which is 'a collection of
skills, knowledge and personal qualities that make an individual more likely to
safe and successful in their chosen profession after graduation (Moreland, 2006),
a high self-perception of employability can also be used as a strong predictor of a
good entrepreneurship program. While a study has established a positive impact
of EE on the employability skills of British undergraduate students (O'Leary,
2012), another study reported similar positive results among Irish and Croatia
students (Robinson, 2018). The literature gap is a work on the construction of
online teacherpreneurship competence to assess the impact of its education.
Teachers' professionalism and qualifications are bound and designed to change

according to global needs (Whitty, 2000). Therefore, teachers' competence has to
adjust to the curriculum change, work efficiency, and systematic teacher
assessment (Bancotovska, 2015) to improve the quality of teaching needed in
modern education (Syam & Arifin, 2018). Trilling & Fadel (2009) explained that in
the 21st century, one has to master the three core skills, i.e., life and career skills,
innovation skills, and information media and technology skills (Ashari, Syam &
Budiman, 2017). Therefore, it is essential to foster these skills among preservice
teachers to adjust teacher professionalism to 21st-century challenges. Several
preservice teacher education programs in different contexts have started
implementing teacherpreneurship education for several reasons. In Indonesia, the
education was used to foster teachers' professionalism by developing their
creativity and effectiveness (Sofyan & Efendi, 2017). In Pakistan's case, it was
adopted to provide female teachers with knowledge and skills to enhance their
competence to launch and sustain their businesses for their socio-economic well-
being (Qureshi, Khanam & Aziz, 2018). In Europe, EIPTE is an innovative Erasmus
ongoing project that aims at stimulating the entrepreneurial mindset of preservice
teachers (Arruti & Paños-Castro, 2020). Despite the successful implementation in
different contexts, there is yet to be a study on implementing online
teacherpreneurship education.
Works on the concept of teacherpreneurship have focused on defining the

characteristics of teacherpreneurs. A good example are tutors who teach students
but still have space and time to nurse and implement their ideas (Berry, Byrd &
Wieder, 2013). Arruti & Paños-Castro (2019, p. 20) describe them as professionals
who are placing students at the center of their work, pursuing personal and
professional development, exhibit leadership skill, adopting active
methodologies, daring to break the pre-established rules from time to time, and
established a significant network of a professional network. The third important
characteristic of teacherpreneurs are those that market their teaching skills either
as face to face or online private tutors, which is more prominent in non-
mainstream EFL education (Torrengiani, 2020). The private tuition industry's
global growth has increased drastically in different countries over the years (Baker
& Le Tendre, 2005). For example, Lasekan, Moraga and Galvez (2020) reported a
socio-demographic profile of the high volume of English private tutors in Chile.
Similarly, teaching opportunities outside mainstream education have been
revealed in the discipline of physical education (PE). (Adeogu & Adeyeye, 2012).

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The authors claim that PE teachers can express their entrepreneurial productivity
in several broad areas such as Club Fitness Instructor, Clinical Exercise
Physiologist, and sports teacher. To maximize teachers' potential in the fitness
industry, the experts stress the importance of entrepreneurship education for
prospective physical education teachers. In sum, considering the dynamism and
needs of global education, teacherpreneurs can offer their services as private
tutors, content developers, and consultants in their respective disciplines. Thus, it
is essential to conduct a study on the role of teacherpreneur as a private tutor in
both mainstream and non-mainstream of education.
By 2017, the discussion on teacherpreneurship has begun to metamorphose into

online teacherpreneurship. Scholars reported different educational services that
online teacherpreneurs could offer their clients (Shelton & Archambault, 2018;
Carpenter et al., 2020). First, teachers focus on creating and selling teaching
material and resources for other teachers to use on a popular online educational
marketplace such as TeachersPayTeachers.com and Pinterest (Shelton &
Archambault, 2018). The study attributed the continuous increase in the practice
among teachers to the emergence and growth of the online educational
marketplace industry, such as TeachersPayTeachers.com, Pinterest, TES, Amazon
Inspire, and Houghton Mifflin, where teachers sell their instructional material to
other teachers (Shelton, 2018). Secondly, the low salary income of most teachers
(Allegretto & Mishel, 2019). Thus, many teachers use this alternative way of
selling authentic material to augment their income (Shelton & Archambault,
2019). Works on online teacherpreneurship are still gaining momentum. A recent
study explored how teachers practice online teacherpreneurship on Instagram
(Carpenter et al., 2020). The gap in the literature is a study on the competencies
that an online teacherpreneur needs to possess.
Against this background, we present the key research questions of this study as
follows:
1. Based on a broad range of literature, what competencies do future online
teacherpreneurs need to acquire?
2. What is the conceptual research model to study the effect of online
teacherpreneurship education on online teacherpreneural competencies and
intentions?
3. Methodology
In reviewing the literature, no study was found on developing a model that
assesses the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on Students'
teacherpreneurial competencies and intentions in preservice teacher education.
Thus, this study set out to conceptualize a research model that can be used to
study the impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' perceived
teacherpreneural competences, teacherpreneural intentions, and perceived
employability.
4. Research Design
The research design is inspired by Foucrier & Wiek (2019) and Draksler & Širec
(2018) on the conceptual research model of sustainable entrepreneurship

168
competence and entrepreneurship competence, respectively. The research is

divided into three sections (Figure 1).
I. Qualitative Literature Review of Tasks: Peer-reviewed literature was identified,

selected, and evaluated. Reference work has been established via Google Scholar
(the broadest database for academic studies). Also, we verified with other
databases and no additional sources of interest was found. Studies were identified
through Google using the terms: "Teacherprenuer", "Teacherpreneurship", "online
teacherpreneur", "online teacherpreneurship", and "Entrepreneurship in Teachers
education". The most relevant sources were selected. Criteria such as works that
precisely defined the term, published in or after 2010, and works derived the
synthesis of existing literature was adopted. The final collection contained the
following peer-reviewed studies: Van Dam, Schipper and Runhaar (2010). Buckley
and Nzembayie (2016). Berry (2011), Bingham (2017), Qureshi, Khanam and Aziz,
(2018), Shelton and Archambault (2019), Shelton (2018), Ni' mah, Siswandari and
Indrawati (2018), Aryanto, Ariffiando and Andriani (2017), Shelton and
Archambault, (2018), Feriady and Santoso, (2020), Keyhani and Kim (2020), Arruti
and Panos-Castro (2020). Firstly, each source was then analyzed as
teacherpreneurial tasks.
II. Qualitative Literature Review of Competencies: Concerning the newly

conceptualized roles of online teacherpreneur, every literature was analyzed.
Thus, the result is clustered into the four competencies (online teaching,
instructional designing, teacher leadership, and entrepreneurship competence)
needed to perform online teacherpreneur.
The first cluster includes entrepreneurship competencies. It is focused on the role

of online teacherpreneurs who are in-service teachers and possess entrepreneurial
skills and used them directly relevant to their classrooms or the education system
they have served (Oplatka, 2014). The second cluster covers teacher leadership
competencies because online teacherpreneur are leaders who can virtually
influence a broad audience of teachers and students who adopt their instructional
materials and ideas for practices (Shelton, 2018). The third cluster (online teaching
competencies) was included because their practice is expected to offer online
private tutoring services (Torregiani, 2020). The final cluster (instructional
designing competencies), which is accounted for in literature, involves creating
and selling instructional material on different online platforms (Shelton &
Archambault, 2018). Results were eventually scanned for redundancies, cleaned-
ups, and synthesis.
III. Framework synthesis: A limited collection of criteria was used to create the
new competency structure which can be used to design curriculum and course for
online teacherpreneurship programs. The design protocol adopted by Foucrier &
Wiek (2019) include:
(a) Definition and standardization of competencies from the literature in order to
prevent generic definitions or redundancies
(b) Linking gaps in the literature (for example, missing or unestablished roles or
competencies);

169
(c) the use of online teacherpreneurial practice-orientation by mapping out basic

functions and competencies to prevent "laundry-listing" skills;
(d) The use of core competencies in different studies as a guide to connect the
ongoing debate of competency in various fields.
For the impact of online teacherpreneurship education, we developed a simple
conceptual research model using insights from entrepreneurship education
studies (Draksler & Širec, 2018), .and from our literature review. The impact is
modeled through the assessment of perceived teacherpreneurial competency,
intention, and employability.
Figure 1: Overview of research design adapted from “A process-oriented framework

of competencies for sustainability entrepreneurship” by Foucrier, T., & Wiek, A.
2019. Sustainability, p.4
5. Results
The synthesis of competencies for online teacherpreneurship commences with a
thorough view at the roles that online teacherpreneurs supposed to perform and
the related competencies needed to perform such duties. This is the basis for the
new competency structure for online teacherpreneurship education and its impact
on students' learning outcomes.
Tasks–What does online teacherpreneur do?

Developing online teacherpreneurship competence is essential to redefine the
tasks of online teacherpreneurs by considering how different scholars have
described the roles of both teacherpreneurs and online teacherpreneurs.
Teacherpreneurs are professionals who have a great passion for teaching, a
positive attitude, and a strong ability to inspire others (Arruti & Paños-Castro,
2019). Berry (2011) regarded teacherpreneurs as marketers and professionals who
are paid to spread their ideas and content as virtual mentors, teacher educators,
community leaders, and policy as well as action researchers. They are described
as teachers full of ideas concerned with their students, family, and community
and know how to do all the roles (Ni' mah et al., 2018). Teachers who can actualize
the potential of entrepreneurs and are expected to be much more productive

170
professionals, able to create opportunities, like to challenge, independent, and

have an unyielding spirit (Aryanto, Ariffiando & Andriani 2017). On the other hand,
online teacherpreneurs are current and former K-12 classroom teachers. They
engage in educational entrepreneurship, selling their original classroom materials
in virtual marketplaces such as TpT, TES, Teachers Notebook, and Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt Marketplace (Buckley & Nzembayie, 2016). They are also
described as experienced teachers who gain professional authority and influence
as a teacher leader (Holland, Eckert & Allen, 2014). Lastly, Shelton (2018) describe
them as professional with innovative teaching skills, entrepreneurship mindset,
online technology skill, as well as teacher leadership skills. In light of these
definitions, we redefine online teacherpreneurs as teachers with an
entrepreneurial mindset who offer virtual private tutoring service to students,
develop and sell their instructional material to other teachers on the internet, and
provide online mentoring and leadership service to other teachers, school
management and educational policymakers (see figure 2).
Figure 2: The roles of an online teacherpreneur
Competencies– What online teacherpreneurs are Capable of?

According to Spencer and Spencer (1993), competency is an underlying attribute
of an individual that is causally linked to better performance in a job or
circumstance. Lucia & Lepsinger (1999) describe two conceptually-based
structures for the creation of competency models: Beginning with a Validated
and Starting from Scratch Competency Model. Starting with a validate is a
competency model that is generated based on an established competency model
and contains the generic competencies needed. They suggest that this approach
could be suitable where a competency model has been built for careers with broad
duties, roles, and tasks requiring minimal professional abilities and expertise.
Regarding teacherpreneurship competence, several attempts have been made to
develop and assess the entrepreneurial competencies of teachers. Van Dam,
Schipper and Runhaar (2010) build competency-based on entrepreneurial
knowledge, three aptitudes (career adaptability, occupational self-efficacy,
creative thinking), and two skills (networking skill, teamwork skill). The latest
teacherpreneurship competence is based on Arruti & Paños-Castro's (2020) works,

171
they created a competency based on the EntreComp framework (Bacigalupo et al.,

2016).
Our competency compilation is presented in four different blocks, corresponding

to the roles of online teacherpreneur identified above. Most of the reviewed
literature is pulled from generic entrepreneurship, online teaching, instructional
designing, and teacher leadership competency frameworks. We believe a
competency framework in different settings is more comprehensive and will be
universally applicable (Getha-Taylor et al., 2016).
As shown in Table 1, Cluster 1 provides an insight into entrepreneurship

competence. The foundation of entrepreneurial competencies is described in the
theory of competencies of managerial (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010, p. 99).
Boyatzis (1982) mentioned the connection between entrepreneurial and
managerial competencies. Since then, studies on the competencies have evolved
over the years. We decided to adopt the latest and updated EC model by Draksler
and Širec (2018) because it is a combination of several models of entrepreneurial
competencies created by Man, Lau and Chan (2002), Kyndt and Baert (2015), and
Moberg et al. (2014).
Table 1. Entrepreneurship Competence Areas According to the Compilation of Draksler

& Širec (2018)
Cluster 1 (Entrepreneurship Competence)
Competence area Behavioral Focus Literature source
Competencies for Having skills on how to reduce risk Brinckmann et al. (2010),
strategic preparation while planning for the future. Karlsson and Honig (2009),
for the future Kyndt & Baert (2015) and
Chwolka & Raith (2012).
Competencies of Ability to make specific choices. Wagener et al. (2010),
decisiveness and Especially choices whose outcomes Rezaei-Zadeh et al. (2014),
commitment are not completely predictable Man et al. (2002)
Conceptual Having conceptual abilities that Durkan et al. (1993),
competencies can be used in decision-making Bartlett & Ghoshall (1997),
abilities, risk-taking, and Chandler & Jansen (1992),
innovativeness Gasse et al. (1997), Baum
(1994), Bird (1995)
Organizing Ability to organize human, Hunt (1998), Lau et al.
competencies physical, financial, and (1999) and Adam and Chell
technological resources such as (1993),
team-building and staff
management
Personal strength Ability to motivate oneself to Man (2001)
competencies maintain an optimum level of
operation while responding to
constructive criticism.
Ability to identify one’s own
strengths and weaknesses, and to
balance them with opportunities
and risks.

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Learning Ability for constant search for new Snell and Lau (1994), Man
competencies information, openness to new (2001)
information.
Competencies of Possessing self-understanding or Hayward et al. (2010)
self-knowledge self-awareness as well as self-
confidence skills.
Competencies for Knowledge of the market that De Clercq et al. (2012) and
market insight involve evaluating of potential Chwolka and Raith (2012)
risks, recognizing competition and
examining their own market
position
Competencies for Ability to identify and exploit Gras and Mendoza-Abarca

recognizing Opportunities (2014), Rezaei-Zadeh et al.
opportunities (2014)
Competencies of Ability to initiate collaboration and Bird (1995) and Bartlett and
building networks trust, using contacts and networks, Ghoshall (1997)
and relationships persuasion skills, communication,
and interpersonal skills.
Ability to persuade Ability to convince others about Wagener et al. (2010) and
their thoughts, strategies, or Baron and Markman (2003)
products
Independence Ability to behave differently from Wagener et al. (2010) and
others. That is, the ability to know Rauch and Frese (2007)
what to do differently to get
outstanding result.
Awareness of Ability to assess the strengths and Man et al. (2002)
potential returns on weaknesses of financial decisions.
investments
Perseverance Ability to handle risks and cope Rauch and Frese (2007) and
with the potential effects Kyndt & Baert (2015)
Entrepreneurial Ability to apply business Florin, et al., (2007) and
knowledge knowledge in real-life situation. Moberg et al. (2014)
That is, moving from theory to
practice
Creativity Ability to use imagination to solve Moberg et al. (2014),
a problem
Adapted from “Conceptual Research Model for Studying Students’ Entrepreneurial
Competencies.” by Draksler, T. Z., & Širec, K., 2018, Naše Gospodarstvo/Our
Economy,p.28
As demonstrated in Table 2, Cluster 2 is online teaching competence. Moore and

Kearsley (2012) defined online education as a type of teaching that commonly
takes place in different settings, requiring contact with technologies and a specific
institutional organization. Regarding the aspects of being distant, Finch and
Jacobs (2012) defined it as all types of teaching and learning where the student
and instructor are geographically and temporally separated. The first
development of its teaching competence emerges from the core Seven Principles
of Effective Teaching proposed by Chickering & Gamson (1991). To further
validate the critical competencies, Bigatel et al. (2012) conducted a study where
faculties were asked to identify the most significant teaching behaviors associated
with successful online teaching. The study included 64 teaching tasks, which were

173
correlated and evaluated to determine key online tutoring skills. This includes
Active Teaching, Policy Enforcement, Classroom Decorum. Farmer and Ramsdale
(2016) update this competence by considering the works of Chickering & Gamson
(1989), Goodyear et al. (2001), Berge (1995), and Anderson and Dexter (2005) by
adding Leadership & Instruction, Instructional Design, Community &
Netiquette and Tools & Technology to the construct.
Table 2. Online Teaching Competence Areas

Cluster 2 (Online teaching competence)
Competence Behavioral focus Literature source
area
Community & Ability to create a conducive online learning Farmer & Ramsdale
Netiquette atmosphere in classroom and supportive (2016),
relationship with students.
Ability to cultivate an inclusive community by
developing activities for learners to connect,
discuss, and collaborate.
Classroom Ability to handle course communications by Bigatel et al. (2012)
Decorum modeling an expected conduct for all course
communication
Policy Ability to track students' adherence to
Enforcement Academic Integrity rules and regulations.
. Ability to serve as a leader and facilitator by Farmer & Ramsdale
Leadership & directing students, encouraging them to (2016),
Instruction concentrate on conversations, offering
examples and modeling actions that illustrate
important ideas, values, and skills.
Tools & Online teachers should be able to pick and
Technology arrange learning resources and technology.
They are expected to assess and manage course
technology to ensure that tools are effective,
easy for learners of varying ability to use, and
comply with learning outcomes.
Instructional Ability to apply teaching strategies that
Design influence the flow of learning materials,
activities, and tests,
Active Teaching Teachers can create an interactive and
participatory learning atmosphere for online
classroom students.
They also keep learners up to date, provide
input, support group work, modify content,
and review teaching strategies.
Adapted from " Teaching competencies for the online environment." by Farmer, H., &
Ramsdale, J., 2016, Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology/La revue canadienne
de l'apprentissage et de la technologie,p.5
Cluster 3 (instructional designing competence)

Instructional design deals with comprehension, improving, and using material for
Instructional purposes (Reigeluth, 2013). The author considers teachers that
carried out this professional activity as instructional developers. The scholar
further states that the skill helps teachers decide what teaching strategies are

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ideally adapted to cause the desired changes in students' knowledge and skills for
particular course content.
Numerous professional organizations have published competencies concerning
instructional design. They include IBSTPI, AECT, and the Association for Talent
Development (ATD). This study's conceptual framework is the ID's competence
model created and validated by the International Board of Standards for Training,
Performance, and Instruction (IBSTPI) (Koszalka et al., 2013). It consists of twenty-
two competencies and 105 output items divided into five domains (see Table 3).
The IBSTPI model is important since it encompasses a range of educational
backgrounds, including secondary, vocational and higher education and can be
extended to online learning environments. Also, the IBSTPI model describes the
professionalization and specialization needs of instructional design in online
learning environments and has identified specific skills to the field of online
learning specialists, such as Instructional Technology Specialist (Koszalka et al.,
2013).
Table 3: Instructional Design Competence Areas According to Koszalka et al. (2013)
Cluster 3 (Instructional Design Competence)
Professional Foundations 1. Good communications
2. Research and theory application
3. Continuous improvement of personal ability
4. Knowledge of data collection and analysis
5. Knowledge of legal, ethical, and political
implications of designs
. Analysis and Planning 6. work as needs assessor
7. Depicting audience and surroundings traits
8. Deciding content of instruction
9. Analyzing applicable technologies for use teaching
10. Decide on suitable instructional material and
development process
11. Organizing instruction material development
projects
Design & Development 12. Creating and design of teaching material
interventions
13. Planning of non-instructional material
interventions
14. Selecting or modifying of established interventions
15. Developing of instructional tools
16. Designing of learning tests
Evaluation & 17. Instructional material’s assessment
Implementation 18. Instructional material’s revision
19. Instructional material’s implementation and
dissemination
20. Applying of business skills
Management 21. Collaborative relationships
22. Instructional design projects’ planning and
management
Adapted from Instructional Designer Competencies: The Standards (4th ed.), by
Koszalka et al., 2013, Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Copyright 2012 by
ibstpi®,www.ibstpi.org

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Cluster 4 (Teacher leadership)

As shown in Table 4, Teacher leadership is a collaborative endeavour that
capacitates teachers to conduct significant improvements to the school as a
community while building standards for themselves (Greenlee, 2007). A common
trait of teacher leadership involves connecting to other teacher leaders, student-
teachers, and administrators. (Angelle, 2007). Considering the role of online tools
and social media in connecting teachers' networks, various social networking sites
offer teacher leaders a platform to exercise their leadership mindset through
collaboration and communication. A study has shown how teacher leaders are
sharing their knowledge on Facebook through discussions that cover the full
spectrum of educational issues (Rutherford, 2010). According to the author, the
platform is seen as a medium to promote and support teacher professional
development. In an attempt to determine why educators use Instagram,
Carpenter (2020) revealed that most educators used the social networking
platforms to share ideas and affirmation, with a subset of users monetizing some
of the idea exchanges. On this note, we will examine the teacher leadership
competency model (TLCM) updated by Yuet, Yusof and Mohamad (2016) through
the lens of collaboration and networking on social media. The TLCM was
constructed built on the basis of four types of models (Kho, Hamidah & Syed, 2015).
These cover the Framework for Teaching Evaluation Instrument (Danielson,
2013), Teacher Leadership Framework (Centre for Strengthening Teaching
Profession, 2009), Teachers as Leaders Framework (Crowther, 2008), and Teacher
Leader Model Standards (Teacher Leadership Exploratory Consortium, 2011).
Thus, The Teacher Leadership Competency Model (TLCM) proposed for this
study, therefore, encompasses Facilitation of Improvement and Establishing
Standards; Modeling of Leadership Attributes and Skills; Participating in
Organizational Development and Fostering a Collaborative Culture.
Table 4. Teacher Leadership Competency Areas According to Kho et al. (2015)

Cluster 4 (Teacher leadership competence)
Competence area Behavioral Focus Literature source
Facilitating This involves: Crowther (2008),
Improvement and Demonstrating concern in Teacher Leader Model
Establishing student well-being and needs Standards (TLEC, 2011)
Standards Continuous professional growth
of gifts and talents;
Continuing studies in the area of
pedagogical practice.
Fostering a Online partnership with others to Barth (2001), Goleman,
Collaborative promote improvement in student Bryatzis & McKee (2002).
Culture achievement and school Danielson (2013), CSTP
development. (2009), and Crowther (2008).
Modeling This involves focusing on Danielson (2013)
Leadership compassionate relationships
Attributes and Skills among teachers and students and
fostering interactions among
students
Participating in Teachers are active in school Saad & Sankaran (2013),
Organizational development programmes. They
Development assist principals to management

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and administration of the school. Teacher Leadership

They also have the knowledge of Exploratory Consortium
using data for decision-making. (2011).
Adapted from “Development and validation of the teacher leadership competency
scale." by Yuet, F. K. C, Yusof, H., & Mohamad, S. I. S., 2016, Malaysian Journal of
Learning and Instruction
Proposed construct
The competency compilation is presented in Table 5, corresponding to the tasks
identified cluster 1. 2, 3 and 4. This includes online teaching competence (Farmer
and Ramsdale, 2016), entrepreneurship competence (Draksler & Širec, 2018),
teacher leadership competence schools (Kho Hamidah & Syed, 2015), and
instructional design competence (Koszalka et al., 2013). Here, it is important to
add that the existing competencies had to be changed in order to develop a
teacherpreneurial competence construct that can be used to examine the impact
of online teacherprenurship education on teacherpreneurial competencies and
intentions of preservice teacher education. Many of the identified competencies
found in all blocks are the same. For example, relationship competence in cluster
1 is similar to fostering collaboration in teacher leadership competence, leadership
instruction in online teaching overlapped with teacher leadership competence. In
addition, instruction design in online teaching is covered in instruction design
competence. After merging the competencies, we obtained the final 30
competence constructs.
Table 5: Proposed Teacherpreneurial Constructs

Teacherpreneurial Competencies Literature source
Competencies for strategic preparation Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002),
for the future Man (2001)
Competencies of determination and Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002),
dedication Man (2001),
Conceptual competences Man et al. (2002), Man (2001)
Organizing competencies Man et al. (2002), Man (2001)
Personal strength competencies Man et al. (2002), Man (2001)
Learning competencies Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002),
Man (2001)
Competencies of self-knowledge Kyndt and Baert (2015)
Competencies for business insight Kyndt and Baert (2015
Competencies for the identification of Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002),
opportunities Man (2001)
Networks and partnership Kyndt and Baert (2015), Man et al. (2002),
competencies Man (2001)
Capacity to persuade Kyndt and Baert (2015)
Independence Kyndt and Baert (2015)
Knowledge of future returns on Kyndt and Baert (2015)
investments
Perseverance Kyndt and Baert (2015)
Knowledge of Entrepreneurship Moberg et al. (2014)
Creativity Moberg et al. (2014)
Professional Foundations Koszalka et al. (2013)
Planning & Analysis www.ibstpi.org

177
Design & Development

Evaluation & Implementation
Project Management
Online Active Teaching Farmer and Ramsdale (2016), Bigatel et al.
(2012)
Online Classroom Decorum
Online Policy Enforcement
Community & Netiquette

Tools & Technology
Facilitating Improvement and Yuet et al. (2016), Norazlinda Saad and
Establishing Standards Surendran Sankaran (2013), Teacher
Fostering a Collaborative Culture Leadership Exploratory Consortium (2011),
Modeling Leadership Attributes and Danielson (2013)
Skills
Participating in Organizational
Development
Impact of Online Teacherpreneurship Education on Students' Learning

Outcome
This study aims to conceptualize the impact of online teacherpreneurship
education on students' EC, EI, and perceived employability. The justification for
its inclusion in preservice teacher education is similar to various higher
institutions' EE program objectives (Deveci & Seikkula-Leino, 2018; Qureshi,
Khanam & Aziz, 2018). This includes developing an entrepreneurial mindset of
students to disrupt precarious employment in education and augment their low
wages by developing innovative teaching ideas.
Considering that this form of education rest on the ability to teach online, share
ideas and material online, giving the current pandemic situation which has
provided the needed courage to embrace online teaching and learning, we can
argue for the need to integrate Online Teacherpreneurship Education (OTE) in
preservice teacher education.
The first critical step in implementing OTE is by defining the role of online
teacherpreneur. We argue that their practice should be based on their ability to
teach online, design and sell instructional material, and consult and collaborate in
the area of educational leadership. Thirty comprehensive constructs were
developed from the existing competencies on entrepreneurship (Draksler & Širec,
2018), online teaching (Farmer and Ramsdale, 2016), instructional design
(Koszalka et al., 2013), and teacher leadership (Kho, Hamidah & Syed, 2015). This
conforms to previous studies on a conceptual framework to study EE's impact on
EC (Draksler & Širec, 2018). This is the first approach towards the development of
the curriculum or syllabus needed for OTE.
To further assess the impact of OTE, perceived self-assessment of

entrepreneurship competence can be carried out. Based on self-perception theory
that states individuals perceive the contingencies influencing their actions and
infer their attitudes from the pattern of freely chosen action (Deci., Koestner &

178
Ryan, 1999). Thus, the impact can be measured by evaluating the degree at which
they perceive their competence. That is, putting entrepreneurship theory into
practice, using their ability to teach online, designing instructional material, and
offering teacher leadership-consulting service.
On the other hand, EI can be considered the second level of evaluating the impact
of education on students learning outcomes. According to human capital theory,
an individual with greater competency levels will achieve more significant
performance outcomes (EI) (Martin, McNally & Kay, 2013). That is, students' EI can
be influenced by the attitude towards a certain kind of behavior and self-efficacy
(Krueger, 2003). Several studies have suggested ways of increasing learners'
entrepreneurial intentions (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016: Mueller, 2011). This
involves adopting a model and student-oriented teaching model to boost their
attitude, emotional, and experiential learning (Ozaralli & Rivenburgh, 2016).
Perceived employability is described as achieving sustainable employment

appropriate to one's qualification level (Rothwell, Herbert & Rothwell, 2008). A
recent study has shown that the higher an individual perceived their future
employability, the higher their entrepreneurial intention (Atitsogbe et al., 2019).
Note that online OTE is not solely designed to make teachers set up an enterprise,
but to disrupt precarious employment, innovate teaching skills and supplement
their income. Thus, perceived employment can be used to assess the quality of the
impact of tp education. This agrees with other entrepreneurship education
programs used to promote employability among university students (Pardo-
Garcia & Barac, 2020).
On the other hand, precarious employment in the educational sector has been
argued to be caused by the teacher's inability to explore employment outside
mainstream education (Lasekan, 2019: Lasekan, Moraga & Galvez, 2020). The
authors stated this argument in the case of the English language teaching sector,
where different teaching opportunities in non-mainstream education are yet to be
explored. For example, English teachers can teach English for Specific Purposes
in private companies (Lasekan, 2019) and physical education teachers can offer
teaching services in the fitness centers (Adeogu & Adeyemi, 2012). OTE can help
students understand the job prospects available in mainstream and non-
mainstream education of their discipline. Thus, the main goal of EE is to instruct
students to grasp the internal situation of the industry. Therefore, the OTE
objective should be focused on the development status, the development pattern
of several industries, to foster the comprehensive cultivation of students'
employability based on industry needs (Li, 2017).

179
Figure 3: Conceptual research framework to investigate the impact of online

teacherpreneurship education on students’ teacherpreneurship competencies and
intentions as well as employability. Adapted from “Conceptual Research Model for
Studying Students' Entrepreneurial Competencies” by Draksler, T. Z., & Širec, K. 2018,
Naše gospodarstvo/Our economy, p. 28
6. Discussion
In reviewing the literature, no data was found on integrating online
teacherpreneurship education in student-teacher education. To fill the gap, it is
critical to developing a competency framework needed to create a curriculum for
the online teacherpreneurship program. Thus, this study set out to develop a
research competency model for online teacherpreneurship that can be used to
assess the impact of its education on students' EC, EI, and employability skills.
This framework adopted involves a model that begins with a validated
competency. It is a method that generates a model based on an established
competency model that contains the generic competencies required (Lucia &
Lepsinger, 1999). For example, entrepreneurship, online teaching, instructional
designing, and teacher leadership are adopted as the core competencies of online
teacherpreneurship competencies. Key competencies from all these are

180
synthesized to develop online teacherpreneurship competency. This approach is

similar to the system of competencies for sustainability entrepreneurship created
by Foucrier and Wiek (2019).
The second part of this study involves conceptualizing a model that can assess
online teacherpreneurship education's impact on students' online
teacherpreneural competence, intentions, and perceived employability. We argue
that education's main objective is to disrupt precarious employment in the
educational sector and promote teaching innovations. Thus, a robust OTE is
expected to address all the core competencies of an online teacherpreneur. EI is
the second level to evaluate the impact of education. This assessment is based on
the learner's significant level of competencies acquired (Al Mamun, Nawi &
Shamsudin 2016). This is also subjected to several affective and attitudinal factors
(Liñán et al., 2011). Perceived employability skill is the final assessment used to
evaluate the perceived degree at which students can secure a job easily and
disrupt precarious employment. This conceptual model is similar to the model
developed for examining the impact of Entrepreneurship Education on
Entrepreneurial Competencies and Entrepreneurial Intentions (Draksler & Širec,
2018). This education is considered essential for both in-service and preservice
education. This is because of the emerging practice of online teacherpreneurship
among teachers (Shelton, 2018). Thus, it is possible that many prospective teachers
will, at some point in the future, explore professional usage of social media for
either collaborating or selling of ideas or instructional material (Carpenter et al.,
2020). However, the authors' primary concern on the practice is centered on the
possibility of some teachers to view their fellow teachers as potential clients rather
than as colleagues with whom they should be in solidarity and with whom they
could engage in collaborative action.
The development of entrepreneurship competency frameworks is critical to the

successful implementation of entrepreneurship education. Thus, we believe that
the starting point for successfully implementing online teacherpreneurship
education should be developing its competency framework. The justification of
the need to inculcate online teacherpreneurship education in preservice education
is similar to other reasons in several contexts (Whitty, 2000: Shelton &
Archambault, 2019). These include fostering teachers' professionalism (Whitty,
2000) and training of teachers so that they can meet the demand of 21st-century
challenges, which require the utilization of ICT and the mastery of special skills
(Trilling and Fadel (2009)) and supplement their income (Shelton & Archambault,
2019). For effective implementation, the competency framework
should operationalize and assess online teacherpreneurship skills (Chapman &
O'Neill, 2010). Thus, OTE needs to focus on the outcomes in terms of learners'
competencies rather than on program-specific information gains (Giangrande et
al., 2019).
Overall, the approach adopted in this study is more application-oriented and is

especially well known in the literature on training and development. It focuses on
identifying the competencies that are supposed to be added to EE, which can be
used to assess its effectiveness in the preservice teacher education program

181
(Gorman et al., 1997). It is also an approach that clarifies the importance of the
skills and knowledge necessary for entrepreneurial success and the psychological
traits that are appropriate for that purpose.
7. Conclusion
This study was designed to conceptualize a research model for studying the
impact of online teacherpreneurship education on students' teacherpreneural
competencies and intentions in preservice teacher education. This requires
developing a framework of competencies that online teacherpreneurs would
ideally possess. The framework is constructed with various strands of
competencies such as online teaching (Farmer & Ramsdale, 2016), instructional
design (Koszalka et al., 2013), entrepreneurship (Draksler & Širec, 2018), and
teacher leadership competence (Kho, Hamidah & Syed, 2015). This is integrated
into a teacherpreneural educational discourse by creating a model that
investigates its impact on students' learning outcomes in preservice education. A
significant finding is a conceptual development of how to study the impact
assessment of enterprise education among student-teachers in preservice teacher
education. This is a scholarly response to a call on the need to integrate online
teacherpreneurship education in preservice teacher education programs to help
aspiring educators leverage social media's learning affordances and mitigate its
challenges (Carpenter et al., 2020). It is the first study to construct a competency
framework for Online teacherpreneurship education. The proposed education has
important implications for reducing precarious employment and foster
innovation in the educational sector. Though the latest and comprehensive
competence frameworks were adopted, the framework is still generic and
therefore does not capture all context-specific of the compiled competencies. For
example, all existing competencies available in the literature from several contexts
were not considered while developing the proposed competence. Thus, this
compilation needs to be interpreted with caution when applying to a specific
context. Therefore, further empirical research would be required to demonstrate
real-world online teacherpreneurship practices to verify the practices of online
teacherpreneurs. This can be carried out by first developing and validating an
instrument aligned with learning-teaching settings and pedagogies that are most
suited to convey the competencies of online teacherpreneurship.
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Curriculum Structure and its Influence on

Content Knowledge of Economics Student
Teachers
Mothofela R Msimanga
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5858-7973
Abstract. This study explored how the curriculum structure of the

Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification at one South
African university impacts on content knowledge of economics student
teachers. Document analysis was undertaken on the university’s Faculty
of Education prospectus. Due to meetings restrictions during lockdown,
email focus group interviews were conducted. Ten fourth year economics
student teachers participated in the study. The study adopted social
transformation theory as a theoretical framework. Data was thematically
analysed. Data revealed that economics student teachers study the subject
content that is meant for economists and other economics related careers.
The subject content that is not relevant to school curriculum economics
negatively affects content knowledge needed during work-integrated
learning and in in their teaching career. For this reason, the curriculum is
unfairly structured. To strengthen the content knowledge of economics
student teachers, the study recommends that a relationship between
economics content in academic major modules and school curriculum
economics content be formed. Secondly, economics academic major
modules should expose economics student teachers to an introduction in
economics content as a way of advancing their subject content knowledge
but the focus should be more on school curriculum economics content.
Keywords: academic major modules; curriculum structure; subject

content knowledge; economics teaching; social transformation theory
1. Introduction
There has been a call in South Africa for the reintroduction of teachers training
colleges. The basis for the call follows from the claim that universities produce
teachers who are not ready to teach because they lack pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK). The aim of the study was to explore how the curriculum
structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification at one
South African university impacts on content knowledge of economics student
teachers. To achieve the aim of the study, the curriculum structure of the Bachelor
of Education in economics teaching qualification and its impact on content

191
knowledge of economics student teachers were examined. The study was

conducted at a South African university to investigate the relevancy of the content
presented in economics academic major modules to the content that student
teachers are expected to teach during work-integrated learning (WIL) and in their
teaching career. It also explored the implications of the Bachelor of Education in
economics teaching qualification curriculum structure on content knowledge of
economics student teachers. The study was guided by the following research
questions: How is the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification
structured? What is the relationship between the content presented in economics
academic major modules and school curriculum economics? What are the
implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching qualification
curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers? The
study will make a contribution by determining whether the Bachelor of Education
in economics teaching curriculum is structured in a manner that improves content
knowledge of economics student teachers and make necessary suggestions. The
findings and recommendations of the study might be used to structure the
curriculum in a manner that will improve content knowledge of student teachers.
2. Teacher education
Teacher education is the education that equips prospective teachers with skills,
knowledge, values, and behaviours required to effectively perform expected tasks
at schools and in the community (Mondal, Saha, & Baidya, 2015). It is professional
education that ensures teachers meet the needs of society in an efficient and
effective manner at any point in time (Osuji, 2009). It is based on policies and
procedures designed for such a purpose (Mondal et al., 2015). Teacher education
is offered formally or informally (Osuji, 2009), as pre-service education and
training for student teachers or in-service education and training for working
teachers (Katitia, 2015; Osuji, 2009). It aims at exposing pre-service and in-service
teachers to new ideas and practices which makes them better teachers (Katitia,
2015). According to Islam (2012), there are gaps in teacher education which lead
to inconsistencies. Such inconsistencies include teacher education being unable to
produce adequate numbers of quality teachers because they focus more on
meeting departmental prescriptions (Chisholm, 2009). The study conducted by
Bahr and Mellor (2016) found that in Australia the inconsistencies in teacher
education originate from the fact that teacher education programmes are highly
theoretical, impractical, and disconnected which leads to poor quality teaching,
whereas in South Africa, university education is very abstract and too theoretical
(Chisholm, 2009). Teacher education is a professional education offered to
prospective and in-service teachers to meet the needs of society. There are
inconsistencies in teacher education which need to be addressed to achieve the
purpose of teacher education and one of the inconsistencies is the quality of
teachers.
Chaka and Govender (2017) postulate that in Nigeria, colleges of education are
crucial in providing teacher education. There is a call in South Africa to re-open
teacher education colleges to overcome the challenge of teacher education that is
not producing quality teachers in adequate numbers (Chisholm, 2009). But,
Chisholm (2009) argues that re-opening of teacher education colleges is not the

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solution to the challenges because such calls are mainly against provision of
teacher education at higher education institutions, rather than improving teacher
education. The study conducted by Deacon (2016) found that there was no
problem if teacher education is provided by universities because they are able to
equip prospective teachers with pedagogical content knowledge. But, Mahabeer
(2018) argues that the teacher education curriculum which is currently offered at
higher education institutions is too theoretical and inconsistent with school
curriculum, thus, it supplies teachers of low quality (Thaba-Nkadimene, 2017).
This is also the perception in South Africa. Yet, there are also differing views on
this perception, thus this study looked into this matter.
3. Teacher education and quality of teaching and learning

Teacher education is expected to produce teachers who can improve the quality
of teaching and learning in schools (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). This can be
achieved when higher education institutions produce committed, professional,
and well-qualified teachers (Du Toit, 2011). There are concerns regarding poor
teacher education which produce low quality teachers who in turn offer low
quality of teaching and learning (Nomlomo & Sosibo, 2016). In congruence,
Mashau, Mutshaeni, and Kone (2016) state that there are challenges in South
African teacher education which amongst others include quality and relevancy of
teacher education. Therefore, teacher education should be reconceptualised to
address the concerns about the low quality of teachers which affect the quality of
teaching and learning (Mahabeer, 2018). This will help to produce quality
teachers, as quality of teaching and learning depends on quality of teachers (Osuji,
2009). In order to produce high quality teachers who can improve teaching and
learning at schools, teacher education programmes should be well-designed
(Thaba-Nkadimene, 2017). According to Vaillant and Manso (2013), there is no
problem with teacher education but the problem lies with the structure of teacher
education.
Curriculum enhances teaching and learning, therefore it should not be neglected

(Boughey, 2018). Although there is an idea that underperformance at schools is
caused by teacher education programmes which do not prepare student teachers
for their teaching job, there is no clear evidence that teacher education produces
low quality teachers and that generally, teachers do badly with regard to teaching
and learning (Bahr & Mellor, 2016). Poor performance at schools cannot be
attributed to poor quality education at higher education institutions because
secondary education performs poorly; additionally the tertiary education offered
in South Africa is among the best in the developing world (Mlachila & Moeletsi,
2019). The quality of teacher education is key to the quality of teachers and quality
of education. Different authors posit different views about the quality of teacher
education and some argue that there is no problem with the quality of teacher
education but the problem is with the structure of teacher education. Therefore,
this study based on social transformation theory explored the views of student
teachers on how the curriculum structure impacts their content knowledge.

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4. Initial Teacher Education in South Africa

In South Africa, higher education institutions provide initial teacher education
that prepares student teachers to work in schools (Bernstein, 2015). Bachelor of
Education and Postgraduate Certificate in Education qualifications are initial
teacher education qualifications offered by higher education institutions to
prospective beginner teachers for specialisation in a phase and/or subject
(Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2015). Bachelor of
Education is a four-year degree in which student teachers study to fulfil both
academic and professional requirements of a qualification (Bernstein, 2015). Its
programmes mirror the curriculum implemented at schools (Du Toit, 2011). The
primary purpose of Bachelor of Education is to equip graduates with knowledge
and skills which will enable them to be academically and professionally qualified
teachers, by providing a well-rounded education that includes subject content
knowledge, educational theory, and methodology (DHET, 2015). Bachelor of
Education programmes should respond to societal needs and address education
challenges (Du Toit, 2011). Bachelor of Education programmes include
pedagogical content knowledge, practical, fundamental, and situational
knowledge to achieve teacher effectiveness in the classrooms by acquiring and
applying different knowledges in a cohesive manner (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016).
The study focused on a four-year Bachelor of Education qualification for student
teachers following both academic and professional requirements at the same time
and specialising in economics teaching.
5. Bachelor of Education curriculum design and development

According to the DHET (2015), the Bachelor of Education curriculum is structured
in an integrated manner to include disciplinary learning, pedagogical learning,
practical learning, fundamental learning, and situational learning. In South
Africa, teacher education curriculum includes designs of teaching and learning
and development of pedagogical content knowledge (Nomlomo & Sosibo, 2016),
whereas, in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Finland, and Sweden, teacher
education curriculum is structured to include research, alternative qualifications,
and articulation between schools and universities (Vaillant & Manso, 2013). In the
United States, teacher education curriculum includes schools and society, reading
and writing, research, teaching practice (Chen & Mu, 2010), pedagogical content
knowledge, and authentic assessments that link theory and practice (Darling-
Hammond, 2006). In Singapore, teacher education includes amongst others school
curriculum syllabus and the use of teaching materials to integrate disciplines and
teaching (Chen & Mu, 2010). Based on the aforementioned assertions, teacher
education amongst others should articulate school curriculum.
Effectively developed curriculum should meet the current needs of the society
served (Alsubaie, 2016). But, Booi and Khuzwayo (2019) found that there were
gaps in curriculum structure, in what the curriculum structure expects from
teacher knowledge, and teacher education. Student teachers who obtain a teacher
qualification should be competent and effective when they apply content
knowledge (Du Toit, 2011). Teacher education curriculum should help teachers to
be able to continually access knowledge and carry investigations in their field of
work (Darling-Hammond, 2006). A study conducted by Booi and Khuzwayo

194
(2019) found that Bachelor of Education programmes in South African universities

encountered hardships in obtaining accreditation as they were not competently
developed. University academics were not well-equipped with curriculum design
and development skills and lacked expertise in this area.
Nomlomo and Sosibo (2016) recommend that stakeholders such as student
teachers, teachers, school principals, communities, and policy makers should
participate in teacher education curriculum design and development. Similarly,
involvement of teachers in curriculum development is key for achieving
effectiveness at schools (Alsubaie, 2016). Students’ involvement is also key in
curriculum design (Du Toit, 2011) to ensure that curriculum is student-focused
(Geduld & Sathorar, 2016). The study conducted by Sosibo (2012) found that
collaborations and networks between the university and the department of
education helps to ensure that the content taught in teacher education at
universities is relevant to school curriculum content. There are concerns that
teacher education curriculum was not well structured and had gaps. To ensure
that teacher education curriculum is well structured, involvement of student
teachers in curriculum development is recommended. Thus, student teachers
participated in the study to give their views of how teacher education curriculum
should be structured.
6. Teachers’ subject content knowledge

Subject content knowledge is the theoretical factual knowledge of the subject that
teachers need to demonstrate their competency in and the ability of teachers to
apply their subject competencies in different learning experiences (Du Toit, 2011).
It is an understanding of specific subject matter relevant to the subject (DHET,
2015). Subject matter knowledge includes theories, concepts, facts, and
procedures within the subject (Sosibo, 2012). In comparison to their peers, the
content knowledge of South African teachers is lower and that affects effective
teaching because teachers cannot teach what they do not know (Mlachila &
Moeletsi, 2019).
In a study conducted by Sosibo (2012), student teachers were also concerned about
their content knowledge because their academic major subject content was not
offered up to the fourth year level. This might be due to the credits allocated to
the subject content knowledge, as only 50% of teacher education qualification
credits focus on developing subject specialisation teaching (DHET, 2015). It is
important for subject content knowledge taught in teacher education programmes
to be relevant to the subject content taught at schools (Sosibo, 2012). This will help
to develop teachers who possess expert knowledge and expert skills (Kimathi &
Rusznyak, 2018). Subject content knowledge is key in teacher education and there
is a concern that content knowledge of South African teachers is low. This is
attributed to time spent studying subject content and irrelevancy of subject
content studied at universities when compared to the school subject content. The
study looked into how change can be brought about with regard to student
teachers’ content knowledge.

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7. Theoretical framework
The theoretical framework that guided this study is a social transformation theory
which is informed by the ideas of Habermas which promotes infusing social sense
by promoting critical reflection, critical learning, and discursive understanding
(Fleming, 2000). Social transformation is a necessary modification in the way
society is organised by questioning social patterns in order to reconfigure them
(Castles, 2010). It advocates for urgent attention required to address an identified
problem (Aboluwodi, 2015) to bring fundamental social change through social
processes (Dominic, 2011). Furthermore, social transformation is not specific on
what societal change should take place (Dominic, 2011) and does not take place
gradually or over a period of time (Khondker & Schuerkens, 2014). It is achieved
when there is a shift in individuals, organisations, and society’s orientation that
embraces new actions to achieve the results (Musa, Jimba, & Ogundele, 2015).
Historical and cultural patterns facilitate social transformation by developing
change and resistance agents (Castles, 2010). This leads to structural change of
culture at institutions (Machonin, 1996), as institutional and cultural changes are
incorporated in social transformation (Khondker & Schuerkens, 2014). From social
transformation theory, the study mainly focuses on critical reflection done by
student teachers on the curriculum structure and change that is needed if
identified in the curriculum structure.
According to Brissett (2018), education and school systems are probable catalysts
of transformation that support structural and individual change. Education is
indispensable in achieving positive societal transformation as it brings hope to
societies (Musa et al., 2015). Social transformation in education can be achieved if
change occurs at multiple levels (Brissett, 2018). Teachers are central to social
transformation in education as they transform learners by mediating between
learners and educational content (Musa et al., 2015). Educational curriculum helps
to promote transformation in education by challenging the old assumptions and
developing new assumptions when necessary (Bunduki & Higgs, 2017). When the
thought process of individuals is changed, social progress is driven (Sharma &
Monteiro, 2016). Aboluwodi (2015) identified inclusion of marginalised groups of
people and democratic culture as key aspects in achieving social transformation.
In this connection, teacher education is the catalyst of social transformation

because if it provides quality teachers, then they will be able to transform society
through learners. Curriculum structure is key for social transformation because if
the curriculum is well structured, it will provide teachers who will address the
needs of society. A real transformation in South African universities can be
achieved when students are involved in curriculum development, as involvement
of marginalised groups (students) in curriculum development can lead to real
social transformation. When the content knowledge of economics student
teachers is well developed, they will be able to teach the subject content in a better
way which will promote social transformation for economics learners.
8. Methodology and design

An interpretivist research paradigm was used in this study. The paradigm is
based on the assumption that reality is constructed through social interaction of

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individuals from different backgrounds and experiences in a wider social context

(Wahyuni, 2012). In this paradigm, the perceptions of the participants are used to
understand and interpret their viewpoints about the context (Kivunja & Kuyini,
2017). A qualitative research approach was used to understand the perspectives
of economics student teachers to discover the meaning given to the phenomena
studied, as Bricki and Green (2007) assert. The participants interacted to construct
knowledge by giving their viewpoint about the relevancy of economics academic
major modules content to school curriculum economics content and how the
curriculum structure of their teaching qualification influenced their content
knowledge.
Convenience and purposive sampling were used to identify participants who

understood the phenomena, were willing to participate, and available. According
to Simion (2016), convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling used to
select the participants who have a deep understanding of the phenomena studied
and are easy to access. Furthermore, purposive sampling is used to select
information-rich participants. The participants were 10 fourth year Bachelor of
Education in economics student teachers from a South African university. The
participants were selected from a target population of 24 economics student
teachers. According to Bricki and Green (2007), an effective focus group which
yields sustainable discussions is comprised of six to 10 participants. Thus, a
sample of 10 participants was sufficient for the focus group in this study.
Document analysis and email focus group interviews were used to generate data.
According to Mohajan (2018), qualitative research methods include amongst
others document analysis and interviews. Document analysis was used to get
information and understanding about the research context (Simion, 2016). The
university’s Faculty of Education prospectus was examined to get information
and understanding of the curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in
economics teaching qualification. To afford economics student teachers the
opportunity to give their viewpoints on the influence of curriculum structure on
their content knowledge, email focus group interviews were used. Email focus
group interviews were used instead of face-to-face focus group interviews
because of meeting restrictions put in place during the Coronavirus pandemic
period. A single email focus group interview which lasted for about two hours
was organised and conducted at a date and time when the participants were
available. On the set day and time participants had access to their emails and
internet connectivity. The researcher asked prompting questions and the
participants responded to all to ensure that other participants were able to see
what they had said and add on given responses when necessary. Participants gave
their views on the relevancy of the content presented in economics major modules
to the content that they should teach during WIL and in their teaching careers.
They were also asked about the implications of the Bachelor of Education in
economics teaching qualification curriculum structure on their content
knowledge.
Ethical clearance was granted by the Research Ethics Committee of the institution
where the study was conducted. Participants’ informed consent to participate was

197
sought before data generation and they were assured of confidentiality,

anonymity, voluntary participation, and voluntary withdrawal without any
explanation at any stage of the research process. Email focus group interviews
provided data for the study and the participants were asked to delete the text of
email focus group interviews at the end of the interaction process.
Data generated was thematically analysed to recognise emerging themes and

identify key emerging ideas (Mohajan, 2018). Themes that were relevant to the
research focus, research question, research context and the theoretical framework
were identified to make the findings, as asserted by (Roberts, Dowell & Nie, 2019).
The findings were described and interpreted to make meaning. According to
Korstjens and Moser (2018) trustworthiness in qualitative research is achieved
through credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability. Data was
transcribed verbatim, the findings and interpretations are based on original views
of the participants and university’s prospectus. Methodology used is described
and thick data is provided; the participants had an opportunity to confirm that
truthfulness of the findings. Transcripts are kept for verification of the findings
and recommendations by an independent person.
9. Findings
The following three findings were made based on the research question: the
structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching; the relevancy of
economics academic major modules content to school curriculum economics
content; the implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching
curriculum structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers. The
first finding is based on document analysis and the last two findings are based on
data generated during email focus group interviews.
The structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching

The university offers the Bachelor of Education Degree in Senior Phase and
Further Education and Training Phase (Grade 8-12). All the modules in the
programme are compulsory and completed over four years on full-time study
only. The qualification is aimed at producing professionally qualified teachers for
Senior and Further Education and Training phases of schooling. Student teachers
specialise in three specialisations which can be a combination of a Senior Phase,
Further Education and Training Phase, and a support role. The qualification is
organised through different domains namely: Humanities, Science and
Technology, Languages, and Business and Management. Economics teaching is
offered in the Business and Management studies domain. Below are the extracts
from the prospectus:
Duration of the programmes: 4 years full-time study only.
Curriculum (all modules are compulsory).
The purpose of the Bachelor of Education in Senior Phase (SP) and

Further Education and Training (FET) teaching is to deliver
professionally qualified beginner teachers for the Senior and FET phase of
schooling. This is done by providing student teachers with a well-rounded
education that equips them with specialised teaching competence in at

198
least three specialisations: (one SP subject and two FET subjects or one
SP subject, one FET subject and one support role).
Business and Management Studies, Accounting, Business Management

and Economics.
The curriculum includes subjects such as Education Studies, Teaching Studies,

Methodology and Practicum, Academic Majors, English as Language for
Teaching and Learning, and Academic Literacy for Education. The academic
majors are offered by other faculties and those faculties are fully responsible for
academic major modules. Academic majors are studied over two or three years.
Students’ content knowledge is developed through coursework and practicum as
they learn from practice, in practice, and from service. Student teachers are
responsible for teaching in their specialisation subject area during practice
teaching. This is supported by extracts below from the prospectus:
Students do the academic majors with other faculties … other faculties
take full responsibility for the modules.
Through integrating coursework at the University and practicum at

schools the Faculty creates learning opportunities for student-teachers to
acquire sound subject knowledge.
Teaching methodology and practicum are integrated. This implies that

students will engage in learning from practice, learning in practice and
learning from service, aiming at developing specialised pedagogical
content knowledge and teaching competence in each subject area.
During placement at schools, students will be required to take on teaching

responsibilities.
Student teachers content knowledge is developed in academic major modules and

teaching methodology and practicum modules help student teachers to teach the
content that they have acquired from academic major modules.
The relevancy of economics major modules content to school curriculum

economics content
The content taught in the first to the third year levels in economics academic major
modules is not relevant to the content that student teachers are expected to teach
at schools. Part of the content taught in the first year is relevant to school
curriculum economics. The content of economics academic major is more complex
and different from school curriculum economics. Economics academic major
modules are not efficient in strengthening the content knowledge of student
teachers for school curriculum economics. It does not prepare student teachers to
teach effectively during WIL and in their teaching career. These assertions are
supported by participants as follows:
“Economics taught in first year is more of a foundation of Economics
taught in Schools.”

199
“There are some similarities in first year, however they are very small.
Economics major is more depth and complex. Economics taught in high
school is completely different.”
“The content taught in the economics major and the economics content
we are to teach have some similarities which are only taught at first year
as an introduction to economics, however going forward the content
becomes different and more complex and this makes it challenging to teach
the economics content that you were not exposed to.”
“The economics major module is not as efficient in teaching us the content

that we teach in high school.”
“The content taught in Economics major differs a lot from the high school
content and as a result does not help equip student teachers for WIL or
for the start of their careers as teachers.”
“I believe that the relation of the Economics major to the Economics

content we have to teach from next year is only at a foundational level.”
Economics content in academic majors is relevant for students who are pursuing
careers in economics, finance, and other related careers, not for student teachers.
These modules are irrelevant to teaching career expectations but allow student
teachers who are not certain about their career choice to divert to economics and
other related degrees. The content is complex and for student teachers to be
competent in their career they are required to study school curriculum economics
content on their own to strengthen their content knowledge. This finding is
supported by assertions of the participants stated below:
“The biggest challenge becomes that the levels of complexity and detail in
the major are appropriate for those students who are following a career in
economics or finance. It becomes less appropriate for Bachelor of
Education candidates because it does not allow for simplicity, which is at
the centre of teaching such a complex subject at a high school level.”
“It is mainly significant for students who want to become economists,
data analysts, economic researchers and investment analysts because it
serves little purpose for students who will be teaching economics in high
school, as it does not teach them the relevant content that they will require
to teach in high school.”
“I agree with you … that the module gets irrelevant from that we're
supposed to teach at schools as it moves to the other years. But the study
builds on each aspect of the subject to an extent that it allows those certain
education students who are not certain the field to divert to other
Economics degrees.”
“As a student teacher the economics that I learnt from first year to the
third year did not help me understand the content I teach during my
work-integrated learning practical.”

200
“The effects of this curriculum structure are that the major meant to
prepare me as a teacher does little preparation and causes a student
teacher to have to re-learn economics content for high school in order to
be able to teach.”
The finding from this section is that the academic major module does not develop
the content knowledge of student teachers that is needed to teach school
curriculum economics.
The implications of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching curriculum

structure on content knowledge of economics student teachers
Student teachers have to dedicate more time to studying school curriculum
economics content because economics academic major modules do not prepare
them for teaching the subject content in high schools. Student teachers spend more
time learning school curriculum content and their content teaching is affected.
They find it difficult to teach the subject content because they are not well
prepared in school curriculum content and this creates a negative attitude
towards the subject. Students who could be good economics teachers end up not
specialising in the subject. The complexity of the content of economics academic
major modules creates a situation where students have to work backwards in
order to teach effectively and at times they confuse learners which can make them
lose interest in the subject. Student teachers find it difficult to perform well in tests
based on school curriculum content, and to teach the content properly during
micro lessons and WIL. Student teachers face these challenges even though they
have studied the subject content knowledge at different levels of their studies.
This finding came from participants’ views as indicated below:
“The content differs a lot and as a result, during WIL I have to dedicate
more time to learning the content myself rather than teaching which also
affects the way I interact with learners during Economics lesson.”
“This is negative towards the methodology because students end up not

taking economics as a major for their teaching career because of previous
students telling them their experiences and difficulties to understand how
it relates to high school work. Economics major is a barrier for students
who want to teach economics because being good with economics in high
school does not make you eligible to be able to qualify to teach it because
the economics in higher education is a completely different type of content
and application.”
“When I eventually went to my work integrated learning I realized that

the work we learn in the Economics Major is way more advanced than
what is learnt in economics for teaching in schools. I find that I have to
work backwards from Economics major to try to understand economics in
teaching.”
“This is evident in content tests we take in economics methodology, I

struggle to do well in those because I don't have the foundation needed to
partake in those but have a rather advanced level of knowledge learnt from

201
Economics major which I then have to try break down and get to the
answer required by the methodology test.”
“It is also time consuming because it needs Economics student teachers

to develop personal preparation strategies for content tests, micro lesson
presentations and WIL.”
“In terms of subject content knowledge as a student teacher you gain

content knowledge that is too complex to deliver for learners and may lead
you to become a confusing teacher because the level of complexity may
lead learners to fear the subject.”
Student teachers felt that the curriculum is unfairly structured because they study
complex subject content that is meant for other qualifications and is not relevant
to their career. The assumption in methodology modules that students have
studied the subject content in academic major modules is an unfair assumption.
Students are expected to juggle between two different economics subject contents.
They are frustrated as they are expected to move back and forth with the subject
content at different levels of complexities and study unnecessary content which
needlessly increases their workload. It is unfair for students to study and pay for
modules (academic majors) which do not contribute to their academic success and
careers by not developing their content knowledge as intended. An academic
major module which will focus on economics teaching is needed to strengthen
content knowledge of economics student teachers. The participants’ statements
below support the findings:
“It is not fair because the knowledge is so complex in a way that it ends
up making the Bachelor of Education degree to seem as difficult to obtain
with economics as a major. Another factor is that the major is fetched from
the school of economics were they focus on commerce career students and
not education. This is an unfair enrolment for the education students
because they are not catered for in the module. The faculty of Education
owes itself and future students an economics major which is constructed
by them. In order to ensure that the content required to be taught is known
by students.”
“It becomes very difficult at times because to move between the content
taught at the economics major and the economics that is to be taught at
schools. This is because most of the time I am exposed to the content taught
in the economics major which aims to equip you with the knowledge that
concerns economic activity its challenges and how to approach it. And
then when I have to teach the economics content that I have to teach I have
to go back to the basics first and look through it again which almost feels
like I'm studying the content that I have to teach. This is not fair for
student teachers because I feel like we are learning two different economics
content as and it becomes a lot of work to move from one content to
another.”
“I find that sometimes this complexity and broadened knowledge acts as

a barrier to being able to understand the economics subject knowledge in
the sense that you already know what happens beyond the specific concept

202
taught in schools from the economics major knowledge, making it a bit

harder to backtrack to where it all started. I think it leads to teachers
having difficulty breaking down and explaining simpler concepts to
learners as they become a bit more difficult for them as teachers to
interpret to.”
“Even for micro lesson presentations, a whole new engagement with

relevant documentation and textbooks is required and this is unfair
because it means we are paying for a module that does not directly link
with our academic success in most aspects of our degree.”
“During WIL, content tests and the micro lesson we find ourselves having
to dedicate time to learning the subject knowledge and trying to explain
it to ourselves and this is unfair because as a student-teacher you end up
having an attitude towards the methodology as you will feel like anything
that has to do with it requires more time and effort to complete it.”
“I constantly have to revisit the textbook to gain subject knowledge on the

content I have to teach. This puts a lot of pressure on me as I have to firstly
learn the subject knowledge on my own before I can teach it to high school
learners.”
“I had to revisit the textbook and watch YouTube videos to try and gain
more insight on how to teach the content of the lesson so that I can be able
to contextualise lessons to learners.”
The curriculum structure of the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is

not fairly designed because it does not help student teachers to master the content
knowledge they are expected to teach in schools.
10. Discussion
The Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is not a standalone qualification
but economics teaching is offered in the Bachelor of Education Senior and Further
Education and Training phase qualification. Economics teaching is offered over
four years in the Business and Management Studies field. All the modules are
compulsory and they focus on educational theory (Education Studies and
Teaching Studies), subject content knowledge (Academic Majors) and
methodology (Methodologies and Practicum). The qualification includes subject
content knowledge, as Katitia (2015) alludes that it is important for teachers to
understand and know the content of their specialisation subjects. The qualification
adheres to the prescripts of DHET (2015) for the Bachelor of Education
qualification as it includes disciplinary learning, pedagogical learning, practical
learning, fundamental learning, and situational learning which are addressed by
subject content knowledge, educational theory, and methodology. Content
knowledge of student teachers is developed through coursework in academic
majors offered at the university and practicum done at schools. Economics
student teachers have the option of specialising in economics and another Further
Education and Training subject or a support subject.

203
The economics academic major is offered in another faculty which is fully

responsible for the module. Based on this, the economics academic major does not
mirror the school curriculum, as suggested by Du Toit (2011), that academic
majors should mirror the curriculum implemented at schools. The content of
economics offered in another faculty is not relevant to the content in school
curriculum, as Sosibo (2012) highlights the importance of relevancy of the
academic major content offered at the university to the school curriculum content.
Student teachers can take economics as an academic major up to second year level
or third year level of study. Studying an academic major subject content up to
second year level can be a challenge because in a study conducted by Sosibo
(2012), there was a concern from the students that the academic major subject
content was not offered up to the fourth year level. The qualification is well-
structured but the subject content knowledge studied should be relevant to
economics content taught at schools. Students should spend more time studying
subject content to master subject content knowledge of their specialisation subject.
Document analysis findings were corroborated by the email focus group

interview’s findings that the content studied in academic major modules is not
relevant to the economics teaching qualification but relevant for economics and
related qualifications. Islam (2012) highlights that there are gaps in teacher
education. Chisholm (2009) and Thaba-Nkadimene (2017) indicate that these gaps
lead to producing poor quality teachers. Only part of the first year academic major
module relates to the school curriculum which student teachers are expected to
teach; this is corroborated by Mahabeer (2018), that teacher education curriculum
is incoherent to school curriculum. Economics content studied in academic major
modules does not strengthen student teachers’ content knowledge and this is
evidenced by their performance in content tests which are based on school
curriculum. Lack of content knowledge affects student teachers negatively when
they present micro lessons and teach during WIL, this in turn might affect them
in their teaching career. The significance of subject content knowledge for teachers
has been emphasised by Bernstein (2015) and Katitia (2015). Learners who are
taught by teachers who lack content knowledge do not perform well in that
specific subject.
The curriculum structure of academic major modules is unfair to student teachers

as it does not address the needs of their career; this is supported by Vaillant and
Manso (2013) when they indicate that curriculum structure of teacher education
is problematic. It is also not fair for student teachers to pay for modules which are
not relevant to their career. Student teachers spend more time studying the school
curriculum content on their own, whereas they have passed the modules which
were meant to prepare them in this regard. In this case, social transformation is
needed to ensure that actions undertaken lead to achievement of results (Musa et
al., 2015). This unfairness affects learners because learners who are taught by
teachers who are not competent in the subject content cannot perform well in the
subject and that affects social transformation. Brissett (2018) argues that education
is a probable catalyst of transformation which means learners can be transformed
through education. To overcome this unfairness and bring social transformation,
students should study academic major modules which are meant for economics

204
teachers to develop their content knowledge. This is supported by Alsubaie (2016)

when positing that an effectively designed curriculum should meet the needs of
the society it serves.
11. Recommendations
To achieve social transformation, the study recommends that economics teachers
should possess a good content knowledge which will help them to teach the
subject effectively. This can be achieved if the curriculum is well-structured. A
well-structured curriculum for economics teaching studied in economics
academic major modules should be related to school curriculum economics
content. Notwithstanding this, student teachers should be exposed to
introductory economics content to help them with advanced subject content but
more focus should be on school curriculum economics.
12. Limitations
The findings of this study cannot be generalised because the study was only
conducted in one university in a particular context. Further studies can include
more universities. Due to movement restrictions during the Coronavirus
pandemic period, data was collected by means of email focus group interviews
instead of face-to-face focus group interviews which could have shown the
reactions of participants during discussions.
13. Conclusion
To achieve social transformation, student teachers participated in an email focus
group interview to reflect on relevancy of the content studied in economics
academic major modules and its impact on their content knowledge. Student
teachers reflected on the curriculum structure and made inputs on how it needs
to be transformed to contribute in developing them for teaching during WIL and
in their teaching careers. This can be achieved when the curriculum structure of
the Bachelor of Education in economics teaching is changed to ensure that the
content of economics academic major modules is relevant to school curriculum
economics content. Curriculum which is properly and fairly structured is
important for realisation of social transformation. Curriculum can be regarded as
fairly structured when it affords economics student teachers an opportunity to
study the subject content intended for economics teachers. The findings of this
study can serve as a wake-up call for higher education institutions to check
whether their economics teaching qualification curriculum is fairly structured and
if not so, the institutions should gradually change their curriculum structure to
address the problem. This can partly contribute to the realising of social
transformation in higher education institutions and improve student teachers
content knowledge which in turn can improve economics teaching at schools. In
conclusion, the study managed to achieve its aim and objectives as stated in the
introductory section.

205
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208

Questions in English Medium Instruction

Undergraduate Lectures in a Sri Lankan
University: Why are they important?
Abdul Majeed Mohamed Navaz

South Eastern University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2042-652X
Abstract. Introduction of English Medium Instruction (EMI) is linked to

language development, mainly in countries where English is not the
mother tongue of the majority of the population. It is believed that
teacher questions that trigger teacher-student interaction, especially
dialogic interaction in an EMI classroom, can help students’ content and
language development. Hence, this study investigates the types of
questions lecturers ask, and the patterns of interaction developed in the
lecture deliveries in English Medium Instruction (EMI) undergraduate
lectures of a Sri Lankan university. It also looks into the underlying
reasons for such practices. Six lectures delivered by two lecturers were
recorded for this purpose and they were transcribed verbatim. The
lecture transcripts were analysed to find the questions lecturers asked
and the subsequent pattern of interactions developed. Interview with
lecturers informed the underlying reasons for the existing questioning
patterns. The majority of the questions asked by the lecturers were
rhetorical in nature, and only a limited number of non-rhetorical
questions, which could create meaningful interactional episodes of
dialogic nature, were found. This study enlightens that lecturers should
be trained to ask non-rhetorical questions in order to develop interaction
if the objectives of EMI are to be achieved.
Keywords: Teacher questions; English medium instruction; Teacher-

student interaction; Dialogic interaction
1. Introduction
English Medium Instruction (EMI) can be defined as a method which uses
English to teach academic subjects in countries where English is used as a
second or foreign language. That is, the first language of the majority of the
population in those countries is not English (Macaro, Curle, Pun, An & Dearden,
2018). EMI is, in different contexts, closely identified with different names;
“Bilingualism”, “Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)”, or
“Immersion programmes”. Macaro et al. (2018) elaborate that in North America

209
the form of teaching through English or another language is sometimes called

“immersion", “content-based learning”, “content-based language learning”, or
“content-based language education”. In Europe, generally, it is prominent in the
name of “CLIL”, “integrating content and language in higher education” or
“English-taught programmes”.
EMI has grown globally in all phases of education and educational settings
(Dearden, 2015; Macaro et al., 2018). Many countries in Europe and Asia have
switched to EMI for various reasons. In Sri Lanka, the main reason for
implementing EMI is said to be expanding employment opportunities since the
government sector cannot accommodate all the graduates into its system, and
therefore, urges the graduates to seek employment from the private sector, for
which it is generally assumed that English language proficiency is a necessity.
For the same reason, Sri Lanka’s major donor agency, the World Bank, is keen on
introducing EMI in secondary and tertiary levels of education. Moreover, the
University Grants Commission (UGC) of Sri Lanka has very recently requested
the universities to switch to EMI for external degree students too (University
Grants Commission (UGC), Circular number, 01/2021 of 15 January 2021).
EMI is used in tertiary institutions in Sri Lanka to teach different
subjects/courses to undergraduate and postgraduate students, while L1
instruction is also widely available for courses, especially in the Arts and
Humanities stream (Navaz, 2012). All universities have a mandate to develop
the English language competency of the students by means of teaching them
through the medium of English. EMI was introduced in tertiary sector from the
inception of the undergraduate studies, especially in STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Medicine) related courses in the early 1940s and
later it was expanded to Management and Humanities too. Individual
universities decide on the medium of instruction of courses in humanities but, in
general, for the courses in STEM there is no choice in any Sri Lankan universities
and the courses are held entirely in English.
The objective of introducing English medium instruction in Sri Lanka is said to
enhance the students’ language proficiency by getting them immersed in the
learning situations through the medium of English. Nevertheless, the
researcher’s experience in the Faculty of Science (referred to as FS), where the
study was conducted, informs that students after studying a degree in EMI for
three to four years, in the case of a general degree or a degree with specialization
respectively, have not reached the required language competency when they
graduate. For example, in the year 2018, out of 97 second year students who sat
for the second year second semester English Language examination, around 20%
failed. Even though students are exposed to limited hours of English as a Second
Language (ESL) programmes, 120 hours for two years, they spend nearly 1000
hours a year in their EMI programme, which usually lasts for three years for a
general degree programme.
One of the reasons that could be linked to poor language proficiency of the
students who studied in EMI is connected to the lack of opportunities given in
lectures for the students to use the target language. According to Swain’s (1985;
1995) output hypothesis, opportunities given to ESL (English as a Second
Language) learners to practise the language are important for language

210
development. This is similar to the view of sociocultural (Vygotsky, 1978) and

social constructivist perspectives which propose that interaction can enhance
students’ cognitive development (both content and language) (Mercer, 1995).
Social constructivists (Mercer, 1995; Staarman & Mercer, 2010) argue that
teacher-student interaction is important for learning in the classroom. Further,
interaction is necessary for creating a suitable learning environment that
promotes learners’ language and content development (Hall & Verplaetse, 2000).
For learning the content and developing the language knowledge of the students
through EMI, lecturers should provide opportunities for students to involve in
interaction with lecturers throughout the lecture. This could be achieved, in the
study context, by way of asking questions and answering questions. Generally,
in the EMI classes in Sri Lanka, the focus is to convey the content abruptly
without due consideration for language. As a result, it can be assumed that the
intended outcome of language development has become a question. In Sri
Lanka, each year around 20,000 students are admitted into different EMI courses
out of just over 30,000 annual intakes into different universities. Hence,
employment opportunities at the private sectors are highly limited for the
graduates, and lack of language proficiency of the graduates has been
considered an important reason for this unemployment issue.
One of the objectives of introducing EMI in Sri Lanka is language development
that it becomes imperative to assess the outcome of EMI. Macaro et al. (2018)
consider that more research is needed to find evidence to prove that EMI is
useful for language improvement and content learning. However, no previous
studies have been carried out in Sri Lanka with regard to measuring the
effectiveness of EMI in developing language proficiency, except for the studies
conducted by the present researcher on the perception of students in the EMI
classes (Navaz, 2013) and on developing a framework for analysing lecture
discourse (Navaz, 2012; 2020). The studies that were undertaken outside Sri
Lanka have focused on the policy level changes and the perception of teachers
and students in learning through EMI (Macaro, et al., 2018; Ekoç, 2020; Xie &
Curle, 2020). Only a few studies have ventured into the discourse level details
(Hu & Duan, 2018; Macaro, 2020; Martín del Pozo, 2017). Hence, the questions
lecturers ask in tertiary level content classes are not much investigated in Asian
countries. Therefore, this study arises from the argument that teacher questions
are important in ESL content classes for developing the language competency
through lecturer-student interaction.
At the backdrop that studies have rarely been conducted in Sri Lankan tertiary
or secondary level classes concerning the teacher questions or teacher-student
interaction, this study is considered important. Moreover, the EMI has been
implemented in Sri Lanka as well as Asia without due consideration for
measuring its perceived benefits of language and content development.
Therefore, this study looks into, at a small scale, if the EMI lectures are
favourable for students’ language development at a faculty of a Sri Lankan
university. For this purpose, a few number of lectures were analysed to identify
the discourse level details – questions lecturers ask and the kinds of interaction
those questions develop in the classroom.

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Hence, this study will have the following research questions:

1.1 Research questions
1. What types of questions do lecturers ask in EMI science classes?
2. What types of interactional episodes are developed in the lecture discourse?
3. What are the underlying reasons for the present questioning behaviours and
what suggestions could be made to improve the outcomes of EMI?
2. Literature review
At the bottom of the argument that teacher-student interaction initiated by
teacher questions can be helpful for language as well as content development in
the EMI contexts, this review is focused initially towards teacher questions and
their importance. Then the review is carried out to show the importance of
interaction in content classes, especially the literature showing the influence of
EMI on language development, in general, is reviewed. Besides, the studies that
investigated the influence of interaction on language development are also
touched on.
2.1 Questions
2.1.1 Importance of questions
The importance of questions in tertiary level EMI has been poorly researched
(Chang, 2012; DaFouz & Sánchez-García, 2013). Some of those studies that
stressed the use of questions in academic lectures are of Crawford Camiciottoli
(2008), Csomay (2002), Fortanet (2004) and Morell (2004). These researchers
looked at the discourse features present in academic lectures. Recently, attention
has been given to EMI classes for investigating questions for their ability to
generate interaction. Sánchez-García (2010) explains that questions are the key
tools in generating interaction in lectures.
Marton and Tsui (2004) claim that interaction gets momentum through the use
of questions while Hu and Li (2017) assert that teacher questions play a key role
in activating students’ content schemata, scaffolding learning activities, and
facilitating concept development while bringing the language development.
They describe that EMI aims to meet two goals – subject learning and English
proficiency. Hu and Li (2017) stress that teacher-student interaction initiated
through teacher questions provide opportunities for students to “engage in the
extended receptive and productive use of English to develop their competence
in the language” (p. 186). In addition, Chang (2012) elaborates that question has
long been recognized as an important interactional device employed by teachers
to activate and facilitate teaching and learning processes.
2.1.2 Types of questions
In any classroom, the most common types of questions are ‘closed’ and ‘open-
ended’ and ‘display’ and ‘referential’ questions (Brock, 1986; Chaudron, 1988).
Closed-ended questions usually bring ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answers, while open-ended
questions pave way for longer responses. Display questions warrant an answer
which is already known to the questioner, usually the teacher, while referential
questions request information from the respondents which is not known to the
teacher (Brock, 1986).

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Research on the questions teachers ask shows that about 60 percent require only
recall of facts, 20 percent require students to think, and 20 percent are procedural
in nature (Blosser, 1975). Blosser proposes among others a category called
probing questions. This category of questions is important because it has several
functions and that students can be encouraged to interact at a deeper level.
2.1.3 Questions in EMI classes
In Sri Lankan secondary or tertiary level EMI classes, research on teacher
questions was rarely conducted. The present researcher in previous studies
(Navaz, 2012; 2020) on discourse analysis categorised the questions into four
novel categories which are described later in the methods section. In the absence
of studies in the Sri Lankan context, the review is focused on other EMI contexts
where English is used as a second language of the learners.
Morell (2004) identified four types of questions in EMI lectures. They are
display, referential, rhetorical and indirect questions. Her rhetorical questions do
not warrant a response from the students, while the indirect questions are
similar to classroom management questions which require a response not
necessarily verbal (as cited in Navaz, 2012). Morell (2004) in a similar vein
argues that referential questions, which are open-ended, bring more
contributions from students. However, the common finding is that in lectures
mostly display questions are asked.
In a study conducted at the South Korean university among the engineering
undergraduates, Choi, Tatar and Kim (2014) found that the authentic questions
asked by the lecturers had brought many different answers from the students
and also motivated them to answer the questions which in turn enhanced their
communication skills. Further to this, DaFouz and Sánchez-García (2013)
identified in Spanish EMI lectures that lectures across different disciplines
contained more display questions and also they concluded that when more
teacher questions were asked, student answers also increased.
In another study in two Chinese universities, Hu and Li (2017) revealed that
irrespective of the instructional medium in EMI classes, the majority of the
questions are lower-order questions. They had categorized the questions
according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revision of Bloom’s taxonomy.
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised taxonomy of educational objectives
includes categories such as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate and
create.
Larson and Lovelace (2013) also used this revised taxonomy and identified
questions in science lectures of a public university in the USA. To simplify the
analysis, they grouped questions into two major categories based on their
cognitive level (lower-order thinking: remember and understand; higher-order
thinking: apply, analyze, evaluate and create). The findings revealed that most
questions asked by instructors did not require higher-order thinking skills to
develop a response, and the majority of the questions were rooted in the
remembering and understanding levels of Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
In a study in a CLIL setting at secondary school content classes by Llinares and
Pascual Peña (2015), teachers asked more fact questions. Their analysis was

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based on Dalton-Puffer’s (2007) classification of academic questions that include

questions for facts, questions for explanation, questions for reasons, questions
for opinion and meta-cognitive questions. Llinares and Pascual Peña (2015)
pointed out that “higher-order questions or complex questions will contribute
both to engaging students to use complex structures and to promoting more
engagement with the academic content and deeper learning” (p. 18). This claim
was already established by other researchers who corroborated this view by
stating that complex questions tend to trigger complex students’ answers (see
Dalton-Puffer, 2007; Nassaji & Wells, 2000). It is also asserted that the linguistic
complexity of teacher-student interaction is important because it provides
opportunities for students to listen to, process and produce language and
develop their competence in the language.
Despite the importance of higher-order questions, Hu and Duan’s (2018) study
among 20 Chinese universities revealed that the majority of teacher questions
and student responses were cognitively and linguistically simple. As a result of
the study, the researchers are sceptical that EMI would achieve its dual goals of
facilitating students’ subject learning and improving their English proficiency
envisioned by policymakers.
Hence, it is the common criticism that in content classes teachers ask fact-based
inquiries instead of asking questions that engage in higher-order processes
(Larson & Lovelace, 2013). Similarly, in Sri Lanka, the common criticism is that
teacher questions are mostly of display type or rhetorical in nature even though
no any reported studies are available except the studies on discourse analysis by
the present researcher (Navaz, 2012; 2020). Hence, it becomes necessary to
investigate the existing situation before a meaningful conclusion or
recommendations are made with regard to the possibilities of language learning
in EMI classes in Sri Lanka. At this backdrop, this study investigates the types of
questions asked by the lecturers in science based undergraduate lectures in a
small faculty of a Sri Lankan university with the assumption that interactions
initiated through teachers’ questions could help learners with their language
development. At the next stage, the review is focused on the importance of
interaction for language development with an emphasis on how the EMI
lectures influence language development.
2.2 Interaction
The sociocultural theory proposed by Vygotsky (1978) stipulates that interaction
between teacher and learner is important for learning in L1 or L2 classrooms
(Mercer, 2001). Similarly, social constructivists (e.g. Mercer, 1995; Staarman &
Mercer, 2010) claim that teacher initiated interactions are important for learning
in which teacher has an important role in ensuring the construction, acquisition
and transmission of knowledge. Moreover, Walsh (2011) considers that
classroom interaction is important for students’ language development and such
interaction should be paid attention. Many researchers (Gibbons, 2015; Gupta &
Lee, 2015; Haneda, 2005; Haneda & Wells, 2010) believe that the academic skills,
as well as second language of the ESL learners, can be developed through
interaction. Thus, more evidence is being found that interaction favours
students’ content knowledge and their English language proficiency (Georgiou,
2012; Stoller, 2004).

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Interaction in the classroom is generally considered a dialogue between the

teacher and students. Recently, the dialogic interaction which is a variant of
interaction has come into the teaching arena. Generally, the interaction between
the teacher and students can be of two types: Dialogic and Non-dialogic, the
latter is also known as authoritative. In dialogic interaction, the teacher and
students explore ideas together and also generate new meaning. Dialogic
interaction acknowledges multiple voices in the classroom (Matusov, 2009) as
teachers ask students their views regarding the topic or phenomenon under
discussion (Scott, Mortimer & Aguiar, 2006). Dialogic interaction, at this point,
can be defined simply as a mutual dialogue that takes place between the teacher
and students. In other words, it is an interaction in which both the teacher and
students mutually contribute to the discourse with a view to exploring or
developing a concept in a lesson (Navaz, 2020). The questions asked in dialogic
interactions are non-rhetorical and the teacher cannot predict what responses
students would give. The term ‘dialogic teaching’ was introduced by Alexander
(2006) as a teaching approach and previously had gained attention as dialogic
discourse based on the research of Scott et al. (2006).
2.2.1 EMI and language learning
With an understanding that interaction is important for language learning,
studies in EMI context tried to investigate the influence of EMI on language
learning (Hernandez-Nanclares & Jimenez-Munoz, 2015; Humphreys &
Mousavi, 2010; O’Loughlin & Arkoudis, 2009; Rogier, 2012).
Rogier (2012) investigated the students in universities in UAE after four years
being in the EMI programme and found that there was a statistically significant
improvement in all four of the English-language skill areas that are tested by the
IELTS exam. The most development occurred in the area of speaking, followed
by reading, writing and listening. On the other hand, in the study conducted by
O’Loughlin and Arkoudis (2009), greater improvement was found for listening
and reading skills and the least average improvement was in writing skill.
However, studies that tried to investigate the effect of EMI on the language
proficiency of the students took place mainly in study abroad contexts where
students were learning along with the native speakers. Therefore, the
assumption that EMI would develop language instantaneously has been subject
to scrutiny. Several recent studies have come out with a conclusion that the
effect of EMI would not reach the students as enhanced language proficiency
because of various reasons such as the method of lecture delivery, students’
language proficiency, lecturers’ language proficiency, etc. (Lei & Hu, 2014).
Chapple (2015) states that “the idea that merely taking a content class taught in
English will lead to substantial linguistic gains is dubious” (p. 4). Among other
reasons, the level of English language proficiency students possess becomes
prominent in his study. He argues that students with poor language proficiency
struggle to follow the course and language learning becomes a question.
Hu and Duan (2018) argue, as a result of a study in a Chinese university, that the
present question and answer sequence would not help achieve the goals of
subject learning and improving language proficiency. They dictate that teacher
training is necessary to train the teachers to use higher-order questions in
classes. The training should focus on interactional strategies so that EMI teachers

215
could encourage the students for interactions. The same view was echoed by
Ament and Pérez-Vidal (2015) and Sánchez-García (2018) that language
awareness should be brought to the content teachers in EMI classes.
Despite the fact that interaction in content classes could develop language has
been a well-established assertion in primary and secondary level classes (Dong,
2002; Gibbons, 2003; Haneda, 2005; Haneda & Wells, 2010), studies are yet to be
conducted at tertiary level EMI classes where students learn in ESL or EFL
contexts. Of the few available studies that investigated interaction and language
learning in tertiary level EMI classes, Morell (2004) at the University of Alicante
found that the lectures which were identified as interactive were found to be
promoting learning and communication. Kumar (2003), in another study at B. P.
Koirala Institute of Health Sciences in Nepal, experimented with interactive
lectures along with the traditional lectures of monologic nature. Students who
participated in the interactive lectures positively evaluated the lecture for their
enhanced communication skills, though several methodological drawbacks were
found in this study (see Navaz, 2012 for a review).
With the fact that only a limited number of studies have investigated that
interaction influence language learning, this study investigates the questions
and interactions developed in the EMI lectures as a preliminary step for
investigating the influence of EMI on language learning in Sri Lanka. Hence, the
following methodology was adopted.
3. Method
3.1 Research site and participants
The study was conducted at the Faculty of Science (FS) of a Sri Lankan
university, which is one of the sixteen universities in Sri Lanka. The Faculty of
Science is a small faculty with an annual intake of fewer than 200 students
admitted to Bachelor of Biological Science or Mathematics degrees. This study
was a follow-up of the researcher’s doctoral study and subsequent work (Navaz,
2012; 2020) which developed a framework for analysing lecture discourse in the
same faculty.
This study was based on the discourse analysis approach and mostly belonged
to qualitative orientation. The data for this study came from the lecture
discourse of six lectures delivered by two lecturers from Biology and
Mathematics streams. In selecting the lecturers, a convenient sampling method
was used, as only the senior lecturers who taught the second year students were
considered for the study.
In the faculty, there were 12 senior academic staff members attached to the three
departments: Biology, Mathematics and Chemistry at the time of data collection.
Initial approval was obtained from the dean of the faculty and she informed the
three heads of the departments, asking them to inform the staff to volunteer for
the study. For this study, out of the four senior lecturers, who were approached,
two of them consented to be observed and their lectures to be recorded.
For the present study, the informed consent was obtained from the two lecturers
while the students were explained the purpose of the study by the researcher.
Formal research ethical bodies were yet to be established in the university. The

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details of the lecturers who participated in the study are given in Table 1. The
lecturers were identified as BL and ML for Biology and Mathematics
respectively. Both of them had teaching experience in EMI classes for around 10
years at the time of data collection, while their educational qualifications varied.
Table 1. Lecturers’ background information
Lecturer Sex Age Degree EMI Course Teaching Experience in
Years
BL F 35–40 Mphil in Biology Animal Physiology 13

ML M 30-35 PhD in Physics Electricity 10
The population of the faculty is just over 500 students at any year. In the faculty,
Tamil and Sinhala are the students’ mother tongue. Their language proficiency
was elementary to pre-intermediate according to the CEFR (The Common
European Framework of Reference for Languages) at the time of their entry to
the faculty. The student participants of the study belonged to two second year
classes in Mathematics and Biology related subjects, taught by the two lecturers.
Their numbers were 30 and 25 respectively. They all followed a general degree
programme in Science and the duration of the degree is three years. The
selection of students was dependent on the classes taught by the lecturers and
therefore could be treated as convenient samples.
3.2 Data collection and analysis
Three lectures of each lecturer, each an hour of duration, were recorded using a
voice recorder which the lecturers carried with them. The lectures were
identified as M1, M2, M3 and B1, B2 and B3 for Mathematics and Biology
lectures respectively. The researcher was present in the lectures sitting at the
back of the classroom to avoid unusual behaviours of the students. The lectures
were recorded during the middle of the semester. The recorded lectures were
transcribed verbatim and analysed manually looking for questions. The teacher
questions of all types were identified at the first stage. Following Hu and Li
(2017) and Hu and Duan (2018), any utterance identified as interrogative,
imperative, or declarative which elicited a verbal response was considered a
question. In addition, an unanswered utterance of the same type with lecturers’
wait-time was also considered a question. Then at the next stage, those questions
that built into interactional exchanges1 or episodes2 were considered non-
rhetorical questions irrespective of the length of the exchanges. In addition, the
lecturers had given a wait-time of around five seconds minimum for a non-
rhetorical question and all of them were answered by the students in this study.
All the others were treated as rhetorical questions which did not bring students’
answers. The lecturers answered the questions themselves or just passed on.
A colleague of the researcher assisted in the identification of questions. These
questions that initiated interactions were categorised into two types: Concept
Development Questions and Knowledge Testing Questions. Further explanation
of these question types are given below. In addition, the two lecturers were
1
Question-answer-feedback/evaluation is known as an exchange. Usually a teacher question, student response and teacher
feedback (e.g. can you explain further) or evaluation (e.g good)
2
One or several exchanges that occur at one point in a lecture make an episode.

217
requested to reflect on their own lecture delivery and asked about the reasons
for teacher questioning patterns and also other related information.
3.3 Developing an identification system for lecturers’ questions
Initially, questions were classified as rhetorical and non-rhetorical questions. In
the observed lectures, lecturers asked many questions and answered themselves
or did not expect any answer from the students. These types of questions are
known as rhetorical and the opposite is non-rhetorical. The latter type of
questions was developed into either interactional exchanges and or interactional
episodes. The number of rhetorical and non-rhetorical questions was counted in
the observed lectures.
At the next stage, questions were categorised into two novel categories. This
categorisation of questions is based on the previous study by the researcher
(Navaz, 2012). In the previous study, the researcher had categorised the
questions into four types. They were (i) Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs):
they test the memory of the students and include both rhetorical and non-
rhetorical questions and are explained further below; (ii) Knowledge
Application Questions (KAQs): these questions test on how the knowledge or
theory is applied in a practical situation; (iii) Concept Development Questions
(CDQs): they are important type of questions which helps develop a lesson, as
explained below; (iv) Classroom Management Questions (CMQs): they are not
connected with the lesson but they deal with management and organisation of
lessons and other academic activities like submitting assignments, arranging a
practical class, etc. They are similar to the classroom procedural questions. e. g.
Did you submit the assignment?
In the present study, unlike the four categories in the previous study, the
researcher identified two categories only: KTQs and CDQs. The reason for
making two categories is based on the analysis in the previous study (Navaz,
2012). There were not many questions in the category of CMQs, out of the 12
lecture discourse of one-hour duration each was analysed, there were only 3
CMQs. Further, KAQs are similar to the KTQs and can be put together.
Therefore, in the present study, the questions were categorised into two. 1.
Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs) and (2) Concept Development Questions
(CDQs). Each of these categories is explained below. In the process of
identification of these questions, to check the reliability of the categories, the
assistance of a junior colleague of the researcher was obtained. She was
explained the categories and asked to identify the questions from the lecture
discourse. The categories identified were compared with the researcher for
consistency. As there were only two categories to identify, there was not much
difficulty in identifying the question types.
When these two categories (KTQs and CDQs) are compared with Anderson and
Krathwohl’s (2001) Bloom’s revised taxonomy of educational objectives that
include the categories such as remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate
and create, the KTQs cover the first three categories, while the CDQs cover
analyse, evaluate and create.

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3.3.1 Concept Development Questions (CDQs)

The importance of this question type comes from the value of the interactional
episodes they are able to generate. When teachers ask questions which involve
students to analyse a situation, evaluate a point or create or develop a concept,
students can develop longer interactional episodes which are useful in terms of
understanding a concept. Hence, as this question type helps the teacher and
students involve in co-constructing the lesson and developing interactional
episodes, the questions of this type support the students to practise the language
and develop language further. These questions are similar to open-ended
referential questions and also similar to Bloom’s synthesis questions.
e.g. You know anything about PCR technique? (..) What do you know? (From
Biology lecture)
These questions are asked by the lecturers as open-ended questions to get
different views of the students in order to develop a particular concept or a
theme. “The teacher asks conceptual questions to elicit students’ ideas and
facilitate productive thinking, invites and welcomes students’ responses and
questions […]” (Chin, 2007, p. 817). Also, it is believed that during guided
discussions, teachers primarily ask conceptual questions to elicit student
thinking (van Zee, Iwasyk, Kurose, Simpson & Wild, 2001).
3.3.2 Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs)
Within the scope of this study, questions that test students’ (i) ability to
remember, (ii) understand and (iii) apply are included into KTQs. These three
parameters are the lower levels of Anderson and Krathwohl’s revised taxonomy
of educational objectives. The following questions identified in the discourse
collected can be given as examples:
(i) Ability to remember: when the teacher asks a factual recall question: e.g. Can you
remember from the molecular genetics what (is) central dogma? (From Biology lecture)
(ii) Understand: check their understanding of the ongoing lesson: e.g. What is Biology?
(From Biology lecture)
(iii) Apply: apply the theory they learnt: e.g. Now let us take the half cycle to find the I
average. Ok I average the second way to find the I average is equal to you know that how to -
zero to t ‘ov’ by two –er what is that -I₀ sine omega t over zero to t by two dt. Right? Can you
workout? The same way? (..)). (From Mathematics lecture).
These questions are similar to display questions and require short answers and
are similar to factual recall questions, which ask the students to name, identify,
recall, define, etc., and the emphasis is on memory or observation (Ellis, 1993).
4. Findings
In the sub-sections that follow, the research findings are presented in accordance
with the research questions.
4.1. What types of questions do lecturers (or students) ask?
The careful analysis of the six lecture discourse exposed that the most
predominant questions asked by the lecturers were rhetorical in nature.
Lecturers did not expect the answer from the students when they ask this type of
questions. Nor did they give a wait-time for them to answer. Lecturers asked

219
these questions and answered themselves or went on continuing the lecture. In

addition to plenty of rhetorical questions, there were a few non-rhetorical
questions too. These questions initiated teacher-student interaction and
developed into interactional episodes. Hence, they were categorised using the
two types of questions that are used in this study. Across all six lectures, there
were only around 31 non-rhetorical questions compared to 590 rhetorical
questions as shown in Table 2.
The observation revealed whenever the lecturers wanted to get an answer from
the students, they adopted some strategies. Those strategies were giving
adequate wait-time, repeating the questions, naming the student, etc. When the
lecturers gave enough wait-time, students tended to answer them. Students’
answers were limited to two to three words per utterance generally but in
observed mathematics lecture, they were longer.
Table 2. Types of questions across the lectures
Lectures No. of Non- No. of Rhetorical Types of
Rhetorical Questions Non-
Questions (that Rhetorical
developed Questions
Episodes)
Mathematics – Lecture 1 (M 1) 7 111 7 KTQs

Biology – Lecture 1 (B 1) 3 65 3 KTQs
Biology – Lecture 2 (B 2) 7 80 7 KTQs

Biology – Lecture 3 (B 3) 5 125 4 KTQs;
1 CDQ
Total 31 590 30 KTQs;
1 CDQ
4.1.1 Types of non-rhetorical questions

The non-rhetorical questions that initiated interactional exchanges were
identified from the lecture discourse. The questions lecturers asked in this type
were mostly Knowledge Testing Questions (KTQs). Most of the time, these
questions were asked to check students’ memory, comprehension of the content
matter and to apply the theory. The last one occurred, especially in mathematics
lectures. The lecturer asked the students to apply the theory learnt in a novel
situation and also for deriving equations. These functions are related to
Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001) revised taxonomy of educational objectives, as
mentioned earlier. The number of KTQs were 30 across the lectures, while there
was only one Concept Development Question (CDQ), which is believed to be
contributing to the development of the conceptual knowledge of the students
(Yip, 2004) found in the observed lectures. Table 3 indicates these numbers.
Table 3. Types of non-rhetorical questions across all 6 lectures
Types of questions initiated the Number
interaction
KTQs 30
CDQs 1
Total 31

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Examples for different questions can be found with the interactional episodes in
the next section. When the questions that built on interactional episodes across
the streams of biology and mathematics were identified, there was no difference
in the number of questions asked across the lectures. In both lectures, 15 and 16
questions were found respectively, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Total number of questions that developed interactional episodes across the
two streams
Stream Total number of Types of questions
questions
Biology Lectures 1, 2 & 3 15 14 KTQs, 1 CDQ
Mathematics Lectures 1, 2 & 3 16 16 KTQs
4.2. What types of interactional episodes are developed?

The analysis of questions informed that lecturers asked more rhetorical
questions and a few non-rhetorical questions. Hence, all the questions did not
lead to interactional episodes. It was found that only non-rhetorical questions
built into interactional episodes. In this study, it is considered that CDQs led to
Concept Development Episodes (CDEs) and KTQs made Knowledge Testing
Episodes (KTEs). That is, the KTEs were developed as a result of lecturers asking
KTQs.
In the analysed lectures, there was more number of KTEs across the lectures
compared to the CDEs of which only one was found. The CDEs are important
for language development because CDEs involve students in expressing their
thoughts and enhance students’ creativity. Further, the basic consideration is
that for a lecture to be dialogic, it should have interactional episodes of the
concept development category. Concept Development Episodes (CDEs), in
comparison, have the potential to incorporate the students’ views into
knowledge building. Compared to the other type of episode, CDEs give students
opportunities to create longer utterances in meaningful communication. In the
examples below, in the first episode (4.2.1), the lecturer asks non-rhetorical
question and students try to answer from their own perception. This is in
contrast to the episode given under KTE (4.2.2) in which the lecturer asks the
students questions to be answered from their memory of previous lessons.
4.2.1 Example for CDE- Biology Lecture 3
The episode below is taken from the Biology lecture 3 where the lecturer gives
enough wait-time (..) and in addition repeats the questions in order to get the
answer from the students. These two strategies are important for making
students involve in interaction. In this episode, the lecturer asks a non-rhetorical
question and expects an answer from the students. Even though students’
answers are shorter, the lecturer and students build the concept “PCR
technique” and therefore this episode can be considered a CDE. The
transcription conventions for the episodes are given in the footnote.3
3
T- lecturer, M1, M2… - male students, F1, F2 – female students, (..) wait-time/ long pause
lasting 2-6 seconds.

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T: You know anything about PCR technique? (..) What do you know?
M2: ((inaudible answer))
T: You can talk louder
M2: New DNA synthesis
T: New DNA synthesis. PCR is a new DNA synthesis. What else do you know?
M3: Artificial DNA replication.
T: Artificial DNA replication. (.) OK. From this side.
F8: Three steps in PCR techniques
T: From
F8: Three steps in PCR.
T: Ok. First of all you tell what is PCR. What do you know about PCR?
F8: in DNA synthesis in
T: Occurring in three steps.
F8: Yeah
T: Ok! Anything else?
F: ((inaudible))
T: Those three steps. Ok! Anything else?
F5: DNA multiplication
T: DNA?
F5: Multiplication
T: Multiplication
T: Ok. So over all we will say DNA synthesis (..) in three steps process. (..) Ok
processes.
4.2.2 Example for KTE – From Biology Lecture 2

In another example from Biology lecture 2, the lecturer asks a question that is to
be answered from students’ memory. When the lecturer uses a question that
does not require students to think or synthesise the answer, the outcome would
be a recitation script. Here, the students’ answers consist of one or two words
and these kinds of answers, it is alleged, would not help students’ language
development, as discussed earlier.
T: So from different organisms you don’t have to depend only on e-coli now because
of this replication (.) site you can use different types of bacteria to transform. Ok?
You know why it is needed? Why? (.) Why this - this is needed? (.) Ah?
SAI (F8): to produce
T: produce
F8: restriction
T: Why this origin of replication needed?
M4: to replication xxxx ((inaudible))
T: Ah?
M4: To start the replication
T: Ah? For the replication of the plasmid. Even though you are transferring into the
bacteria the bacteria cannot help the plasmid to replicate. It should has –it should
have its own replication to make it multiple copies. Ok? that’s why it carries origin of
replication. Ok? (.) you didn’t get that point. So in addition to that we have another
type of replication point here.
Here, the lecturer asked a question as if she was revising the lesson. Similarly, in
Mathematics lecture below, students answered the lecturer’s questions based on
their previous knowledge.

222
4.2.3 Example for KTE – From Mathematics lecture 2

In this episode, the lecturer asks a question to which students can answer from
their previous knowledge and it creates an interactional episode. Even though
students make longer utterances, in the episode we can find more equations and
content related vocabularies. It is claimed that such longer utterances could not
help the general language development of the students. The length of Biology
students’ answers is shorter when compared to mathematics students, 3 to 5 vs
15 to 20. The reason may be the easiness with which Mathematics students can
answer questions because their discourse involves a lot of terms or content
related vocabularies.
T: We have two equations. What are they?
M8: Total impedance equal to Fifty ohms. We have a R squared plus omega 1
plus all three squared
T: Yes
M8: Second one is hundred ohms equal to R squared plus omega two into all
three squared. (.) We know R, omega 1, omega 2
T: Yes.
T: And the relation between omega and t is equal to what? (.)
Mn: Omega is two Pi over T.
T: Ih? ((L1 questioning way)) Yes the same thing. What is that?
Mn: T is equal to two Pi ((overlapped by T))
T: T is equal to two Pi over omega. Otherwise omega is equal to two Pi over?
M5: T
ML1: what [[text omitted – name of the student MM7]] [..] what here↑? if you
have any additional suggestion please.
MM7: [[clarifies with the lecturer in L1 when the lecturer was near the student]]
phase two <L1 il oru> (one at) parallel <L1 warAthuthAne> (a parallel
won’t come in Phase two?)
ML1: no– no– no– no
MM7:  phase two <L1 warathu ippa> (won’t come) ( overlap)
ML1: when we– when we connected– like– this is like a single circuit right↑?
<L1 Athila kulappam ontru irukkuthAn AnA ithula illai> (there is a
chance for confusion there but not here). Ean entru theriyumA↑? (you
know why) <L1 Neenga> parallel <entru ninakkeiriyal> (you think it is
parallel). <L1 Ithu oru (this is a) single circuit [……………]
In this episode, the lecturer switched to Tamil language in order to make the
interaction comfortable for students. Generally, the use of L1 in the classroom
may facilitate comprehension of the content matter, whereas it may not be useful
for language development. Nevertheless, the effect of code switching on
students’ language development was not looked into within the scope of this
study.
4.3 What are the underlying reasons for the present situation and how can it
be improved?
The reasons are discussed under three themes that emerged out of the
discussions with the lecturers.
4.3.1 Focus on content delivery
The lecturers were asked about the reasons for asking more rhetorical questions
in lectures. These questions are asked without expecting an answer from

223
students. The lecturers mentioned that even though they are aware of the
importance of asking questions in general during lecture delivery, they are
unable to spend more time on questions for the reason that they fear they may
lose time to be spent on completing lessons. They were also concerned about
completing the syllabi on time. Lecturers themselves had the idea that what they
were doing was satisfactory for them. The point they raised is that the lectures
cannot be conducted interactively throughout with several questions and
answer sequences, because they feared the interactive sessions would consume
the time available for conveying the content. Wells and Arouz (2006) have
already established that a lecture cannot be interactive or dialogic throughout
the lecture.
In the observed lectures, lecturers usually did not give wait-time for students to
answer. Whenever they gave wait-time, the students tended to answer.
However, the Biology lecturer mentioned that even though she had given more
wait-time, students did not answer her. The lecturer was sceptical about
students’ ability, especially their language proficiency to answer questions. But,
when the lecturer was indicated of the interaction that took place in the lesson
with the students, she agreed that some students were able to interact. It
emerged that focus on content delivery was the reason for not giving wait-time.
4.3.2 Pedagogical requirement
Students’ language proficiency and shyness could be some of the reasons for
their reluctance to interact in the classroom. However, it cannot be assumed that
all the students in the class lack language proficiency. It was made explicit in the
study that lecturers could make use of the questions to develop and sustain
longer interaction with the students. Lecturers should try to develop dialogic
kind of interaction in lectures for its benefits for language development. In
addition, necessary skills and training should be given to lecturers for this.
The lecturers did not have an idea of the types of questions they asked in
lectures. For them, questions are one part of the lecture delivery. When they
were briefed about the types of questions and their importance, they showed
interest in them. This situation indicates that there is a gap in the knowledge of
the lecturers about the types of questions to be asked and strategies for
developing interaction.
4.3.3 Nature of the discourse needed
In comparison with the biology students, the mathematics students’ answers
were lengthy. The underlying reason given by the lecturers can be connected to
the nature of the discourse needed. That is, in mathematics discourse, students
mostly use the keywords or the content related vocabularies but in biology, they
may need to use general words like nouns and verbs and need more language
proficiency to use the language.
5. Discussion
This study is important considering the present status of EMI in Sri Lanka as
well as in Asian countries. In Sri Lanka, English Medium Instruction (EMI) has
reached an exponential growth presently and also it has become a fashionable
term for learning in primary, secondary and tertiary sectors in Sri Lanka. EMI
was introduced with a view to enhancing the language proficiency of the

224
students by getting them to learn the content through English. However, due to
lack of consideration of pedagogy for EMI, the intended outcome of EMI has
become a question.
The results of the study revealed that at FS, lecturers generally ask rhetorical
questions. Of the observed six lectures, lecturers asked 621 questions, and of
which only 31 (5%) were non-rhetorical questions. They are similar to genuine
questions. The genuine questions were identified when the lecturers waited for
the answer from the students. Of the 31 questions that developed interactional
exchanges, there was only one Concept Development Episode (CDE). CDEs help
in the construction of knowledge involving students’ contribution. In the
analysed lectures, except for a single CDE, all the others were KTEs.
The findings of this study have many similarities with previous studies. Similar
to the previous studies, teachers’ questions were linguistically and cognitively
simple. The type of questions and the pattern of interactional episodes indicate
that the lecture deliveries favour mostly monologic patterns. Hu and Duan’s
(2018) study among 20 Chinese universities revealed that the majority of teacher
questions and student responses were cognitively and linguistically simple. The
same finding was reported by Larson and Lovelace (2013). Their study revealed
that most questions asked by the instructors did not require higher-order
thinking skills to develop a response, and the majority of the questions were
rooted in the remembering and understanding levels of Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). Hu and Li (2017) also found that, in
EMI classes, the majority of the questions were lower-order questions. They also
had categorized the questions according to Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001)
revision of Bloom’s taxonomy. In this study, of the questions asked, the majority
belong to KTQs which use lower order questions according to Bloom’s revised
taxonomy. Hence, the results of this study are in consistent with Teo (2016) who
found that teachers asked more display type questions in a pre-university
programme in Singapore. In this present study too, lecturers asked many
rhetorical questions which are similar to display questions for which the teacher
knew the answer but students did not attempt to answer. Morell (2004) too
found plenty of display questions in her observed lectures.
Close discussion with the lecturers revealed that even though they asked
questions to check the comprehension of the students, they did not feel it was
important to wait for students’ answers. It is because of the limited time
allocated for lectures, usually one hour for each lecture. Lecturers felt that if they
spent more time, they would not complete the lectures. The lecturers were not
aware of the fact that through interaction they could develop the language of the
students.
The results of the present study inform us that lack of non-rhetorical questions,
especially the absence of CDQs in lectures, indicate that the lecturers need to be
trained to ask CDQs as well as maintain longer interactional episodes that are
useful for students’ understanding of the content as well as language
development. Dalton-Puffer (2007) and Nassaji and Wells (2000) describe that, as
mentioned previously in the literature review section, linguistic complexity of
teacher-student interaction is important because it provides opportunities for

225
students to listen to, process and produce language and develop their
competence in the language.
In this study, however, the teachers’ inability to ask higher level questions, such
as Concept Development Questions (CDQs), cannot be linked to lack of
language proficiency of the lecturers. It should be considered as lack of
awareness of the lecturers of the importance of questions or the necessary
pedagogy to use questions in lectures.
BL mentioned: “we can’t keep on asking questions otherwise we can’t complete the
lesson within the limited time”. (interview with BL)
This view endorses the claim made by Cammarata and Tedick (2012). They
claim that research on immersion teaching has consistently shown that
immersion teachers tend to focus on subject matter content at the expense of
language teaching.
This study brings to light the existing situation of EMI at this faculty. The
findings could be used to gauge the lecturing situations in other universities in
Sri Lanka and in South East Asia where English is taught as a second or foreign
language and the content courses are taught by the non-native speaker teachers.
However, precautions should be made considering the limitations of the study
which are mentioned below in conclusion. This study provides the EMI teachers
an idea of their own lecture delivery and informs the educational authorities that
there is a gap between what is expected out of EMI and what is achieved. As it
was mentioned previously, EMI was introduced in ESL contexts to harness the
dual benefits of understanding the content and developing the language. One
way these aims could be achieved is through proper teacher training, especially
for delivering the lectures. As Larson and Lovelace (2013) mention, due
consideration should be given for pedagogy of lecture delivery in EMI contexts.
Within the scope of the study, difficulties of students in participating in
classroom interactions were not focussed. Students’ language issues, shyness
and cultural barrier of asking or answering questions could affect their
participation in classroom interactions. A previous study by the researcher
(Navaz, 2013) discussed these factors. This study indicates that there are
possibilities for language development with appropriate training for lecturers in
asking questions and using strategies for involving students in classroom
interactions.
6. Conclusion
This study was undertaken at a small faculty of a Sri Lankan university to
investigate the questions asked by lecturers in EMI classes. Questions are
important for generating interactions in lectures and that students’ involvement
in interactions could be helpful for language development. At the backdrop that
the Sri Lankan EMI context has not been investigated at a great deal, especially
with regard to the discourse level analysis, this study could be considered
important to unearth the discourse level details of EMI lectures, albeit with the
following limitations in mind. Only a few samples were used in this study and
the study was confined to a small faculty in Sri Lanka which lies away from the
metropolitan areas. Hence, future studies that investigate lecture discourse
should consider other streams of studies such as humanities and management

226
and use larger samples. Also, it will be necessary to carry out research to
investigate the lecture discourse in other universities which lie in the
metropolitan areas where the student population may vary. This study, as a
pioneer one in investigating discourse in EMI classes in Sri Lanka, sheds lights
on the details of present discourse in the faculty and informs the teachers and
authorities that due consideration for pedagogy concerning lecture delivery
should be made when implementing EMI. That is, education authorities should
consider training EMI teachers/lecturers as a mandatory requirement if the dual
benefits of learning the content and developing the language are to be achieved.
Hence, future studies are needed to investigate the discourse of the EMI lectures
further in Sri Lanka as well as further afield, especially in Asia.
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Exploring Pre-Service Teachers’ Emotional

Competence and Motivation for the Choice of a
Teaching Career
Tea Pavin Ivanec

Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3225-2272
Abstract. The literature recognises the importance of teachers’ emotional

competence for various aspects of the teaching profession, as well as the
importance of attracting motivated and quality prospective teachers and
retaining them in the profession. However, studies relating to the
motivation to teach and some personal characteristics of prospective
teachers are still relatively scarce. Therefore, this study aimed at
contributing to this field of research by exploring the association
between prospective teachers’ emotional competence and their
motivation for the choice of a teaching career as proposed by the Factors
Influencing Teaching (FIT)-Choice model. This study used a quantitative
methodological approach. Prospective teachers who were enrolled in a
primary school initial teacher education programme (N=423)
participated in this study. The data were analysed using cluster analysis
and multivariate analysis of variance. The results obtained revealed that
the importance of almost all motives for the decision to pursue a
teaching career, and the perception of demandingness of the teaching
profession are rated higher by pre-service teachers with higher
emotional competence. Finally, pre-service teachers with higher
emotional competence also expressed a higher level of satisfaction with
their career choice compared to those with a moderate level of
emotional competence.
Keywords: emotional competence; Factors influencing teaching choice

(FIT) model; motivation for teaching; pre-service teachers
1. Introduction
In the past two decades, motivation for the choice of the teaching profession has
become a prominent field of interest with an increasing number of both
quantitative and qualitative studies exploring this construct in relation to
various factors and contexts. Increased interest in the motivation for teaching is
a result of changes in many countries worldwide which are facing a teacher
shortage, an ageing teacher population, a decrease in the status of the teaching
profession and the issue of attracting young people to pursue a teaching career

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(Han & Yin; 2016; La Velle, 2019). Hence, recruiting and retaining qualified
teachers has become an important issue in many countries (La Velle, 2019;
Suryani, Watt & Richardson, 2016). Teacher motivation is also related to the
quality of teaching practice, student educational outcomes and teacher
psychological wellbeing (Han & Yin, 2016; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2018), which is
especially important in the light of continuous changes and challenges that
teachers nowadays face.
Motivation for the choice of the teaching profession is important, not only for
researchers, but for educational policy makers as well. A better understanding of
motives for choosing the teaching profession can have significant practical
implications regarding the retention and attraction of quality teachers. Bearing
in mind the trend of a constant decline in the status of the teaching profession, it
seems more important than ever to explore what motivates young people to
pursue a teaching career, and which characteristics those highly motivated for
this profession possess. Therefore, it is not surprising that the researchers (and
policy makers as well) have recognised the importance of teachers’ motivation
within the broader construct of a teacher’s professional identity (Heinz, 2015).
Accordingly, the studies exploring the motivation for the choice of teaching
career have become more prominent. The general research orientation of these
studies is driven by specific motivational theoretical frameworks such as
expectancy-value theory or achievement goal theory. Studies exploring
prospective teachers’ motivation for entering the teaching profession usually
classify these motives as intrinsic, altruistic and extrinsic motivation (Han & Yin,
2016), or as intrinsic, extrinsic and social motivation (Lauermann, Karabenick,
Carpenter & Kuusinen, 2017). Extrinsic motives include motives such as a stable
income and a secure job position, intrinsic motives reflect an interest in teaching,
while altruistic and social motives capture the desire to work with children and
adolescents and contribute to society.
More recently, the literature on the motivation for teaching also emphasises the
importance of various non-academic characteristics in recruiting prospective
teachers. These include motivational antecedents such as personality,
interpersonal skills and communication skills (Watt, Richardson, & Smith, 2017).
Furthermore, current studies on the motivation to teach revealed some of the
characteristics associated with prospective teachers’ motivation, such as the
chosen path of initial teacher education (pre-school, primary, secondary
education) and subject/discipline-domain (e.g. STEM, non-STEM). These studies
provided a worthwhile insight into the motivation for teaching and implied the
need for further exploration of this complex construct. An additional impetus for
exploring the motivation to teach was a FIT (Factors Influencing Teaching)-
Choice model (and accompanying measurement tool) proposed by Watt and
Richardson (2007). This enables a more systematic comparison of findings across
different educational contexts.
However, further studies are needed to explore other non-academic factors that
could also be relevant for the motivation for choosing the teaching profession.

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This study focuses on one of these factors, more specifically on prospective

teachers’ emotional competence – a construct that can affect the quality of
teachers’ work, job satisfaction and professional burnout (Brackett, Palomera,
Mojsa-Kaja, Reyes, & Salovey, 2010), and consequently, it can influence teachers’
intentions to remain in the profession. According to the literature, emotional
competence is considered essential for the teaching profession (Vignjević Korotaj
& Mrnjaus, 2020), and crucial for successful everyday interactions with pupils
(Aldrup, Carstensen, Köller, & Klusmann, 2020). Hence, it is reasonable to
assume that prospective teachers’ emotional competence can be related to their
motivation to pursue the teaching profession. In the following sections, a brief
overview of this construct from the perspective of the teaching profession will be
provided, preceded by an overview of the FIT-Choice theoretical framework
which guided this study in exploring motivation to choose a teaching career.
1.1 FIT- Choice Model of Motivation for the Choice of Teaching Profession
Despite growing interest in the motivation to teach, a certain lack of
methodological and theoretical consistencies often poses a difficulty in
comparing findings of different studies, as noticed by Heinz (2015). The FIT
(Factors Influencing Teaching)-Choice model by Watt and Richardson (2007)
attempts to address these shortcomings, offering a broad theoretical framework
for exploring motivation for the teaching profession based upon expectancy-
value theory (Eccles, 2005). Different values and expectancies of success were
adapted within this model to answer what motivates individuals to pursue a
teaching career and to provide the opportunity for systematic research of this
particular topic (Watt & Richardson, 2012; Watt et al., 2017). According to Watt
and Richardson (2007), motivational factors assumed to be relevant for the
decision to choose to teach and contained in this model are the intrinsic value of
teaching (interest and enjoyment in teaching), the social utility value of teaching
(including working with children/adolescents, shaping their future, making a
social contribution and enhancing social equity), the personal utility value of
teaching (referring to job security, time for family, and job transferability), the
perception of own ability to teach, positive prior teaching and learning
experiences, social influences by significant others, as well as the motive of
choosing teaching as a fallback career. Further, the FIT-Choice model also
includes perceptions of the teaching profession in terms of task demand (required
expertise and difficulty) and task return (salary and social status). Lastly,
satisfaction with career choice and experienced social dissuasion regarding this
specific career choice are also a part of this model.
Previous studies conducted within the FIT-Choice model consistently indicate

that the intrinsic value of teaching, the social utility value of teaching and the
perception of one’s own teaching abilities are among the most important
motives for the choice of a teaching career, while the fallback career motive is
regarded as least important in different countries and contexts (Flores &
Niklasson, 2014; Lin, Shi, Wang, Zhang, & Hui, 2012; Richardson & Watt, 2006;
Wyatt-Smith et al., 2017). Furthermore, some studies exploring motivation for
teaching among different categories of prospective teachers (enrolled in different
initial teacher education programmes) revealed certain differences concerning

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social utility and the intrinsic value of teaching, as well as fallback career motive
(Watt, Richardson, & Devos, 2012; Watt, Richardson, & Morris, 2017; Wyatt-
Smith et al., 2017), while other studies did not indicate these differences (Akar,
2012; Glutsch & König, 2019). On the other hand, studies exploring personal
characteristics (as antecedents) and motivation for choosing the teaching
profession are somewhat less represented than those focused on different
categories of prospective teachers.
Several studies explored the relationship between personality and motivation

for teaching. For example, Jugović, Marušić, Pavin Ivanec and Vizek Vidović
(2012) found that higher levels of agreeableness were related to higher intrinsic
career value and the social utility value motive of prospective teachers. Intrinsic
career value was also positively predicted by extraversion, and both
extraversion and agreeableness were positive predictors of prospective teachers’
satisfaction with their career choice. In their second study, Marušić, Jugović and
Pavin Ivanec (2017) found that motivation for teaching and personality are also
related to prospective teachers’ achievement goals. In a study conducted by
Tomšik and Gatial (2018), personality traits predicted prospective teachers’
fallback career motive, whereby neuroticism was a positive predictor, and other
personality traits were negative predictors of this specific motive.
Studies generally indicate that personality traits are also related to in-service
teachers’ effectiveness and burnout (Kim, Jörg & Klassen, 2019), implying the
importance of further research of non-academic characteristic as antecedents of
the motivation for choosing a career in teaching. Considering that personality
traits also include certain aspects of emotional functioning and that various
measures of emotional competence significantly correlate with personality traits
(Aldrup et al., 2020), it seems reasonable to assume that the constructs related to
emotional functioning could also be associated with the motivation for choosing
a teaching career. Besides results implying the importance of personality in
explaining the motivation for teaching, studies also revealed its association with
teachers’ professional development, vocational motivation and career
development in general (McKay & Tokar, 2012; McLarnon, Carswell &
Schneider, 2015). Some studies also demonstrated that emotional competence is
predictive of job satisfaction, even when the effects of personality traits are
controlled (Urquijo, Extremera & Azanza, 2019). Drawing upon the results of
these studies, exploring the relationship of the motivation to teach and different
personality-related characteristics of pre-service teachers could provide
additional insight into the motivation for the choice of a teaching career.
1.2 Teachers’ Emotional Competence

Emotional competence is a component of a broader construct of emotional
intelligence (Salovey & Meyer, 1990). In the literature it is also often explored
under the construct of emotional or socioemotional competence, whereby the
term ‘competence’ implies skills that can be acquired (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
However, regardless of the broader theoretical framework, awareness of one’s
own emotions, other people’s emotions, and the regulation and management of
emotions appear to be crucial for coping with social and emotional situations

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successfully, including the complex demands of the teaching profession (Aldrup

et al., 2020). These demands include providing support to pupils, negotiating,
resolving conflict, and setting boundaries, and these interactions require
emotionally competent behaviour. Additionally, emotional competence enables
teachers to be more successful in encouraging and motivating pupils to engage
in learning and school activities (Havik & Westergård, 2019). These personal
characteristics referring to emotional functioning can also be related to the social
type of vocational interests, which include the desire to work with others
(McLarnon et al., 2015).
Previous studies indicate that emotional competence plays a significant role in

social skills’ development; however, it can also be a determinant of academic
and cognitive outcomes from childhood onwards. Interaction of teachers and
pupils’ emotional regulation affects school performance, and teachers are also a
relevant factor in the socialisation of pupils’ emotional competence (Garner,
2010). Thus, the importance of teachers’ emotional competence is two-fold: on
the one hand, it enables teachers to establish and maintain quality relationships
with pupils (and parents and colleagues), while on the other hand, an
emotionally competent teacher can be a role model of emotionally competent
behaviour. Studies that linked teachers’ emotional competence with some
aspects of the teaching job also demonstrated the importance of emotional
competence. More specifically, teachers’ emotional competence substantially
influences healthy teacher-pupil relationships. It reflects not only in the quality
of teacher-pupil relationships, which consequently affect pupils’ engagement in
the classroom (Havik & Westergård, 2019; O’Connor & McCartney, 2007), but
also in teachers’ perception of job self-efficacy and wellbeing (Vesely, Saklofske
& Leschied, 2013), and in their level of job satisfaction (Anari, 2012; Platsidou,
2010). Consequently, lack of job satisfaction combined with burnout can lead to
low motivation of teachers, which additionally implies the importance of
emotional competence for coping with the professional requirements and
challenges of the teaching profession.
The literature suggests that more effective functioning in a school environment

is expected of teachers with higher levels of emotional competence since they are
more likely to regulate emotions better (elicit pleasant emotions or down-
regulate unpleasant ones). The ability to regulate emotions is related to
perceived self-efficacy and prevention of emotional exhaustion, while Mérida-
López and Extremera (2017) reported that the association of emotional
intelligence and job performance is more robust in the case of more emotionally
demanding professions. Respectively, the association of teachers’ emotional
competence with better adjustment to different demands of their job implies the
importance of emotional competence for teacher motivation. Moreover, the
literature also suggests that emotional competence can increase in adulthood by
using interventions aimed at its enhancement (Kotsou, Nelis, Grégoire &
Mikolajczak, 2011). This also applies to teachers (Madalinska-Michalak, 2015).
These findings can have practical implications for teacher development and
education, both on initial and in-service teacher education levels.

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Previously described studies generally emphasise the importance of emotional

competence for various aspects of the teaching profession, including effective
teaching. However, the literature review implies a lack of studies exploring pre-
service teachers’ emotional competence, especially concerning their motivation
for choosing this profession, both within the FIT-Choice model and in general. In
line with some previous studies on teacher motivation and its antecedents, it
seems reasonable to assume that emotional competence, among other personal
correlates, can also be related to the motivation for choosing a teaching career.
Hence, this study aimed at contributing to a better understanding of the

motivation for teaching by relating these two constructs. This study is partly
explorative, drawing upon previous findings on personal correlates of
motivation for teaching that imply prospective teachers’ tendency to work with
others in intrinsically motivating professions. However, it is generally
hypothesised that prospective teachers with a higher level of emotional
competence would have higher ratings of the importance of the intrinsic and
social utility value of teaching. Further, it is assumed that prospective teachers’
perception of their own teaching abilities would be more salient for the choice of
the teaching profession among participants with a higher level of emotional
competence and that they would be more satisfied with their choice to pursue a
career in teaching.
2. Method
This study used a quantitative methodological approach. The data were
analysed by multivariate analysis by means of the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences software (IBM SPSS, version 23). Research hypotheses were tested
using cluster analysis and multivariate analysis of variance.
2.1 Sample and Procedure

Participants in this study were 423 prospective teachers –- students of an initial
primary teacher education programme at the University of Zagreb, Croatia, and
the sample was convenient. Initial primary teacher education in Croatia is a five-
year university programme, and students from all years took part in the study.
Participants’ average age was M=20.93 (SD=1.814), and their participation was
voluntary and anonymous, and following prescribed ethical standards. Since a
large majority of initial primary teacher education students at the University of
Zagreb are females (about 96%), information on participants’ gender was not
collected to grant additional anonymity to male students. A questionnaire was
administered during one of the regular classes by means of a paper/pencil
technique upon obtaining participants’ consent.
2.2 Instruments
The FIT-Choice scale (Watt & Richardson, 2007) was used to assess participants’
motivation for the choice of a teaching career. The scale was validated in various
countries (Watt & Richardson, 2012) and demonstrated good replicability and
validity, including Croatian validation of the scale (for more details on
validation and full version of the scale see Jugović, Marušić, Pavin Ivanec &
Vizek Vidović, 2012). The Motivation for the choice of teaching is a part of the FIT-

236
Choice Scale consisting of 34 items and measuring the importance of different

motivational factors for the decision to choose a teaching career – intrinsic value,
social utility value and personal utility value of teaching, perception of own
teaching abilities, prior teaching and learning experiences, social influences by
others, and fallback career motive. Participants rated each motive’s importance
for their career choice on a seven-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all important)
to 7 (extremely important). The Perceptions of teaching profession part of the scale (12
items) includes the perception of demands (in terms of required expertise and
demandingness); and returns (in terms of salary and social status) of the
teaching profession. The FIT-Choice scale also comprises additional subscales
referring to satisfaction with career choice (2 items) and social dissuasion
experience regarding that choice (3 items). For this part of the scale, participants
expressed their agreement level with each item on a rating scale from 1 (not at
all) to 7 (extremely). Results on each subscale were calculated as an average of
associated items, and reliabilities of most subscales (calculated as Cronbach’s
alpha coefficients) have demonstrated to be very good (Table 1).
Emotional competence was assessed by the Emotional Skills and Competence

Questionnaire (ESCQ-45, Takšić, 2002) based on Mayer and Salovey’s model and
previously validated in several international studies (for more details and the
questionnaire see Faria et al., 2006). This questionnaire is a 45-item instrument
consisting of three subscales: the ability to perceive and understand emotions
(15 items), the ability to express and label emotions (14 items), and the ability to
manage and regulate emotions (16 items). Participants assessed the level to
which each item refers to them from 1 (not at all) to 5 (completely). Results on each
subscale were calculated as an average of associated items, and all subscale
reliabilities are very good and ≥ .81 (Table 1).
3. Results and Discussion

To obtain general insight into factors influencing participants’ motivation for
choosing the teaching profession and their emotional competence, descriptive
statistics and subscale reliabilities for all measured variables are calculated on a
total sample (N=423) and their values are displayed in Table 1.
Table 1: Reliabilities, means and standard deviations for the FIT-Choice factors and
emotional competence factors
FIT-Choice: Motivations α M SD
Intrinsic career value .81 6.02 0.976
Social utility value .91 5.86 0.871
Ability .79 5.63 0.942
Prior teaching and learning experiences .80 4.88 1.579
Personal utility value .78 4.53 1.080
Social influences .88 4.63 1.818
Fallback career .62 2.21 1.345
FIT-Choice: Perceptions
Task demand .81 5.56 0.860
Task return .84 3.23 0.998

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FIT-Choice: Choice of teaching career

Satisfaction with choice .85 6.11 1.100
Social dissuasion .81 3.64 1.710
Emotional competence
Ability to perceive and understand .92 3.88 0.596
emotions
Ability to express and label emotions .91 3.69 0.682
Ability to manage and regulate .81 3.93 0.463
emotions
Based on the results displayed in Table 1, it can be generally concluded that

prospective classroom teachers are mostly motivated by the intrinsic career
value, the social utility value and their perceptions of their own teaching
abilities. These results reflect prospective teachers’ desire to work with others in
an intrinsically motivating profession which corresponds to their self-perceived
abilities. Although ratings of the importance of prior teaching and learning
experiences, the personal utility value of teaching and social influences are lower
compared to the first three motives, their ratings are also above the theoretical
scale average. This implies that these motives were to a certain extent important
for participants’ decision to become teachers. The fallback career motive was the
only motive rated below the theoretical scale average, implying that participants
in this study were not motivated to choose a teaching career because they failed
to (or did not) pursue their first-choice career.
These results are in line with previous studies on motivation for the choice of
teaching, as well as results indicating that prospective teachers perceive that
their chosen profession is relatively high in demands and low in returns
(concerning social status and salary) (Nesje, Brandmo, & Berger, 2017;
Richardson & Watt, 2006; Wyatt-Smith et al., 2017). The average results on
emotional competence factors also shifted towards higher values, which is not
surprising considering that these participants chose a profession which includes
working with others. Previous studies indicated an association between
personality (which also includes emotional functioning) and social vocational
interests and choices (Berings, De Fruyt, & Bouwen, 2004). Similar results
regarding relatively high self-ratings of emotional competence were also
obtained on a sample of in-service teachers in a recent study conducted by
Vignjević Korotaj and Mrnjaus (2020). They also pointed out that these high
ratings could partly reflect the respondents’ need to comply with the expected
professional role of teachers.
To compare results on FIT-Choice factors with regard to participants’ emotional

competence, the first step in the analysis was a cluster analysis. More
specifically, participants’ self-ratings of their emotional competence served as a
basis for k-means cluster analysis, resulting in two clusters which differ on all
three emotional competence subscales. Mean cluster-values are displayed in
Figure 1 (differences between cluster centres were all statistically significant at
p<.01). According to mean values, the first cluster (Q1; n=225) is characterised by
somewhat lower (but not low) ratings, while the second cluster (Q2; n=198) is

238
characterised by rather high ratings on all subscales of emotional competence.

Hence, based on the mean values, the first cluster can be labelled as a moderate
emotional competence, and the second cluster can be labelled as a high emotional
competence.
5
4.28 4.23
4.22
4
3.54 3.68
3 3.24 Q1
Q2
2
Perceiving and Expressing and Managing and
understanding labeling regulating
emotions emotions emotions
Figure 1: Final cluster centres for the two groups of participants

(Note: Q1 = moderate emotional competence; Q2 = high emotional competence)
Differences in the importance of proposed motives for the choice of teaching,

perception of the profession and satisfaction with this choice between the two
groups (based on the cluster membership) were explored by multivariate
analysis of variance. Results revealed a significant difference between the two
groups and a large effect size of group membership (F (1,349) = 5.21; p<.001;
partial η2 = .145). Further comparisons between the groups on each FIT-Choice
factor are displayed in Table 2.
Table 2: Results of the MANOVA for the FIT-Choice factors with regard to the cluster
membership
Q1 Q2
Motivations M SD M SD F ηp2
Intrinsic career value 5.88 0.999 6.22 0.911 10.87** .030
Social utility value 5.64 0.858 6.08 0.832 24.04** .064
Personal utility value 4.28 1.046 4.81 1.069 46.05** .117
Ability 5.38 0.897 6.00 0.816 7.51** .021
Social influences 4.35 1.769 4.92 1.808 21.99** .059
Prior teaching and learning 4.63 1.546 5.09 1.576 8.77** .025
experiences
Fallback career 2.33 1.343 2.08 1.383 2.75 .008
Perceptions
Task demand 5.49 0.829 5.69 0.873 4.90* .014
Task return 3.21 1.004 3.26 0.967 0,24 .001
Choice of teaching career
Satisfaction with choice 5.96 1.113 6.28 1.076 7.58** .021
Social dissuasion 3.55 1.667 3.62 1.702 0.12 .001
Note. ** = p<.01; * = p<.05.

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As results presented in Table 2 reveal, a significant effect of cluster membership

was obtained for most of the FIT-Choice factors, whereby group-ratings were
similar only for the fallback career motive, the perception of the returns of the
teaching profession and the level of experienced social dissuasion regarding the
choice of this career. The groups’ average results indicate that the trend of
obtained differences between the groups is the same – participants who perceive
themselves as more emotionally competent have higher ratings of all FIT-Choice
motivational factors. In addition, they perceive teaching as more demanding,
and they also express a higher level of satisfaction with their career choice than
participants with a moderate level of emotional competence.
The results obtained confirmed some of the initial assumptions. As

hypothesised, results demonstrated more pronounced motives of intrinsic career
value and social utility value of teaching among prospective teachers with a
higher level of emotional competence. As already mentioned, there is a lack of
studies relating these two constructs; however, this finding can be explained in
relation to some previous studies exploring (prospective) teachers’ personality
(which also includes emotional functioning) and vocational interests in general.
Jugović et al. (2012) found that these two motives correlate with personality
traits, and personality traits also correlate with emotional competence (Aldrup et
al., 2020; Alegre, Pérez-Escoda, & López-Cassá, 2019). Further, individuals who
are more prone to positive emotionality, and who are warm and attentive in
relation to others are more likely to express the social type of vocational interest
(McLarnon et al., 2015).
Hence, conclusions drawn from these studies could explain the results obtained
in this study. More specifically, the importance of the social utility value of
teaching, which includes working with others (in this case, children) is expected
to be more pronounced among participants who have a higher level of
emotional competence. From this perspective, higher intrinsic motivation is also
meaningfully related to emotional competence, considering that it is not
surprising that individuals who perceive themselves as better in emotions-
eliciting interpersonal situations are more likely to be intrinsically motivated to
choose a profession in which these situations are common and expected.
Results regarding the importance of the perception of one’s own teaching

abilities also support the previous assumption regarding the choice of the
profession that corresponds to perceived abilities. Perception of one’s own
teaching abilities is one of the highly important motives for the choice of the
teaching profession among this study’s participants. Furthermore, ratings of this
motive’s importance are significantly higher among participants with a high
level of emotional competence, which is in line with postulated assumptions,
and implies that emotional competence is also a significant (non-academic)
characteristic of quality (prospective) teachers. More specifically, if participants’
perceptions of own abilities to teach are an important motivational factor, it
could mean that their self-perception of some other characteristics, in this case,
emotional competence, could also have a significant role in motivation for this
profession. Teacher-pupils interaction includes numerous situations and

240
challenges in which the ability to recognise one’s own and the emotions of
others, as well as emotional regulation are required. It is reasonable to assume
that those individuals who perceive themselves as more competent in different
emotion-eliciting situations would feel more able to cope with these challenges
and meet the demands of the teaching profession which include such situations
on an everyday basis. Consequently, the decision to pursue a specific career, in
this case teaching, is related to individuals’ expectations of success which are
higher if a person perceives that she/he is able to meet the requirements of the
profession (Eccles, 2005). In addition, higher levels of commitment to the choice
of teaching are expected from individuals who perceive themselves as more
efficacious in teaching (Lauermann et al., 2017).
Other than previously addressed results regarding some initial assumptions,

this study also revealed that prospective teachers with a high level of emotional
competence rate the importance of personal utility value of teaching, social
influences and prior positive teaching experiences more highly compared to
prospective teachers with a moderate level of emotional competence. It is
possible that participants with higher emotional competence, in accordance with
their self-perceived characteristics, view the teaching profession as a generally
more valuable choice in terms of different motives that could attract them to this
profession. Hence, they perceive most of the motives as overall more important.
In other words, the congruence of self-perceived characteristic (emotional,
teaching) and the demands of the teaching profession could result in higher
levels of importance of different motives which could attract individuals to
consider teaching as their career choice. Additionally, higher levels of the
importance of social influences could imply that participants’ high level of
emotional competence is also recognised by significant others who perceive
them as highly suitable for a teaching career and who think that they should
become teachers. The results obtained also indicated that participants with a
higher level of emotional competence also perceived teaching as more
demanding in terms of the required expertise, expected workload and emotional
demands, which could also imply congruence between self-perceived abilities
and requirements of the profession.
Finally, this study’s results also revealed that participants with higher levels of
emotional competence express higher degrees of satisfaction with the chosen
educational path, which is in line with the initial assumptions. These results can
be related to those obtained by Farnia, Nafukho, and Petrides (2018) which
indicate that individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more effective in
career-decision-making owing to more effective coping strategies with
challenging situations in life in general (with career-choice being one of them).
On the other hand, those with lower emotional intelligence are somewhat more
prone to career indecisiveness which can reflect on satisfaction with the choice.
Prospective teachers who are more satisfied with their career choice are
probably more likely to be committed to complete initial teacher education, and
be more satisfied upon entering the profession, which can further be reflected in
their engagement in the profession (Burić & Macuka, 2018).

241
4. Conclusion
As hypothesised, both the intrinsic and social utility value of teaching are more
pronounced among prospective teachers with a higher level of emotional
competence. Additionally, the perceived ability to teach, as a motivational
factor, is also more salient for this group of prospective teachers, and they are
more satisfied with their career choice. This study revealed some meaningful
associations between emotional competence and motivation for the teaching
profession, and in spite of the lack of literature on this specific association,
certain parallels are drawn with some previous studies in the field of teacher
motivation, personality and career choices.
The ability to recognise one’s own and the emotions of others, as well as
emotional regulation, is necessary to cope with everyday challenges arising from
complex teacher-pupil interactions. Therefore, it is not surprising that
individuals who perceive themselves as more emotionally competent are more
likely to be intrinsically motivated for a profession that requires such abilities
and includes working with others. However, certain limitations of this study
should also be considered when inferring conclusions. Firstly, participants in
this study are prospective teachers enrolled in an initial primary teacher
education programme. Hence, to obtain additional insight into the relationship
of emotional competence and motivation for teaching, more heterogeneous
samples of prospective teachers (in terms of initial teacher education
programmes for different educational levels and domains) should also be
included in future studies. Furthermore, results are based on participants’ self-
ratings, which evoke the question of socially desirable answers, especially
considering relatively high ratings on most measured variables. Finally, it would
also be useful to explore further the relative contribution of emotional
competence combined with personality traits.
The results of this study, as well as further exploration of antecedents related to

motivation to teach, could also have practical implications for career counselling,
and both initial and in-service teacher education, especially bearing in mind that
emotional competence can be enhanced through planned educational
interventions. These interventions (either on initial or in-service level) could
additionally prepare teachers to respond appropriately to specific social and
emotional demands of the profession. Initial teacher education should also
consider potentially different motivational profiles among individuals who
chose to pursue this career path. According to Richardson and Watt (2015),
different types of motivational profiles can respond differently to specific school
contexts and their level of professional commitment, responsibility and teaching
effectiveness can vary. Consequently, it is necessary to reconsider initial teacher
education programmes in terms of matching different profiles, different
interventions and support that would prepare pre-service teachers for the
demands of the teaching profession.

242
5. References
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career. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 37(10), 76-84.
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Aldrup, K., Carstensen, B., Köller, M. M., & Klusmann, U. (2020). Measuring teachers’
social-emotional competence: Development and validation of a Situational
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Convergence or Divergence in EFL Teachers’ and

Learners’ Beliefs on Using Smartphones in
Learning English: The case of Master1 Students -
University of Tlemcen (Algeria)
Fatima Zohra Belkhir-Benmostefa

University of Abou-Bekr Belkaid, Tlemcen, Algeria
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0075-8247
Abstract. The present study attempts to investigate Algerian EFL

teachers and learners’ outlooks vis-à-vis the use of smartphones in
learning English. The aim from undertaking this study is partially to
gain insights into the awareness of Algerian EFL teachers and learners
on the importance of integrating smartphones in EFL classroom and
partially to find out how much convergent and divergent Algerian
teachers and students’ beliefs are in terms of using smartphones in
learning English. The study sample consisted of 10 teachers and 30
students of the Department of English in Master 1 level who were
enrolled in the academic year of 2019-2020. Data were collected using a
questionnaire to examine the students’ beliefs on their use of
smartphones in learning English while semi-structured interviews were
conducted with teachers. Using the descriptive quantitative design, the
findings reveal convergence in teachers’ and students’ responses in that
they both show positive attitudes towards using smartphones in
learning English. This is because learning English with smartphones
results in more motivated students, increased exposure to English,
extended vocabulary and easier access to information regardless time
and place. Even though, a number of challenges were raised from the
part of both teachers and students including the small screen size of
their smartphones and slow network connections. On the basis of these
results, some pedagogical implications and directions were
recommended in the end.
Keywords: EFL; teachers; students, beliefs; smartphones
1. Introduction
Over the last few years a lot of research has been conducted on the way
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) can be used to support the
process of English language teaching for learners at different levels, and
particularly at the university level. Indeed, many educational practitioners are

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trying to develop innovative English teaching methods that can be employed to

satisfy the needs and demands of the new generation of students who are living
in a progressively globalized world as a result of the rapid spread of
technologies.
Today, it is an established fact that technology is widely employed for English

language teaching and learning throughout the world at all stages of education.
Typically the use of mobile technology for English language teaching and
learning does not appear to be restricted to any particular age group or any
particular educational program. Accordingly, educational practitioners and
learners are increasingly using ICT innovatively throughout the entire world. In
many contexts, learners are being exposed to a range of technologies, such as
computers, tablets, smartphones and so on in English Language teaching, and
Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) is not an exception.
The present study aims to raise awareness on some potential uses of

smartphones in the EFL classroom and the roles it can play in aiding the
processes of teaching and learning among Master 1 students at the University of
Tlemcen, in Algeria. In particular, the researcher’s purpose from undertaking
this study is to find out how much convergent or divergent are teachers’ and
students’ attitudes towards the use of smartphones in the EFL classroom.
Therefore, this study addresses the following research questions:
1. What attitudes do Master 1 students hold about smartphones use in EFL
learning?
2. What attitudes do teachers hold about the use of smartphones by Master
1 students in their EFL learning?
3. Is there convergence or divergence in Master 1 teachers’ and students’
beliefs vis-à-vis the use of smartphone in learning English?
Based on the above-mentioned questions, the following research hypotheses are

formulated:
1. Master 1 students may hold positive attitudes towards the use of
smartphones, in EFL courses.
2. Teachers may possibly hold negative attitudes towards their Master 1
students’ use of smartphones in EFL learning.
3. There might be divergence in teachers’ and students’ beliefs apropos the
use of smartphones in learning English.
In view of that, the study will basically try to investigate the extent to which
each of these hypotheses is valid or not based on the descriptive quantitative
analysis of both the students’ questionnaire and teachers’ interview. Yet, the
article continues with a literature review defining a smartphone and the benefits
of its integration in the field of Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
according to earlier research, followed by the roles and challenges faced by
teachers and students and lastly, discussion including didactic implications and
concluding remarks.

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In the following sections, literature review about the definition of smartphones,
advantages and disadvantages of using smartphones in the EFL context, and the
roles and challenges faced by teachers and students while using smartphones in
learning English are talked over.
2.1. Definition of Smartphones

A smartphone is generally defined as a sophisticated cellular telephone with an
integrated computer and other advanced and developed features that go beyond
making simple phone calls, or sending and receiving messages not originally
associated with ordinary mobile telephones. It is a small handheld device with
an operating system that allows the user to browse the Internet, to download
and run software applications as well. It also gives the capacity to display
photos, play videos, check and send e-mails (Merriam-Webster Dictionary – Last
Edition, 2019).
Furthermore, the smartphone is in essence a mobile phone that can be used as a

small sophisticated computer that gives the user the ability to connect to the
internet and use social media, to get live news updates, to play music and video,
and much more.
2.2. Advantages of Using Smartphones in the EFL Context

Today mobile phones provided with Internet capabilities are everywhere, a fact
that has enhanced their usage. Huge amounts of knowledge can be browsed on
the Internet, and smartphones are valuable means for acquiring that knowledge.
Smartphone technology is improving day after day, and smartphones are
becoming increasingly popular among all classes of society, and specifically
among people involved in education. Accordingly, Kevin Kimberlin stated that
“No other technology has impacted us like mobile phones; it is the fastest growing
manmade phenomenon ever, from zero to 7.2 billion in three decades" K. Kimberlin,
Chairman of Spencer Trask & Co, 2014, (cited in, Boren, 2014).
It is widely admitted today that these small handheld communication devices

are favoured by students and teachers as well. These have always exhibited
positive attitudes toward using smartphones as learning or teaching tools. This
is because, this device is seen as one of the best tools that can be used by
educational institutions as they present several advantages. For Muir-Herzig
(2004), smartphones enable their users to: find instantaneous answers to their
questions, have access to supported audio and video file formats which can be
used in the classroom; enlarge their learning environment as they allow them to
immediately connect with people from all over the world; make social learning
easy; provide students with the possibility to work in groups on projects and
therefore move together towards a common goal; record lessons in detail and
support or supply them with references, pictures and videos to enhance
retention; install amazing applications and hence make their lesson interactive,
visual and fun; take down notes and even to record reminders; share annotations and
reminders faster and easier as they can be used as paper and pencil. Besides those
benefits; smartphones have unique features that might not be found in other

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mobile devices in that they can supplement, but not replace, desktop and laptop
computers, tablets, and other learning tools because they are within the reach of
users any time they need them and can use them without any time-limit. In the
same line of thought, El Hariry (2015, p.299) acknowledges that ‘with the
mobility, availability and flexibility of these devices, students can learn at any
time and any place without the need for computer access and availability of
learning material’.
No one, however, can deny that smartphones have some disadvantages just like
the advantages mentioned above.
2.3. Disadvantages of Using Smartphones in the EFL Context

Smartphones can also have many disadvantages. To start with, Chartrand, (n.d.)
claims that smartphones may be extremely distracting for students as they may
not pay attention to what is being done in the classroom because smartphone
users are generally tempted to interact on social networks, such as Facebook,
checking their email boxes, or even playing games online. In this vein, Bllaca
(2016) confesses that ‘the use of mobile learning can be of any kind, but when it
comes to language learning, mobile learning technologies such as mobile phones
or smart phone is being used for various purposes’ (p. 305).Moreover,
smartphones may also be used for cheating in exams, like checking answers with
classmates or using the Internet to find solutions to exercises. In addition,
teacher and student’s privacy may be invaded at any time because anything that
happens in the classroom can be video-recorded and uploaded to any website
where video sharing is permitted. It is widely admitted by a large number of
practitioners of education (Sundari, 2015; Paulins, Balina & Arhipora, 2015) that
smartphones, when used inappropriately, can cause a substantial disturbance to
studying within the classroom. However, if the teachers use them suitably,
smartphones may turn into powerful instruments and resources in the
teaching/learning process.
Today, if used wisely, ‘mobile phones with internet connectivity can search
thousands of web pages and provide details of a high degree of accuracy to the
reader. They almost replace reference books and avoid the physical labor of
visiting the university library’ (Nalliveettil & Alenazi 2016, p. 264). In view of
that, students do not have to go to libraries and search for books in order to get
the information they need in any case because with smartphones, the
information students need can be gained with just some clicks on the screen of
their smartphones.
2.4. EFL Teacher’s and Learners’ Roles and Challenges in Implementing

Smartphones in EFL Learning
It is widely accepted that the great development of smartphone functions and
features nowadays have partially paved the way for English language educators
achieve results that were impossible some years ago and have partially helped
create greater opportunities for student engagement in learning. With the help of
this educational tool, teachers and students can together make the learning
experience more interesting and involving. Several researchers (Anshari, et al.,
2017; Norris, et al., 2011; Twum, 2017) have investigated the effectiveness of

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using smartphones in the teaching/learning process and found out that the use
of such instructional tools helped to increase the learners’ listening
comprehension and their motivation in the EFL situation, and hence boosting
their capacity to learn more and grasp knowledge easily. Similarly, Kukulska
(2015) conducted a research work on the use of smartphone applications with
English language learners and indicated that this instruction tool has the
capacity to significantly improve the listening comprehension ability of learners
and also enhance their motivation.
It is worth noting that through the use of smartphones, enthusiastic and creative
teachers can instigate a personalized learning environment, therefore
encouraging the students to be more active, independent and more autonomous
in their studies or research. In fact, these teachers consider that smartphones
have significant impact on English language learning because they offer EFL
learners the ability to learn anytime and anywhere (Zhang, Song & Burston,
2011). Teachers assert that mobile phones, particularly smartphones, help
learners to learn independently, and enable them to use varied sources at their
own pace. They also think that this device can be used for a variety of purposes
such as storing useful information, looking words up in dictionaries, having
access to websites on the Internet. Many of them believe that smartphones, if
used properly, will certainly improve the students’ English language skills,
because they are within the student’s reach at any time and can use them
without any time limit. Learners can use them for checking pronunciation and
using English words. In addition, materials related to grammar can easily be
accessed. Smartphones help students to record and memorize lists of words;
applications like WhatsApp helps students to form groups and contribute to
improving their writing, reading, and speaking skills. Moreover, these smart
devices provide easy, fast and efficient access to thousands of useful sources.
Most of them agreed to conclude that using smartphones appropriately for
language learning can contribute effectively to students’ English learning
processes.
For ensuring successful implementation of smartphone learning in the ELT

situation a number of factors should be considered. First, smartphones are due
to be used to support the pedagogical objectives of the classroom and
curriculum. In other words, these mobile phones must be subordinated to the
learning objectives and that teachers should not use the smartphone simply for
its own sake. Second, teachers should make smartphones accessible to all
language learners. To say it differently, smartphones must be used to meet the
learners’ educational needs and be applied in a variety of instructional activities.
Third, their use should be limited to educational purposes. In fact, a great
number of educational practitioners view smartphones as playing at least three
roles in the classroom: private instructor, teacher, and tool. The smartphone as a
private instructor presents exercises with some explanatory rules. Note that the
smartphone cannot actually replace the teacher because it is not intelligent and is
not capable of personalized or creative feedback. Therefore, the smartphone
should be looked at as a tool that supports teaching and learning in a wide
variety of manners. Last but not least, smartphones should be used efficiently.

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Indeed, language learners may acquire knowledge better and faster if they use
their smartphones in suitable ways.
All things considered make of smartphones possible means for individuals to

participate in developing, using or enjoying something jointly with others and
even interact with a potentially global audience in a highly organized manner.
Moreover, these mobile tools offer the possibility for autonomous language
learning by using some online spaces, like YouTube for example, through which
it is possible to share and discuss a whole range of facts (Benson & Chick,
2010).All in all, smartphones are recognized to offer the opportunity to greatly
enhance the teaching and learning processes in ELT in general and in TEFL in
particular.
3. Research Methodology
This section begins with a short description of the research method and subjects,
within which the study was conducted, followed by the data collection
procedure and analysis of data and lastly, discussion of main findings and
didactic implications and concluding remarks are put forward.
3.1. Method
To collect the needed data and gather useful results, the researcher analyzed a
number of surveys that appeared to be most research-based in the literature
(Kim, 2013; Yafei & Osman, 2016; Al-Hunaiyyan, Alhajri & Al-Sharhan, 2018; Al
Aamri, 2011) in order to design a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview
that deal with questions related to the use of smartphones in EFL learning.
Accordingly, the adopted method provides both quantitative and qualitative
data. In view of that, this method guarantees that this research study will be
more logical and reliable as the data will be supported by both quantitative and
qualitative data analysis.
In so doing, dada collected from the teachers’ interview together with those of
students’ questionnaire are going to be analysed per-dimension, namely
‘perceived usefulness’, ‘motivation’, ‘self-management of learning’, and
‘intension to use using’ by means of the descriptive quantitative method.
3.2. Research subjects

The present research was conducted with Master 1 teachers and students of the
Department of English at the University of Tlemcen. The two samples were
selected so as to detect how much convergent or divergent are the beliefs of
Master 1 teachers and students towards the use of smartphones in studying
English. For the purpose of carrying out the investigation, it was decided to
select a sample of thirty (30) Master 1 students (see Table 1), regardless their
specialty, and ten (10) Master 1 teachers (see Table 2).
Table 1: Students’ gender and age

Gender Frequency Percent
Male 9 30%
Female 21 70%

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Total 30 100%
Age Frequency Percentage
21 – 24 14 46.67%
25 – 28 8 26.67%
Over 29 2 6.67%
Total 30 100%
Table 2: Teachers’ gender and qualifications

Gender Frequency Percent
Male 6 20%
Female 4 46.67%
Total 10 100%
Qualifications Frequency Percentage
Doctorat 7 70%
Professorat 3 30%
Total 10 100%
3.3. Research tools

The investigator applied a couple of research tools, namely a questionnaire
intended for students and an interview for teachers, for the purpose of gathering
both quantitative and qualitative data.
The students’ questionnaire. It comprises two main parts. In the first part, there
were 14 items scored on a four-item Likert-style scale consisting of “Strongly
Disagree,” “Disagree,” “Agree,” and “Strongly Agree” (see Appendix 1). The
choice not to include a “Neutral” or “No Opinion” option was on purpose, as it
was deemed important to have a clearer measure of teachers’ and students’
perceptions on each item presented in the instrument. In this section, the
research subjects point to the level of their agreement and disagreement with the
statements regarding their attitudes towards using smartphones in improving
their English learning as far as perceived usefulness, motivation, self-
management of learning, and intention to use are concerned. The second part of
the questionnaire consists of three open-ended questions, including what
difficulties the research participants face when using smartphones in learning
English, some suggestions to improve their implementation and other comments
about the situation in question if any. It is worth mentioning at the end if this
section that the validity of the questionnaire in terms of its relevance, clarity, and
suitability was examined and checked by two experts in the EFL and
instructional technology field before being administered to students. In view of
the experts’ recommendations, the researcher made some revisions and
modifications accordingly.
The teachers’ interview. The interview is generally regarded as one of the main
research instruments that may be quite helpful in assembling data instantly from
the interviewee. The interview items and questions were the same of the
students’ questionnaire with the exception of using the expression ‘students’
English learning’ wherever and whenever the words ‘I, my, or me’ are used in
the students’ questionnaire (See Appendix 2). This was done for the purpose of
checking divergence and convergence between teachers and students’ beliefs. In

253
view of that, the structured interview type was used as the interview includes a
standard and pre-planned set of questions that the respondents were asked to
answer in a systematic way. The researcher sees it important to use the interview
with teachers instead of asking them to answer the questions in a questionnaire
form for teachers’ unavailability and time constraints.
4. Results
In this section, results of teachers’ interview together with those of students’
questionnaire are going to be analysed using the descriptive quantitative design
for the analysis of the quantitative data obtained from each dimension in the
first part of the teachers’ structured interview and students’ questionnaire. The
dimensions are perceived usefulness, motivation, self-management of learning,
and intension to use. Each dimension result is presented in a table.
A glance at the results obtained in the first dimension (Table 3) shows that
students and teachers perceived the usefulness of smartphones in learning
English. This is because, they believe that smartphones have the potentials to
increase students’ exposure to English learning and improve their vocabulary
knowledge.
Table 3: Perceived usefulness results

Teachers’ responses Students’ responses
SD D A SA Items SD D A SA
_ _ 70% 30% 1. Learning 10% 6.66% 73.33% 10%
through
smartphone
improved my
English learning
_ 10% 60% 30% 2.Smartphone _ 3.33% 6.66% 90%
helped me to
practice English
learning
anytime and
anywhere.
_ _ 80% 10% 3. I use my _ 3.33% 86.66 10%
smartphone
more than once
when learning
something in
English.
On the whole, the results gained from the items that tackled the motivation
dimension (Table 4) towards smartphones indicate that both teachers and
students think that smartphone have a good deal in raising students motivation
to English learning. In fact, the research informants believe that smarphones
have a propensity to increase students’ motivation when in learning English or
doing classroom assignments better than the conventional way.

254
Table 4: Motivation results

_ 10% 70% 20% 4. Smartphone use _ 10% 66.66% 23.33%
can motivate me to
learn English.
_ 40% 30% 30% 5. Smartphone can 20% 20% 46.66 13.33%
reduce my anxiety
in learning English.
_ 10% 60% 30% 6. I enjoy the 6.66% 10% 50% 33.33%
exercises through
my smartphone than
the traditional way.
By and large, the results presented in the third dimension (Table 5), namely self-
management of learning, indicate that students and teachers have positive
perception on smartphones efficacy in providing feedback and engaging
students to learn English even outside the classroom. This important finding is
consistent with the findings of the previous studies (Klímová, 2018; Han &
Gürlüyer, 2017). Yet, divergence between students’ and teachers was apparent
when it comes to evaluating students and using smartphones without the help
of their teachers. Similar findings are also found out by Elammari and Cavus
(2019) when investigating the factors affecting the students’ smartphone
purchasing behaviours when in mobile learning. Hence, success towards
shifting to a more self-management of learning should depend on teachers’
supervision and the learners’ willingness and intention to seek their self-directed
style of learning outside the classroom.
Table 5: Self-management of learning results

20% 60% 20% _ 7. Smartphone can provide 36.66% 13.33% 26.66% 23.33%
immediate feedback while
learning.
10% 10% 60% 20% 8. Smartphone can help me _ 13.33% 30% 56.66
manage my English
learning outside the
classroom.
10% 20% 70% _ 9. Smartphone can help me 13.33 16.66 10% 60%
evaluate my English
language skills outside the
classroom.
_ _ 80% 20% 10. Smartphone can help _ 10% 26.66 63.33
me learn a variety of
English vocabulary.
60% 40% _ _ 11. I believe I can improve 43.33 26.66 20% 10%
my English language skills
alone through my
smartphone without the
teacher’s help.

255
Generally, the results outlined in table 6 about the last dimension (intension to
use) emphasize the students’ willingness to carry on their use of smartphones in
their English learning further. The highest scores are on items 12 ( I would like to
practice other English skills using my smartphone) and 13 (I encourage others to
use Smartphone for English language learning).
Table 6: Intension to use results

20% _ 50% 30% 12. I would like to 3.33% 10% 70% 16.66
practice other
English skills using
my smartphone.
10% 20% 60% 10% 13. I encourage _ 10% 66.66 23.33
others to use
Smartphone for
English language
learning.
20% 50% 30% _ 14. I am satisfied 10% 33.33 46.66 10%
with using the
Smartphone for
English learning .
The thematic analysis method was used for the analysis of the open-ended
questions of the second part of both research tools. The qualitative analysis of
those data resulted in three themes, the latter are: issues in smartphone features,
technical issues, and distraction issues.
As to the area of smartphone features-related issues, both participants confessed

complains about the screen size of their smartphone. They explained that the
small size of the screen distract them while reading or looking for a specific
information in texts and essays. Others added that even typing is difficult seeing
that small size of their smartphone keyboard resulted in many typing mistakes
in the queries they write or the answers they give, a fact that make them retype
their queries and answers more than twice.
As far as technical issues are concerned, the research informants stated that they
met many problems when accessing the internet partly for the poor wireless
network services and partly for the lack of internet coverage. In addition to that
they complained about the loss of time when waiting for web pages to appear or
a docx. downloading to finish, otherwise they use their own internet
subscriptions to do so in order to gain some time.
In respect of the distraction-related issues, it was teachers who took the lion’s
part in arguing this issue. Teachers explained that the use of smartphones in the
classroom can impair the teaching/learning process during a lecture in that it
reduces students’ attention and concentration on course material. Furthermore,
they mentioned that they were generally frustrated when students use their
smartphones in the classroom as texting, tweeting, and snap chatting in class is
likely to happen and this can deeply distract students and therefore create a

256
difficult teaching environment. Teachers also persisted that students might use
them to access information while taking a test, therefore encouraging cheating.
From their part, students mentioned that their use of smartphones in the
classroom can be very upsetting especially when the phone rings in the class.
For them, this would be very disturbing since it can cause interruptions in the
teaching/learning process and sometimes a stop in the lecture. Some students
mentioned even that smartphones are at times responsible for extra stress and
frustration within the classroom especially when the task is unclear for them or
when they experienced a lack of internet access.
5. Discussion
The above results are important to help check whether the two hypotheses
proposed at the beginning of this research are valid or not. Regarding the first
hypothesis which specifies that Master 1 students may hold positive attitudes
towards the use of smartphones in EFL courses, the data collected from the
students’ questionnaire prove the validity of this hypothesis. The main research
findings indicate that students hold positive attitudes towards the usefulness of
smartphones in enhancing English learning in that they have agreed with all the
items involving the dimensions of ‘Perceived usefulness’; ‘Motivation’; and
‘Intention of use’. Similar results are found by Fernandez's (2018); Yafei and
Osman (2016); Chen (2016); Chen, Hsu and Doong, (2016); Liu and He (2015);
Rahimi and Soleymani (2015); Read and Kukulska-Hulme (2015). The only items
they disagreed with are two items in the dimension of ‘Self-management of
learning’ in which they consider smartphone use helpless in providing feedback
and improving their English language skills without the teacher’s help.
A propos the second hypothesis, which suggests that teachers may possibly hold
negative attitudes towards their Master 1 students’ use of smartphones in EFL
learning, the data collected from the teachers’ interview, likewise, indicate that
teachers are in favour of smartphone-based learning, a fact that confirms the
invalidity of the second research hypothesis. In reality, the interview main
findings demonstrate that teachers repeatedly showed agreement with the items
involving all the four dimensions in the first part of the interview while they
indicated disagreement only with four items: two in the dimension of ‘Self-
management of learning’; they are the same items students disagreed with, one
in the dimension of ‘Motivation’, it is n° 5 ‘Smartphone reduced students’
anxiety in learning English’ and another in the dimension of ‘Intension to use’; it
is n° 14 ‘I am satisfied with using the Smartphone for English learning .
With reference to the teachers and students’ answers to the open-ended

questions in the second part of the teachers’ interview and students’
questionnaire mutual responses were noticed between both research subjects not
only with smartphone features-related issues and technical issues but also with
the area of distraction-related issues. In fact, both of them admitted the fact that
smartphone can result in difficult teaching/learning environment in that
smartphones prevent teachers and students perform well enough in the class
due to lack of concentration and distraction caused by ring tones, stress, lack of
internet connectivity.

257
As regards the third hypothesis which reads “there might be divergence in

teachers’ and students’ beliefs apropos the use of smartphones in learning
English”, it is safe to say that the results of the above two hypothesis are enough
to decide about the invalidity of the third hypothesis seeing that there exists a
statistically significant convergence between teachers’ and students’ beliefs vis-
à-vis the effectiveness of smartphones in learning English.
6. Pedagogical implications
Some recommendations on using smartphones in EFL classes deserve to be put
forward:
- First, it is highly advocated to provide teachers and learners with special
counseling on the way to use smartphones appropriately in the classroom for
efficient learning. Indeed, it is worth noting that using smartphones in the
classroom does not necessarily mean that teachers lose control of the class as
long as they can control and monitor each and every student's usage and
activities on their mobile devices.
-Second, for smartphone use to be academically effective in EFL classrooms, it is
strongly recommended for teachers to create a personalized learning
environment, thus transforming the students into active and more autonomous
researchers.
-Third, with regard to the findings of the students’ questionnaire and teachers’
interview, it is suggested to better understand the mechanisms underlying the
teaching-learning process using mobile wireless devices such as smartphones
through a dynamic and interactive format.
7. Conclusion
All of these facts considered, it must be concluded that smartphones can be
beneficial and detrimental at the same time, depending on how to use them. The
findings of the present study suggest that smartphones are perceived positive
tools for learning English in the eyes of students and teachers alike; a fact that
indicates that the presence of smartphones in educational institutions,
particularly universities, should not be ignored. However, these findings do not
dismiss the hypothesis that smartphones could have negative impacts on
teaching/learning efficiency due to distraction. Yet, if used properly, teachers
and students together can easily create a convenient teaching/learning
environment seeing that smartphones are tremendously useful tools, with
incredible potential for communication, information and research; quick access
to educational applications; more exposure to learning English; and more
interaction, participation and cooperation among teachers and learners. It is
undeniable that no research involving human participants is ever without
limitations. The limitations that characterize the current study are related to the
random collection in Master 1 students in that the researcher did not decide on
one specialty in Master 1 level, but in any student in Master 1 level for the
particular circumstances caused by the breakout of Covid19 pandemic in the end
of the first semester of the last academic year. Another limitation of the study is
related to the data collection and analysis procedures and the relatively small
number of participants which limited the transferability to other educational

258
contexts. Future studies should focus on other research tools and methods as
well as ways to facilitate learners’ intentional behaviour toward using
smartphones so that they can develop the capacity to use them to increase their
learning effectiveness with the help of their teachers.
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Appendix 1:
Students’ outlooks towards using smartphones in learning English
Part 1:
Please read the items below and point to the level of your agreement and
disagreement with each one.
Items Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree
1. Learning through smartphone can
improve my English learning ability
2. Smartphone can help me to practice
English learning anytime and
anywhere.
3. I use my smartphone more than once
when in need of learning something in
English.
4. Smartphone use can motivate me to
learn English.
5. Smartphone can reduce my anxiety
in learning English.
6. I enjoye the exercises through my
smartphone than the traditional way.
7. Smartphone can provide immediate
feedback while learning.
8. Smartphone can help me manage my
English learning outside the classroom.
9. Smartphone can help me evaluate
my English language skills outside the
classroom.
10. Smartphone can help me learn a
variety of English vocabulary.
11. I believe I can improve my English
language skills alone through my
smartphone without the teacher’s help.
12. I would like to practice other
English skills using my smartphone.
13. I encourage others to use
Smartphone for English language
learning.
14. I am satisfied with using the
Smartphone for English learning .

261
Part 2:
Please read the questions below and provide a full answer to each.
1. What difficulties did you face when using smartphones for learning
English?
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. What do you suggest to improve the use of smartphones in learning
English?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Any further comments? Please add them here
……………………………………………………………………………………
Thank you for your time and collaboration

262
Appendix 2:
Teachers’ outlooks towards Using Smartphones in learning English
Part 1:
Please listen to each item and give the level of your agreement and disagreement
with each one.
Items Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly

Disagree Agree
1. Learning through smartphones can
improve students’ English learning
ability
2. Smartphones can help students
practice English learning anytime and
anywhere.
3. Students use smartphone more than
once when in need of learning
something in English.
4. Smartphone use can motivate
students to learn English.
5. Smartphones can reduce students’
anxiety in learning English.
6. Students enjoy the exercises through
their smartphones than the traditional
way.
7. Smartphones can provide students
immediate feedback while learning.
manage their English learning outside
the classroom.
evaluate their English language skills
outside the classroom.
learn a variety of English vocabulary.
11. I believe students can improve their
English language skills alone through
their smartphones without your help.
12. Students would like to practice
other English skills using their
smartphones.
13. I encourage students to use
Smartphone for English language
learning.
14. I am satisfied with students’ use of
smartphones for English learning .

263
Part 2:
Answering open-ended questions:
1. What difficulties did you face when using smartphones for learning
English?
2. What do you suggest to improve the use of smartphones in learning
English?
3. Any further comments?

264

Investigating Predictors of Academic Plagiarism

among University Students
Sumayah Goolam Nabee*, Joash Mageto and Noleen Pisa

University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9095-7978
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3678-2986
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8987-2590
Abstract. Academic plagiarism is increasingly becoming a challenge to

academic integrity worldwide, owing to the ease of access to free
information online. The aim of this paper was twofold; first, to ascertain
the perceptions of transport and logistics management university
students regarding academic plagiarism, and second, to determine the
predictors of university students’ plagiarism practices. A self-designed
structured questionnaire was developed to collect information from the
students of their understanding of plagiarism (UP), the plagiarism
practices (PP), the understanding of the university plagiarism policy
(UPP), the understanding of the departmental plagiarism policy (DPP),
the awareness of the university and departmental training workshops
(TOP), and the adequacy of the university and departmental training
workshops (AOT). Independent t-tests were computed for the differences
in plagiarism, based on home language and gender. Also, a one-way
ANOVA was computed to test if the year of study, the degree enrolled
for, and race, had an impact on plagiarism practices. Lastly, a regression
model was computed to determine the impact of the plagiarism
predictors on the plagiarism practices. The results of this study revealed
high-levels of the understanding of plagiarism, and an awareness of the
university and departmental plagiarism policies. However, an analysis of
the plagiarism practices revealed moderate levels of plagiarism,
indicating a likelihood of intentional plagiarism among students. Two
significant predictors of plagiarism practices among university students
were identified as; the understanding of plagiarism and the
understanding of the university-wide plagiarism policy. University
instructors and education managers are informed through the findings of
this study that clear plagiarism policies are important in reducing
academic dishonesty among students. It is important to continuously
train students on what plagiarism entails and how to avoid academic
dishonesty.
Keywords: Plagiarism understanding; plagiarism education; academic

integrity; higher education
*
Sumayah Goolam Nabee: snabee@uj.ac.za

265
1. Introduction
Plagiarism is an academic misconduct, which includes unethical conduct in
academic projects and intellectual dishonesty (Singh, 2017). Academic plagiarism
affects both students and academic practitioners across the globe (Mohamed,
Samat, Aziz, Noor, & Ismail, 2018). The internet with readily available data, is a
significant source of information that students plagiarize with ease, and
sometimes accidentally (Singh, 2017). Universities and other institutions are
currently relying on software, such as Turnitin and iThenticate, to detect any
similarity between the existing published texts available on the internet, and
students’ essays, dissertations or theses. These applications help to ensure the
originality of the submitted work. However, Singh and Remenyi (2016) argued
that the software programs are not likely to solve the problem, as they only detect
the degree of similarity with the freely accessible internet sources; yet in some
cases, students can circumvent these databases. Given the availability of online
ghost assignment writers, as well as readily available resources on the internet,
universities and other training institutions face a significant problem because
students sometimes plagiarize consciously and skilfully. The remainder of this
paper covers the literature review on academic plagiarism, the methodology,
results, discussion and conclusion.
Academic plagiarism is increasingly becoming a challenge to academic integrity
for the managers of academic programs, instructors, as well as for students. Bell
(2018)argued that academic plagiarism is a “crime” committed by using the works
of others and presenting it as one’s own work, without proper acknowledgement.
The academic plagiarism offense can affect students, faculties, institutional
reputation or any other individual, who presents the plagiarized work as original
(Bartley, Albert, & Liesegang, 2014; Bell, 2018). Academic plagiarism could be
viewed as being deliberate, and undermining the intellectual honesty of the
offenders (Babalola, 2012). Although plagiarism could be deliberate, it could also
be committed unintentionally by students, who do not know how to reference
correctly (Das, 2018). Intentional plagiarism is committed when students buy
papers online or hire someone to write term papers, and present them for
assessment as their own (Babalola, 2012). Plagiarism incidents among students are
on the rise globally (Hopp & Speil, 2020) . Babalola (2012) posited that this is
exacerbated by easy access to free online information. Babalola (2012) further
pointed out that students might desire to have good grades without investing in
sufficient study time, resulting in the pursuit of quick fixes, which increase the
chances of submitting plagiarized work.
McCabe (2005) reveals the findings of a survey of 83 universities across the US
and Canada where 68% of students admitted to collaboration on individual
assignments.. Other findings of significance include failure to cite when
paraphrasing or copying directly from written sources (63%), failure to cite when
paraphrasing or copying from internet sources(60%), and receiving assistance
from unauthorized individuals (37%).
In 2015, 50 000 students enrolled at British Universities, were found to have
plagiarized (Mostrous & Kenber, 2016). Similar observations were made by Chien

266
(2017) in Taiwan, Do Ba et al. (2017) in Vietnam, Baruchson-Arbib and Yaari (2004)

in Israel, and Arce Espinoza and Monge Nájera (2015) in Costa Rica. The nature
of plagiarism is wide-reaching but often underreported from many regions of the
world (de Jager & Brown, 2010).
Devlin and Gray (2007) indicate that the mass sharing opportunities the internet
presents are a stimulus for a student to consciously plagiarize, either due to
laziness or convenience. Students who confessed to plagiarism, cited limited time
and the need to meet deadlines (67%), the burdens of course work (62%), the
complicated nature of some assignments and tasks (56%), and the want for top
grades (56%) as factors that influence plagiarism (Eret & Ok, 2014).
Plagiarism does not only take place intentionally. Unfamiliarity with plagiarism
rules and regulations, the lack of training, and the absence of plagiarism
understanding justify some academic dishonesty and is termed unintentional
plagiarism (Elander, Pittam, Lusher, Fox, & Payne, 2010; Gullifer & Tyson, 2010;
Lankamp, 2009). Nevertheless, when the risk is perceived to be low, students often
think that intentional plagiarism and getting caught are negligible (Cleary, 2012;
Elander et al., 2010; Strittmatter & Bratton, 2016).
The high occurrence of plagiarism can additionally be linked to the fear of failure
(Devlin & Gray, 2007; Goh, 2015; Kent State University, 2014) and the pressure to
perform academically well (Bayaa, Ablordeppey, Mensah, & Karikari, 2016;
Dahiya, 2015; Goh, 2015; Hosny & Fatima, 2014). These reasons extend to financial
concerns (Devlin & Gray, 2007) and personal or family problems (Goh, 2015).
Following the 2015 survey of British universities, Ali (2016) found that 35% of
these cases involved students originating outside the European Union. To
categorize non-English speakers as being prone to plagiarism is weak even if
cultural perspectives, such as the approaches to language and learning, are
predispositions to students from Western institutions to plagiarize (Ehrich,
Howard, Mu, & Bokosmaty, 2016). Egan (2008) considered the establishment of
English adeptness and elementary writing skills in academia are key to non-
English speaking students’ understanding of plagiarism. However, Lund (2004)
argued the need for universities to recognize the role of cultural subtleties for non-
native English speakers and encompass these dynamics into plagiarism policies.
As higher education moves online and e-learning becomes more commonplace,
there is a misconception that distance education lends itself to plagiarism.
Irrespective of online or traditional learning environments, (Ison, 2014) found that
because students use the same research sources, there is no significant difference
in the propensity to plagiarize. The inclination to plagiarize may also be
determined by the type of assignment. (Youmans, 2011) concluded that when
guidelines stipulate the number of citations as optional, less plagiarism transpires.
It is therefore difficult to isolate definitive determinants of plagiarism in higher
education.
Existing academic literature identified a lack of proper training of undergraduate
students on academic integrity as one of the causes of plagiarism (Bell, 2018).
Students are given a list of ‘dos and don’ts’ regarding a high-level of academic
writing, without any embedded training on its integrity. Existing literature

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suggests that students are not provided with adequate information on intellectual
property rights nor the likely consequences of their violation for themselves or for
the university (Bell, 2018). Institutions of higher learning have plagiarism policies
but have not promoted them to students to discourage academic dishonesty, but
they rather encourage the development of academic writing skills (Babalola,
2012). Sometimes students lack self-confidence in conducting research and resort
to academic dishonesty when desperate. Bell (2018) found that, although the
internet has a plethora of information, which students are likely to use,
institutions have made little or no effort in training them on how to use internet
sources while maintaining academic integrity.
Based on the identified causes, it is observed that incidents of plagiarism are on
the rise, which is of great concern to institutions of higher learning. To counter the
increase in plagiarism, Bell (2018) recommended that universities should do more
than just promote citation mechanics by incorporating academic integrity in the
pedagogical approaches. In addition, plagiarism incidents among students can be
minimized by conducting tutorials all year round that help students sharpen their
information literacy skills, rather than holding once-off workshops (Babalola,
2012; Bell, 2018). Mohamed et al. (2018) asserted that plagiarism could be
minimized when institutions develop transparent and consistent frameworks for
preventing, detecting and penalizing offenders. On a global scale, plagiarism
incidents can damage the reputation of a university, where its graduates become
undesirable in the industry, thus, “it kills creativity, innovation and diligence”
(Babalola, 2012).
Across the globe, management related studies are popular among many
university students. Vast amounts of management related content are available
on the internet. The implication is that management students can easily access this
information from the internet, making plagiarism a significant threat to the
intellectual integrity of this group. Although the concept of plagiarism has been
examined in prior studies, discipline specific enquiries; including veterinary
studies in India (Singh, 2017), medical studies in Saudi Arabia (Alhadlaq,
Dahmash, & Alshomer, 2020); medical students in Pakistan (Javaeed, Khan, Khan,
& Ghauri, 2019); tourism and hospitality (Goh, 2015); nursing (Goodwin &
McCarthy, 2020); pharmacy (Mohamed et al., 2018) and business science (Quispe,
Núñez, Arias, Chávez, & Cara, 2019) have been carried out in different contexts.
However, there are limited studies on the perceptions of student plagiarism
among the management sub-discipline of Transport, Logistics and Supply Chain
Management. Therefore, this study sought to investigate the predictors of
plagiarism practices among such students, by them answering the following
specific questions.
1. What are the perceptions of academic plagiarism among Transport,
Logistics and Supply Chain Management university students?
2. What are the predictors of plagiarism practices among Transport, Logistics
and Supply Chain Management university students?

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3. Research Methodology
A quantitative research approach was used in this study. The quantitative
approach allowed for the collection of standardized data that helped determine
relationships between the academic plagiarism variables. A descriptive survey
design was most appropriate for this study, to completely describe and explain
the plagiarism phenomenon. The descriptive survey ensured that data was
collected from the lecture rooms in their natural form without any modifications.
The unit of analysis for this study was the students enrolled for transport, logistics
or supply chain management related modules at the time of collecting the data.
The target population was approximately 2000 students. The suitable sample size
at a 95% confidence interval was 322 students, in line with the guidelines provided
by Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2019). The sample size was considered
sufficient to allow for the generation of the required statistical analysis to answer
the research questions.
Primary data was collected from target respondents, who included 1st, 2nd, 3rd
and 4th year students at a South African university. A self-designed structured
questionnaire was developed to collect information from the students on the
following aspects: 1) their understanding of plagiarism (UP); 2) plagiarism
practices (PP); 3) understanding of the university plagiarism policy (UPP); 4)
understanding of the departmental plagiarism policy (DPP); 5) the awareness of
university and departmental training workshops (TOP); and 6) the adequacy of
university and departmental training workshops (AOT). The opinions and
perceptions of students regarding plagiarism of the listed areas mentioned above,
were collected using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree
to 5 = strongly agree. The questionnaire was piloted among a group of students
in the transport, logistics and supply chain management domain; to improve
clarity, certain items were revised. The questionnaire was distributed to the
students during the last 20 minutes of the lectures, these were completed
independently and collected at the end of the lecture.
Independent t-tests were computed to determine the differences in plagiarism
based on home language and gender. A one-way ANOVA was computed to test
how the plagiarism practices were influenced by the year of study, the degree
enrolled for and race. A relationship between the variables UP, UPP, DPP, TOP,
AOT and PP was tested. Further, a regression model between the variables and
plagiarism practices (PP) as an independent variable. The analysis was conducted
using SPSS version 25.
Scale reliability was tested for the latent variables to reveal internal consistency.
The Cronbach’s alpha for all the construct variables is illustrated in Table 1; all
reveal acceptable levels of internal consistency. The reliability results imply that
the items under each of the latent variables were measuring the same aspect as
expected.

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Table 1: Reliability analysis

Variable Cronbach’s
alpha
1) understanding of plagiarism (UP), 0.597
2) plagiarism practices (PP), 0.701
3) understanding of university’s plagiarism policy (UPP), 0.608
4) understanding of the department’s plagiarism policy (DPP), 0.725
5) awareness of university’s and department’s training workshops 0.681
(TOP),
6) adequacy of university’s and department’s training workshops. 0.752
(AOT)
Source: Research data
Of the 289 students, who completed the questionnaire, 45.7% were males, while
54.3% were females. The result of gender is an indication of more female than
male students in the South African universities supporting the country’s
population gender split (Evans, 2018). The respondents consisted of blacks and
whites at 74 and 14 percent. Indians and coloreds were 7.6 and 3.1 percent. While,
Asians made only 0.3% percent of the sample. The result of the degree enrolled
for indicates that the vast majority (76.8%) were logistics management students,
while 12.8%, 6.9%, 1.4%, 1.0% and 0.3% were enrolled for transport management,
marketing, information, retail, and hospitality management degrees and the rest
(2.4%) were in the other category. The results indicate that the transport, logistics
and supply chain modules are attractive to students enrolled for other
management related degrees. The sample comprised of 20.8%, in first year, 38.1%
in second year, 30.1% in year three and 11% were enrolled in the honors
programme. The majority of the respondents were second and third year
students, who had already received adequate training on plagiarism, implying
that the results obtained were valid.
4. Results
The mean statistics for each of the variables was calculated. These indicated that
the students perceived university and departmental training workshops to be
adequate (M=3.708; SD=1.186); understood the university’s plagiarism policy
(M=3.135; SD=1.112), as well as plagiarism (M=3.106; SD=1.268). In contrast, the
mean scores revealed that the students’ understanding of the departmental
plagiarism policy (M=2.813; SD=1.235), plagiarism practices (M=2.336; SD=1.205)
and awareness of university and departmental training workshops (M=2.115;
SD=0.769) was relatively low, as presented in Table 2. This could imply that as
much as the training takes place, its effectiveness is questionable. Table 2
illustrates the mean statistics of all the items included in the survey instrument.
Based on the mean scores of the students’ opinions, it is evident that students were
aware that ‘a passage copied directly from a source without proper citation’ is
plagiarism. The students were also aware of the university’s plagiarism policy;
they also consider the Turnitin application makes them more aware of plagiarism,
as illustrated in Table 3. The least important item according to the mean ratings
(M=1.87; SD=0.788 and M=1.56; SD=1.033) revealed that the students had not
attended the department’s workshops on plagiarism and were likely to continue
plagiarizing.

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Table 2: Students’ perception of plagiarism

Items MeanStd. Deviation
UP1 An assignment submitted with passages copied directly from a book or article without citation is considered plagiarism. 4.41 1.187
UJPP1 I am aware of the university’s plagiarism policy. 4.39 1.065
UP6 I am more aware of plagiarism because of Turnitin. 4.05 1.205
AOT2 A revision assignment will enable me to improve my academic writing. 4.04 1.149
AOT1 Academic writing should be offered as a first-year semester course as part of my curriculum. 3.96 1.342
UJPP2 I feel that the penalties for student plagiarism according to the university’s policy are fair. 3.85 1.127
UP5 Turnitin is a fair tool to assess plagiarism. 3.74 1.355
DPP2 I feel that the penalties for student plagiarism according to the department’s policy are fair. 3.60 1.111
DPP1 I am aware of the department’s policy on penalties for student plagiarism. 3.52 1.382
AOT3 Attending the university’s academic writing and plagiarism workshops has improved my academic integrity. 3.47 1.112
AOT4 Attending the department’s academic writing and plagiarism workshops has improved my academic integrity. 3.36 1.140
UP7 Paraphrasing is not plagiarism. 3.35 1.319
UJPP6 The penalties for student plagiarism are remedial. 3.19 0.986
UJPP5 The penalties for student plagiarism are punitive. 3.13 1.027
PP4 Plagiarism at the university is widespread. 3.09 1.148
DPP5 Compared to other departments, this department is not concerned with the use of Turnitin. 2.68 1.282
PP5 Using a paraphrasing tool enables me to get away with plagiarism. 2.65 1.221
DPP6 Other departments are not as concerned with plagiarism as this department. 2.51 1.236
PP8 Acting with academic integrity is difficult. 2.50 1.256
TOP2 I am aware of the various workshops offered by the university’s writing centre. 2.47 0.754
PP3 Students rarely plagiarise. 2.40 1.046
PP9 If I have knowledge that a fellow student has plagiarised, I will report it to my lecturer. 2.39 1.242
DPP3 I do not understand the penalties for student plagiarism according to the department policy. 2.38 1.137
TOP3 I am aware that the department offers good academic writing practices and plagiarism workshops. 2.29 0.803
PP1 I have previously knowingly plagiarised on an assignment. 2.27 1.395
UJPP4 I do not understand the penalties for student plagiarism according to the university policy. 2.24 1.286
UP4 I do not know how to reference a source. 2.22 1.253
DPP4 The department is not concerned with plagiarism. 2.19 1.262
PP6 Plagiarism is an accepted practice because of the competitive nature of academics. 2.09 1.291
UP3 Copying text directly from sources (books, articles, internet etc.) is a means for me to survive the academic world. 2.09 1.252
PP7 It is very easy to plagiarise without my lecturer knowing. 2.07 1.210
TOP1 I have not received any training on good academic writing practices. 2.05 0.710
UJPP3 I do not understand the university’s plagiarism policy. 2.01 1.178
TOP4 I have attended workshops offered by the university’s writing centre on academic writing. 1.91 0.788
UP2 Information on the internet is freely available and therefore it is acceptable to copy and paste passages without citation. 1.88 1.305
TOP5 I have attended workshops offered by the department on academic writing and plagiarism. 1.87 0.788
PP2 I will continue to plagiarise as long as I do not get caught. 1.56 1.033
Source: research data

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In this study, it was necessary to test whether or not there were any significant
differences in plagiarism practices based on home language and gender. The
results showed that there was a statistically significant t (287) = 2.356, (p=0.019)
difference in plagiarism practices between those whose native language is English
or other languages (see Table 3). This could imply that, since the language of
instruction in the university is English, non-English speakers (English not being
their home language) had difficulties writing assignments in English. There were
no statistical differences in plagiarism practices between the males and females,
implying that gender is not a factor in academic plagiarism.
Table 3: English language versus plagiarism practices
Levene's
Test for
Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95%
Confidence
Sig. Interval of the
(2- Mean Std. Error Difference
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
PP Equal
variances .003 .958 2.356 287 .019 .22984 .09754 .03785 .42183
assumed
A one-way ANOVA was conducted to test the likely influence of the year of study,
degree enrolled for, and race, on plagiarism practices as measured by UP, PP,
UPP, DPP, TOP and AOT (Table 4).
Table 4: One-Way ANOVA summary
Grouping Dependent I (Groups) J (Groups) Mean Significance
variable variable difference (p value)
(I-J)
Year of PP Second year Third year -0.358 0.018
study TOP Second year First year -0.324 0.003
UP Second year Third year -0.453 0.005
Degree UP Marketing Retail -1.800 0.011
enrolled management management
UPP Marketing Other 1.323 0.008
management
Race PP Black White 0.483 0.002
TOP Black White 0.244 0.040
Black Indian/Asian 0.318 0.043
UP Black White 0.408 0.039
AOT Black White 0.712 0.000
Using the year of study (first, second, third, fourth year, B.Tech and fourth-year
honors) as the grouping variable, the data revealed significant differences in
opinions between PP (F4, 284 = 4.505, p<0.05) and TOP (F4, 284 = 4.343, p<0.05) and
UP (F4, 284 = 3.797, p<0.05). Examining the multiple comparisons, the output
revealed that for PP there were significant differences between second- and third-
year undergraduate students. Second-year students held opinions that were

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significantly different from those of first-year undergraduates on the TOP

variable. Student opinions were also grouped as per the degree enrolled (that is,
logistics management, transportation management, marketing management,
retail management and others) and the differences tested using a one-way
ANOVA. The results revealed that there were significant differences in UP (F4, 284
= 4.773, p<0.05) and UPP (and F4, 284 = 2.957, p<0.05). Further examination of the
multiple comparison results indicated that the mean score of students enrolled for
marketing management was significantly different from that of retail
management and the other degrees. Based on race as a grouping variable,
significant differences were revealed in PP (F3, 285 = 5.665, p<0.05), TOP (F3, 285 =
5.282, p<0.05) and AOT (F3, 285 = 5.426, p<0.05). Specifically, there were significant
differences of the mean scores of black and white students on PP, TOP and AOT,
as well as black and Indians/Asians on TOP as illustrated in Table 4. In addition,
the degree enrolled for as a grouping variable, resulted in the highest mean
difference as illustrated in Table 4.
Factor analysis
An exploratory factor analysis was conducted on all the factors to establish the
underlying patterns among the scale factors. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of
sampling adequacy equaled 0.701, which is above the minimum acceptable value
of 0.6, implying that the sample was adequate for factor analysis (Pallant, 2013).
The Bartlett’s test of sphericity was statistically significant at 95% (p<0.05)
confidence level, indicating factorability of the correlation matrix (Pallant, 2013).
Six factors were extracted using the principal component analysis method. The
extracted factors explained a total of 60.26% of the total variance. The structure of
the extracted factors was observed after a varimax rotation (as illustrated in Table
5).

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Table 5: Rotated Component Matrix

Component
1 2 3 4 5 6
PP2 .726 .039 .194 .072 -.125 .141
PP7 .686 .112 .063 .117 -.107 .060
PP1 .663 -.104 .146 -.077 .106 .055
PP8 .578 .083 -.156 .327 .152 .147
PP5 .570 .013 .055 .244 .154 -.081
TOP5 -.022 .809 .006 .146 .023 .186
TOP3 -.093 .718 .058 .018 -.075 -.128
TOP4 .190 .699 -.051 -.184 .118 .149
TOP2 .086 .584 -.022 -.040 .315 -.217
DPP5 .055 .013 .858 .011 .040 .145
DPP6 .086 .009 .854 .128 -.002 .101
DPP4 .207 -.015 .560 .265 -.072 .128
UP2 .111 -.029 .148 .788 .018 .023
UP3 .315 -.001 .032 .649 -.101 .129
UP4 .032 -.001 .125 .549 .119 .124
AOT2 .131 .180 -.025 -.003 .844 .041
AOT1 -.058 .009 .009 .086 .835 -.004
UPP3 .079 -.035 .130 .190 .040 .850
UPP4 .146 .054 .238 .094 -.020 .817
Five factors loaded strongly to component 1, four to component 2, three factors

each to component 3 and 4, while components 5 and 6 had only two factors each.
Pallant (2020) recommends that retained components should have at least three
indicators; however, those with less than three can be retained if eliminating them
will negatively affect the content validity of the model. As such, the two factor
components were retained owing to their theoretical value to avoid having a
content deprived model. The extracted factors formed scales for PP, TOP, DPP,
UP, AOT and UPP as illustrated in Table 6. The scale factors were used to conduct
a multiple regression analysis.
Regression analysis model
The PP scale was selected as the dependent variable, while UP, UPP, DPP, TOP,
and AOT, were the independent variable scales. Before regression model is
developed, the data should meet the regression assumptions. Therefore, the
assumptions were test for normality. All the assumptions were satisfied and the

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data was ready for regression modelling. The correlations between the variables
were conducted and the results are illustrated in Table 6.
Table 6: Pearson correlations
Variables PP TOP DPP UP AOT UPP
PP 1.000
TOP .091 1.000
DPP .258* -.001 1.000
UP .388* -.010 .312* 1.000
AOT .100 .214* -.004 .062 1.000
UPP .263* .027 .360* .301* .024 1.000
Note: * Statistically significant at 95% confidence level

The strongest significant positive correlation is between UP and PP, implying that
plagiarism practices are impacted by the level of understanding the students have
regarding plagiarism and its impact. However, there was no significant
correlation between PP and TOP and AOT; thus these two variables were
removed from the regression model. Given that there were no independent
variables with high correlations above 0.700, multi-collinearity was ruled out, and
the data was fit for regression analysis.
Regression analysis was conducted with PP as the dependent variable and UP,
DPP and UPP as the independent variables. Regression analysis helped develop
the predictiveness of UP, DPP and UPP on PP. The resulting model’s R squared
of 0.184, reveals a weak predictive capability, as illustrated in Table 7. The results
imply that the model can explain 18.40% of the change in plagiarism practices.
Although, the model had a weak predictive capability, it reached statistical
significance (p<0.05) as shown in Table 8.

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Table 7: Model Summary

Change Statistics
Std.
Error of R
R Adjusted the Square F Sig. F Durbin-
ModelR Square R Square Estimate Change Change df1 df2 Change Watson
1 .430a .184 .176 .74761 .184 21.491 3 285 .000 1.796
a. Predictors: (Constant), UPP, UP, DPP; b. Dependent Variable: PP
Table 8: ANOVA
Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 36.034 3 12.011 21.491 .000b
Residual 159.290 285 .559
Total 195.325 288
Note: Dependent Variable: PP, Predictors: (Constant), UPP, UP, DPP
The beta values reveal that UP (0.314) had the strongest unique contribution in
explaining plagiarism practices in the model. UPP (0.127) makes a less unique
contribution, while DPP (0.114) makes the least unique contribution. Statistical
significance was observed to identify the variables that make a statistically
significant unique contribution. As illustrated in Table 9, only UP (p<0.05) and
UPP (p<0.05) made a statistically significant contribution in explaining the
plagiarism practices. As such, plagiarism practices are dependent on UP and UPP.
The model can be estimated as
𝑃𝑃 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1 𝑥1 + 𝛽2 𝑥2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . … … (1)
Where, PP = plagiarism practices, 𝛽0 , 𝛽1 and 𝛽2 are constants, and 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 = UP
and UPP respectively. Substituting the values from the model, we get.
𝑃𝑃 = 1.202 + 0.314𝑥1 + 0.127𝑥2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . (2)
Table 9: Coefficients
Unstandardized Standardized Collinearity
Coefficients Coefficients Correlations Statistics
Std. Zero-
Model B Error Beta t Sig. order Partial Part Tolerance VIF
1 (Constant)1.202 .139 8.629 .000
DPP .093 .048 .114 1.936 .054 .258 .114 .104 .825 1.213
UP .282 .052 .314 5.446 .000 .388 .307 .291 .862 1.160
UPP .094 .044 .127 2.166 .031 .263 .127 .116 .831 1.204
Dependent variable: PP

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The model indicates that an increase of 0.314 and 0.127 in UP and UPP
respectively, results in a unit improvement in student plagiarism practices. The
results might imply that the departmental plagiarism policy is ineffective in
influencing students’ perceptions of plagiarism. It would also mean that the
departmental policy has not been communicated effectively to the students.
5. Discussion of Results
The aim of the study reported in this paper was twofold; first to ascertain
university students’ perceptions regarding academic plagiarism and second, to
determine the predictors of plagiarism practices among university students. There
is a difference in perceptions based on the year of study, black and white students,
as well as the degree for which the students were enrolled. The differences
between the year of study might be as the result of the number of workshops or
training sessions that a student has attended and how they have perceived their
effectiveness; however, this was not within the scope of this study. The black
students are mostly non-native English speakers and may have challenges with
the language and that would influence their perceptions of plagiarism. The
differences across the degrees in which the sampled respondents were enrolled
might be explained by the variations on how departments implement the policies
on academic plagiarism.
The study established that the sampled students understood that plagiarism
involves direct copying from printed or online work without proper attribution
to the source. This might imply that some students, who engage in plagiarism, do
it intentionally (Strittmatter & Bratton, 2016) . However, there could be cases
where students plagiarize because they have language problems or they lack
proper academic writing skills. Some of the challenges associated with plagiarism
can be mitigated with adequate training of academic writing, as well as the use of
the writing centres’ services offered by the university. The views on the
effectiveness of the training of writing skills has also been fronted previously by
Bell (2018) and Babalola (2012), who found that the training of high-level writing
skills reduces plagiarism. Therefore, it is confirmed that students understand to
some extent what plagiarism entails, are cognisant of university-wide workshops
on plagiarism, as well as the policies, as established by Singh (2017). On the same
note, in cases where the students do not understand plagiarism, Babalola (2012)
recommended more effective and focused training as opposed to general
plagiarism awareness workshops. Bell (2018) argued that students in universities
could better understand academic integrity by the strengthening of library
learning commons.
The findings of the study also showed that students were aware of the university
plagiarism policy and acknowledged that the use of the similarity testing software
helped them improve their academic writing. Awareness of departmental policies
and training on plagiarism is recognized, although their effectiveness is not
known. Academic departments can enhance students’ writing skills when they
are proactive by incorporating the awareness of plagiarism in each module, in
addition to the university-wide efforts. Information gleaned from the data alludes
that university-wide, as well as departmental based plagiarism policies positively
enhance the understanding of plagiarism and deter students from engaging in

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such activities. Therefore, the presence of policies and guidelines, as well as

regular workshops, can help promote awareness and understanding of
plagiarism; this is a great step towards minimizing it.
Plagiarism practices in higher education is a concern to educators. As such, the
goal has been to establish the factors fuelling the practices to curb it. In
contributing to the discourse, two predictors of plagiarism practices among
university students were identified as the understanding of plagiarism and the
understanding of the university-wide plagiarism policy. Understanding
plagiarism involves appreciating what plagiarism entails, being conscious that
copying without proper attribution to the source is not acceptable, knowing how
to reference correctly, and appreciating the use of software to detect plagiarism.
Students are also expected to be aware of university-wide policies and penalties
relating to academic plagiarism. We argue that when students have the
knowledge of plagiarism, the policies and penalties to be faced if guilty, are likely
to impact positively on the plagiarism practices. This implies that the university
students would be forced to be more conscious of their writing skills and likely to
minimise academic dishonesty. The required level of understanding can only be
achieved through university-wide training workshops on plagiarism, including
the promotion of library learning commons (Bell (2018). Singh (2017) claimed that
the high prevalence of plagiarism can be reduced by teaching students how to
reference correctly and improve their analytical skills to be better academic
writers. Mohamed et al. (2018) argued that plagiarism can be fought successfully
by universities if only they formulate the right policies and laws governing the
processes and promote these to students and staff. The guiding principles, as
stated by Mohamed et al. (2018), are likely to create a positive behavior change
where students would want to avoid plagiarism by learning the best practices.
Prior studies identified other factors that fuel plagiarism; these include gender,
academic pressure, lack of comprehension of content knowledge, lack of support
from instructors and a lack of analytical skills (Jereb et al., 2018). Therefore,
educators in higher education should provide an environment that empowers
students to understand what plagiarism entails and how to avoid it, as well as
policies to guide them.
6. Conclusion
The major finding of this study was the identification of the predictors of
plagiarism practices. The predictors are identified as how well students
understand what plagiarism is, as well as the university-wide policies and
penalties on plagiarism. Policies are cross-cutting and when well-developed and
implemented are likely to instil academic discipline, as well as discourage
plagiarism. Based on the findings, one can assume that when students understand
plagiarism they are likely not to engage in it, and that policies act as a guide on
how to avoid it. Minor findings allude that the sampled students have an
understanding of what plagiarism is, are aware of university-wide policies on
plagiarism as well as the workshops on avoiding plagiarism. The understanding
is expected to go beyond merely copying without correct attribution, to include
aspects related to copying of ideas and presenting works that lack originality. The
understanding would also be as result of the efforts of the department through
workshops and relevant policies to guide students. Therefore, academic

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departments are called to do more to create awareness of plagiarism policies and

conduct workshops for students and staff as a way of developing non-plagiarism
behavior. In addition, non-plagiarism behavior could be developed effectively by
including plagiarism in teachings in every module to guide and create awareness.
The findings have implications for university managers. To achieve the level of
proficiency where university students do not engage in plagiarism, requires effort
from instructors but more from managers or administrators. For instance,
universities especially in non-native English regions, may have to invest in
writing centres, where students can get quick guidance on their writing. The
institutions must also invest in the best plagiarism detection tools, given the
increased use of the internet by students. In addition, university management
must create an enabling infrastructure where the policies regarding plagiarism
can be implemented smoothly to deter academic dishonesty among students. The
investments will allow universities to prevent plagiarism as opposed to curing it.
The study collected data from a single university, and at a single point in time.
Therefore, the findings and the conclusions made in this study, might not be
generalized to all universities. The study can be expanded by collecting data from
multiple universities and different regions or countries and to compare the
results. Another opportunity is available through a longitudinal study to get a
picture of how student perceptions on plagiarism change over time. A future
study might also explore how the internet influences plagiarism practices, as well
as the effectiveness of the existing policies on plagiarism.
7. References:
Alhadlaq, A. S., Dahmash, A. B., & Alshomer, F. (2020). Plagiarism Perceptions and
Attitudes Among Medical Students in Saudi Arabia. Sultan Qaboos University
medical journal, 20(1), e77-e82. doi:10.18295/squmj.2020.20.01.011
Ali, A. (2016). UK universities in 'plagiarism epidemic' as almost 50,000 studetns caught
cheating over last year. The Independent. Retrieved from
http://www.independent.co.uk/student/news/uk-universities-in-plagiarism-
epidemic-as-almost-50000-students-caught-cheating-over-last-3-years-
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Reimagining the Sustainable and Social Justice

Mathematics Classrooms in the Fourth Industrial
Revolution
Tshele J. Moloi
North West University –Potchefstroom Campus
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3533-2852
Mogalatjane E. Matabane
Sol Plaatje University, South Africa
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7953-6729
Abstract. In this conceptual paper, we provide some ways to think

about sustainability and a social justice approach to teaching of
mathematics in Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) classrooms. We
imagine the mathematics classrooms in 4IR not only to provide
sustainable education, but also to promote core values and qualities of
social justice. The teaching of mathematics for social justice is a
pedagogy that seeks to expose students to issues concerning power
between social groups. It is an approach to teaching that seeks to enable
students not only to maintain the status quo, but also to acquire the
necessary skills to challenge current practices and offer alternatives.
While there is an increasing emphasis on incorporating technology into
the teaching and learning of mathematics to produce educated citizenry
that will be able to function in 4IR, it is equally important that one
guards against unintended consequences brought about by 4IR and not
deny access to learners from a low socio-economic environment. Using
critical discourse analysis, the paper argues that, as we usher 4IR into
the mathematics classroom, one should also be mindful of the social
skills that constitute humankind. Social skills and human capital are
good foundations for understanding mathematical concepts, and critical
skills need to operate effectively and productively in 4IR. Moreover,
social skills such as persuasion and emotional intelligence are in higher
demand across industries and in education sectors than narrow
technical skills, which include, among others, programming or
equipment operation and control.
Keywords: Social justice; sustainability; Fourth Industrial revolution;

Mathematics teaching and learning

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1. Introduction
This conceptual paper attempts to reimagine the 21st-century teaching and
learning of mathematics in the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). The
conceptual research is a “methodology wherein the research is conducted by
observing and analysing already present information on a given topic” (Polit &
Beck, 2010: p. 2). Again, Gilson and Goldberg (2015), point out that conceptual
papers are without empirical data, the focus is on integration and proposing
new relationships among constructs. However, it should be noted “that
conceptual papers are not without empirical insights but rather build on theories
and concepts that are developed and tested through empirical research” (Gilson
and Goldberg, 2015:128). Participatory Virtual Community (PVC) was used
observing and analysing the present information. PVC is understood as a social
aggregation that emerges from the net when people carry on a public discussion
long enough, with sufficient human feeling, to form a web of personal
relationships in cyberspace (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Karim, 2019). Thus, as the
research methodology, PVC is compatible with 4IR, in the sense that it will
require new ways of thinking about technologies, thinking about ourselves, and
thinking about how we govern and teach collaboratively, wisely and with the
flourishing of humankind in mind (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Karim, 2019). It can be
noted that both PVC and cognitive science have become a widely discussed
concept describing social behaviour in sociology, business, management,
communication and other social sciences. Everyday technology opens
opportunities to create different kinds of content easily in the virtual space.
More and more data are generated for studying users’ attitudes and different
behaviours (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Stauba et al., 2015).
The mathematics classroom practices must be sustainable if the 4IR must realise
human potential and promote core values and qualities of social justice.
According to the Department of Basic Education (2011), Dowling (2013), Gerdes
(2009), and Le Roux (2008), mathematics is a human activity for all cultural
groups. Thus, for mathematics classroom practice to be effective and sustainable,
it is important that cultural practices and lived experiences of learners be
incorporated into our teaching and learning (Dowling, 2013). This view
demonstrates the need for social justice in the teaching and learning of
mathematics in the 4IR era, as it echoes that mathematics relates well to our
daily activities and cultural practices. Drawing from daily practices and cultural
orientations while teaching mathematics in the 4IR will alleviate the problem
where learners view mathematics as an ugly, dull, boring and monotonous
subject to learn, with having little application to their valuable sociocultural
background. In line with this argument, Le Roux (2008) asserts that it is critical
to use real-world and contextual problems in school mathematics to challenge
the beliefs by learners that mathematics is uninteresting and to make
mathematics relevant to one’s daily activities. The 4IR classroom has the
potential to bring social injustices, inequalities and make the subject not
accessible to underprivileged people.

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2. Problem Statement
It well documented in South African history that schools serving black rural
students were systematically deprived quality education to keep them out of the
modern economic sector (Khuzwayo, 2005; Maringe & Osman, 2016). Access to
mathematics or careers that require mathematical knowledge has been exclusive
and not accessible to all (Fiske & Ladd, 2004; Setati, 2001; Taylor, 2019). As such,
a major task in post-apartheid South Africa in 1994 was to promote racial equity
in education (Ladd & Fiske, 2006; Setati, 2001; Gamede, 2017). While post-
apartheid South African has done a lot in addressing social injustices in
education in general and mathematics education, the Fourth Industrial
Revolutionary has the potential to bring imbalances of the past, if not well-
managed. The 4IR can bring social injustices regarding the teaching and learning
of mathematics and students; black rural students may be re-denied the
opportunity to learn this important subject, as the content and approach are
divorced from their cultural orientations and daily practices. Hence, the paper
explores how to reimagine the sustainable and social justice mathematics
teaching and learning in the Fourth Industrial Revolution.
3. Pertinent Literature on mathematics for social justice in 4IR

Osman, Chuo, and Vebrianto (2013) argue that teaching mathematics that is
divorced from learners’ daily experiences contributes to social injustice in
teaching and learning, as that approach to teaching tends to limit learners’ access
to mathematics knowledge. D’Ambrosio (2017) and Häyrinen-Alestalo (2005)
further amplify this, stating that such kind of teaching creates an instability of
the inner and social peace of learners regarding the comprehension of
mathematical knowledge. Such instabilities can be illustrated by mathematical
knowledge that is out there, foreign to their thinking, and does not tap into their
social background. The ontology of mathematics is given by the discursive
realm of mathematics,” which have real existence in that domain and
mathematical discourse as a living cultural entity creates the ontology of
mathematics” (De Freitas & Sinclair, 2013:458). According to D’Ambrosio (2017),
mathematical objects are created by- made real by- the activities of
mathematicians. This is the basis of social nature of mathematics (Taylor, 2019).
This view is corroborated by Hasbi, Lukito and Sulaiman (2019) and Hersh
(1997) suggesting that “mathematical objects are created by humans not
arbitrarily” but from the needs of science and daily lives. He further argues that
mathematics objects are a distinct variety of social-history and special part of
culture (Hersh, 1997:22). Mathematicians often work together in groups on
problems that they deem important or difficult and, in that process, they depend
on other mathematicians to verify the correctness of their work and sometimes
competing. Thus, mathematical knowledge and practises of mathematical
community are negotiated and socially constructed (Martin, 2009; Bozkurt,
2017). This process of working together signifies that mathematics is a social
activity and the subject matter of mathematics is social.
To sustain social justice in the teaching and learning of mathematics,

mathematical knowledge must be inseparable from the learners’ cultural
background. 4IR mathematics teaching should refrain from happening as if
mathematical knowledge is out there in the world; unreachable, fixed, and made

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of discrete and irrefutable pieces of information or facts (Simms, 2016; Abaté &
Cantone, 2005). For instance, the teaching of concepts such as:
“Solve x and y simultaneously: 3𝑥 = 12 and 2y +𝑥 = 16”
is taught in a narrow way, where teachers follow fixed algorithmic rules that
must be learnt by heart, while no relevancy to their cultural background is
addressed. Such absolutist approach accepts that mathematics consists of
absolute and unchallenged facts and undermine the social responsibility of
mathematics in human affairs. This type of teaching of mathematical content
demonstrates a high level of the social injustices that both teachers and learners
had to endure in the teaching and learning of mathematics. The mathematics for
social justice acknowledges the subject as “product of human inventiveness and
a human activity”; (Stahl, 2013:168).
D’Ambrosio (2017) states the same argument, namely that once teachers,
mathematics educators and mathematicians start teaching mathematics,
something like a barrier or social injustices in the teaching of mathematics
appear and obscure their concerns. They continue to teach the way they were
taught and to do what they have always done. For them, their priority is to
publish their research in the best journals and prepare their students or learners
to get good grades by means of a variety of assessment tasks imposed upon
them with less consideration of to what extent the work is closer to or divorced
from learners’ lived experience, thus ignoring social justice in teaching and
learning of mathematics. In this way, social injustice in mathematics learning
prevails forever (D’Ambrosio, 2017; Piachaud, 2008; Volmink, 1994).
As argued elsewhere (Moloi, 2013), it is critical that culture and lived

experiences of learners be the starting point in our mathematics teaching, and
4IR classrooms should not be an exception. When children socialise and play
cultural and indigenous games, they not only learn mathematical concepts, but
they also develop a positive relationship with one another. Such games also help
to “develop the intellectual curiosity and emotional well-being of young
children” (Moloi, 2013:450). While there are contestations among researchers of
what constitutes high-quality learning and teaching of mathematics to children,
the provision and support of rich contextual play opportunities are at the centre
of the debates. From both researchers and policy makers, the provision of
opportunities for cultural plays is evident in the discourse on the intellectual and
emotional development in young children (Hedges, 2019); Carrington, 2020).
According to Panksepp and Biven (2007), one of the crucial roles of playfulness
in children is the maintenance of friendships, which are, in turn, crucially
important in supporting the healthy social and emotional development of young
children. Moreover, tapping from the cultural background of learners when
teaching mathematics helps learners to see that mathematics is not divorced
from their culture and that mathematics is a social activity, not just a bunch of
fixed and rigid rules where one must simply follow algorithms. When playing
cultural games, children not only learn the social skills of sharing, teamwork,
negotiating and resolving conflicts, but they also develop critical cognitive skills.
When singing cultural songs, or clapping hands, children start to understand

285
patterns, which is a key foundation of mathematics. As such, we need to cater

for this human element in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the 4IR.
Moreover, mathematics is considered as the key subject in addressing 21st-

century skills, such as “critical thinking, communication, collaboration and
creativity” (Osman, Chuo, and Vebrianto, 2013:136). These skills symbolise the
human elements. Again, these skills are embraced within technical and social
skills in 4IR. According to Yenicioglua & Suerdema, (2015:1447), technical skills
are characterised by “artificial neural network systems brought together in the
same way as neurons in the human brain; they are capable of decision-making
by using what they learn while encountering problems”. On the other hand,
human beings possess social skills, such as persuasion, emotional intelligence
and teaching others (Oosthuizen, 2016). These social skills are in higher demand
across industries and in education sectors than narrow technical skills, which
include, among others, programming or equipment operation and control
(Selamat, Alias, Hikmi, Puteh & Tapsir, 2017; Osman et al., 2013).
As a result, the mathematics community, which is not limited to teachers,

lecturers, tutors and learners, need to be clear about how these skills find a place
in the teaching and learning of mathematics in the digital classroom of the 4IR.
While Oosthuizen (2016:6) describes 4IR as the “technological advancement that
is increasingly transforming the world”, humankind finds itself in an age of
unprecedented digital technological progress, “which will continue to improve,
bringing about not only beneficial transformations to human beings, but also
socio-economic challenges and rooting out elements of humanness” (Osman et
al., 2013:18). Elements of humanness might include, but are not limited to
ubuntu, caring and other key soft skills that are not embraced by 4IR. Mostly,
these socio-economic elements challenge human elements, and are likely to
contribute to unsustainable and social inequalities and injustices in accessing
mathematics epistemics. Hence, it is important that as we usher 4IR into the
mathematics classroom, one should be mindful of social skills that constitute
humankind. Again, D'Ambrosio (2017), and Froyd and Ohland (2013) caution us
that we need to be aware of the past, when the teaching of mathematics
perpetuated social injustices such as inequity, arrogance and bigotry.
The social injustices manifest in mathematics teaching instructions such as

“factorise the given expression: 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥”. Such instruction is very arrogant,
because in the first instance, learners are not told why they must factorise, and
how this relates to their cultural backgrounds (Abaté & Cantone, 2005; Le Roux,
2008; Orrill, 2003). The main emphasis of the teacher lesson is only on the ‘what’
and ‘how’ part. Hence, the learners perceive mathematics as obsolete and not
relevant to their daily activities. This argument is in line with the opinions raised
by D’Ambrosio (2017), and Noble III and Morton (2013), namely that the type of
teaching and learning of mathematics is more concerned with attaining
predetermined goals of proficiency, which favour sameness and may lead to the
promotion of docile citizens and irresponsible creativity; of regurgitating the
raw content learnt through rote learning. Moreover, the way the assessment
tasks are designed supports the reproduction of the raw mathematics content, of
which such assessment tasks silence creative and critical thinking in

286
mathematics teaching. Most of the questions are pitched at a low cognitive level
of thinking. For instance, most tasks ask questions like, “solve the following
equations: calculate the value of; or simplify the following expressions”. These tasks
penalise creative thinking in mathematics. These are some examples of social
injustices that the teaching, learning and assessment of mathematics perpetuate.
On the other side, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM)’s

Principles and Standards for School Mathematics (Midgett & Eddins, 2016) and the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) (National Department of
Basic Education, 2011; Orrill, 2003), demonstrate that the teaching, learning and
assessment of mathematics must be done to promote a high level of critical
thinking. Midgett and Eddins (2016, p. 35) argue that NCTM principles state,
“The curriculum is mathematically rich, offering students opportunities
to learn important mathematical concepts and procedures with
understanding … Students confidently engage in complex mathematical
tasks … Students are flexible and resourceful problem solvers”.
Again, the National Department of Basic Education states that “To develop
problem-solving and cognitive skills. Teaching should not be limited to ‘how’ but should
rather feature the ‘when’ and ‘why’ of problem types. Learning procedures and proofs
without a good understanding of why they are important will leave learners ill-equipped
to use their knowledge in later life” (DBE, 2011, p. 8), of which the teaching,
learning and assessment rarely demonstrate these succinctly.
As D'Ambrosio (2017), Orrill (2003), and Froyd and Ohland (2005) argue, human
beings should not imitate machines; rather, machines should emulate humans.
Barsalou (2008) and Gerofsky (2016) illustrate this point that researchers use the
grounded cognition design, a human computer (HC), and computer modelling
with psychological and educational theories of learning. According to Barsalou
(2008), grounded cognition theory “proposes that modal simulations, bodily
states and situated action underlie cognition”. Grounded cognition agrees with
Mixed Reality (MR) and Embodied Mixed Reality Learning Environments.
According to Lindgren and Johnson-Glenberg (2013) and Johnson-Glenberg,
Birchfield, Tolentino and Koziupa (2014), respectively, there are no boundaries
between cybernetic and physical learning environments where, for example,
teachers and learners can use their bodies to simulate an orbit around a virtual
planet and learning environment. With this argument it is possible to re-imagine
the new way of teaching mathematics within the 4IR sphere, which can tap into
the physical and sociocultural background of learners, and which has a huge
wealth of knowledge (Yosso, 2005) in understanding complex mathematics.
In addition, Schwab (2016) points out 14 different strategies for multiplication of

integers, or why (-1) (-1) = +1, that 4IR in its scale, scope and degree of
complexity will be an exceptional experience that humankind has never
witnessed before. It is worth noting that 4IR holds unique opportunities to
improve human communication and conflict resolution. These conflict
resolutions in the teaching and learning of mathematics might include the
understanding of why only few learners excel in mathematics, why mathematics
taught in classes does not speak to our daily events (Dehaene, 2011), whereas

287
human infants and other-than-human animals develop high numeracy in their

brain (Dehaene, 2011; Gerofsky, 2016).
Furthermore, in unpacking a sustainable and social justice mathematics

classroom, the following key 4-type intelligence as described by Oosthuizen
(2016), namely contextual intelligence, emotional intelligence, inspired
intelligence and physical intelligence, which speak to social skills are needed in
the 4IR. Furthermore, artificial intelligence, advanced robotics, virtual reality,
and the internet of things – the more technical skills of 4IR – ought to be
encompassed in a new approach to accommodating 4IR. Oosthuizen (2016),
Dehaene (2011) and Johnson-Glenberg et al. (2014) consider contextual
intelligence among role-players in understanding and applying mathematics
content in relation to their daily contexts and its relevancy to them. Emotional
intelligence includes the affective domain of role-players, who are not only
limited to teachers, lecturers, tutors, learners, and community members.
Emotional intelligence allows various role-players to relate with one another,
such that their thoughts and feelings are well harnessed in creating new
mathematical knowledge, unlike the social injustices and ills that objectify
participants in the teaching and learning of mathematical content knowledge
(Weldeana, 2016). Again, considering inspired and physical intelligences,
Oosthuizen (2016), argues that it deals with how those around us and the
physical environment motivate each one of the role-players to realise a common
goal. Also included are digital systems that interact with humans to achieve the
expected outcome. This will assist in achieving an understanding of
mathematical concepts through visual and multisensory engagements with
learning technologies, and much more (Gerofsky, 2016).
4. The theory guiding the study.

This paper is guided by the Participatory New Product development (PNPD) as
the framework. Participatory NPD by nature is integrative, collaborative and
democratic, and takes social contexts into account in developing new products
or process. Participants and users’ needs, desires, images and feelings for
crafting new products are embraced within technological design elements. All
processes of Participatory NPD acknowledge participants’ other roles in society,
such as being a citizen, a parent, an employee, a community member, or a
member of a global village with a sustainable future for the planet. Again,
Participatory NPD allows all participants (including marginalised stakeholders)
“to bring their own perspectives to the interactive relational exchanges in a
naturalistic context” (Kasperiuniene, 2014; Stauba, Karaman, Kaya, Karapinara,
& Güven, 2015).
Nur Kareelawati (2018) adds that Participatory New Product development

allows virtual and physical interactions of different role-players in the teaching
of mathematics. Griffin, Dodds and Rovegno (2012) argue that often, for some of
the role-players, like learners and parents, mathematical knowledge is
marginalised. The system of education gives teachers authoritative powers that
regard learners’ minds as blank slates, of which their sociocultural context is not
considered in learning mathematics (Morin and Franks, 2009). Dehaene (2011)
agrees with Charalambous (2008), namely that learners and parents’

288
mathematical knowledge is not recognised when one teaches mathematical

concepts such as functions. Teachers can use indigenous games (Moloi, 2013),
when teachers and parents play a key role in learners’ mathematical knowledge.
Oosthuizen (2016) posits that contextual intelligence embraces the sociocultural
background in inspiring a high level of mathematical thinking.
In the context of this paper, for instance, Advanced Human-Machine and Mixed
Reality (MR) (Lindgren & Johnson-Glenberg, 2013; Vara, 2006), interfaces of the
4IR should allow the teaching and learning of mathematics be flexible and
interactive in addressing the teachers and leaners’ needs. The paper maintains
that 4IR is a mixed reality (Lindgren & Johnson-Glenberg, 2013; Johnson-
Glenberg et al., 2014) to be grappled with through the creation of sustainable
learning environments within the context of a 21st-century mathematics
classroom. As mathematics is conceptualised as a human activity, this
theory/framework will incorporate the diverse learning of learners from various
communities, especially the ones from low socio-economic strata. In some
instances, past revolutions happened to marginalise their mathematics
knowledge creation (D'Ambrosio, 2017). Also, their social contexts were not
used to create sustainable learning environments. Rather, 4IR must embrace the
participants’ need and feelings in understanding mathematics key concepts,
unlike where 4IR will perceived as denying access to mathematics to learners
from low socio-economic strata.
5. Discussions
Learners usually regard the teaching of mathematics as uninteresting, obsolete
and useless (D'Ambrosio, 2017; Weldeana, 2016; Abaté & Cantone, 2005). These
assertions made by learners about the teaching of mathematics are largely
logical, as the content is mainly divorced from the world within which they
operate. For argument’s sake, learners are given mathematics problems such as
the following to work out:
𝟑 𝟐
Work out the sum of the following mathematical expressions: 𝟒
× 𝟑
=? 𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝟏
𝟒÷ =?
𝟑
As an explanation to the above expression to the learners, one will often hear
responses where the teacher recites the algorithmic rules or definitions to work
out the answer. It is common practice that the teacher will confidently sing, “To
get the results of the above mathematical expression, you just multiply
numerator by numerator, and thereafter multiply denominator by the
denominator.”
He/she does not provide clear justification why these rules or definitions are
applied so rigidly and should be followed to the letter (Abaté & Cantone, 2005;
Froyd & Ohland, 2013). Such an approach to teaching mathematics, divorcing
mathematics from social practices, denies learners the opportunity for creativity
and imagination, the very core goal of learning mathematics. About imagination,
Mann (2006, p. 236) cites one of the great mathematicians, Augustus De Morgan,
stating that “The moving power of mathematical innovation is not reasoning but
imagination.” He conceptualises mathematics as a fluid domain, not a fixed

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body of knowledge to be mastered, and the essence of such fluidity is the

creative application of mathematical knowledge in solving problems. This view
is also shared by Gustlin (2002), suggesting that learners would not struggle so
much with mathematics if the teaching were sensitive to political injustices and
incorporates cultural and social contexts rich in creativity and imagination. To
develop the mathematical creativity and imagination, changes in the classroom
practices are necessary and it is critical to draw from learners’ lived experiences
in our teaching and learning of mathematics.
It is then important that mathematics teachers need to show an element of social

justice by elevating the environmental and cultural background in making
mathematics content easily accessible to diverse learners. Thus, the teaching of
mathematics in the 4IR era should curtail these socials ills in the teaching and
learning of mathematics. D'Ambrosio (2017) demonstrates that 4IR operates
within multiple intelligences, for instance, emotional intelligence, spiritual
(cultural) intelligence and many others, which should include the nature of
mathematics. He further argues that as one teaches numbers to learners, one
needs to be mindful of the fact that behind those raw numbers there is a human
being who has emotions and feelings. Most importantly, as the public is aware
of the achievement gaps from the plethora of studies, we should be more careful
that 4IR does not take us back to the long history of mathematics being accessed
by people from a certain socio-economic class. It is critical that mathematics
teaching in 4IR promotes increased participation and achievement in students
who historically have been marginalised by the former South African school
system (Abaté & Cantone, 2005; Orill, 2003). Our mathematics classroom in 4IR
should strive to reflect social justice, equality and education, rather than
maintaining the status quo.
Thus, teaching of mathematics in the 4IR must resonate within the

transformative perspective of teaching mathematics; that is, moving from the
traditional or Platonist approach to the Crichton approach (Abaté & Cantone,
2005). According to Weldeana (2016) and Abaté and Cantone (2005), these
transformative perspectives conceptualise mathematics as the product of social
processes and social skills.
Thus, the re-imagined teaching of mathematics in the 4IR must take cognisance
of the unjust past of teaching and learning to move into the sustainable future,
which views mathematics as a human activity. D'Ambrosio (2017) coins the
sustainable future of teaching mathematics for the 4IR as the “new world order”,
which is urgently needed, and that will embrace humanness by its nature; a new
world order that will not deny and exclude the cultures of the periphery
(D'Ambrosio, 2017; Orrill, 2003), which was so common in the colonial process,
and still prevails in modern mathematics classroom society. In addition,
Gerofsky (2016) argues that cognitive science brings together various disciplines
that allow suitable new ways of teaching mathematics in a respectful way and
address the social injustices embroiled in mathematics teaching. Among others,
but not limited to, these disciplines that drive the 4IR include computer science,
artificial intelligence, psychology, sociology, mathematics, mathematics
education, philosophy of mind, anthropology, neuroscience and linguistics, and

290
many more. This suggests that as we move on to 4IR in the teaching of

mathematics, we need to avoid situations where human beings are objectified.
In maintaining mathematics cognitive justice to the 4IR, it is essential that

technical skills be augmented with strong social and collaborative skills (Selamat
et al., 2017; Dehaene, 2011) possessed by human beings. Again, Barsalou (2008)
contends that grounded cognition embraces modal simulations, bodily states
and situated action, which are helpful in making sure that mathematics is a
human activity. Even human infants have a sense of this numerosity
(Dehaene,2011). Since the advent of 4IR, it is imperative that the combination of
both human and machines competencies is realised. This argument is intensified
by Rubin (2017) making an assertion that it is good that computers obtain the
ability to think like human beings, but humans should not think like computers,
because computers do not have the social skills capital of human beings (Rubin,
2017). Human beings do guard against unintended consequences brought about
by 4IR. Subsequently, proactive solutions can be embarked upon, as guided by
the sustainable developmental goals (SDGs). These SDGs are the key pillars in
assisting to address the education, societal and climate change issues, to mention
but a few SDGs.
Furthermore, Selamat et al. (2017:22) and Brahim and Dahlan (2019:1109) define
Advanced Human-Machine (AHM) interfaces as “the method of teaching and
learning for modelling and simulation of the real situation.” As we participate in
virtual spaces; that is, teaching and learning in the digital mathematics
classroom that embraces 4IR, teachers and learners need to embrace social justice
values that acknowledge one’s humanness. Humanness is displayed when
interaction takes place between machines and human beings (Asllani, Ettkin &
Somasundar, 2008) in the learning and teaching of mathematics in the 4IR. As
pointed out by Rubin (2017), it is crucial that as we teach and learn mathematics
in the 4IR, human beings should not imitate machines. This paper will also
demonstrate how these social skills need to be achieved as we teach and learn
mathematics in the cyberspace classroom, of which the cyberspace is
characterised by Oosthuizen (2016). At the same time, one should take care not
to lose the human capital. Human capital, including social skills, forms a good
foundation for understanding the mathematical concepts that are needed in the
4IR.
6. Conclusion and recommendations

The 4IR teaching and learning of mathematics should recognise the social nature
of mathematics teaching and learning. In the 4IR, teachers should not only pay
attention to what mathematics is taught and how it is taught but develop critical
pedagogies to start questioning what form of power and authority is used to
determine what is taught. In the mathematics class, learners should be equipped
to understand issues of social justice through the learning of mathematics and
not just be happy with algorithms and technology. In the 4IR classroom,
students should develop a kind of political and social awareness and be able to
see humanity beyond the numbers and use mathematics as a tool to explore and
analyse injustices in society. Thus, mathematics teaching in 4IR should disrupt
the inequalities in the discourse that legitimate other forms of knowing and

291
tends to subjugate the rural epistemologies and perpetuate injustices in the

mathematics knowledge system.
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Efficacy of Teachers’ In‐Service Training for

Increasing Their Knowledge of Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder in Eastern Region, Saudi
Arabia
Tareq Melhem*
King Faisal University, Hofuf, Al-Ahsa, KSA
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6748-1967
Abstract. The study aimed to assess the effectiveness of a training

programme in increasing teachers’ knowledge of Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in the Eastern Region of Saudi Arabia.
The sample comprised 124 teachers from schools in the said region, and
these teachers were divided into two groups: (1) experimental group with
62 teachers and (2) control group with 62 teachers. The quasi-
experimental approach was employed for collecting data; the Cognitive
Awareness Scale of ADHD (Melhem, 2020) was also employed. It consists
of 37 items distributed into three domains, namely, general knowledge,
characteristics and diagnosis and treatment. Results revealed that the
effectiveness of the training programme in increasing teachers’ ADHD
knowledge was in favour of the experimental group. Moreover, no
statistically significant differences were observed in the increase of the
levels of ADHD knowledge amongst the teachers in the experimental
group due to the variable of teaching experience. That is, the levels of
ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental group are the same
according to their teaching experience. In sum, the training programme
significantly increased the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from
the experimental group. Moreover, educational institutions in Saudi
Arabia should include ADHD training programmes in teacher-training
curricula in Saudi Arabia.
Keywords: ADHD; in-service training; teachers
1. Introduction
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a developmental biological
disorder that is characterised by abnormal growth behaviour with deficits in the
inhibition of behaviour, constant attention, resistance to distraction and self-
regulation (Rief, 2016). ADHD is one of the most persistent and divisive childhood
* Corresponding author: Tareq Melhem; Email: tmelhem@kfu.edu.sa

296
diseases and has gained considerable attention in the past thirty years from
scientists, the public, and the media (Melhem, 2020; Rief, 2016). ADHD is also the
most frequently diagnosed mental disorder in children of school age. The fifth
edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5),
which is the official source for diagnosing ADHD, indicates that the prevalence of
ADHD ranges 3%–7% amongst schoolchildren(American Psychiatric Association,
[APA], 2013). In addition, DSM-5 emphasises that the rates of male infection with
this disorder are higher than those of females for approximately two to nine times.
DSM-5 also lists a number of symptoms that fall under the pattern of attention
deficit, motor activity and impulsivity to prove that these symptoms must
continue for at least six months with a degree that negatively affects growth level;
moreover, these children have problems with paying attention continuously and
diverting attention (APA, 2013).
Additionally, ADHD leads to impediments to core human life practices, such as

social relations, academic success, community, professional competence, and
personality; in specific, adherence to social norms, directives, and regulations.
(Barkley, 2015). Despite the fact that ADHD is a mental disorder, but usually first
diagnosed in the first years of early childhood, childhood stage, of adolescence
(APA, 2013), the preponderance of evidence suggests that 50%–65% of cases of
children born with this disorder continuously experience symptoms until
adulthood (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2015). ADHD has a huge effect on society as a
result of its economic implications; the pressure it imposes on teachers and
parents alike; unwanted educational and professional outputs; and the damage it
inflicts on the self-esteem of people suffering from this disorder. (Poznanski, Hart,
& Cramer, 2018).
Melhem (2020) reported that ADHD is prevalent at the global, regional and local
levels. However, statistical survey studies, which provide the prevalence
proportion of this disorder, are fewer than studies on other categories of people
with special needs in each western country. Such studies are also scarce in the
Arab world. Research indicates that the prevalence of the number of children
affected by ADHD globally expands. In 2013, APA indicated that the prevalence
ranged 3%–5% amongst schoolchildren (6–19 years old). Rowland et al. (2015)
revealed that the statistical survey estimates of their study have reached
approximately 15.5%, suggesting that 15.5% of American schoolchildren in grades
1–5 have ADHD in the diverse North Carolina County. The prevalence proportion
in Canada is between 5.4% and 14% amongst schoolchildren (Dilaimi, 2013).
However, in Britain and other European countries, the prevalence proportion is
1.8% amongst schoolchildren (Lazarus, 2011). At the Arab level, a clear dearth is
observed in accurate statistical survey studies for this purpose. Obeidat (2014)
indicated that the prevalence of ADHD in Egypt is between 4% and 20% of
schoolchildren (6–12 years old), whereas the prevalence proportion of ADHD
amongst Jordanian schoolchildren ranges between 5% and 10%. In Saudi Arabia,
the most recent studies conducted in the western part of the country show that
the prevalence proportion of ADHD amongst schoolchildren (6–12 years old) is
approximately 5% (AlZaben et al., 2018). By contrast, a survey conducted in the
eastern part of Saudi Arabia suggests that the prevalence proportion of ADHD
amongst 1,287 students is 16.4% (Melhem, 2020).

297
As a result, most teachers face a range of challenges when dealing with this group
of students who suffer from ADHD which make the situation helpless for teaching
in dealing with these challenges. Hence, they have no idea what method is best to
use for handling them; teachers sometimes resort to shouting at students to sit
down or to pay attention to the lesson; other times, teachers refer students to the
school principal, a social worker or a special education teacher to deal with them
(Obeidat, 2014).
However, referring students to the school principal may not work because these
students often return to exhibit behaviours that disrupt the educational process in
a classroom, leading to the annoyance of teachers and other students. Meanwhile,
referring students to a social worker or a special education teacher may lead to a
slight progress in their behaviours if such behaviours are controlled in the natural
environment, that is, the classroom where they receive their education with the
participation of a regular class teacher (Poznanski et al., 2018). As a result, many
teachers tend to wonder about the reasons why these students have these
behavioural problems and about the best methods to use to stop them or limit
their effects(Melhem, 2020).
As previously indicated, teachers must have sufficient knowledge about ADHD.

On one hand, teachers should know the definitions, reasons and characteristics of
ADHD. On the other hand, teachers must have a practical knowledge about how
to identify students; diagnosis instruments and their applications; and
intervention strategies, which can contribute to controlling their behaviours.
Therefore, the study aimed to show the efficacy of an in-service training program
in raising the level of awareness of teachers about ADHD.
As a remedial move, different ranges of treatment interventions are tailored to

assist handle the behavioural problems of individuals with ADHD. First is the
interventions with medical drugs, such as, Concerta and Strattera, which are
operative in reducing the essence symptoms of ADHD (Punja et al., 2016; Storebø
et al., 2015). Second is the interventions classified as psychoeducational and social,
both of which have been experimentally proven, including parent training and
school interventions for children with ADHD (Alkahtani, 2013; Kauffman &
Landrum, 2013). Parents’ training focuses on providing them with skills and
strategies in implementing behaviour control and management techniques,
whereas school interventions for ADHD pay attention to teachers’ training to use
behavioural reinforcement and punishment for managing classroom disorders.
Third is the academic interventions, such as adapting instructional materials to
accommodate students with ADHD (Vasko, Oddo, Meinzer, Garner & Chronis-
Tuscano, 2020). Fourth is the cognitive behavioural interventions, which generally
emphasise the development of the self-management skills of students (Forresi et
al., 2020; Ouellet, Beaulieu-Bonneau, Savard & Morin, 2019). These findings
highlight the positive effects of school interventions (from medium to large) on
the improvement of the academic and behavioural outcomes of children with
ADHD (Forresi et al., 2020; Prinstein, Youngstrom, Mash & Barkley, 2019; Vasko
et al., 2020).

298
With regard to the discussion above, these interventions and endeavours are
worthy in a valuable environment (the classroom) where students spend a long
time to learn and develop adaptive skills, which, in turn, facilitate personal
growth amongst social and academic students with ADHD (Poznanski et al.,
2018). Therefore, teachers often play a pivotal role in performing the tasks of
educational and behavioural interventions for students who suffer from ADHD
in the classroom (Barkley, 2015; DuPaul & Stoner, 2014; Shroff, Hardikar-Sawant
& Prabhudesai, 2017). Expectedly, teachers usually monitor the progress of
students after treatment even if such teachers fail to implement it (Al-Moghamsi,
2018). For example, doctors heavily rely on the observations of parents and
teachers to monitor the symptoms and side effects when children with ADHD
begin to take prescription drugs (Alkahtani, 2013; Dilaimi, 2013). Moreover,
teachers are responsible for implementing classroom management strategies,
which are designed to help students with ADHD to achieve social, academic and
emotional successes within the school environment (Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019).
Regrettably, results of previous studies indicated that teachers are perhaps
unqualified enough to effectively provide the necessary bolster to children with
ADHD due to limited training and ADHD knowledge (Alkahtani, 2013; Dilaimi,
2013; Melhem, 2020; Mohr-Jensen, Steen-Jensen, Bang-Schnack & Thingvad, 2019;
Rief, 2016; Soroa, Gorostiaga & Balluerka, 2013).
At the same time, teachers who have undergone ADHD training have high levels
of awareness and low misbeliefs about the disorder versus teachers who have not
been trained (Abed, Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014; Barkley, 2015; Mohr-
Jensen et al., 2019).
One of the greatest obstacles that stand in front of teachers to become capable of
meeting the special needs of these students who suffer from ADHD is the limited
knowledge about it (Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Melhem, 2020). Hence, teachers
must know the symptoms, behaviours and diagnosis targeted by interventions;
and the success of the school interventions for ADHD depends, to a large extent,
on teachers’ knowledge of the disorder (Alkahtani, 2013; Shroff et al., 2017). When
teachers’ levels of understanding about the disorder are low (in terms of its causes,
effects and consequences), the attempts to design intervention programmes
within the classroom fail to have significant positive impacts (Poznanski et al.,
2018).
Previous studies, which employed training programmes to increase teachers’

ADHD knowledge, are few. The first randomised controlled study of 49 teachers
from three schools in Karachi City, Pakistan tested the effectiveness of an
intensive five-day in-service training programme for two hours every day, which
aimed to increase teachers’ levels of ADHD knowledge; the results showed a
significant increase in their levels of knowledge (Syed & Hussein, 2010). Graeper
(2011) observed a significant increase in teachers’ ADHD knowledge after
exposing 35 teachers to a training workshop in New York City. Similarly, Sarraf,
Karahmadi, Marasy, and Azhar (2011) found an improvement in the levels of
teachers’ ADHD knowledge after they intervened in a two-day training
programme for 67 teachers in Isfahan City, Iran. Aguiar et al. (2014) conducted a

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study on 37 teachers in Porto Alegre City, Brazil and aimed to increase teachers’
ADHD knowledge through an intervention training programme for six hours for
one day. The results indicated a significant increase in teachers’ knowledge about
ADHD. In the western region of Saudi Arabia, Obeidat (2014) aimed to increase
the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge by conducting a training programme on
a sample of 80 teachers who were divided into two groups (experimental and
control groups). The effectiveness of the training programme in increasing the
levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge was in favour of the experimental group.
Lasisi, Ani, Lasebikan, Sheikh, and Omigbodun (2017) conducted a one-day three-
hour training workshop in Nigeria, with a one-and-a-half hour booster session on
ADHD two weeks later for 161 teachers; the training programme significantly
improved the knowledge and attitudes of the teachers in the intervention group
towards students with ADHD. Latouche and Gascoigne (2019) also conducted a
one-day two-hour training workshop on ADHD and self-efficacy for 274 teachers
in Australia. They found similar increases in ADHD knowledge, whereas the
increase in self-efficacy was modest.
Note that previous research was performed for increasing teachers’ ADHD
knowledge, and such studies were all conducted in non-Arab environments,
except for one (Obeidat, 2014), which was conducted in the Western Region of
Saudi Arabia. The practical implications of these studies were conflicting between
significant and slight increases in the improvement of the levels of teachers’
ADHD knowledge, including their apparent lack of training and low ADHD
knowledge in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia (Melhem, 2020).
Therefore, future studies must design effective interventions to train teachers for
increasing their knowledge about ADHD and for determining how they can
handle students with this disorder. That is, this research attempts to address the
gap between the theoretical and practical sides by contributing in a practical way,
particularly in guiding educators and educational policymakers in Saudi Arabia
to adopt practical steps regarding the in-service training of teachers related to
ADHD by providing a model of the training programme. The Saudi Arabia
environment is in essential need of such programmes in light of the infrequency
of experimental studies in the Arab region addressing the same problem as
previously mentioned. Moreover, the research proposes the inclusion of pre-
service training in the curricula of educational institutions by adding courses,
seminars and training workshops related to ADHD during university studies.
1.1 Purpose of the Study and Research Questions

The study seeks to determine the efficacy of an in-service training programme to
improve the level of knowledge of school teachers about ADHD. To the best of
the researcher’s knowledge, no study has been conducted in the Eastern Province
of Saudi Arabia for the same purpose. Hence, the following research questions are
put forward:
Research Question 1: Does the in-service training programme on ADHD have a
significant main effect on increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge when the effect
of the pre-test results in the ADHD knowledge scale is controlled?

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Research Question 2: Based on the post-test results in the ADHD knowledge

scale, are statistically significant differences present in increasing teachers’ ADHD
knowledge due to participants’ teaching experience when the effect of the pre-test
results in the ADHD knowledge scale is controlled?
2. Research Method and Procedures

2.1 Design
The research design is an overall strategy or an outline on how to conduct research
(Mills & Gay, 2019). The quasi-experimental design uses the pre-test–post-test
control group design. Leavy (2017) emphasised that experimental studies offer the
best proof on how something affects something else, and the best tests are double-
blind, randomised control experiments.
This study employs the quasi-experimental research design to examine the

research problem, the objectives of the study and the research questions for
obtaining an improved insight into the issues at hand. These considerations
emphasise the importance of using the quasi-experimental research design to
fulfil the objectives of the study and to ponder on the research questions, which
can be key to the solutions. This advantage warrants the use of this research
design in this study.
The main aim is to increase the ADHD knowledge of teachers through an in-
service training programme. An independent variable, which is the training
programme, and one dependent variable, namely, the levels of teachers’ ADHD
knowledge are also utilised, as illustrated in Figure (1) below:
Figure 1: Study design
Symbol (O1) indicates that a pre-test is conducted. (XT) refers to the teachers in
the experimental group who are exposed to the training programme on ADHD,
whereas (XC) refers to the teachers in the control group who are not. A post-test
is conducted, as denoted by (O2).

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2.2 Study Population and Sample

The study population consists of 450 teachers who enrolled in the summer
training programmes at King Faisal University during the academic year 2018–
2019 from public education schools in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Amongst
them, 124 volunteer teachers are purposely selected. These teachers are divided
into two equivalent groups: (1) the experimental group subjected to intervention,
with 62 teachers and (2) the control group not subjected to intervention,
comprising 62 teachers. The study individuals are distributed according to the
variable of teaching experience, as presented in Table 1 below:
Table 1. Distribution of study individuals according to the variable of teaching

experience
Experimental
Variable Category Control Group Frequency Percentage
Group
One to five
24 24 48 38.70%
years
five to 10
Teaching 23 23 46 37.01%
years
experience
Above 10
15 15 30 24.19%
years
Total 62 62 124 100%
One-way ANCOVA is used to adjust the differences between the means of the
pre-test scores of teachers from the experimental and control groups. Conducting
a parity analysis on the pre-test of the two groups is necessary to prevent the post-
test results from being affected. Note that one-way ANCOVA solves this possible
problem in case differences are observed during the pre-test between the
experimental and control groups.
2.3 Study Instrument

A scale, which was developed by Melhem (2020), is used to measure the levels of
teachers’ ADHD knowledge. This scale is an adaptation of a 37-item scale
previously developed by Sciutto, Terjesen, and Frank (2000) and is directed
towards teachers’ ADHD knowledge. However, a scale that measures teachers’
ADHD knowledge is prepared for educational situations normally faced by
teachers in schools. Melhem’s (2020) scale is translated into Arabic and developed
on the basis of the scale of Sciutto et al. (2000). He also benefited from other scales,
such as that of Jerome, Gordon and Hustler (1994) because he included studies on
teachers’ ADHD knowledge (Abed et al., 2014; Al-Moghamsi, 2018; Alkahtani,
2013; Anderson, Watt, Noble & Shanley, 2012; Dilaimi, 2013; Yarde-Leavett, 2018).
The scale has 37 items distributed over the positive and negative on three
domains, namely, general knowledge (15 items), characteristics and diagnosis
(nine items) and treatment (13 items). The scale also has acceptable validity and
reliability indications for the purposes of its use in the study. The value of the
reliability coefficient for the total scale is 0.891; the values of the reliability
coefficients for the first (general knowledge), second (characteristics and
diagnosis) and third (treatment) domains are 0.840, 0.780 and 0.796, respectively.

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2.4 Intervention
The training programme was developed and built on the basis of the theoretical
literature and previous studies related to ADHD (Aguiar et al., 2014; Alkhateeb &
Alhadidi, 2019; Barkley, 2015; Corkum, Elik, Blotnicky-Gallant, McGonnell &
McGrath, 2019; DuPaul & Stoner, 2014; Lasisi et al., 2017; Latouche & Gascoigne,
2019; Melhem, 2020; Obeidat, 2014; Poznanski et al., 2018; Prinstein et al., 2019;
Rief, 2016; Vasko et al., 2020). The aim of the training programme was to increase
the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge. It consisted of 10 training sessions for
five days, two hours per session. The training programme was delivered in
PowerPoint format. There was a time for questions and discussions throughout
the training session and at the end of it. The following subjects were covered by
the training programme: the importance of attention in the educational process;
factors affecting attention; misconceptions about ADHD; and the historical
development of the disorder, its definition and its prevalence rate. The causes of
the disorder (genetic, neurological and environmental), its patterns and
characteristics were also discussed. In addition, the programme covered methods
of evaluation and diagnosis of the disorder; for example, the most prominent
therapeutic interventions (behavioural, cognitive behavioural and medical) used
for children with ADHD, classroom management derived from classroom settings
for children with ADHD, tools that assist teachers in implementing ADHD
teaching strategies, models that provide strategies for classroom management and
video clips to facilitate learning. The researcher (Assistant Professor of Special
Education) conducted the training programme.
2.5 Procedure
The necessary ethical approves were acquired from Ethical Review Committee at
The King Faisal University. The online training programme was announced as
part of the summer programmes offered by the Saudi Ministry of Education in
cooperation with the School of Education at King Faisal University for the
academic year 2018–2019. The teachers registered for the online training
programme. The pre-test of the ADHD knowledge scale was conducted amongst
the participants before the intervention (training programme), and the teachers
were divided into experimental and control groups. The intervention was
performed on the experimental group only by implementing the training
programme within approximately one week (five days, two training sessions per
day). After the intervention (training programme), the post-test of the ADHD
knowledge scale was conducted amongst the two groups (experimental and
control).
2.6 Data Analysis

One-way ANCOVA was used to adjust the differences between the means of the
pre-test scores of the teachers from the experimental and control groups; the
significance of the differences between the means of teachers’ post-test scores was
also determined to verify whether the in-service training programme increased
their ADHD knowledge from the pre-intervention phase to the post-intervention
phase (effectiveness of the training programme). Eta squared (η2), which was
obtained by following Cohen’s instructions, was used to identify the effect size of
the in-service training programme in increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge; note

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that ‘0.01 = small effect, 0.06 = moderate effect and 0.14 = large effect’ (Cohen,
2013). All assumptions were met for all statistical analyses.
3. Results
3.1 Results of Research Question 1
To address the first question, the means and standard deviations (SDs) of the pre-
and post-test scores of teachers (from both groups) on the ADHD knowledge scale
were calculated. The results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Means and SDs of the pre- and post-test scores of teachers on the ADHD
knowledge scale.
Scale Domain Group N Pre-test Post-test
Mean SD Mean SD
General knowledge Experimental 62 5.66 2.46 10.32 2.53
Control 62 5.85 2.62 6.69 2.48
Characteristics and Experimental 62 4.73 1.66 7.45 1.29
diagnosis
Control 62 5.15 1.64 5.74 1.57
Treatment Experimental 62 5.08 2.34 10.05 1.66
Control 62 5.03 1.86 6.60 2.31
Total test Experimental 62 15.47 5.50 27.82 4.50
Control 62 16.03 4.83 19.03 5.15
Table 2 shows that virtual differences were observed in the overall mean pre-test
scores on the ADHD knowledge scale between teachers in the experimental and
control groups. Such differences were also found in each of the three domains.
These differences were statistically adjusted using one-way ANCOVA. Table 2
also presents the virtual differences in the overall mean post-test scores on the
ADHD knowledge scale and in its three domains between teachers in the
experimental and control groups. One-way ANCOVA was used to determine if
the differences in the overall mean post-test scores of teachers from the
experimental and control groups are statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). ANCOVA
was also employed to statistically isolate the differences between the two groups
of the pre-test on the ADHD knowledge of teachers. Table 3 provides the results.
Table 3. Results of ANCOVA for the overall post-test scores of teachers on the ADHD
knowledge scale.
Scale Domain Source Sum of df Mean Calculated Sig. Partia
Squares Square Values (F) l η2
General Pre-test 0.249 1 0.249 0.039
knowledge Group 408.439 1 408.439 64.478 0.000* 0.348
Error 766.477 121 6.335
Corrected 1174.992 123
total
Characteristic Pre-test 1.205 1 1.205 0.583 0.000* 0.257
s and Group 86.534 1 86.534 41.879
diagnosis Error 250.021 121 2.066
total

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Scale Domain Source Sum of df Mean Calculated Sig. Partia

Squares Square Values (F) l η2
Treatment Pre-test 5.056 1 5.056 1.252 0.000* 0.430
Group 368.278 1 368.278 91.181
Error 488.719 121 4.039
total
Total test Pre-test 4.865 1 4.865 0.207 0.000* 0.458
Group 2399.993 1 2399.993 102.105
Error 2844.119 121 23.505
total
* Statically significant at the .05 level.
Table 3 presents the statistically significant differences between the mean scores
of the control and experimental groups on the post-test of the ADHD knowledge
scale and its three domains. The F values for the differences between the two
groups ranged between 41.879 and 102.105; both values are statistically significant
at p ≤ 0.05.
Therefore, the in-service training programme on ADHD has a statistically

significant difference in increasing the ADHD knowledge of teachers, in favour of
those subjected to such a programme. η2, where the total η2 on the ADHD
knowledge scale reaches (0.458), with a large effect size (1.14), was used to identify
the effect size of the in-service training programme on ADHD (Cohen, 2013).
Accordingly, 45.8% of the variances in the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers
from the experimental and control groups were due to the in-service training
programme conducted in this study.
The η2 for the three domains of the scale—general knowledge, characteristics and
diagnosis and treatment—were 0.348, 0.257 and 0.430, respectively. These results
indicated the effectiveness of the in-service training programme in increasing the
levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge amongst school teachers.
To determine the values of the differences in the overall mean post-test scores of
teachers from the experimental and control groups on the ADHD knowledge scale
and its three domains, the estimated marginal means of the post-test scores were
calculated for statistically removing the effect of the covariate. As a result, the total
adjusted mean of the post-test scores of teachers who received the in-service
training programme on ADHD was 27.83, whereas that of teachers who did not
receive any training was 19.02 (Table 4).
Table 4. Estimate marginal means of the post-test results of ADHD knowledge for
teachers who received the in-service training programme on ADHD and for those who
did not receive any training.
Test Domain Group Adjusted Mean Standard Error
General knowledge Experimental 10.32 0.32
Control 6.69 0.32
Characteristics and Experimental 7.44 0.18
diagnosis 5.76 0.18
Control

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Test Domain Group Adjusted Mean Standard Error

Treatment Experimental 10.05 0.26
Control 6.60 0.26
Total test Experimental 27.83 0.62
Control 19.02 0.62
In Table 4, the results of the estimated marginal means of teachers’ post-test scores
on the three domains of the ADHD knowledge scale are also presented. After the
pre-test effect was isolated, the adjusted means of the post-test scores of teachers
who received the in-service training programme on ADHD were 10.32, 7.44 and
10.05, whereas those of teachers who did not receive any training were 6.69, 5.76
and 6.60. It comes safe to say that the results revealed that the difference was in
favour of the teachers who received the in-service training programme on ADHD,
whose adjusted means were relatively higher than teachers who did not receive
any training. That is, the in-service training programme on ADHD has a more
positive effect on the increase of teachers’ ADHD knowledge than on that of
teachers without training.
3.2 Results of Research Question 2

To answer the second question, the means and SDs of the pre- and post-test scores
of teachers from the experimental group for the ADHD knowledge scale and its
three domains were calculated according to the teaching experience variable (one
to five years, five to 10 years and more than 10 years). This calculation determines
the significance of the differences between the mean scores of teachers belonging
to the experimental group. The results are shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Means and SDs of the pre- and post-test scores of teachers on the ADHD
knowledge scale due to the teaching experience variable
Teaching Pre-test Post-test
Scale Domain Experience N
Mean SD Mean SD
Variable
One to five 24 5.63 2.14 9.92 3.18
years
General Five to 10 23 5.04 2.87 11.13 2.07
knowledge years
More than 15 6.67 2.06 9.73 1.71
10 years
One to five 24 4.92 1.32 7.50 1.22
years
Characteristics Five to 10 23 4.09 1.98 7.52 1.12
and diagnosis years
More than 15 5.40 1.35 7.27 1.67
10 years
One to five 24 5.54 2.27 10.17 1.74
years
Five to 10 23 4.43 2.59 10.30 1.55
Treatment
years
More than 15 5.33 1.95 9.47 1.69
10 years

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Teaching Pre-test Post-test

Scale Domain Experience N
Variable Mean SD Mean SD
One to five 24 16.08 4.54 27.58 5.36
years
Five to 10 23 13.57 6.63 28.96 3.86
Total scale
years
More than 15 17.40 4.29 26.47 3.64
10 years
Table 5 presents the virtual differences between the mean pre-test scores of
teachers in the experimental group on the ADHD knowledge scale and its three
domains due to the teaching experience variable. These differences were adjusted
statistically by using one-way ANCOVA. Moreover, Table 5 indicates the virtual
differences in the mean post-test scores between teachers in the experimental
group on the ADHD knowledge scale and its three domains due to the teaching
experience variable. One-way ANCOVA was also used to determine if such
differences are statistically significant p ≤ 0.05 and to statistically isolate the
differences between teachers in the experimental group in the pre-test of scale.
The results are shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Results of the one-way ANCOVA test of teachers’ post-test scores according
to the teaching experience variable on the ADHD knowledge scale
Scale Domain Source Sum of df Mean F Sig.
Squares Square
General Pre-test 22.278 1 22.278 3.744
knowledge Teaching 34.033 2 17.017 2.860 0.065
experience
Error 345.097 58 5.950
Corrected total 391.548 61
Characteristics Pre-test 2.551 1 2.551 1.508
and diagnosis Teaching 0.273 2 0.137 0.081 0.923
experience
Error 98.121 58 1.692
Treatment Pre-test 5.389 1 5.389 1.996
Teaching 8.269 2 4.134 1.532 0.225
experience
Error 156.548 58 2.699
Total scale Pre-test 49.078 1 49.078 2.529
Teaching 86.755 2 43.378 2.235 0.116
experience
Error 1125.445 58 19.404
As presented in Table 6, no statistically significant differences existed between the

mean post-test scores of teachers from the experimental group on the ADHD
knowledge scale due to the teaching experience variable (one to five years, five to
years and more than 10 years). The F values for the differences between the three
categories of the teaching experience variable ranged between 0.081 and 2.860,

307
which were not statistically significant at p ≤ 0.05. That is, the improvement in the
levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge in the experimental group does not differ
according to their teaching experience. This result suggests that undergoing the
training programme affects the increase of the levels of teachers’ ADHD
knowledge with the same degree regardless of the teaching experience.
4. Discussion
The study seeks to assess the efficacy of an in-service training programme to
increase the level of knowledge of school teachers about ADHD. As expected, the
training programme increased teachers’ ADHD knowledge, and no statistically
significant effect of the teaching experience variable was observed on the increase
of teachers’ ADHD knowledge levels. Based on the total score and the three
subdomains of the ADHD knowledge scale, the training programme significantly
improved the levels of ADHD knowledge of teachers from the experimental
group from low to high. By contrast, those of teachers belonging to the control
group remained low. Consequently, the improvement in the total post-test scores
of teachers in the experimental group was higher than that in the total post-test
scores of teachers belonging to the control group, reaching 0.458 (according to η2),
which is a large effect size. This result indicated 45.8% of the variance in the levels
of ADHD knowledge amongst teachers from the experimental and control groups
due to the training programme conducted in the study. The η2 of each domain
was 0.348, 0.257 and 0.430, suggesting the effectiveness of the in-service training
programme in increasing the levels of ADHD knowledge amongst teachers. The
results described in this study are consistent with those in several previous
investigations (Aguiar et al., 2014; Bradshaw & Kamal, 2013; Graeper, 2011; Lasisi
et al., 2017; Latouche & Gascoigne, 2019; Obeidat, 2014; Sarraf et al., 2011; Syed &
Hussein, 2010), suggesting the effectiveness of in-service training programmes in
increasing the levels of teachers’ ADHD knowledge.
Such an increase might be due to the programme’s reliance on various educational

strategies and methods, such as dialogue, discussion and participatory learning.
Thus, the trainees took an active role, apart from being recipients of information.
The use of worksheets before the training session also helped in identifying the
topics to be discussed and in determining whether information was accurate.
Teachers then directed the procedures of the training session for correcting the
misconceptions amongst the trainees. The researcher evaluated what the trainees
gained during the training session by submitting worksheets at the end of each
session to determine the extent of their acquisition of the information provided.
Subsequently, corrective feedback on their responses was provided to the
trainees. The effectiveness of a training programme in increasing knowledge
about ADHD might be related to the use of modern educational technologies,
such as PowerPoint presentations and interactive video clips, both of which
helped in attracting the attention of the trainees, thereby facilitating the delivery
and clarification of information to them. Moreover, teachers’ desire to obtain
further information about ADHD might have played an important role in
improving their levels of ADHD knowledge, increasing their motivation to listen
and participate in the training programme session. The training programme
provided the trainees with practical solutions, which are applicable in the

308
classroom; these solutions encouraged them to focus on the content provided

during the training programme days.
The strengthening and expansion of the limited research were also highlighted;
such research has been investigating the effectiveness of the training programme
to increase the ADHD knowledge of teachers. To the researcher’s knowledge, this
study is the first to investigate the impact of a specialised training programme for
teachers on handling children with ADHD in the Eastern Province of Saudi
Arabia. Methodologically, certain limitations of previous studies were addressed
in the current research by involving a large sample and using a reliable measure
in terms of the indications of validity and reliability; doing so made the
programme coordination easily applicable and repeatable. A control group was
also formed for comparison. In sum, the training programme was effective in
increasing teachers’ ADHD knowledge. However, no statistically significant
effect of the teaching experience variable was observed on the results. That is, the
in-service training programme was effective in increasing the levels of ADHD
knowledge of all teachers from the experimental group despite the different years
of teaching experience amongst them.
5. Limitations and Further Research

Despite these favourable results, a set of determinants was considered. Firstly,
teachers who are interested in the summer training programmes facilitated by the
Ministry of Education in the Eastern Region were involved; particularly the
programmes offered in the academic year 2018–2019. Volunteers may find such
an involvement bias and therefore restrict the generalisation of findings to
teachers who are more likely than others to involve in programmes of this kind.
(Corkum et al., 2019). Secondly, only ‘teaching experience’ was the considered
study variable. Future studies must pay attention to other variables, such as
gender, specialisation and academic qualification. Thirdly, despite the
effectiveness of the training programme, the degree of ADHD knowledge
retention was unverified after the post-application of the study scale was
completed. This verification should be included in future research. Lastly, a
difference was found in the mean years of experience amongst the teachers.
However, the study failed to observe an effect of this difference on the increase of
teachers’ ADHD knowledge. Nevertheless, previous studies found that the
teaching experience variable has a positive relationship with knowledge (Abed et
al., 2014; Al-Moghamsi, 2018; Alkahtani, 2013; Anderson et al., 2012; Dilaimi, 2013;
Melhem, 2020; Pearson, Clarke & Chambers, 2014; Shroff et al., 2017; Yarde-
Leavett, 2018).
6. Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion has several beneficial effects on the practical field, despite the
abovementioned limitations. Intensive in-service professional development
programmes could be used to greatly increase the knowledge of ADHD teachers
which provides real support to resolve this proven gap in teacher training.
(Bradshaw & Kamal, 2013; Gehrman, 2013; Lasisi et al., 2017; Latouche &
Gascoigne, 2019; Obeidat, 2014). Moreover, all teachers in the sample have not
undergone training and have low levels of knowledge before applying to the

309
training programme. Therefore, professional development programmes must be

conducted during or before service to increase teachers’ ADHD knowledge,
similar to the programme developed in this study. Although this intensive in-
service training programme cannot substitute for the integrated and general
training in student behaviour management and for the strategies used in the
classroom, It can be an effective first step to help teachers better recognize and
reinforce the behaviours of children with ADHD by using evidence-based
approaches.
The research recommendations are arranged according to the results, as follows:

Firstly, future studies may assess the impact of the training programme on other
variables. Secondly, educational institutions should develop the positive attitudes
of teachers towards individuals with ADHD by preparing an integrated system
of procedures. Thirdly, the training programme can apply to different samples,
such as teachers’ pre-service. Fourthly, the actual training needs of school teachers
in the field of special education can be investigated. Lastly, the 124 teachers
involved in the study suggest a great need for training programmes within the
educational field. Although the years of teaching experience have no effect on the
levels of ADHD knowledge, an intensive in-service training programme is highly
effective in increasing such knowledge; hence addressing the established gap in
teacher training that prevents teachers from meeting the needs of students with
ADHD.
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Indexing and Abstracting

The International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational

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Editors of the December 2020 Issue

Reshaping the University Curriculum through the Visiting Lectureship ..................................................................... 70

Investigating Predictors of Academic Plagiarism among University Students .......................................................... 264

International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research

Analysis of Lesson Plans from Rwandan Physics

Abstract. Lesson planning is a crucial roadmap guiding the teacher before

Keywords: pedagogical document; lesson plan; physics teacher;

* Corresponding author: Kizito Ndihokubwayo; Email: ndihokubwayokizito@gmail.com

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

1.1 Research problem

1.2 Research questions

i) To what extent do physics teachers' lesson plans reflect on a

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2. Methods and Procedures

2.1 Sample scope

2.2 Data sources

2.3 Reliability analysis

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Table 1: LPAP scales (Ndihokubwayo et al., 2020)

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

The preliminaries (item1-9) got a reliability coefficient of .92 (and a weighted

Table 2: Interrater reliability statistics across LPAP elements

Alongside rate agreement among raters, Cohen's Kappa is used to remove

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

3. Data Analysis and Results

Table 3: LPAP mean scores from two raters

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Item16 TR in Development of the lesson 2.4 2.4 2.4 1.14

Active learning techniques (ALT) were mostly provided than formative

TR in Conclusion of the lesson

Scale1 Scale2 Scale3 Scale4

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Table 4: Descriptive statistics

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©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

4. Discussion of Practical Implication

Teacher 1 fully used group formulation in all LPs, where he emphasized on

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Teacher 4 planned to request students to interpret their results. This is very

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

of development and conclusion sections, the LP would be clearer and directive to

5. Conclusion and limitations

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

kurtosis in real data samples. Methodology, 9, 78–84. doi:10.1027/1614-

©2020 The authors and IJLTER.ORG. All rights reserved.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods. A Step by Step Guide to Scholarly

Appendix A: Pedagogical document reviewed

Table A1: Lesson Plans collected alongside the optics content