Principal of Industrial Instrumentation Compress

Principles of Industrial
Instrumentation
Third Edition
About the Author
Dipak Patranabis is presently Professor Emeritus, Department of Applied
Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, Heritage Institute of Technology,
Kolkata. Prior to that he was Professor and then Emeritus Fellow at Jadavpur
University, Kolkata in the Department of Instrumentation and Electronics
Engineering. An MSc (Tech.) and a PhD from the University of Calcutta, he
taught physics for a short period before joining Damodar Valley Corporation as
an Electrical Engineer. Then he worked as an Instrument Engineer in Guest, Keen,
Williams Limited, Howrah. He returned to teaching and research at Jadavpur
University, taking charge of the newly formed Department of Instrumentation
and Electronics. Dr Patranabis has authored over 150 research papers and six books in Instrumentation and
Electronics areas. He has guided many PhD research scholars and is still active in research and teaching.
He was the president of IIST for two years; editor, Journal of IIST for six years; and honorary editor of
the Journal of IETE for two years for the Circuits and System group. He has also received the lifetime
achievement award from the International Society for Automation (ISA), USA.
Principles of Industrial
Instrumentation
Third Edition
D Patranabis
Professor Emeritus
Department of Applied Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
Heritage Institute of Technology
Kolkata
Former Professor and Head
Department of Instrumentation and Electronics Engineering
Jadavpur University, Kolkata
Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

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Contents
Preface vii
List of Important Abbreviations xiii
List of Important Symbols xv
1. Characteristics of Measurement System 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Functional Units 1
1.3 Classification 2
1.4 Performance Characteristics 2
1.5 Dynamic Calibration 14
1.6 Errors: An Overview 16
1.7 Statistical Error Analysis 21
1.8 Reliability and Related Topics 34
1.9 Units 39
Review Questions 41
2. Displacement, Force, Velocity, Acceleration and Torque 43

2.1 Displacement 43
2.2 Force 65
2.3 Velocity, Acceleration and Torque 77
Review Questions 95
3. Metrology 97
3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Linear Length 97
3.3 Engineering Fits and Gauges 98
3.4 Limits and Fits 100
3.5 Limit Gauges 101
3.6 Dial Gauges 102
3.7 Comparators 102
3.8 Pneumatic Comparators 104
3.9 Electrical Comparators 107
3.10 Optical Methods 108
3.11 Interferometer 111
3.12 Measurement of Angle 112
3.13 Measurement of Area 115
3.14 The Planimeter 116
Review Questions 118
viii Contents
4. Pressure Measurement 120

4.1 Introduction 120
4.2 Manometers 121
4.3 Elastic Types 124
4.4 Bell Gauges 132
4.5 Electrical Types 133
4.6 Vacuum Measurement 142
4.7 Differential Pressure Transmitters 155
4.8 Sound Pressure Level Measurement 163
4.9 Acoustic Intensity 166
5. Temperature Measurement 168

5.1 Definitions and Standards 168
5.2 Techniques and Classifications 171
5.3 Temperature Measurement Using Change in Physical Properties 171
5.4 Electrical Type Temperature Sensors 180
5.5 Radiation Thermometry 208
5.6 Other Miscellaneous Methods 217
6. Flow Measurement 222

6.2 Head Types 223
6.3 Area Flowmeters 235
6.4 Mass Flowmeters 239
6.5 Positive Displacement Flowmeters 245
6.6 Electrical Type Flow Typemeters 247
6.7 Flow Marker and Other Miscellaneous Methods 265
6.8 Open Channel Flow Measurement 267
6.9 Solid Flow Measurement 267
6.10 Flow Switches 271
7. Level Measurement 274

7.2 Float Types 275
7.3 Displacer Types 279
7.4 Hydrostatic Types 281
7.5 Thermal Effect Types 286
7.6 Electrical Methods 289
7.7 Boiler Drum Level 302
7.8 Solid Level Measurement 303
Contents ix
8. Instruments for Analysis 306

8.2 Gas Analysers 308
8.3 Liquid Analysers 354
8.4 X-ray Methods 402
8.5 Chromatography 419
8.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 428
8.7 Electron Spin Resonance/Electron Paramegnatic Resonance Spectroscopy 433
8.8 Mass Spactrometry 434
8.9 Sampling Techniques 440
9. Digital Transducers and Related Topics 445

9.2 Digital Encodes: Disc Type 445
9.3 Linear Displacement Transducer 449
9.4 Digital Tachometer 451
9.5 Frequency Output Type Transducers 452
9.6 Other Miscellaneous Sensors 459
9.7 The Signals and Conversions 461
9.8 The Instrument System 466
9.9 Virtual Instrumentation 471
10. Telemetry 475

10.2 Pneumatic Means 475
10.3 Electrical Means 476
10.4 Frequency Telemetring 477
10.5 Multiplexing 478
10.6 Modulation 481
10.7 Modulation of Digital Data 484
10.8 Transmission Channels 486
10.9 Briefing of a Telemetry System in Operation 490
10.10 Wirless I/O 490
11. Display, Recording and Alarm 498

11.2 Display Methods 498
11.3 Recorders 507
11.4 Alarm Annunciation 517
11.5 Data Logging Systems 517
x Contents
12. Power Plant Instruments 520

12.2 The Power Plant Scheme 521
12.3 Pressure, Temperature, Flow and Level 525
12.4 Vibration and Expansion 528
12.5 Analysis 529
12.6 Flue Gas Analysis 532
13. Hazard and Safety 537

13.1 Initial Consideration 537
13.2 Enclosures 537
13.3 Intrinsic Safety 539
13.4 Prevention of Ignition 540
13.5 Methods of Production 542
13.6 Analysis, Evaluation and Construction 542
Appendix 546
Bibliography 550
Index 556
Preface
The third edition of the book is being released fourteen years after the release of the second edition. There
have been huge changes in the field of Instrumentation and Automation like all other disciplines of study
primarily due to advancing technology. However, advancement has widened application areas connoting
additions to be made to the study materials of the discipline—the existing ones have to remain as support
and base of the course. This work has also been accordingly revised.
Aim
Before the work of revision was undertaken, a thorough research in the syllabi of this discipline/subject at
different institutes across the country was initiated by the publisher. Besides, I had planned to introduce
certain topics as full chapters or parts of chapters to update the subject matter. The result of the combined
effort has been incorporated in the book, making it an updated volume useful for the students/researchers of
this discipline.
Target Audience
The work remains both as a text and reference for UG and PG students of engineering and science in the
college and university levels in the prescribed discipline of Instrumentation and Electronics. Coverage given
is also enough to cater to the needs of the other engineering disciplines. It is expected that the knowledge
base attained after the text is carefully studied would help in career building through requisite tests and
performance evaluation.
Roadmap for Various Courses

Students of the associated engineering disciplines may find it convenient to choose the topics and chapters
of their interest—those of chemical and metallurgical courses would find chapters 1–2, 4–8, 11, 13 as parts
of their course of studies; those of mechanical engineering discipline should study chapters 1–4, 6, 7, 9, 10,
12 and 13; civil engineers would be benefitted from chapters l–2, 4, 6–8, 10, 11. Electrical, Electronics and
communication engineering disciplines in most institutions provide courses in industrial measurements for
which chapters l–2, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 13 would be most suitable. Even the biomedical engineers can get enough
study materials in most of the chapters of the book. Chapter 1 is of general interest. Diploma engineers of
Instrumentation and Electronics, Electronics and Communication, Electrical engineering, Mechanical
engineering and Chemical engineering also would follow this book for a full course or a major part thereof.
Salient Features
The presentation format of the work has been retained which, to the author’s opinion, enhances the spirit of
learning, boosts up fundamental concept and provides in-depth theoretical and application-oriented study
materials arranged in a congruent manner.
∑ This edition has included a full chapter on Hazards and Safety in Industrial environment.
∑ A chapter on Metrology has been introduced widening the scope of study.
∑ Wireless I/O is a very modern topic and in industry it is coming very fast—its inclusion in the book
was therefore, imminent.
xii Preface
∑ Concept of Virtual Instrumentation System is given in this edition.

∑ Clark cell for oxygen analysis now enriches the chapter on Analysis.
∑ The now-accepted and widely used hydrastep method of measurement of boiler drum level has been
included as a part of a chapter.
∑ Shaft power measurement has been given a detailed coverage.
Organization
In the revision process—chapters 3 and 13 are entirely new additions; chapters 2 and 10 have been
extended; some materials describing recent developments have been introduced in chapters 6, 7, 8 and 9.
These are likely to have more impact on the readers in general. The additions are, as usual, complemented
with Examples and Review Questions. Chapter 9 of Edition 2 has now been dispensed with as the contents
of this chapter have widened to the extent that separate books are written on this topic. The book now
has thirteen chapters and an Appendix. Chapter 1 deals with characteristics of the measurement system in
detail. Mechanical variables like displacement, force, acceleration, torque, etc., are considered in Chapter
2. Metrology is the subject of Chapter 3—it is entirely a new chapter which covers all aspects of workshop
measurement. Chapters 4 to 7 cover measurement of pressure, temperature, flow and level respectively—
where perspective is primarily industrial but other aspects have also not been ignored. Chapter 8 describes
instruments for Analysis while Chapter 9 details out digital transducers and the related topic of Virtual
Instruments. Chapter 10 contains Telemetry Systems wherein wireless I/O is a new addition. Records,
display units, etc. are covered in Chapter 11. Chapter 12 retains power plant instrumentation. Chapter
13 is another new addition where Industrial hazards and safety are considered in reasonable details. The
Appendix provides some relevant data tables and symbols for PI diagrams with an example of a system
layout.
Web Supplements
The web supplements can be accessed at http://www.mhhe.com/patranabis/pii3e and contain the Solution
Manual and chapterwise Powerpoint slides for Instructors; and links to reference material and a chapter on
Microprocessor Based Instruments for Students.
Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the help extended to me by Mr Sugata Bandyopadhyay, General Manager, TCE,
Kolkata. I am also grateful to the following reviewers.
Sanjeev Ojha D Bandyopadhyay

College of Engineering and Technology Academy of Technology,
IILM Academy of Higher Learning Hooghly, West Bengal
Noida, Uttar Pradesh
Parikshit Paul
S N Jain Calcutta Institute of Engineering and Management
SSVPS B S Deora College of Engineering West Bengal University of Technology (WBUT)
Dhule, Maharashtra Kolkata, West Bengal
N B Hui P Kanaga Sabapathy

National Institute of Technology (NIT) Madras Institute of Technology
Durgapur, West Bengal Chennai, Tamil Nadu
Preface xiii
R Ananda Natarajan G Prakasham

Pondicherry Engineering College Proline Fitness
Pondicherry Medak, Andhra Pradesh
Feedback
I would be grateful to the readers if they provide feedback suggesting improvement of the work to me at my
e-mail id: dcpatranabis@yahoo.co.in.
D PATRANABIS
Publisher’s Note
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List of Important Abbreviations
AAS Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy MD Mean Deviation
AES Atomic Emission Spectroscopy MED Method of Extended Differences
AM Arithmetic Mean MLS Method of Least Squares
BS Beam Splitter MSD Mean Square Deviation, Method of
CRO Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Sequential Differences
DCD Data Carrier Detecter MTTF Mean Time to Failure
DME Dropping Mercury Electrode NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
DO Dissolved Oxygen ORP Oxidation Reduction Process
DP, D/P Differential Pressure PCM Pulse Code Modulation
ESR Electron Spin Resonance RTD Resistance Temperature Detector
FT Fourier Transform SAW Surface Acoustic Wave
GC Gas Chromatography SCE Saturated Calomel Electrode
I/O Input/Output UV Ultraviolet
IR Infra Red VIS Virtual Instrumentation System
List of Important Symbols

m Viscosity z Damping factor
Re Reynold’s number K, kB Boltzmann constant
R Gas constant s Standard deviation, Conductivity
r Resistivity, Density q Volume flow rate
C Specific heat l Thermal conductivity, Wavelength
t Time Constant v, f Frequency
w Circular frequency
Characteristics of
Measurement Systems
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The basic purpose of instrumentation in a process is to obtain

requisite information pertaining to the fruitful completion of the
process. The object of fruitful completion, in industrial terminology,
is obtained when process efficiency is maximum with minimum cost
of production and a desired level of product quality.
The information that may be available, sometimes indicate the
progress of the process in a very simple way involving, perhaps, a
1
direct relation. Such direct measurements are generally accomplished
by simple mechanical means. In the majority of the processes,
Chapter however, a direct measurement is not always possible and an indirect
measurement technique, involving a derived relationship between
the measured quantity and the desired result is adopted. The modern
trend, in the indirect methods of measurement, is to go for electrical methods which offer the possibilities of
high speed of operation, simpler processing of the measurand and adaptation to computer processing as well.
The types of information that are obtained may not always be in the form of a concrete value of a
measured quantity, i.e., the instrument may or may not indicate or record the measured value as such. It
might only transmit a variation of the value over a distance, or give a signal that a desired value has been
reached, or indicate a specific value with an indicating hand over a suitable scale. It might also produce
a written record of the variable against the time axis or even register the values in discontinuous steps
by what is known as counting. A single instrument might be required to perform any one of the above
operations individually or a number of them at a time.
Measurands in industrial units are basically physical variables which can determine the flow of energy in
these dynamical units. They may, then, be classified as (i) flow through or per variables, and (ii) across or
trans-variables. The former variables can be measured or specified at a single point in space whereas the latter
ones generally require two points—one acting as reference. Force, momentum, flow, charge, current, volume
etc., belong to the first group whereas displacement, velocity, pressure, temperature, level, voltage etc., belong
to the second group. It can be shown that all objects in a dynamical system do have a specific relationship
between a flow variable and an across variable. A brief discussion of this has been given in a later section.
1.2 FUNCTIONAL UNITS
Whatever an instrument may perform, it has to be composed of a number of building blocks. The appropriate
combination of these blocks in a measurement system is necessary for the proper functions of converting a
2 Principles of Industrial Instrumentation
process condition into a suitable indication. These building blocks, also sometimes called as the elements, are
only functional units. A generalized instrument system consists of three such functional units.
1. The primary element converts a small part of the process energy into a suitable form to be operated
on by the subsequent stages or elements. This conversion should contain the information regarding
the magnitude or otherwise of the measured variable. This element is also known as the transducer or
sensor.
2. The secondary element or the manipulating block converts the output of the primary elements into
a condition useful to the appropriate function of the instrument. This element also performs any
correction necessary due to the preceding operations. Converters, such as from electrical to mechani-
cal or analogue to digital; amplifiers, feedback arrangements, filters and many other parts form such
elements.
3. The final element, sometimes loosely spoken of as the display device, is the part of the instrument
used for performing the operations previously described such as indicating, recording, digital display,
print, etc.
The strain indicating system is a specific example. It is an electrical type instrument. The primary
element is the strain gauge, the secondary element consists of a bridge circuit and an amplifier, and the final
element consists of an electrical output meter, usually, a voltmeter.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION
An instrument, however, can be classified from a number of viewpoints. From the industrial engineering
viewpoint, the distinction between an automatic type and a manual type is quite important. The manual
type requires the services of an operator while the automatic type does not. From the viewpoint of system
design, a distinction between the self-operated type and a power operated type is more important, as the
provision for the power line layout should be incorporated in the design. In recent years a distinction based
on mode of operation is made—such as analogue and digital.
1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

All instrumentation systems are characterized by what is known as the system characteristics. If the system
is considered as a black box with an input side and an output side, three different types of characteristics are
to be considered, viz., (i) input characteristics, (ii) transfer characteristics, and (iii) output characteristics.
If the system consists of a basic functional unit only, all these three characteristics are of considerable
importance, as then the impedance levels, the ranges, etc., would affect the preceding or succeeding stages
after interconnection. In the present sequel, a generalized concept of these characteristics, considering the
measurement system as a single entity, will be presented. The performance characteristics of the instrument
will then be studied with respect to the input conditions. If the instrument is required to measure a condition
not varying with time, the characteristics are called static while for a time-varying process-variable
measurement the dynamic characteristics are more important. These characteristics, in general, determine
how far the measurements are valid.
1.4.1 Static Characteristics

The qualities of measurement of an unvarying process condition are stated in terms of accuracy,
repeatability or precision, and sensitivity. There are a number of related definitions such as linearity,
resolution, etc. After the more important and independent ones are discussed, adequate attention can be
given to the rest.
Characteristics of Measurement Systems 3
In connection with accuracy, one should also mention the importance of calibration. This generally
means a quantitative comparison of the instrument under test with a standard. Only proper calibration
can establish the accuracy of the instrument. Manufacturers specify the accuracy of an instrument in
terms of what is known as span. If the lowest and highest points of calibration are A and B respectively
of the instrument, then the instrument range is from A to B, and the span (SI ) is SI = B – A. Any statement
regarding accuracy such as accurate to within a%, in general, means ±a % of the span (B – A). It must,
however, be remembered that accuracy may be specified in terms of the range or units of indication as well.
The counter-term of accuracy is static error. In general, the situation of process condition measurement
by an instrument is symbolically written as
Vi – Vt = Es (1.1)
where Vi = instrument reading, Vt = true value of the variable, and Es = static error.
From the experimenter’s viewpoint, static correction (Cs) is more important than static error. The two
quantities are related as
Cs = – Es (1.2)
If the instrument consists of n number of functional units each with an accuracy limits to within ± a 1,
± a 2 , …, ± a n , the overall accuracy may be stated in two different modes. The least accuracy (LA) is a
pessimistic mode, for it keeps the provision that all units of the system may have the largest static error at
the same time and is given by
L.A. £ ± (a 1 + a 2 + … + a n ) (1.3)
A more reasonable definition is the root square accuracy (RSA) and is given by
R.S.A. £ a12 + a 22 + ... + a n2 (1.4)

Repeatability, reproducibility or precision is a measure
of the closeness with which a given input may be
measured over and over again. Sometimes a distinction
is made between repeatability and reproducibility in
so far as the reproducibility is specified in terms of
scale-reading over a given period of time while the Output (y)
repeatability is defined as the variation of the scale
reading and is random in nature. Figure 1.1 shows this
repeatability. The counter term of precision is drift.
Three different types of drifts are known (i) zero drift, +
– Repeatability
(ii) span drift, and (iii) zone drift.
If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to Input (x)
slippage, permanent set, or lack of warming up time as
in the case of electronic instruments, zero drift is said Fig. 1.1 Input-output curve with ± repeatability
to occur. This is avoided by zero correcting or zero-
setting. If there is a proportional change in the indication along the upward scale span drift is said to set
in. If the drift occurs only over a certain zone of the span, zone drift is said to occur. Drift is the real
problem in industrial instruments. Wear and tear, high stress developing at some parts, and contamination
of primary sensors are reasons for drift. Regular calibration at standard conditions is a check to rectify
this defect. Sensitivity may be defined as the ratio of the deflection of the pointer to a given change in the
measured quantity. This also means the slope of the input-output calibration curve. This definition clearly
points to the fact that the sensitivity can be increased by increasing the slope, but, unfortunately, this might
adversely affect precision. In an analytical balance, for example,

the sensitivity may be increased by raising the centre of gravity by
moving the sensitivity ball. However, if this operation is carried
out too far, the balance is likely to lose its reproducibility to a great
extent. In the light of the above, a new definition of sensitivity has
been proposed which is the ratio of the normally defined sensitivity
to precision. If the slope of the calibration curve changes as shown
in Fig. 1.2, a drift is said to be associated with the sensitivity. This
is also termed the sensitivity drift. There is little difference as such
between the sensitivity drift and the span drift defined earlier.
Another commonly used definition of sensitivity is the smallest Fig. 1.2 Representation of sensitivity
change in the measured quantity to which an instrument responds, in a nonlinear case
meaning thereby that there exists an input to which the instrument
does not respond. The maximum value of such an input is known as
the dead zone, dead space or hysteresis. Coulomb friction is often
attributed as the cause for such an effect. This friction can generate
a hysteresis loop as well. In such cases, input and output hysteresis
are well specified as shown in Fig. 1.3. In industrial measurements,
input hysteresis is more important.
There is correspondingly also a minimum value to which the
instrument is likely to respond. This is known as the threshold.
Every instrument is normally specified with a numerical threshold.
The threshold at any point in the calibration curve, other than the
zero point, is known as resolution.
In a measurement system we usually assume that the output is
proportional to input or the input-output relationship is linear. There
may, however, be a deviation from this linearity. Such nonlinearity
is specified either independently or in the proportional sense with
respect to input. In general, proportional linearity is a more stringent Fig. 1.3 Hysteresis curve
specification than the input independent linearity [see Figs 1.4(a) and (b)].
+
– x% FS +
– x%
FS FS
Ideal
y y
Actual
x x
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4 Effect of nonlinearity on output reading: (a) per cent full scale (b) proportional
Example 1.1 If the maximum deviation from linearity is input-independent and is speci ied as the per
cent of the full scale (FS), then for 1.5 per cent linearity with 10 per cent FS input, the limit is 15 per cent. But
for proportional linearity, with the same input, the limit is only 1.5 per cent and no more as shown in
Figs 1.4(a) and (b).
1.4.2 Dynamic Characteristics

If the instrument is required to measure an input which is not stationary and is likely to change from instant
to instant, the dynamic response behaviour of the instrument becomes more important. Measurement system
parameters such as mass, capacitances—thermal electrical or fluid, etc., introduce sluggishness in its response.
In practical processes, the variable or the input may be of any arbitrary time varying characteristics.
Study of the instrument characteristic to such arbitrary inputs is extremely difficult if not impossible. For
this reason some standard inputs are prescribed for determining the dynamic behaviour of the system.
These inputs, individually or together, are believed to be representative of the types of the commonly
known simple process variables. Besides, mathematical representations of these inputs or signals are
adequately known. These are (i) step input or step finite changes in the input, (ii) ramp input where the
measured variable changes linearly with time, (iii) sinusoidal input where the process condition varies
sinusoidally with a fixed amplitude, and (iv) impulse input which effectively is the derivative of the step
function. Even these specific functions are not that easy to simulate for all types of instruments. However,
mathematical modelling of the instruments can be made and these models with the prescribed inputs can be
analytically studied for deriving the dynamic (or the transient) characteristics. The dynamic characteristics
of importance are (i) fidelity, and (ii) speed of response.
Fidelity is the quality of indication by the instrument for a time-varying input. It is thus the degree of
closeness with which the output reproduces the time-varying input within a conversion factor. Its counter-
term is dynamic error which is the difference between the true value of the process variable and the
indication for zero static error of the system. Speed of response is the rapidity with which the instrument
responds to changes in the input. The delay in the process is known as the lag. This, therefore, is the
counter-term of speed of response.
When the dynamic error and lag are known for different types of inputs the instrument is readily
corrected in the actual measurement procedure and a correct estimation of the data can be made.
For modelling an instrument on analytical footing, its system equations are first written and solved
for the specified input functions. If these system equations are of high order and nonlinear, solving them
poses problems. Fortunately, majority of the commonly used industrial instruments can be represented
approximately by linear differential equations of orders within two. Thus the task of finding the dynamic
characteristics of majority of the instruments is easy enough. Order of the differential equation denotes the
system order. Here, analysis would be made for systems only up to order two.
The relation between the input x, and the output or the indication y, for an nth order system, is written as
n
d jy
Â a j dt j = bx (1.5)
0
It is assumed that a’s and b’s are constants which are combinations of instrument parameters. The term
x may also be expressed in the form of a polynomial but we have decided that only prescribed inputs
would be impressed. The linear equations can be solved by the Laplace transform method in which case
the transfer function of the system would be defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
to the Laplace transform of the input with all initial conditions zero. Of the various inputs prescribed,
the sinusoidal input is specially important as any periodic input can be written in the form of a series
representing fundamental and harmonic sine-waveforms. The solution can be performed for each individual
frequency input and superposition principle can be applied. The frequency response of a system, defined
as that consisting of amplitudes and phase shifts as functions of frequency, is quite important in evaluating
system dynamic behaviour. This however, is easily found if in the transfer function the complex variable of
the Laplace transform is replaced by jw. The proof of the above statement is available in standard texts of
mathematics or systems science.
The graphical plot between the input and the output is known as the calibration curve whereas the output
versus time curve is known as the response curve.
Depending on the types of the input, the right-hand side of Eq. (1.5) is to be modified. For a step input, x
is constant from the time it is impressed, which in this discussion will be denoted by x0. For ramp input
x = xr t (1.6)
where xr is another constant, and finally for sinusoidal input
x = xs sin wt (1.7)
where xs denotes the amplitude of the sinusoidal input. The fourth, impulse input, would be considered later.
Zero-order Instrument The zero-order instrument is represented by the equation
a0 y = bx (1.8)
which shows that it has no dynamic error, the output strictly following the input with a conversion factor
k = b/a0 , where k may be identified as the static sensitivity as defined earlier. There is no time lag in this
instrument. A zero-order instrument, however, is hardly known to exist. A linear potentiometer is often
quoted as an example, although, truly speaking its calibration curve is stepped in nature because of the
finite resolution capability of the potentiometer. The potentiometer and its calibration curve are shown in
Fig. 1.5 (a) The zero order instrument, (b) the input-output curve
First-order Instrument It is more common than the zero-order types. Its representative equation is
a1(dy/dt) + a0 y = bx (1.9)
Equation (1.9) is solved with the initial condition y = 0 at t = 0, as
y = kx0 (1 – exp (– t /t)) (1.10)
where t = a1/a0 and k is the static sensitivity as stated earlier. The input and the response curves are shown
in Figs 1.6(a) and (b). The response curves are drawn for two different values of time constant t of the
system indicating that for a better dynamic response t would be as small as possible. The dynamic error is
not as important in this case as is the lag. Because of the exponential nature of response, the lag is found
out from a consideration of what is known as percent response which is specified initially depending on the
allowable accuracy limit. Figures like 90, 95 and 98 are common. The time required to reach this specified
value is termed as the time lag. Using Eq. (1.10) the time lag of an instrument on a 90 per cent response
basis is easily shown to be 2.3t.
Fig. 1.6 (a) The step input, (b) the response for two different time constants in a irst order instrument
A very common example of a first-order instrument is a mercury-

in-glass thermometer. It is shown here how such an instrument can
be represented by a first order differential equation. The system is
shown in Fig. 1.7. Let vb = bulb volume (cc), ac = capillary bore
area (sq. cm), ab = area of heat transfer in the bulb (sq. cm), aex =
coefficient of differential expansion of thermometer bulb and the
fluid (cc/cc°C), ht = heat transfer coefficient across the bulb wall
(calorie/(sq.cm °C-sec)), r = density of the thermometer fluid (gm/
cc), C = specific heat of the thermometer fluid (calorie/(gm-°C)), q i
= process fluid temperature (°C), y = rise of the thermometer fluid
in the capillary (cm), qf = rise in thermometer fluid temperature
Fig. 1.7 The irst order instrument:
(°C), then, from the condition (heat in – heat out = energy gained), a mercury-in-glass thermometer
one gets
ht ab (qi – qf ) dt – 0 = rCvb dqf (1.11)
giving
rC vb (dqf /dt) + ht ab qf = ht ab qi (1.12)
It may be noted that pCvb, has the dimension of thermal capacitance and 1/(htab) has the dimension of
thermal resistance. Equation (1.13) can be transformed in terms of y and dy/dt as
(rCvb /(ht ab )) (dy/dt) + y = (aex vb /ac ) qi (1.13)
Comparing Eq. (1.10) with Eq. (1.13) it is easily seen that
t = (rCvb )/(ht ab ) and (aex vb )/ac = k
Temperature qi of the process fluid is the process condition which is determined by the thermometer
column y expressed with the conversion factor k. If the response time is to be made small, r, C and vb are to
be made small and ht, ab are to be made large.
For a ramp input with the initial conditions y = x = 0 at t = 0, the solution of Eq. (1.9) is
y = kxr t [1 – (t / t) (1 – exp (– t / t))] (1.14)
The input and the response curves are shown in Fig. 1.8. Equation (1.14) shows that besides the transient
error given by kxrt exp (– t /t), a steady state dynamic error kxrt also exists with a time lag t. As t is
decreased both dynamic error and time lag decrease.
For the sinusoidal input with the usual initial conditions, one
obtains
y = kxs sin (w t - f ) / 1 + w 2t 2 , f = tan -1 wt (1.15a)
= ys sin (w t – f) (1.15b)
Thus it is seen from Eqn. (1.15a) that if t is fixed, increasing w
gives increasing dynamic error Ed and measurement lag Tl which
are given respectively by
Ed = kxs – ys = kxs [1 - 1/ 1 + w 2t 2 ] (1.16a)
Fig. 1.8 Response of a irst order
and instrument for ramp input
Tl = tan–1 wt /w (1.16b)
Decreasing t, both these quantities can be decreased at a particular frequency. The normalized amplitude
versus frequency and phase versus frequency plots are shown in Figs 1.9(a) and (b) respectively. These two
curves demonstrate what is known as the frequency response of the measurement system. If a periodic input
contains more than one frequency, the output will have different dynamic errors and different time lags for
the frequencies and when superposed will account for the values of these quantities.
From above it can be readily shown that for wt = 1, error is 30 per cent. For a meaningful measurement,
i.e., for the error to lie within 10 per cent wt £ 0.48.
k
0° 1.4
w Tl
ys
f
xs
w Tl
–90°
w w
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9 (a) Amplitude response for a irst order instrument,

(b) phase response (f) for and lag wTl in a irst order instrument
Example 1.2 A unit step input given to a irst order instrument induces a response that monotonically rises to
–5 per cent of the inal value of the impressed step value in 500 ms, obtain the measurement system parameters. If
parameter t is halved calculate the per cent improvement in the speed of response.
Solution Using Eq. (1.10) and choosing k = 1, one has 0.95 = 1 – exp (– 0.5/t) so that t = 0.167 sec or
167 ms.
If now t is 83.45 ms, exp (–t / 0.0835) = 1 – 0.95, so that t = 249.93 ms. Hence, per cent improvement in
speed of response = (500 – 249.9)100/500 = 50.0 per cent.
Example 1.3 If the input to a irst order instrument of time constant 20 s is 100 sin w t, what maximum value of
frequency can be impressed so that dynamic error would be limited to ± 10 per cent? If the input frequency is kept at
that value, what should be the reduced time constant to bring the dynamic error down to ± 0.5 per cent? Obtain the
time lags in the two cases.
Solution (1) From Eq. (1.16a), 0.1 = 1 – 1/ 1 + w 2t 2 , so that w2 t2 = 0.23 and with t = 20 s. w = 0.024 r/s.
(2) Again, from Eq. (1.16a), 1 – 0.005 = 1 / 1 + (0.024) 2 t 2 , so that t = 0.01 / 0.024 = 4.16 s .
(3) Tl1 = (tan–1 0.024 ¥ 20) / 0.024 = 18.6 s, and Tl2 = (tan–1 0.024 ¥ 4.16)/0.024 = 4.08 s
Second-order instrument Second-order instruments defined by the equation
a2(d2 y / dt 2 ) + a1 dy / dt + a0 y = bx (1.17)
are more common than the first-order types. A galvanometer, for example, has a mass to be accelerated
causing an additional lag in the system. Mechanical instruments like manometers, pressure gauges have a
mass which moves during indication. First-order instruments when protected with covering sheaths involve
another element of fluid capacity. These additional thermal capacities or masses increase the system order.
Figure 1.10(a) shows the cross-sectional view of a basic mercury-in-glass thermometer of Fig. 1.7 when
encased in a sheath. No gap between the glass and the sheath is allowed. If now the temperature of glass
is denoted as qg and the heat transfer coefficient across the sheath wall is hs, Cs and Cb denote the thermal
capacities of the sheath and the bulb, then, with heat transfer area of the sheath as as, the thermal balance
equations are
hs as (qi – qg) – ht ab (qg – qf ) = Cs dqg / dt (1.18a)
and
ht ab (qg – qf) = Cb dqf / dt (1.18b)
Fig. 1.10 (a) Cross section of the sheathed thermometer, the second order case, (b) the scheme of a second order
instrument with input (M, mass; f, force; ks , spring constant; y, output) (c) the equivalent form B, damping constant
Manipulating and combining Eqs (1.17) and (1.18) and rearranging, one gets
Cs Cb Rs Rb d 2 qf /dt2 + (Cs Rs + Cb Rb + Cb Rs) dqf /dt + qf = qi (1.19)
where ht–1 –1
ab = Rb is the thermal resistance of the bulb and hs–1as–1
= Rs is the thermal resistance of the
sheath. Equation (1.19) is the equation of a second order system which can further be rearranged to be
presented in terms of the variables x and y, i.e., qi and y. Comparing coefficients of Eqs (1.17) and (1.19),
one gets a2 = Cs Cb Rs Rb , a1 = Cs Rs + Cb Rb + Cb Rs , a0 = b = 1.
As another example of the second order instrument we shall consider the spring balance. The mass
M of the moving part will be considered lumped at a point. Figure 1.10(b) shows the schematic of the
system. The spring is enclosed in a tube where essentially viscous damping is assumed to occur when the
system moves; ks is the spring constant, B is the damping constant. If a force f acts to expand the spring, the
equilibrium equation of the system is
Md 2 y /dt2 + Bdy /dt + ks y = f (1.20)
It is well known that the natural frequency of oscillation and the damping ratio of the system are given
respectively as
wn = (ks /M)1/2 (1.21)
and
z = B /(2 K s M )
(1.22)
The similarity between Eqs (1.17) and (1.20) is quite apparent. In terms of the parameters wn and z, the
generalized equation is written as
(p2/ w2n + 2zp / wn + 1) y = kx , p = d/dt (1.23)
wherein terms of the generalized coefficients ajs, the new parameters are
wn = (a0 /a2)1/2, z = a1/(2 a0 a2 ) and k = b/a0 (1.24)
The constants a0, a1, a2 and b are determined from the individual analysis of a particular instrument as
has already been demonstrated for the two cases.
The prescribed inputs would now be given to the second order instrument, i.e., x would be replaced, in
turn, by x0 , xrt or xs sin wt and the dynamic performance criteria would be evaluated.
With step input and the initial conditions y = dy/dt = 0 for t = 0, the solution of Eq. (1.23) can be obtained
in two parts. The solution in steady state condition in all situations is y = kx0; but the transient part is of
three different types depending on the roots of the characteristic equation, being (i) real and unrepeated,
z > 1, (ii) real and repeated, z = 1 and (iii) complex, 0 < z < 1, indicating overdamped, critically damped
and underdamped condition respectively. The solutions are then given as
z - z2 -1 z + z2 -1
1. y /(kx0 ) = 1 + exp ((- z - z 2 - 1) w n t ) - exp ((-z + z 2 - 1) w n t (1.25)
2 z2 -1 2 z2 -1
2. y/kx0 = l – (l + wnt ) exp (– wn t) (1.26)
and
exp(- zw n t )
3. y / kx0 = 1 - sin (w n t 1 - z 2 - f ), f = sin -1 1 - z 2 (1.27)
(1 - z 2 )
The plots of these solutions for varying z in the wn t and y/ kx0 plane are shown in Fig. 1.11. These
curves are normalized response curves. As z is very low or very high, the response is oscillatory or the
response time is very high respectively. If z is fixed, a large wn would mean a small Tl . The steady state
error is seen to be zero and hence for optimum response time a specification for the percentage response is
made for which z and wn need be adjusted. Most of the industrial type second order pressure instruments
like pressure gauges or manometers are designed to have z less than 1 but much greater than 0 while the
temperature measuring instruments have z greater than 1. Galvanometer type instruments are designed to
have critically damped feature with z equal to 1.
Fig. 1.11 Response of second order instrument with step input
With the ramp input and initial conditions y = dy/dt = 0 for t = 0, the solutions for Eq. (1.23) for the three
different cases are given by
y 2z È 2z (z - z 2 - 1) - 1
1. =t- Í1 + (exp (-z + z 2 - 1) w n t ))
kxr wn Í 4z z - 1
2
Î
2z (-z + z 2 -1 ˘
- exp ((-z - z 2 - 1) w n t ) ˙ (1.28)
4z z 2 - 1 ˙˚
2
2. y / kxr = t - [1 - (1 + w n t / 2) exp (-w n t )] (1.29)
wn
2z È exp (-zw n t ) ˘ 2z 1 - z 2
3. y/kxr = t - Í1 - sin (w n t 1 - z 2 - f ) ˙ , f = tan -1 (1.30)
wn Í 2z 1 - z 2 ˙˚ 2z 2 - 1
Î
The semi-normalized response curves are shown in Fig. 1.12 for different z. A steady-state dynamic
error of (2z/wn) xr is present in the system with a lag of 2z / wn. These quantities are labelled for a particular
z = zm. As z is decreased and wn increased both these quantities decrease. A characteristic time Tc = 1/(wnz)
is also used to specify error and lag.
For the sinusoidal input with the usual initial conditions, the solution of Eq. (1.23) is obtained as
y 2f
= sin (w t - f ) [{1 - (w / w n ) 2 }2 + 4z 2w 2 / w n2 ], f = tan - 1 wn
(1.31)
w
kxs
wn
- w
The amplitude, the phase and the lag functions of the response equation above are plotted in terms of what
is known as the frequency number n = w /w n. These are shown in Figs 1.13(a), (b) and (c) respectively.
It is interesting to note that depending on z and n, a larger value than the input may be indicated around
n = 1 due to what is known as forced resonance; with the fluctuating input having nearly the same fluctuation
rate as the natural frequency of the system. If z is chosen such that for n = 1, 2zn = 1, no overshoot at
n = 1 occurs although for n < 1, indication may be slightly higher than the true value. As the fluctuation rate
in a variable like pressure may be high (n > 1) the general criterion for choosing z for instruments measuring
Fig. 1.12 Response of a second order instrument with ramp input
Fig. 1.13 Response of a second order instrument (a) amplitude response, (b) phase response, (c) lag
pressure is around 0.5 to 1.0. But the temperature fluctuation rate is not high as the thermal process, in
general, is sluggish; consequently an overdamped response is chosen for thermometric instruments. From
the curves it may be seen that the widest flat amplitude response is obtained for z having a value around 0.7
with a linear lag versus v characteristics for reasonable values of n. However, Tl increases with increasing
w, z or decreasing wn.
Example 1.4 A process pressure cycling with a period of 5 seconds is measured with an instrument which must
not show an attenuation of more than 10 per cent. If the pressure gauge is approximated by a second order system
that has a critically damped condition what is the characteristic time of the system?
Solution The input circular frequency is 6.28 ¥ (1/5) = 1.256 rad/sec. As per given condition: | y/(kxs) |
= 0.9 = 1/(1 + (w/wn)2) for z = 1, i.e., w/wn = 0.11 = 0.332. Hence, Tc = l / (z wn ) = l /wn = 0.332/1.256 =
0.264 sec.
Example 1.5 A second-order measurement system was tested with a variable frequency sinewave input and it
was seen that for a frequency of 1.2 r/s, the phase lag was 110° while for a frequency of 0.8 r/s it was 60°. Calculate
the parameters z and wn of the system. What is the per cent dynamic error at a frequency w = wn? If it is a voltmeter
and the input magnitude voltage is 3 V, what is the output then?
Solution For j = 110°, 2.74 = 2z/ (1.2 /wn – wn / 1.2); for j = 60°, – 1.73 = 2z/ (0.8 / wn – wn / 0.8); solving
for z and wn one gets z = 0.433 and wn = l.025 r/s.
y
Hence, = 1 / 2z = 1.15 giving a per cent dynamic error (1 – 1.15) ¥ 100 = – 15 per cent.
kxs w = w n
Therefore, the voltage indicated would be 3.45 volts.
When an input that is random in nature is impressed to an instrument, the inputs considered above would
not be enough to make the approximation even with appropriate weightage and summation. In fact an
impulse need also be considered alongwith the above. Impulse function can be considered to be a derivative
of the step function and has an infinitely large magnitude over an infinitely small time interval. To make
it more practical in use it is defined with a ‘strength’ say Bs, and is represented graphically as shown in
Fig. 1.14, so that
lim xi (t ) = impulse function of strength Bs
ti Æ0
When Bs= 1, it is the well-known delta or Dirac function. If such an input is given to a first-order instrument
its output is given as
y = (kBs / t) exp (– t / t ) (1.32)
whereas, for a second-order instrument the normalized output is
y 1
= {exp ((- z + z 2 - 1) w n t ) - exp ((- z - z 2 - 1) w n t )} for z > 1 (1.33a)
kBsw n 2 z 2 - 1
y/(kBswn) = (wn t ) exp (– wn t) for z = 1 (1.33b)
y 1
= exp (- zw n t ) sin (w n t 1 - z 2 ) for z < 1 (1.33c)
kBsw n 1-z2
The responses are shown in Fig. 1.14 but not to scale.
So far, simple inputs are considered for simple systems. For most practical purposes this is sufficient. But
we also might meet instruments which are described only by third-, fourth-, or still higher order differential
equations and the input may also be quite complicated. However, the general input may be considered to be
periodic and if such an input satisfies that it is single valued, finite, has only finite number of discontinuities and
maxima/minima as given by the Dirichlet’s conditions, it may be represented by a Fourier series of the form
1Ê • mp t • mp t ˆ
x = x0 + Á Â
n Ë m =1
am cos
n
+ Â bm sin
n ˜¯
(1.34)
m =1
Fig. 1.14 Response to impulse input for 1st order and 2nd order instruments
For approximate analysis a certain number of terms from the series are considered to find the frequency
response and the principle of superposition is then applied. For higher order systems, numerical analysis is
preferred and response is quite easily obtained using digital processor or personal computer.
1.5 DYNAMIC CALIBRATION
It has been discussed in the previous section how, with the knowledge of the system parameters such as
time constant, damping factor, frequency etc., it is possible to find the fidelity and delay in measurements.
This section deals with the procedure to evaluate these parameters from test with known types of signals,
which we call dynamic calibration. This test can be classified into two different modes consistent with the
earlier concepts. These are (i) the time-domain test, and (ii) the frequency response test. Loosely said these
are based on the plots of response against the specific variable such as time or frequency. Here again it is
intended to limit the discussion only up to second order. Both the time and frequency domain tests give the
time constants—a single time constant for the first-order case and two time constants for the second-order
case and simultaneously they satisfy that the instrument is really of the specified order. The time domain
test, which is more practical and direct for the general class of instruments, is only discussed here. The test
is first performed with a step input and first and second-order instruments are only considered. The output-
time response plot of a first order instrument with a step input magnitude of x0 is first obtained on a fast-
recorder chart. The curve so obtained may not always corroborate its ideal nature and it may not be possible
to find the time constant from the 63.2 per cent rise as is often done in practice. Instead Eq. (1.10) can be
easily transformed to obtain
Ê y ˆ
-t /t = ln Á 1 - ˜ = y¢ (1.35)
Ë kx0¯
Thus from the experimental plot, a second linear plot between t and y¢ is drawn provided the instrument is a
first order one. The magnitude of the reciprocal of the slope of this y¢ – t curve is the time constant.
For the second order instrument, the transformation of the experimental plot to a second suitable plot is
not always possible or necessary. For the overdamped case this can, however, be done easily. By expressing
z and wn in terms of time constants t1 and t2 as
t 1, 2 = 1 /(w nz ± z 2 - 1) (1.36)
Equation (1.25) is transformed into
Ê y ˆ t1 t2
ÁË 1 - kx ˜¯ = t - t exp (-t / t 1 ) - t - t exp (-t /t 2 ) (1.37)
0 1 2 1 2
The approach now turns graphical with the unit

incomplete response given by the left hand side of
Eq. (1.37) plotted against t in a semilog paper, t
being linear. With increasing t the curve appears
linear asymptotically. If the system had been a first
order one with the first term only in Eq. (1.37), by
producing the asymptote backward it would have
met the (l – y/ (kx0)) axis at a value t1 / (t1 – t2)
at zero time. The difference of the zero time ordi-
nates of the two curves gives t2 / (t1 – t2). The
difference of the above two curves also gives a
straight line— if not, the instrument is not ideally
a second order one. In Fig. 1.15 the curves are
shown in arbitrary scale with b – a = g .
Now t1 and t2 are obtained from the concepts Fig. 1.15 Dynamic calibration and order check for
that for curve (1) at t = t1, response is 63.2 per second order instruments
cent of b as this is the ideal first order curve;
similarly for curve (3) at t = t2 this is 63.2 per cent of g both down the straight lines from zero time. Hence
t1 and t2 are given by the intercepts of the t-axis by the projections from curves (1) and (3) at ordinates
0.368 b and 0.368 g respectively. The term (1 – y/kx0) may be normalized suitably for convenient plotting.
For a slightly underdamped instrument, the transient transponse curve is different and is shown in
Fig. 1.16. From this and Eq. (1.27) z and wn are to be and can be evaluated. Differentiating the unit
incomplete response with respect to the normalized time wnt and simplifying one obtains
1 dy exp (-zw n t )
= sin (w n t 1 - z 2 ) (1.38)
kx0 d (w n t ) 1-z2
The left side would be zero at the peaks of the response curve of Fig. 1.16 which can happen only when
w n t 1 - z 2 is integral multiples of p. For the first peak, therefore, one obtains
t p = p /(w n 1 - z 2 ) (1.39)
and if the value of y at this instant is ym and one writes ym – kx0 = l , then, from Eqs (1.27) and (1.38) one
gets
l / kx0 = exp (-pz / 1 - z 2 ) (1.40)
from which
z = 1 /[{p / ln (l / kx0 )}2 + 1] (1.41)
Also, using Eq. (1.39), one can solve for wn as
w n = 2p /(T 1 - z 2 ) (1.42)
where T is the period of oscillation and is measured
from the curve as are l and kx0 for evaluating the
value of z.
Frequency domain tests for t’s, z and wn are not
uncommon but are costly and elaborate. Such tests are
often followed in control systems and the techniques
are available in any standard text of the control theory
and practice.
Fig. 1.16 Method of dynamic calibration
of a second order instrument
1.6 ERRORS: AN OVERVIEW
While discussing static and dynamic characteristics, error or accuracy did appear. Error, as error itself, needs
a little more elaboration. It may be defined, as has already been done, as the algebraic difference between
the indication and the ideal value of the signal. The error is often termed as the instrumental error which is
actually the difference between the average of a number of up and down readings. The relationship between
the output y of an instrument or a part of an instrument and its input x is generally given by the expression.
y = f (x) (1.43)
Strictly speaking, this correct y is seldom obtained from an instrument and the relation requires to be
modified to
y¢ = f (x) + e (1.44)
where e is the error of the output, i.e., the deviation of the observed output y¢ from the true or correct value
y. Hence
e = y¢ – y (1.45)
The error is usually complex and has a number of components, (i) the scale error which is subclassified
into (a) zero error or bias, (b) nonconformity and (c) hysteresis error, (ii) the dynamic error and (iii) noise
and drift.
A constant amount by which the observed output may deviate from the correct value over the entire
range is effectively an additive constant known as bias or zero error.
When the experimental transfer function between the input and output is seen to deviate from the
postulated one, then nonconformity is said to occur. Nonlinearity is a nonconformity where the postulated
linear transfer function is not experimentally valid.
When the output is dependent both on the present as well as past inputs or on the past history, the
deviation due to the latter is called hysteresis error.
When the output of the measurement system depends on the time function, and not just on the
instantaneous input value alone, such as time derivatives or frequency of the input quantity, the deviation
that occurs is known as dynamic error.
When the output is dependent, in addition to the input signal, on a signal originating in the system, an
additional output is obtained which is termed as noise and when varying condition is considered it is called
drift.
Besides, subjected to environmental influences such as change of temperature, pressure, acceleration,
electric or magnetic field, change of supply voltage, the output is likely to vary because of the ‘interference’
as mentioned and in consequence errors result. In this way a number of other errors may also occur which
can often be isolated and corrected when the conditions in which the errors develop are actually known. A
few such types are described briefly below:
(1) Interference Error (a) Any error that arises due to any spurious effect produced in the measuring
circuits or elements of a device by external electromagnetic fields; a typical example of this is the radio
frequency interference that occurs from radio transmitters. This is an electromagnetic interference.
(b) An error that arises between the measuring circuit terminals and ground because of any form of
interference is known as common mode interference.
(c) The normal mode interference represents an error between measuring circuit terminals.
(2) Operational Error It is an error in a device due to any change in the operating conditions and
obviously, these cover almost all conditions to which a device is subjected excluding the variable measured.
Because of a change in the operating conditions from specified ones, there may be a total change in the
performance characteristics of the instrument. It is often expressed as a coefficient that expresses the change
in the performance characteristic corresponding to unit change in the operating conditions.
Suppose a per cent change in span occurs because of the change of the operating condition
referred to variable V from a value v1 to v2, then the coefficient or effect on accuracy is given as
a per cent of span Ê a ˆ
, i.e. Á per cent of span per unit value of the variable.
v2 - v1 Ë v2 - v1 ˜¯
(3) Installation Error Installation of the primary element of a measurement system is very important.
It must follow some standard or reference conditions on the basis of which informations regarding the
correction coefficients are obtained. In the case of an orifice or a venturi type flow meter, materials and
types of installations such as pipe conditions, pipe connections, pressure taps, straight portion preceding and
succeeding the sensor, the type and location of impulse lines, the secondary elements and their positions
etc., are known to affect the accuracy. In some of the above cases the error may be as high as 5 to 10 per
cent and to reduce this, non-standard practice of installation in its entirity is to be avoided.
Similarly, for measuring temperature of a medium, a close thermal contact between the medium and
the sensor is necessary for establishing a steady state of heat transfer. For this the sensor assembly and
installation of the same play a vital role. The assembly consists, in general a thermowell which is usually
screwed, flanged or welded into the wall of the thermal chamber. When a thermocouple is installed, its
hot junction normally maintains a gap with the well inner wall causing inconvenience for heat to transfer
smoothly. To avoid this, other installation possibilities have been suggested—all for optimal heat transfer to
the sensing element.
Choice of materials for thermowells is guided by the plant and process complexity. Standards are
available for such selections depending on the media type, range of temperature, pressure variation range
as also flow change rate of the media fluids. The design of thermowell in relation to the process vessel
should consider a very important aspect of stem conduction. Error may arise due to this if the stem conducts
heat reducing the available heat to be transmitted to the sensor. Immersion error is another error that arises
due to installation insufficiency. By assuming that the heat transfer between the well and the medium in
which the measurement is made is by convection only and the heat transfer along the well is by conduction
process and longitudinal, the immersion length of the optimally low measurement error is obtained as
l = 7 la /(hC f ) (1.46)
where l = thermal conductivity of the well material, a = well cross-sectional area, h = heat transfer
coefficient and Cf = outer circumference of the thermal well.
For gases where convective heat transfer is low and/or immersion length is short, error tends to rise.
(4) Equipment Error When the measured value is equipment-dependent, any change in it after installation
would change the measured output causing an error to develop. A typical such error may arise in level
measurement in a round tank which in design stage may actually not be exactly round. If the diameters of
the tank in such a situation, at right angles, are now denoted by d1 and d2 the error in the cross-sectional
area is given by the relation
e = 0.298 (d1/d2 – l) 1.952 (1.47)
and accordingly a correction in total hold up may be made. Such an error may be termed as an equipment
error. Error due to material incompatibility may also be termed as equipment error. Thus, in a tank of large
height and area, pressure exerted at the lower side of the tank, because of the liquid level itself, may cause
an expansion in tank area. If the average pressure of the liquid is p and designed tank diameter and sheet
thickness are d and t respectively, the wall stress is given by
Sw = 6 pd /t (1.48)
If now the tank is considered as a pressure vessel and the top and bottom pressure heads are given by ht and
hb respectively, the error, for a material modulus of elasticity Y, is given by
e = (pSw /Y ) (hb2 – ht2 ) / (hb (hb – ht)) (1.49)
If ht = 0, as for an open tank, the error is simply
e = p Sw /Y = 6ppd / (Yt) (1.50)
Often in mechanical systems a set of levers are bound by one or more links. The lengths of the levers and
the links as also their attachment points determine whether a system would have a small or large error
in transmission of the signal. This transmission is generally associated with a magnification for which
the element (sensing) lever is likely to be different in length than that of the recording lever also called
pen lever. The difference in lengths of the links brings in what is known as angularity and it is a sort of
equipment error occurring at intermediate points of an arc scale. The situation is explained with an element
lever and pen lever connected by an adjustable length link. Usually the pen lever is short for obtaining a
magnification.
If the lever lengths are equal and the link is of the same length as the distance between the two spindles,
there would be effectively no error in the scale as magnification is 1 and the tip of the pen lever arm moves
by the same angular degree as the tip of the measuring element arm and in the position indicated in Fig.
1.17(a) both are 90° with the link. If now magnification is desired, the pen lever is shortened. To maintain
90° at the mid-position the scale (pen) as a whole is to be shifted to the left increasing the link length for
keeping the mid-scale reading without any error. In a given situation this is not permitted. Instead, the link
length is adjusted with the element lever end points making a different arc position—for a shorter link this
moves to the left and for a longer link this moves to the right. But for a longer element lever, the levers
do not make the required 90° angles with the link at mid-scales and the angularity error does come in.
For increasing and decreasing link lengths but of equal lever lengths the angularity is explained in Figs
1.17(b) and (c). In the first case l1 > l with the result that the pen arc movement upscale from the right angle
position is less than the down scale. For the case l2 < l, the situation is reversed but not in equal measure.
If element and pen (spindle) lever positions are interchanged, the situation would be different indicating
that the direction of link movement corresponding to the element lever movement is also a factor. Here
in Fig. 1.17(b), the mid-scale is pushed down while for the case of Fig. 1.17(c) it is pushed up causing an
angularity as mentioned.
For reduction of this error the following steps are recommended: if the centre scale reading of the
instrument is low and the driving (element) lever turns towards the driven lever pivot as the pen goes
upscale, the link should be shortened and should be lengthened if it moves away from the pen lever pivot
and so on.
Pen Meas. Element Pen Element
Spindle Spindle
l
l
L
L L L
90° 90°
Mid- l1
Pen l Element Scale
Lever Arm Lever Arm (b)
(a)
Pen Element
l
L L
Mid- l2
Scale (c)
Fig. 1.17 Effect of varying link length: (a) equal length, (b) l1 > l, (c) l2 < l
(5) Loading Error Error also arises in measurement system because of loading of the preceding unit by
the succeeding unit, this loading can be either static or dynamic in nature. In a system there would be, in
general, quite a few units starting from the medium in which the measurement is made. The subsequent
units are the transducer, the converter, the manipulator, the amplifier, the transmitter, the display unit—in a
typical case.
Every unit extracts energy from its preceding unit, thereby changing the state or condition of that unit
and thus the measurement no longer remains as it should have been, or it becomes imperfect. For an
electrical system analysis is quite handy and it
is quite easy to show that perfect measurement
is not possible because of the finite impedance
or non-zero admittance of the succeeding units.
Consider the common case of a dc voltage
measurement scheme shown in Fig. 1.18. Unit
2 represents the voltmeter which has a finite
resistance R2, in general much larger than the
resistance R1 across which the voltage is to be
measured. The voltage to be measured is
Fig. 1.18 The circuit of a dc voltage measurement scheme

V1 = Vs R1 / (R1 + Rs ) (1.51)
With unit 2 connected to unit 1, a current i2 would pass through R2 from the source V1 with an internal
resistance R1Rs / (R2 + Rs) = R¢1 so that the measured voltage V2 is given by
V2 = V1R2 /(R2 + R¢1 ) (1.52)
If R2 is infinitely large or R1 is zero, V2 = V1, otherwise, it is reduced by a factor R2(R2 + R¢1 ) and the loading
error in per cent of V1 is
100 (V1 – V2) /V1 = 100 R¢1 / (R2 + R¢1) = 100 R1Rs / [(R1 + Rs)R2 + R1Rs] (1.53)
Thus for a generalized electrical case, it is the finite input impedance of the succeeding stage that comes in
the way of accurate measurement. This impedance is multiplied by the current which is the flow variable to
obtain the voltage or the across variable. In terms of these generalized across or effort and flow variables,
the name impedance has been assigned— it may be mechanical when effort variable is the force and flow
variable is the velocity; the product of the two variables gives the power as in the electrical case. However
it is the energy that is drawn from the system and a variable that accounts for this energy is defined as
stiffness which is given as
Stiffness = effort variable / Ú (flow variable) ◊ dt (1.54)

and
Effort variable ¥ (flow variable) ◊ dt = Energy (1.55)
For electrical case the denominator in Eq. (1.54) is charge while for mechanical case it is displacement. As
mentioned impedance has a reciprocal called admittance, similarly stiffness has a reciprocal known as com-
pliance and is given as
Compliance = flow variable / Ú (effort variable) ◊ dt (1.56)

In case of a mechanical system, a typical example of stiffness or the reciprocal of compliance is the spring
constant because the flow variable may be taken as the displacement and the effort variable as the rate of
change of force. However, this follows straightaway from Eq. (1.54).
As has already been discussed the input impedance of the succeeding unit or stage must be very high
with respect to the output impedance of the preceding stage for loading error to be negligibly small.
Replacing resistances R’s by Z’s or impedances, Eq. (1.52) can be written, for generalization as
V2 = Z2 V1 /(Z2 + Z¢1) (1.57)
This equation is particularly useful for studies of dynamic loading. For such studies the impedance, the
admittance, the stiffness and the compliance functions are considered as transfer functions or functions of
Laplace variables from which the frequency response analysis can be initiated.
Supposing now that Z1 (i.e., R1 of Fig. 1.18) is a parallel LC circuit, then Z1¢ becomes sL/(s2LC + sL/Rs
+ 1) and the first stage is loaded by the second stage differently with varying frequency irrespective of the
magnitude and phase of the impedance Z2 (i.e. R2 of Fig. 1.18). Loading part is written as
1/(1 + Z1¢/ Z2) = 1/(1 + (sL/ Z2) / (s2 LC + sL / Rs + 1)) (1.58)
At a frequency w = 1 / LC , Z1¢ is maximum giving the largest error magnitude. At very small frequencies
Z 1¢ /Z2 Æ 0 so also at high frequencies. The relations can be transformed into time domain to find out the
outputs in time, i.e., V2 in time frame for specified V1, also given in time reference, and the loading errors
can be evaluated.
1.7 STATISTICAL ERROR ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis of measurement data for error evaluation and consequent correction is being increasingly
used now. Before moving into the actual analysis scheme some terminologies are first discussed which
are extensively used in such analysis. Variate is the output variable which may be discrete, integral or
nonintegral; or continuous in which case it can take any value in a given set of limits. If now a particular
value of the variable, x, is measured n number of times, within given limits it can take x1, x2, …, xm values
m
n1, n2, …, nm times such that Â ni = n, ni is termed the frequency of the variate xi. Another important term
i =0
is the relative frequency defined as
nri = ni / n (1.59)
The plot between xi , and nri is very important in statistical data analysis.
When the variate shows continuously variable values within the specified limits, the observations are
grouped in intervals of values of the variate called classes or cells etc. Proper boundaries are selected for
these intervals. For example, for the above case, xj – xj – 1 , j = 1, … , m may be the intervals and the range of
the values of the variates in the interval is given by
Ri (x) = xi + 1 – xi (1.60)
whereas the overall range is given by
R(x) = xm – x1 = xmax – xmin = No of classes ¥ Ri (x) (1.61)
since for equal class intervals, xi + 1 – xi is constant. The class frequency is the number of times the variate
value falls within a class interval. The plot in the form of bargraphs to indicate class frequency versus class
interval is known as histogram. Histograms can be plotted in terms of relative frequency or percentage of
frequency as well. The histogram drawn with normalized frequency is known as normalized histogram.
If the class interval frequency is given by fi and the ith class interval is xi – xi – 1, relative frequency in the
m
ith class is f ri = fi / Â fi and the normalized frequency in the ith class is defined as
i =1
ÔÏ m
Ô¸
f ri = f ri / ( xi - xi -1 ) = fi / Ì ( xi - xi -1 )Â fi ˝ (1.62)
ÓÔ i =1 ˛Ô
The area of the ith bar in the normalized histogram is, thus, always the relative frequency of the given class
interval, and the total area of all the bars sums up to be unity.
1.7.1 Mode, Median, Mean

The variate value that occurs with the highest frequency is called the mode. In a continuously distributed
system, the modal value will be in the highest rectangle of the histogram and thus it is easy to find the mode
from a simple construction.
Median is the middle value of a group of data arranged in an array either in ascending or descending
order of observation. For even sample size however, the average of two middle values may be taken.
Basically, median is the value of the variate through which when a vertical line is drawn in the histogram it
divides the histogram into two equal areas. This means that for the assymetric distribution it is difficult to
obtain the median easily through the above procedure.
Mean or Arithmetic mean is defined as the sum of the values of the variate divided by the number of its
values. This mean is often called the population mean whereas another mean called sample mean refers to
values of samples divided by the number of samples—sampling being done without bias. Thus
m m
x = Â fi xi / Â fi (1.63)
i =1 i =1
The average of the absolute value of the deviation d i of each value of the variate from the mean (AM) is
called the mean deviation. If x is the arithmetic mean and there are n values altogether, then mean deviation
MD is
n n
MD = Â xi - x / n = Â d i n (1.64)
1 1
In terms of frequency distribution, it is
n n n
MD = Â fi xi - x / Â fi = Â fi d i / n (1.65)
i =1 i =1 1
It must be remembered that unless the absolute value is considered, mean deviation is zero. Hence, to avoid
taking absolute values, it is convenient to square the deviation making it always positive and then calculate
what is known as mean square deviation (MSD) or more commonly variance. It is usually denoted by s 2.
Thus
n n
s 2 = Â ( xi - x ) 2 / n = Â d i2 n (1.66)
i =1 i -1
= ( x 2 ) - ( x )2
(1.67)
Standard deviation or root mean square deviation, s, is the square root of the variance. This is proposed to
keep the units of the deviation and variate same. Thus
1/ 2
Ê n ˆ
s = Á Â d i2 n˜ (1.68)
Ë i =1 ¯
whih with frequency distribution may be written as
1/ 2
Ê n ˆ
s = Á Â fi d i2 n˜ (1.69)
Ë i =1 ¯
Often standard deviation is defined in terms of degrees of freedom in observation and not the number
of observations only. In fact, for n number of observations and m number of constants to be estimated, the
degrees of freedom is n–m and then standard deviation is defined as
1/ 2
Ê n ˆ
S = Á Â fi d i2 (n - m)˜ (1.70)
Ë i =1 ¯
For m = 1, S s = n (n - 1) is called the Bessel correction factor.
1.7.2 Error Estimates

The numerical quantity obtained through experiment which has earlier been called value of the variate and
denoted by x, may differ from the correct quantity, r, because of various kinds of uncertainties arising out
of imperfections of the associated systems such as (a) the observer, (b) the theory on which the experiment
is based, (c) the devices used for the purpose, (d) the conditions in which the experiment is performed, etc.
If e denotes the error in the process, then one can write
r=x±e (1.71)
Depending on the type of the experiment performed, its limitations as assessed by us would enable us to
estimate an error ex which is called the external estimate. The other, the internal estimate en is based on the
data obtained during the experiment. When the two estimates agree to within a given order of magnitude, it
is concluded that the experiment is successful.
The External Estimate Let r be a function of n variables such that
r = f (a1, a2, …, an) (1.72)
so that
n Ê
∂f ˆ
dr = Â Á ˜ da j (1.73)
j =1 Ë ∂a j ¯
This variation dr is due to the errors in the quantities aj’s and let their individual magnitudes be eaj’s. Thus
they may be algebraically added to give the external error estimate. But not to make too optimistic or too
n Ê
∂f ˆ
pessimistic an estimate, one evaluates ex2 and not just ex and hence with ex = Â Á ˜ da j one derives
j =1 Ë ∂a j ¯
n Ê
∂f ˆ 2 n Ê ∂f ˆ Ê ∂f ˆ
ex2 = Â Á ˜ eaj + Â Á ˜Á ˜ da j dak (1.74)
j =1 Ë ∂a j ¯ j =1, k =1 Ë ∂a j ¯ Ë dak ¯
The second term in the right hand side tends to vanish if individual error terms eaj (= daj) and eak (= dak) are
independent and symmetrical about zero value. Then,
12
Èn Ê 2 ˘
∂f ˆ 2 ˙
ex = Â Á
Í ˜ eaj (1.75)
Í j =1 Ë ∂a j ¯ ˙
Î ˚
This shows that errors in separate steps are to be found out first and then combine them as given in Eq.
(1.75). But finding out the individual error poses the real problem. Informed guess-work, previous
experience with the type of measurement, etc., are some approaches often referred to. Manufacturers’
literatures sometimes provide the error estimates necessary.
The Internal Estimate When an experiment is performed it is always advisable to repeat it for a given
quantity as many times as is possible. It would be seen that these repetitions would not produce identical
values of the quantity and a variation does occur. The nature of variation is important which allows us to
make an estimate of error of the measurement and this estimate is known as the internal estimate; also by
some, as the precision error. Thus for estimating such an error the nature of distribution of the experimental
data is more important.
1.7.3 Error Distribution

When the value of the variate shifts from the ‘expected’ value, this variation can be represented by
a frequency distribution curve or a histogram. Probability can also be introduced in such a distribution.
If there are n number of error causing mechanism in the experimental system and if it can be assumed
that each of these contributes equal amount of error e in the positive or negative side, then there are 2n
possible and equally likely error configuration. A normalized distribution of frequency of errors or individ-
ual error probabilities are individual terms of the binomial expression (1/2 + 1/2)n with error values ± n e,
± (n – 2) e, …, ± 2e around the expected zero value

as shown in Fig. 1.19. Supposing n = 3 and error
contributed by each component be ± e, the possible
set of total errors are
e, e, e Æ 3e: (ne)
–e, e, e Æ e: ((n – 2) e)
–e, – e, e Æ – e : (– (n – 2) e)
–e, – e, – e : Æ –3e : (– ne)
and the total number of configuration is 23, i.e., all
positives has one configuration, only one negative has
three, two negatives has three and all negative one.
The frequency distribution for ne and –ne: (n = 3) is
(1/2)3 = 1/8, for ±(n – 2) e, it is 3.1/4.1/2 or
3.1/2.1/4, i.e., 3/8, the total being always one.
If however eaj is allowed to take a wide range
of possible (i.e., almost continuous) values instead
of + e or –e as assumed earlier, then the frequency Fig. 1.19 Error frequency versus error curve
distribution of the resultant errors is shown in
Fig. 1.20 with area under the curve as unity. The relation
between y0 and x is given by
f(x) = y0 exp[– (x – x)2/(2s 2)] (1.76)
where x is the arithmetic mean, s is the standard deviation,
y0 is a constant and is given by y0 = 1 (s 2p ) . This curve
is called a normal curve and it is symmetric about x = x,
and it shows a distribution called the normal, Gaussian or
normal error.
The main problem with such a curve is that its shape
is difficult to establish. For quantitative study, normal
distribution tables are made use of. The main feature of such
a distribution is that 99.994% of the data lie within x + 4s,
99.70% within x + 3s, 95.50% within x + 2s and 68.26 per Fig. 1.20 Error probability versus the variate
cent within x + s. This percentage grouping of data indicating value curve in the normalised form
their occurrence within given limits in terms of the standard
deviation is called its confidence level. Thus the confidence level may be said to be ±s of x if the probability
is that the data would lie within these limits. For a normal distribution, number of data is theoretically infinite
although from the above table it shows that the probability of data to lie beyond x + 4s is one in 25,000.
1.7.4 Calculation of the Probable Error

For a given measured value of the variate a probable value of the error may be calculated to find the true
value r. With a population of n number of data, it is possible to compute x and s. If x is the arithmetic mean,
then
x = f (x1, x2, …, xn) = Sxi /n (1.77)
and we have seen in Eq. (1.75) that since each individual error could be the standard deviation, i.e., the
error in each of the xi term is likely to be about s,
n
ex2 = Â (∂f / ∂xj ) 2 s 2 (1.78)
j =1
Also comparing Eqs (1.73) and (1.77) one notes that ∂f / ∂xj is 1/n so that
ex = {Â(1/n) 2 s 2 }1 2 = s / n (1.79)
Allowing for the degrees of freedom as mentioned earlier, the corrected magnitude of e x is given as
ex = s n - 1. Hence
r = x ± s / n -1 (1.80)
Significance of this formula is that—if experiment of measuring a specified parameter is repeated n number
of times various values of x would form a cluster about their average value with a standard deviation given
by s n - 1 . Higher the value of n, lesser is this deviation and it clearly justifies why repeated readings
should be taken.
Example 1.6 An experiment performed once gave a reading that showed a deviation of 10 per cent. If it is
repeated 65 times, what is the likely deviation?
Solution Here s = 0.1, n = 65
Hence, the probable deviation is 0.1 / 65 - 1 = 0.0125 = 1.25 per cent.
1.7.5 Accuracy and Precision

The above technique is suitable for random error but fails to account for the systematic error. The
systematic error is apprehended to exist in a measurement when the evaluated internal error estimate eI
is much smaller than the external estimate eE . Systematic error leads to inaccuracy whereas random error
leads to imprecision which is accountable by repeated readings.
Systematic error is, in fact, the one that tends to have a fixed magnitude and same sign for a given set
of operating conditions. As the sign is the same, such error adds up to a cumulative value and hence is
sometimes referred to as cumulative error. It alters the instrument reading by a fixed value from one reading
to another in the same direction. It is, therefore, called the instrument bias or simply the bias. Such an error
is caused by (i) internal defect of the instrument, (ii) shift in the operating or environmental conditions, (iii)
loading, etc. The best way to eliminate such an error or make corrections is to enforce a calibration of the
instrument. The effect of such an error is to shift the entire normal distribution curve by an amount on the
error axis.
Random error is the one that does not have a fixed magnitude and sign, i.e., it may have both positive
and negative values. Because of its bipolar nature there is a possibility of its self-compensation and hence, it
is often referred to as chance or compensating type error. Such an error is suspected to be caused by random
variation in the measurement system parameters. When attempts are made to measure very small quantities
accurately, inconsistency creeps in because of the above reason and also because of tolerance allowed in the
system components.
1.7.6 Evaluation of s and Correction of Measurement Reading

It has been already pointed how x and s are evaluated for small number of data points, say N. However,
when N is very large, the data points are considered in groups with proper choice of group boundaries. In
each group let there be ni data and the conventional analysis would still be unwieldy because of the bulk.
In that case the sum of the first moments of data about x, which is now considered as the centroid of the
distribution is taken as zero such that Sni(xi – x) = 0. It would be necessary to evaluate s simultaneously
with x. For this the second moment is calculated about x. Now, Sni (xi – x) is not usually zero as x, at the
first instance, is only a guess and using this the difference between x, the true centroid and x ¢, the apparent
centroid, is obtained using
N . Dx = Sni (xi – x ¢ ) (1.81)
For the second moment also, instead of using x, x ¢ may be used and the parallel axis theorem gives
Sni (xi – x)2 = Sni (xi – x ¢)2 – N(Dx)2 (1.82)
and the standard deviation is obtained from
s = {Sni (xi – x )2/N }1/2 (1.83)
Finally the standard error or probable error in x is given by
e = s / N -1 (1.84)
and the variate r is obtained as mentioned earlier.
Example 1.7 Table 1.1 below shows a set of data grouped as discussed already. It is required to obtain the
correct reading.
Solution The first guess x¢ is the mean of 1.00 and 1.02, i.e., 1.01. Table 1.2 can now be set up showing
the first and second moments about 1.01. The table is set up taking mean value of each group as the new
value of the variate and with the indicated frequency. The new variate is again coded for convenience and is
usually done for computational ease. Moments are calculated with the coded variate.
Table 1.1
xi ni
0.90 – 0.92 1
0.92 – 0.94 2
0.94 – 0.96 3
0.96 – 0.98 8
0.98 – 1.00 20
1.00 – 1.02 23
1.02 – 1.04 21
1.04 – 1.06 12
1.06 – 1.08 4
1.08 – 1.10 2
N = 96
Hence, Dx = Sni(xi – x ¢)/N = 7/96 ª 0.073

Sni (xi – x )2 = Sni (xi – x ¢ )2 – N . (Dx)2 = 273 – 96 ¥ (0.073)2 = 272.49
and s = 10 272.49 / 96 = 1.68 . This being the coded values, it is decoded as s (decoded) = s (coded) ¥
(group increment)/code increment = 1.68 ¥ 0.02/1 = 0.0336. Hence, error is e = 0.0336 / 95 = 0.0034.
Since Dx = 0.073, true coded average is 5 + 0.073 = 5.073 which is decoded to 1.01 + 0.073 ¥ 0.02/1 =
1.01146 and the value of the variate r is thus
r = 1.01146 ± 0.0034
Table 1.2
New xi Coded xi ni xi – x¢ ni (xi – x¢) ni (xi – x¢)2
0.91 0 1 –5 –5 25
0.93 1 2 –4 –8 32
0.95 2 3 –3 –9 27
0.97 3 8 –2 –1.6 32
0.99 4 20 –1 –20 20
1.01 5 23 0 sum = –58
1.03 6 21 1 21 21
1.05 7 12 2 24 48
1.07 8 4 3 12 36
1.09 9 2 4 8 32
N = 96 Sum = 65 273 = Sni(xi – x ¢)2
Overall sum = 7 = Sni (xi – x ¢)
It should be remembered that the property of the distribution mentioned in section 1.7.3 may be utilized for
approximate evaluation of the standard deviation in a shorter time. One of the simpler techniques known is
that uses the range of data between the highest and lowest sextiles. It has been seen in Fig. 1.20 and in the
associated discussion that the range of data between the first and the last one sixth of a distribution is equal
to 2s. It is thus seen that 1/6 of 96, i.e., 16 should be considered for this technique. From top in Table 1.1
counting ni as 16 gives xi , roughly as 0.97 and from bottom this is about 1.07 with a difference 1.07–0.97
= 0.10 which must be 2s, giving s = 0.05. Our calculation, however, has it as 0.0336, a percentage error of
48.8 per cent. If the distribution were truly Gaussian this error would have been well within 2 per cent.
Another simple technique is that uses the mean deviation sm defined as the average of all the deviations
irrespective of sign. Thus from the definition sm = Sni | xi – x |/N and from Table 1.2 this is 123/96 = 1.28.
For normal distribution s is calculated as s = 5sm/4 = 1.6. Our coded s was 1.68 which is very close.
1.7.7 Test of Normal Distribution of Data: The Chi-squared Test

Error evaluation and specification is easily made if the distribution is normal and, hence, a test must initially
be made to check that the data obtained from experiment do, in fact, follow the desired distribution. One of
the most popular tests is what is known as the Chi-squared test. Chi-squared (c2) basically is a function
introduced to test the normalcy on count of numbers—an event is observed to happen and an event is
expected to happen. If these numbers are n0 and nE respectively, then c2 is defined as
c2 = S (n0 – nE)2/nE (1.85)
For the experiments performed n0 is the same as ni. Also, x, s, are obtained as already discussed and N is
also known. The procedure for obtaining nE is as follows: From the observed data a table is set up obtaining
xi – x and (xi – x )/s. Corresponding to (xi – x ) /s the ordinate values yi’s are tabulated by consulting a
table of ordinates of the normal curve and the sum Y is then obtained. Then the expected nE is obtained
corresponding to xi and n0 as a
nE = yi N/Y (1.86)
A second table is now set up indicating xi, n0,nE, (n0 – nE)2/nE and the sum of the entries in last column will
give c2. For success of the method it is recommended that around the thinly populated region, grouping is
done so that expected number does not fall below 5. In such a case ni and n0 are different.
The value of c2, thus obtained, will now be set into a criterion. For this, the number of values that were
summed up to yield c2 is important because this actually determines the degrees of freedom. In evaluation
of the results the constants involved are N, x and s, and if the number of rows in the last table is nr , the
degrees of freedom are (nr – 3). Now, the c2 test is through a hypothesis involving a set of predrawn curves
in degrees of freedom and c2 axes. These predrawn curves divide the space into the regions designated
thus: (i) data too good, (ii) data suspiciously good, (iii) hypothesis normal and not to be suspected, (iv)
hypothesis precarious and (v) hypothesis
disproved. The regions are separated by
the curves drawn on the basis of getting
values greater than those specified. Figure
1.21 shows the nature of these curves;
the regions are also marked in the figure.
Region III is the test region and if the
obtained value of c2 falls in this region, it
is to be concluded that the experimental
data follow a normal distribution. It
would be seen that lower the value of
c 2, better is the probability that the data
follow a normal distribution.
Here again, there is a thumbrule to
test the normalcy from the tabulated data
without plotting the value as in Fig. 1.21.
This is stated in the conjecture that c2 is
of the same order of magnitude as the
number of degrees of freedom and also
each individual term (n0 – nE )2/nE will Fig. 1.21 Chi-squared test curves drawn in
thus be of the order of magnitude of one, terms of degrees of freedom
giving
n0 @ nE ± nE (1.87)
This is a very important result obtained empirically. It means that the observed number is in tolerance with
the expected number and this tolerance is ± expected number.
Example 1.8 For the experimental results of problem Ex. 1.7, perform the c2 test. Coded s and x are 1.68 and
5.073 respectively, and N is 96.
Solution As discussed, Table 1.3 is set up first (see Fig. 1.22).
From Table 1.3 the final table, Table 1.4, can now be set as shown.
It must be remembered that instead of having a plot of yi – xi, yi’s can be obtained, in Table 1.3, after
calculation using Eq. (1.76). The degrees of freedom is 7 as the number of rows is 10 and 3 is to be
subtracted. Polling the value of c2 in the plot of Fig. 1.21 one notes the region in which it is located (region I)
accounts for an excellent fit—too good a fit, in fact.
Table 1.3
Coded xi xi – x (xi – x)/s yi nE n0
From Fig. 1.22
0 –5.073 –3.020 0.062 1.47 1
1 –4.073 –2.420 0.100 2.37 2
2 –3.073 –1.830 0.110 2.61 3
3 –2.073 –1.230 0.300 7.13 8
4 –1.073 –0.638 0.850 20.21 20
5 –0.073 –0.043 0.990 23.54 23
6 0.927 0.551 0.875 20.80 21
7 1.927 1.140 0.550 13.00 12
8 2.927 1.740 0.130 3.09 4
9 3.927 2.330 0.070 1.66 2
Table 1.4
xi (n0 – nE )2 (n0 – nE )2/nE
Coded
0 0.221 0.150
1 0.137 0.058
2 0.372 0.142
3 0.757 0.106
4 0.044 0.002
5 0.291 0.012
6 0.040 0.002
7 1.000 0.077
8 0.828 0.268
9 0.115 0.069
Sum c2 = 0.886
Fig. 1.22 The curve of ni versus coded xi
1.7.8 Curve-Fitting
So long the discussion was kept limited to a single point measurement and studies on precision have been
made. Statistical analysis has another very important use in the theory of measurement which is called
curve-fitting. Experimental points obtained over the span are to be joined by a smooth curve, a straight line,
for example; but often they do not lie on such a smooth curve and it becomes necessary to get the smooth
curve that fits the points best. When the curve is not a straight line the problem is quite complicated and is
ignored at this point of discussion. Here the case of a straight line is only considered where the problem is
to find the best slope of the line with the given set of data and often the position of the line as well. Leaving
aside the conventional graphical method, three different techniques are known to exist for the purpose.
These are (i) the method of sequential differences (MSD), (ii) the method of extended differences (MED),
and (iii) the method of least squares (MLS).
Let there be n number of experimental points sequentially increasing in output variables vj corresponding
to the input variables xj.
(i) In MSD, the slopes of the lines joining adjacent points starting from the point (x1, v1) are first
determined. There will, therefore, be n – l slopes which are then summed and the mean obtained.
If the individual slopes are denoted by Sj = (vj + 1 – vj )/(xj + 1 – xj ) = Dvj / Dxj and the mean slope by Sm ,
the deviation in slope of each segment from the overall slope is Sm ~ Sj with the mean deviation
n -1
DSm = Â ( Sm - S j ) /(n - 1) . Thus the standard deviation is given by DSs = (5/4) | DSm | , and the standard
j =1
error by DSe = DSs / n - 2 = (5/4) | DSm | / n - 2 . The corrected slope is thus
S = Sm ± (5/4) | DSm | / n - 2 (1.88)

n -1
It would appear that if Dxj is constant Â S j /(n - 1) is effectively equal to (vn – v1) / (Dxj (n –1)) which
j =1
means that the average is obtained with the first and last points only with the intermediate points becoming
inconsequential. However, for calculating the deviations and standard error other points are utilized.
The straight line can now be drawn with the position, i.e., a specific point being made available through
which the line would pass. The best point is the centroid of all the points obtained simply as
Ê n n ˆ
( xc, vc ) = Á Â x j /n, Â v j /n ˜ (1.89)
Ë j =1 j =1 ¯
(ii) In MED, the experimental points are divided into two groups, the lower set (x1, v1), (x2, v2) ...,
(xm, vm) and the high-value set (xm + 1, vm + 1), (xm + 2, vm + 2), …, (xn, vn). The corresponding points in the
v j+m - v j
two groups are differenced and the slopes are obtained as S j = Dv j / Dx j = . This requires that
x j+m - x j
n n 2
m = n/2. Now, Sm is obtained as Sm = Â S j /(n 2). Similar to the MSD DSm is obtained as Â (Sm - S j ) /(n 2)
j =1 j =1
and the standard deviation and standard error are obtained as are obtained in the case of MSD. Following
the same technique as in the case of MSD, the position is found. However, the straight line location can be
more easily obtained by finding the two centroids, those of the lower set of points and those of the higher
Ïm m ¸ ÏÔ n n ¸Ô
n/2 points. Thus ( xcl , vcl ) = ÔÌ Â x j (n 2), Â v j (n 2) Ô˝ and ( xch , vch ) = Ì Â x j (n 2), Â v j (n 2) ˝ are
ÔÓ j =1 j =1 Ô˛ ÓÔ j = m j=m ˛Ô
obtained and the two points are joined to obtain the ‘best’ straight line through these set of points.
(iii) The MLS is a general method and is applicable to cases where we have the knowledge as to which
coordinate is giving rise to the errors. Assuming for instance, that errors in v give rise to the scatter in the
experimental points, the best fit of the curve can be obtained by minimizing the sum of the squares of the
errors in the direction of v, Sev2. This is the principle of least squares.
A straight line passing through a set of points (xj, vj ) is given by
vj = mxj + c (1.90)
For a v-coordinate error of evj , this changes to
vj = mxj + c ± evj (1.91)
To minimize S evj2 one can adjust m and c in Eq. (1.91) which can be done by differentiating S evj2 in this
equation with respect to m and c and equating to zero. Thus one gets
n
Â x j (v j - mxj - c) = 0 (1.92a)
j =1
and
n
Â (v j - mxj - c) = 0 (1.92b)
j =1
yielding, in turn,
n n n
Â x j v j = mÂ x 2j + cÂ x j (1.93a)
j =1 j =1 j =1
and
n n
Â v j = mÂ x j + nc (1.93b)
j =1 j =1
respectively. Equations (1.93) are known as ‘normal’ equations and are solved for m and c. With these m
and c one spreads out the table for computing the standard error. First, v’s are calculated with different x’s
and tabulated alongwith measured v’s and then ev2’s are tabulated and summed. From Eqs (1.93) one derives
c = (Svj Sx2j – Sxj Sxj vj) / (nSx2j – (Sxj)2) (1.94a)
and
m = (nSxjvj – Sxj Svj) / (nSx2j – (Sxj)2) (1.94b)
For equally spaced xj’s, as is usually the case, the standard error is
(nÂ evj2 )1 2
De = (1.95)
(n - 2)(nÂ x 2j - (Â x j ) 2 )
For position the centroid principle is still used.
If error is due to x-direction scatter, the equations are modified for appropriate analysis. Thus Eq.
(1.91) may be changed as
xj – vj / m + c / m = exj
and differentiating ex with respect to m and c for minimum or least error, the corresponding equations are
derived, from which, by manipulation and substitution one gets
S(mxj – vj – c) = 0
and
S{vj(mxj – vj + c)} = 0
Then following the procedure as already outlined m and c may be evaluated.
Example 1.9 By measurement the following set of data has been obtained.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
y 0.0 0.85 2.02 2.92 4.10 5.05 5.95 6.89 8.02 9.01 9.92
Obtain the slopes in three different methods.

Soltuion (i) For the MSD the following table is laid out.
Table 1.5 MSD
Dxj Dvj Sj = Dvj /Dxj | Sm ~ Sj |
1 0.85 0.85 0.132
1 1.17 1.17 0.188
1 0.90 0.90 0.082
1 1.18 1.18 0.198
1 0.95 0.95 0.032
1 0.90 0.90 0.082
1 0.94 0.94 0.042
1 1.13 1.13 0.148
1 0.99 0.99 0.008
1 0.91 0.91 0.072
ESj = 9.82 Sum = 0.984
Hence Sm = S Sj /(n – 1) = 0.982, and DSm = 0.0984

Thus, DSs = (5/4) ¥ 0.0984 = 0.123 and DSe = 0.123 / 9 = 0.041, and the slope is S = 0.982 ± 0.041.
The centroid is (Sxi /n, Svj /n) = (55/11, 54.73/11) = (5, 4.975)
(ii) For the MED, 0 values are left out, so that m = 5, n = 10 as given in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6
Dxj = xj + 5 – xj Dvj = vj + 5 – vj Sj = Dvj / Dxj | Sm ~ Sj |
5 5.10 1.002 0.015
5 4.87 0.974 0.013
5 5.10 1.002 0.015
5 4.91 0.982 0.005
5 4.87 0.974 0.013
SSj = 4.934 sum = 0.061
Hence, Sm = SSj / 5 = 0.987, DSm = 0.061/5 = 0.012, DSe = (5/4) ¥ (0.012 / 4 ) = 0.0075, and, hence,
S = 0.987 ± 0.0075 with the centroid same as above.
(iii) For the MLS, one writes from Eq. (1.93b)
54.73 = 55m + 11c
while for Eqn (1.93a), a Table 1.7a is given.
Table 1.7a
xjvj 0 0.85 4.04 8.76 16.40 25.25 35.70 48.23 64.16 81.09 99.20
xj2 0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Using relation (1.94a) and the tables, c is calculated as –0.0259 and similarly using Eq. (1.94b), m is
obtained as 1.0003.
For obtaining the error, vj, is calculated using the obtained value of m and c and equation vj = 1.0003xj – 0.0259.
Table 1.7b shows the details.
Table 1.7b MLS
xj vj(calc.) vj(meas.) vjc – vjm = evj evj2
0 –0.0259 0 0.0259 0.67 ¥ 10–3
1 0.9744 0.85 0.1244 15.0 ¥ 10–3
2 1.9747 2.02 0.0453 2.05 ¥ 10–3
3 2.9750 2.92 0.0550 3.02 ¥ 10–3
4 3.9753 4.10 0.1247 15.50 ¥ 10–3
5 4.9756 5.05 0.0744 5.53 ¥ 10–3
6 5.9759 5.95 0.0259 0.67 ¥ 10–3
7 6.9762 6.89 0.0862 7.43 ¥ 10–3
8 7.9765 8.02 0.0435 1.89 ¥ 10–3
9 8.9768 9.01 0.0332 1.10 ¥ 10–3
10 9.9771 9.92 0.0571 3. 26 ¥ 10–3
sum = 0.05612
Hence,
(11 ¥ 0.05612)
De = = 7.2 ¥ 10-5
(9 ¥ 1210)
The slope is, thus, S = 1.0003 ± 7.2 ¥ l0–5 with the straight line passing through the same centroid.
It would be seen that a lot of computation is necessary in finding the slope and the centroid as well.
Computer can help in this regard. A typical example of calculating m and c for a set of experimental data
with a personal computer following FORTRAN is shown here. The nomenclatures in the program are x
remains x, y = v, D = Sxj, E = Svj, G = Sx2j , H = Sxj vj, DEL = nSx2j – (Sxj)2, A = c and B = m. The program
listing and results are shown in Fig. 1.23.
DIMENSION X(10), Y(10)
DATA X/1.0, 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0/
DATA Y/ 1.02, 1.98, 2.99, 4.01, 5.05, 5.97, 6.92, 8.10, 8.91, 9.90/
17 READ(*, I2)N
12 FORMAT (I3)
C DO13I =1, N
C13 READ (*, 14)X(I),Y(I)
C14 FORMAT (2F 10.2)
D=0
E=0
G=0
H=0
C=N
DO 15I = 1, N
D = D + X(I)
E = E + Y(I)
G = G + X (I) **2
15 H = H + X(I)*Y(I)
WRITE (*,*)‘D =’, d
WRITE (*,*)‘E =’, e
WRITE (*.*)‘G =’, g
WRITE (*,*) ‘H =’, h
DEL = C*G – D**2
WRITE (*,*) ‘DEL = ’, del
A = (E*G – H*D)/DEL
B = (C*G – D*E)/ DEL
WRITE (*,16) A, B
16 FORMAT (E14.8, 5X, E14.8)
STOP
END
C:\FORTRAN>DP
10
D = 55.0000000
E = 54.8500000
G = 385.0000000
H = 383.4900000
DEL = 825.0000000
.30666610E–01 .10100000E + 01
Stop – Program terminated
C:\FORTRAN>
Fig. 1.23 The program listing tor curve- itting
1.8 RELIABILITY AND RELATED TOPICS

Reliability is another important count on which a transducer or a measurement system as a whole should be
considered. Study of reliability can be done in two different ways.
(1) By appropriate testing of a group of instruments or parts thereof, the reliable ones or their parts are
identified, or,
(2) A failure analysis is performed over the instruments or parts thereof to find any mechanism of failure
so that subsequently the failures can be reduced by taking appropriate actions. In this study the analysis of
failed devices and accelerated testing of components and/or of instruments are made.
Both the procedure may, however, be adopted, one being, in a sense, supplementary to the other.
Failure, in general, is divided into a few categories (a) catastrophic failures — usually in early life of the
device, (b) short term drifts in parameter values governing the performance, and (c) long term drifts and
subsequent failures, i.e., long-term failures.
A failure is said to be catastrophic in nature if it is complete and sudden—complete usually means that
the output in response to a given input does not show even near relation of the function it is expected to
show. In fact, the change is gross as far as the required functional relationship is considered, and, when the
failure is not anticipated, it is said to be sudden. Catastrophic failure may occur at any time of the life, but
early life failure is more important when it is known as infant mortality in analogy with medical science.
When it occurs late in life, it is termed as wear out.
The short time and long term drifts combined are known as degradation failures. Any of these drifts
can again be of two types—monotonic, i.e., the output variable moves in the same direction whereas in
nonmonotonic drift it moves in either direction. Basically, a failure which is not catastrophic is characterized
as drift or degradation failure.
1.8.1 Reliability
It has a number of equivalent definitions, one of these is that it is the probability that a device would
function without failure over a specified interval of time when in use.
When reliability is being quantified, an acceptable range for the performance of the instrument has to
be defined; instrument with performance falling in this range is considered acceptable and the others are
rejected. Failure, thus, may be redefined in the above light, i.e., in addition to the ones already defined in
the previous section it may also mean unacceptable instrument performance.
Reliability is usually studied via models for which some associated terminologies are necessary. If P(x)
is the probability density function
•
Ú P( x)dx = 1 (1.96)
-•
The mean m of the probability density function P(x) is also referred to as the expectation value or the
average value and is given as
•
m= Ú xP( x)dx (1.97)
-•
To show how compactly the probability is concentrated around the mean m, a measure called variance (see
previous sections), s2, is defined as
•
s2 = Ú ( x - m )2 P( x)dx (1.98)
-•
Probability that a value would lie between – • and x is given by a probability function or cumulative
distribution function
x
F ( x) = Ú P(t )dt (1.99)
-•
The reliability function R(x) is actually the probability that an item such as a product, i.e., an instrument,
would survive for a stated interval, say 0 to x. If F(x) is the probability function for failure, then
•
R( x) = 1 - F ( x) = Ú P(t )dt (1.100)
x
Number of non-failed components at instant x (1.101)

=
Number of components at x = 0
There is another function that is called hazard function, h(x); it gives the idea of probability of an item
failing in the interval x and x + dx, given that it was functioning properly at time x. It is obtained as
h(x) = [{P(x + dx) – P(x)}/dx] . 1/R(x) = P(x)/R(x) = P(x)/(1 – F(x)) (1.102)
Reliability models are based on various distribution functions some of which are: (a) Normal or Gaussian
distribution, (b) The log normal distribution function
1
P( x) = exp (- (ln x - m g ) 2 ) /(2s g ) 2 (1.103)
xs g (2p )
where sg and mg are the standard deviation and the median of the corresponding normal distribution;
reliability function is then
•
1 Ê 1 ˆ
R( x) = Ú ts g 2p
exp Á - 2 (ln t - m g ) 2 ˜ dt
Ë 2s g ¯
(1.104)
x
(c) The exponential distribuion

P(x) = l exp (– lx) (1.105)
and the reliability function then is
R(x) = exp (– lx) (1.106)
where l is a positive constant.
(d) The G-distribution function, with G(k) function for a positive integer k,
P(x) = [l(l x) k–1 exp (– lx)] / G (k) (1.107)
and the reliability function is
k -1
R( x) = Â (exp (-l x)(l x) j / j !) (1.108)
j =10
(e) The Weibull distribution in which
P(x) = ( b / h) (x / h) b–1 exp (– x / h)b ) (1.109)
from which the reliability function is
R(x) = exp (– x / h) b ) (1.110)
There are many others. Different distributions have been suggested for different conditions of operations in
which failure occurs such as some on shock conditions when G-distribution for k shocks is used; some on
stress excess condition when Weibull distribution is preferred.
The reliability function R(x) is estimated as based on on-life test data, additionally an analytic function
should be considered to express it. Distribution functions are such functions and in terms of test time (x)
and some other parameters these distribution functions have been fruitfully used to express reliability of
sensors, instruments or other items.
One very important item in reliability studies is the mean time to failure known in short as the MTTF.
One way to calculate this is to add the life times of k items and divide the sum by k; k usually is a large
number. If a short interval of time t to t + dt is considered, the number of items which fail in this interval is
given by kP(t) dt. Since each of the kP(t) dt units has a life time of t, the MTTF is computed as
• •
MTTF = (1/k ) Ú t {kP(t ) dt} = Ú t P(t ) dt (1.111)
0 0
This means that MTTF is the area under the R(t) (= Ú P(t) dt ) curve drawn against t-axis.
Also, the total lifetime of all k items is k. MTTF. In the interval t to t + dt, kR(t) items are functioning
contributing kR(t) dt to the total life time of the k units. Thus, kMTTF is given by
•
k .MTTF = Ú kR(t )dt
0
or
•
MTTF = Ú R(t )dt (1.112)
0
Effectively MTTF is the area under the R(t) – t curve which can
be approximated by the summation of many small rectangles, each
having a height R(t) and width dt as shown in Fig. 1.24.
In majority of the cases of component/instrument studies on
reliability count, curves plotted in coordinates of failure rate, i.e., Fig. 1.24 R(t) versus t curve
failures per unit time versus time has the shape similar to a bath
tub and it is often referred to as the bath-tub curve, as shown in
Fig. 1.25. There are three distinct regions in this curve. Region I
covers the period of time of early failure and is known as the infant
Failure rate
I II III
mortality region, region II covers the period when the failure rate
is approximately constant and is known as the constant failure rate
region and region II is the end of life region with a rising failure
rate and is known as the wear-out region.
It may be mentioned that catastrophic failures are more in t
regions I and III, drift or degradation failures are more in region III.
Region II contributes the working life period of the device. Fig. 1.25 The bath-tub curve
Failure tests are performed by what are known as accelerated
aging test. This is necessary as the components/devices normally have long life and the reliability or failure
rate curve is difficult to obtain on real-time data base.
The idea is to subject the device to a high ‘stress level’ and observe its performance to predict how
the device would perform under normal conditions. The technique is easier said than done. It requires to
accelerate the aging process so that the device becomes ‘older’ or ‘aged’ in the same manner as it becomes
aged under normal operational conditions. This would be called true acceleration. In a high stress operation
how can one justify that true acceleration has really occured and how this high stress performance is
extrapolated to make it valid in the evaluation of the performance under normal conditions? Also one
should be able to determine the acceleration factor which is defined as the period of normal operation that
corresponds to a specified period of accelerated ageing test.
Exponential distribution model and the log normal distribution model are the two models most accepted
in ageing ‘analysis’ of instruments and/or transducers.
Let y (Q) be some function of quality and l is a constant degradation rate which depends on some stress
parameter, p, such as temperature, and is independent of time, then
y(Q) = exp (l (p) t ) (1.113)
where t denotes time. Usually a margin of acceptibility, i.e., error band is defined and the degradation rate is
redefined as the failure rate if any part with quality parameter Q lies outside this margin.
Arrhenius has proposed an equation
l(p) = exp (a – bf (p)) (1.114)

where f(p) is a function of parameter p. The natural logarithm of l (p) as a function of f (p) can be plotted
to obtain ‘a’ and ‘b’ as the intercept and slope of ln l (p). This plot is called the Arrhenius plot.
The relationship between the accelerated time and normal time can be obtained by considering that the
quality factor Q1, at some time t1 and under normal stress condition parameter pl changes to Q2 at some
other time t2 under higher stress condition parameter p2 so that
y (Q1) = y (Q2) (1.115)
Now using Eqs (1.114) and (1.115), one gets
[exp{a – bf(p1)}]t1 = [exp {a – bf (p2)}] t2 (1.116)
Thus
t1 = [exp b{f (p1) – f (p2)}] t2 (1.117)
Thus t2 hours of operation at high stress condition is equivalent to t1 hours of operation at normal stress
condition and their relationship in terms of known parameters is given by Eq. (1.117). In this case the
failure is considered by one mechanism only.
In the previous discussion Arrhenius model has been chosen and it is said that an acceleration is true
if the Arrhenius plot is linear and according to that model l (p) is not time dependent. This postulate is,
however, not strictly true as failure rates are not constant and there is always an ageing phenomenon which
brings in a time-dependent factor. Therefore, a distribution that moves with time under the influence of a
variation in stress is required to be considered, or, the failure distribution must be measured at higher stress
levels. Besides, if it is possible to test the distribution of time-to-failure over a longer interval, better would
be the estimated value of the parameter.
The log normal distribution which is the distribution of a random variable whose logarithm follows the
Gaussian distribution is suitable for such a purpose to a certain extent.
It has been shown that a log-log plot of the time-to-failure of instruments following log normal
distribution with cumulative percentage failures is a
straight line as shown in Fig. 1.26. In some cases two p1
straight lines are obtained as indicated with the first p2
region showing a steeper slope and is indicative of infant
mortality, i.e., products of relatively shorter lifetime.
Operating life (log)
As is seen in Eq. (1.103) and subsequently, the

parameters of the log normal distribution are the median
life and standard deviation. Median life is estimated from
the log normal graph as the time corresponding to the 50%
p = Stress parameter
cumulative failure and the standard deviation is accepted
as
sg = ln{(time to 50% failure) /(time to 16% failure)}
However, time-to-failure curves are different for
different stress conditions or levels. Cumulative % failure (log)
In a log-log graph paper stress variable is plotted as a
function of life (in hours). Stress median life thus obtained Fig. 1.26 Operating life versus cumulative
gives usually a linear curve, and now, by extrapolation the failure in log-log scale
median life at normal stress level is obtained. Standard
deviation at normal stress level is obtained by constructing a graph of instantaneous failure rate versus median
life using the log normal distribution. This curve also provides the value of the failure rate at normal stress level.
1.9 UNITS
This small section is intended to provide some materials regarding the units used in different engineering
systems. A standard unit system is gradually evolving and is being increasingly used in practice now.
Discussion is around that system of units which is now known as SI units.
1.9.1 Fundamental Units

1. Mass is expressed in kilogram in SI units, in short kg. This is one of three fundamental standards.
Standard for this unit of mass is a cylinder of Pt-Ir alloy kept by the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures in Paris.
2. Length is expressed in meter abbreviated as m. It is standardized in terms of 1650763.73 wavelengths
of the orange-red line of the spectrum of krypton 36 in vacuo. A new definition has recently been proposed
(in 1983) as the length of the path light travels in vacuo during a time interval of 1/(299792458) of 1 sec.
It is realized through the measurement of time of flight by frequency comparison with laser radiations of
known wavelengths.
3. Time is expressed in seconds and abbreviated as s. Its standard is defined as the duration of
9192631770 cycles of radiation emitted during a specified transition of cesium atom. It is realized by tuning
an oscillator to the resonance frequency of the Cs atoms when they are moved through a magnet and a
resonant cavity into a detector.
4. Temperature is represented as Kelvin, abbreviated as K. It is standardized on the basis of
thermodynamic scale with its origin at absolute zero and a fixed point at the triple point of water defined as
273.16 K. The commonly used Celsius scale is derived from the Kelvin scale which has the triple point of
water as 0.01°C.
1.9.2 Derived Units

Force is expressed as Newton, N, so that 1 kg of mass accelerating at 1 m per s2 would produce this force.
Area expressed as square meter, m2 and in land measure, it is hectare which is 2.5 acres or 10,000 m2.
Pressure is expressed in Pascal, Pa, which is 1 N/m2 and is given by the following relationship with
other common units:
1 atmos = 101,325 Pa. 1 bar = 100,000 Pa, 1 in Hg = 3386.4 Pa,
1 in water = 249.09 Pa = 0.03613 lb/in2 = 2.54 ¥ 10–3 kg/cm2.
Speed is expressed as meter per sec, m/s, and Acceleration is expressed in metre per sec square, m/s2.
Volume is expressed as cubic meter, m3; cubic decimeter (= 0.001 m3) is termed a litre; Us gallon =
3.785 ¥ 10–5 m3, 1 Imp gallon = 1.20095 USG.
Work and Energy are expressed as Joule, J, which is the product of Newton and meter; 1 J = 107 erg, a
cgs unit 1 erg = 1 dyne-cm
Other unit Foot-pound = 14.5939 Nm.
Power is expressed as Watt, W, which is Joules per second. Other unit is horsepower which is 42.44 Btu/
min = 550 ft-lbs/sec.
Unit of current (electric) is ampere, A, which is defined in magnitude such that when it flows through
two infinitely long parallel wires separated by 1 metre in free space results in a force of 2 ¥ 107 N per metre
of length.
Voltage is expressed in volts, V, and defined as watt per ampere and similarly resistance as ohm, W,
defined as volt per ampere. The SI unit of frequency is Hertz, Hz, and is defined as the period or cycles per
second. The reciprocal of resistance is admittance or conductance and is expressed in Siemens, S, which is
the reciprocal of ohm.
The SI unit of magnetic field strength is ampere per meter, A/m, which is the strength in the interior
of an uniformly wound solenoid with a current of 1 ampere in its windings counted over a meter of axial
distance. The current density in the wire should be uniform. The cgs unit is Oersted. MMF has the SI units
of ampere turn which is related to the cgs unit of Gilbert as
1 Gilbert = 0.4 p ampere turns
The flux density or magnetic induction is expressed in tesla whereas its cgs unit is Gauss. The SI unit of
magnetic flux is Weber and is defined in the following way; if the flux linkage in a circuit changes at a
uniform rate of 1 weber/s, it produces 1 voltage in the circuit, thus 1 Wb = (1 V. 1 s). The cgs unit is
Maxwell which is defined as the flux through a square centimeter area normal to a field at a distance of 1
centimeter from a unit magnetic pole.
The SI unit of inductance is henry, H which is the inductance of a circuit in which 1 ampere current
induces a flux linkage of 1 weber.
Coulomb is the SI unit of electric charge and is defined as that which passes the cross-section of a
conductor per second when the current through conductor is maintained constant at 1 ampere. The SI unit
of capacitance is Farad and is defined as that of a capacitor in which a charge of 1 coulomb produces a
potential difference of 1 V between its terminals.
Luminous intensity is expressed as candela, Cd, and is defined as the intensity of a source in a given
direction, emitting monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 ¥ 1012 hertz having a radiant intensity in that
direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. Steradian is the unit of a solid angle which is equal to the solid angle
subtended at the centre by l/4p surface area of a sphere of unit radius. The light flux is expressed as lumen,
lm, and is defined in terms of a source of 1 candela which radiates a light flux of 4 p lumens in all directions.
A 40 W incandescent lamp is known to emit 680 lumens. Lux in SI unit is the unit of luminance, obtained
from light flux, it is lumen per square meter, lm/m2; other unit lumen/ft2 and is often termed foot-candle.
The SI unit of luminance is also expressed as candela per sq. meter, cd/m2, for luminous intensity. This has
another counterpart defined as 1 lumen/cm2 leaving a surface, the surface is said to have a luminance of 1
lambert also called phot. If the surface is in ft2, it is called foot-lambert. Stilb is also a unit of luminance and
is equal to 1 candela/cm2. The SI unit of luminous excitation is lm/m2 and of luminous efficacy is lm/W; for
the quantity of light it is lumen second, lm-s.
For chemical studies, the quantity of a substance is expressed in mole, mol, and is defined as the quantity
of substance containing as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg of C–12, i.e., molecular
weight of the substance.
Energy in SI unit is Joule as stated already, heat energy is usually given in calorie, 1 calorie = 4.184
Joules. Therm is another unit of heat energy corresponding to 100,000 Btu. The unit of heat capacity or
entropy is J/K. CGS unit of acceleration is often said as Gal, 1 cm/s2; in space science a milligal is quite
commonly used.
Loudness or sound level has the unit of phon, it is the pressure level of a pure 1000 Hz tone in dB;
decibel is one-tenth of Bel and Bel is defined as log10 (power l/power 2)2
The cgs unit of dynamic viscosity is poise, often l00th part of it is used in practice and called centipoise.
One poise is 1 dynes sec per sq. cm. The kinematic viscosity is stokes, used in centistokcs. Kinematic
viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density.
Review Questions
1. Distinguish between accuracy and precision. Is density of mercury as 13.6 gm/cc, its speci ic
sensitivity related lo precision? heat 0.033 and heat transfer coef icient from the
2. What is nonconformity in error speci ication? measuring medium to mercury is 0.00185 units;
How is it taken into consideration in error studies estimate the time constant of the thermometer.
and instrument speci ication? Also, if temperature in the medium rises at the
3. Discuss installation errors and equipment errors. rate of 2°C/min, what dynamic error would the
How can they be eliminated or minimized? thermometer have?
A large circular tank is installed for holding [2.62 min, 5.24°C]
water and after illing it with the liquid it is found 9. The maximum value of deviation with sinusoidal
that the circular shape has been distorted with input to second order system occurs at w/wn =
the ratio of the maximum to minimum diameter 0.8246. Obtain the value of the deviation and the
becoming 1.09. What is the percentage error in damping factor.
the tank hold up? Is this error an installation [2.1%, 0.4]
error? Explain. If now a step input is given to the instrument it
[ 0.2709, This is an equipment error.] shows a time period of oscillation of 2 sec, what
4. What do you mean by the order of a measuring is the value of wn and the deviation at the third
system? What are the different standard inputs peak?
given to the measuring system for evaluation of [3.42 rad/s, 1.8%]
its parameters? What are the parameters in a 10. A deviation 50 per cent of the peak deviation is
second order system? shown in a second order system at a frequency
5. A clinical thermometer is used to check the 1.5 Hz, and peak deviation is equal to the value
mouth temperature of a patient and after 1 min to be measured, obtain wn , z and the other
the response is 96% complete. What is the lime frequency where the same deviation occurs.
constant of the thermometer? [z = 0.25, f = 2.67 Hz or 0.8396 Hz
[0.3106 min] wn = 14.56 r/s or 8.157 r/s]
6. Calculate the characteristic time of a 11. A voltage source of output 1.5 V had 0.5 ohm
galvanometer with its moving system weighing internal resistance, and after some use it rose to
1 1 ohm. All the while it was used to supply a load
30 gm, a damping force of kg per unit of
2 of 29 ohm. Estimate the loading error incurred
velocity and the constraining spring characteric due to this change in the internal resistance.
is speci ied as having a constant of 1.2 kg/cm. [1.6%]
[0.12 s]
12. What is known by dynamic calibration? How
7. A first order instrument shows a dynamic is it performed in a second order underdamped
error of 10 per cent with a sinusoidal input system?
of a frequency of 0.02 Hz. What is its time The peak value of the output of a second order
constant? For the same time constant the voltmeter is 20% more than the input value
dynamic error is now 0.5 per cent, what is the for a step input of 10 V and the time period
input frequency? Calculate the time lags in of oscillation is 1 sec. Obtain the instrument
both the instances. parameters.
[3.648 s, 4.74 ¥ 10–3 Hz, 196 s, 209 s]
[wn = 7.05 rad/s, z = 0.4563]
8. A mercury thermometer with a spherical bulb
13. What do you mean by class interval and class
shows 1 mm rise in mercury column per 0.1°C
frequency in statistical data analysis? Obtain
rise in temperature. If the coef icient of volume
the standard deviation and the true value of the
expansion with temperature, of mercury, is
variate from a set of data obtained as shown
0.00018 (cc/cc °C) and the capillary diameter is
below:
0.2 mm, what should be the bulb volume? Given,
Range No. of Range No. of Input, Output, Input, Output,

of variates readings of of variates readings of kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2
the range the range
3 2.92 9 9.01
0.900–0.910 1 1.010–1.020 24
4 4.10 10 9.92
0.910–0.920 0 1.020–1.030 23
5 5.05
0.920–0.930 1 1.030–1.040 15
0.930–0.940 2 1.040–1.050 9 Obtain the slope of the straight line calibration
0.940–0.950 2 1.050–1.060 12 curve using the method of sequential differences
and the method of extended differences. How is
0.950–0.960 3 1.060–1.070 8 the result different?
0.960–0.970 3 1.070–1.080 7 Plot the calibration curve using the method of
0.970–0.980 8 1.080–1.090 2 least squares. Explain the method.
[Same as Ex. 1.9]
0.980–0.990 16 1.090–1.100 2
16. What is Chi-squared test? Indicate the steps of
0.990–1.000 23 1.100–1.110 1 setting up the table for performing such a test.
1.000–1.010 20 Using the table of Q. 13, obtain the Chi-squared
value and justify the authenticity of the dataset
[s = 0.03315, variate = 1.016417 ± 0.002464] by testing the same for normal distribution.
14. How do you draw the ‘best’ straight line through [17.0176]
a set of data points? 17. What are internal and external estimates? What
Distinguish between the method of sequential are their importance in statistical error analysis?
differences and the method of extended What is the limitation usually encountered in
differences? external estimates?
15. A pressure gauge was tested to obtain its 18. Distinguish between systematic error and
calibration curve and the following set of data random error. How is random error found out
were obtained. and corrected for? Discuss with example.
19. What is a catastrophic failure? Why and when
Input, Output, Input, Output, does it occur in instrument manufacturing
kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 process or usage? What is a bath tub curve. How
0 0 6 5.95 is it interpreted in reliability studies?
20. What is Arrhenius model in reliability analysis?
1 0.85 7 6.89
How is it used in practice? Explain with necessary
2 2.02 8 8.02 curves.
Displacement, Force, Velocity,
Acceleration and Torque
2.1 DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is a fundamental variable whose measurement

is involved in many other physical quantities such as velocity,
acceleration, force, torque etc. Depending on the means of
measurement it may broadly be classified as (i) mechanical, (ii)
pneumatic, (iii) electrical, and (iv) optical. However, mixed methods
are also there for example, optical methods using photodetectors
yield the output ultimately in an electrical quantity like current,
2
voltage etc., making it a combined method of mechanical-optical
electrical system. Such classification, as made above, is thus to
Chapter provide only a basic guideline of adoption.
When measurement is direct it gives displacement straightaway
but the indirect methods, used frequently, also provide informations
regarding the other associated variables like force, velocity, acceleration, vibration, torque etc.
Although mechanical means are quite useful in practice, a large section of this comes under the purview
of metrology and it is good to remember that the range of such displacement is often small to medium.
Basic scheme of displacement measurement would involve a few sections as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Coupling in this figure usually signifies contact-coupling. Non-contact coupling is also used in practice.
For example, a ferromagnetic proximity sensor does not require contact coupling, the inductive or the
electromagnetic coupling providing the necessary transduction. Also, indirect coupling is used as in the case
of rotary optical encoder system where the linear displacement is converted into an angular displacement.
Contact mechanical coupling is usually provided by (a) plunger type, (b) beam type, (c) cantilever type
arrangements.
Fig. 2.1 The basic displacement measurement scheme: DP displacement; CONV converter, mechanical to other
forms; MC machine; S supply; SP signal processing; DY display
The pneumatic conversion method consists of a flapper-nozzle assembly. The flapper is the process
material, like a sheet, whose thickness is measured and which moves over a reference datum in the form of
a wheel or platform. The nozzle back-pressure will directly give the change in thickness which is indicated
in a gauge. A high magnification of the order of 105 enables a thickness measurement of the order of
10–6 cm by this method easily. The accuracy of the method depends mainly on the constancy of the supply
pressure.
Electrical conversion methods generally convert the displacement to a convenient form of electrical
quantity like voltage, current, resistance etc., which are then easily measured by a meter. Electrical
conversion methods using strain gauges, linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) or capacitance
transducers are increasingly becoming common not only in displacement measurement but also in the
measurement of various other quantities although the electrical signals derived from such transducers are
dependent basically on a displacement parameter as already mentioned. The principles of these transducers
and gauges will now be discussed in some detail.
2.1.1 Strain Gauge

A strain gauge is used to measure the strain in a workpiece. The T
workpiece must be finite in length. For pieces of smaller length
strain measurement at a point is better, provided a suitable-sized
gauge is available for the purpose. The length over which the average
measurement is made is called the ‘base length’. A suitable gauge
D
indicates a minimum deformation known as the ‘deformation sensitivity’
of the base length.
Strain gauges can be made of resistance materials or semiconductor l
materials. In the former type the strain gauge, generally, consists of a
wire of diameter between 0.0008 to 0.0025 cm made of suitable material
and of appropriate length. When it is strained within the elastic limit,
may be with an axial tension T, it will have an increase in length and
decrease in diameter or area. If the cross-sectional area is a and the
length before strain is l and diameter D as shown in Fig. 2.2 then the
axial and transverse strains are given respectively by ea = dl/l, et = dD/D T
Fig. 2.2 Representation ot tension
1
= - da/a, so that the material Poisson ratio is applied in an elastic member
2
m = et/ea = (–dD/D)/(dl/l) (2.1)
Obviously, this change in the physical dimension causes a change in the resistance of the wire which can
be found from the equation R = rl/a, from which one obtains
(dR/R)/(dl/l) = l + 2m + (dr/r)/(dl/l) (2.2)
where R is the resistance of the wire in the unstrained condition and r is the resistivity of the material, and it
has been assumed that this resistivity is not a constant of the material, but is dependent on the material. This
physical effect is attributed to the presence of free electron mobility, sometimes called the piezo-resistance
effect or the Bridgeman effect. It has been shown that the quantity (dr/r)/(dl/l) is a constant for a material
being dependent on its modulus of elasticity in direct proportion so that one can write
(dr/r)/(dl/l) = yE (2.3)
The term y is known as the Bridgeman coefficient. If the strain sensitivity (dR/R)/(dl/l) is represented by
l then the equation
l = l + 2m + yE (2.4)
can be easily derived from Eqs (2.2) and (2.3). The term l is also known as the gauge factor. As temperature
changes the resistivity as also the dimensions of a material change, it would change the gauge factor as well
of a strain gauge.
Displacement, Force, Velocity, Acceleration and Torque 45
Materials for resistance strain gauges are not many in practice. Table 2.1 lists a few common resistance
materials used to make strain gauges. The table also gives the approximate compositions and gauge factors.
Table 2.1 Resistance gauge materials
Material Composition Gauge factor
Advance Cu 55%, Ni 45% Between 2.0 and 2.2
Nichrome Ni 80%, Cr 20% Between 2.2 and 2.5
Karma Ni 75%, Cr 20%, others 5% Around 2.4
Isoelastic Ni 36%, Cr 8%. Mn-Si- Around 3.5
Mo 4% and rest iron
Pure platinum Pt l00 Around 4.8
Platinum-tungsten Alloyed with small tungsten quantity Around 4.5
Temperature coefficient of resistivity b, is an important factor and should be given due consideration
Advance has a b value of 0.03 ¥ l0–3/°C, for nichrome it is as high as 0.1 ¥ 10–3/°C, platinum has a value 40
times more than that of advance, platinum alloyed with tungsten has a value somewhat lower. In any case, a
compensation for temperature variation must always be done for proper measurement.
Wire strain gauges are of two different types: bonded
and unbonded. In the unbonded type the resistance wire
is stretched between two frames as shown in Fig. 2.3.
The rigid pins on the two frames are insulated. The rela-
tive motion between the two frames produces a strain in
the stretched wire which in turn causes a change in its
resistance value. This change in resistance value is actually
measured to measure the strain or the force causing it.
The bonded resistance strain gauge has a wire grid or a
foil cemented to a paper or thick plastic film support about
0.0075 cm thick. The sketches of such gauges are shown
in Fig. 2.4. The gauge wire is fixed to the paper support Fig. 2.3 Sketch of the unbonded gauge
by a nitrocellulose cement or adequately treated phenolic
resin. The treatment consists in polymerizing 0.003 in.
the resin at a high temperature. The measuring plastic or paper
leads are either soldered or welded to the
gauge wire. The bonded strain gauge with the
paper backing is cemented to the elastic mem-
ber whose strain is to be measured. Besides 0.001 in.
paper or plastic, bakelite or glass weave can Diam.
also be used as backing material for which or
epoxy or ceramic cement would be used as the thick
adhesive. Such backings are used generally for
high temperature operation, greater than 200°
but within 400°C. Wire type Foil type
The strain measuring circuit consists of a
Fig. 2.4 Sketches of the bonded type strain gauges
bridge, one arm of which contains the gauge
(wire and foil types)
while the other three arms have standard
resistances of nearly equal value as that of the
gauge resistance in the unstrained condition. The circuit with

a resistance in series with the supply for current adjustment
and a resistance in series with the current detector is shown
in Fig. 2.5. If Eg is the voltage between points b and c and E
is the voltage between points a and d and DR is the change in
the strain gauge resistance R because of applied stress, then
one can easily calculate
ÈR ˘
DR / R = Í s ( Eg / E + 1 / 2) /(1 / 2 - Eg / E ) ˙ - 1 (2.5)
ÎR ˚
where E is given by E = EbRo/(Ro + Rb) with Ro = 2Rs(R +
Rs)/(R + 3Rs). By measuring the voltage unbalance Eg, for
very large Rg, the strain is easily obtained from Eq. (2.5).
For current unbalance a reasonable value Rg is considered
and assuming that initially R = Rs and DR is small compared
to 2R, the change in the detector current from balance to
unbalance condition is obtained as Fig. 2.5 The strain gauge measuring circuit
Dig = (EDR)/(4R(R + Rg)) (2.6)
and since DR/R is les for a strain es, one derives
es = 4Dig(R + Rg)/(E ◊ l) = k ◊ Dig (2.7)
Thus the detector current is linearly related to the strain.
When the elastic member is stressed, its strain at a particular point is normally desired. A strain gauge
generally measures the strain over a specified area or length and breadth. A general measurement problem
will involve measurement of strain in more than one direction in the member. If a number of strain gauges
could be so oriented on a member so that the strains along the principal stress axes could be ascertained,
the advantages of measurement are easily understood. The arrangement of the strain gauges for such
measurement is known as rosettes. These can be of two types, (i) the rectangular strain gauge rosette and (ii)
the delta strain gauge rosette shown in Figs 2.6(a) and (b) respectively. For knowing the stresses and strains
and their directions suitable formulae are there which can be used for easy calculations. When a gauge is
arranged in one direction perpendicular to the direction of the principal stress, the strain gauge exhibits what
is known as a cross sensitivity factor defined as the ratio c = transverse sensitivity/longitudinal sensitivity.
This is generally less than 2 per cent. The resistances of the wire strain gauges lie between a few ohms and
several thousands ohms. The displacement is in the range of 3 to 5 ¥ 10–4 cm with a resistance change of 1
per cent in the maximum of the range. Thus with a 10 volt input, an output voltage across the detector may
be of the order of 10 to 100 mv.
The above technique is often used for the measurement of torque in hollow shafts, machine parts under
rotation, load in weighers etc., as discussed later.
The stress-strain gauge is an innovation in strain gauge fabrication and is composed of two uniaxial
strain gauges arranged perpendicular to each other but provided with a common connection terminal as
shown in Fig. 2.6(c). This makes them independently operable or in combined form can provide an output
that is proportional to the stress along the principal gauge axis such as a-a. This is, however, possible if the
ratio of the resistances of G2 and G1 is equal to the Poisson ratio of material to which the gauge combination
is bonded. Strain along axis a-a a or b-b is measured in the usual manner with individual gauge factor being
considered whereas the stress along any axis is measured by using the ‘stress gauge factor’ (lSG) usually
supplied by the manufacturer. With resistances R1 and R2 of gauges G1 and G2 respectively and changes of
resistances DR1 and DR2, modulus of elasticity E, the stress along a-a axis is given by
Sa–a = (DR1/R1) [1 + DR2/DRl)/(l + R2/Rl)]E/lSG (2.8)
Fig. 2.6 (a) Rectangular strain gauge rosette, (b) delta strain gauge rosette,
(c) the stress-strain gauge, (d) foil gauge innovation
The gauges are usually of foil type design using constantan with proper compensation for temperature.
Other innovations are also there in foil type gauges as shown in Fig. 2.6(d) where the reversal points
marked RP are elongated for good bonding and low cross sensitivity and there is a gradual change (GC) in
the cross-sections of the connecting ends as well as other foil parts for eliminating stress concentration.
Temperature fluctuation is a major cause of error in measurement by strain gauge. Temperature variation
(i) alters the gauge resistance, and (ii) causes differential expansion between the gauge and the deformable
material or the test piece causing variation in the measurable strain. In general it is not possible to find
out the correction for the temperature effect. The usual method of compensation is to install two identical
gauges, one on the test specimen and the other on unstrained material of the same composition often termed
as dummy. Both these materials are kept close together for attaining the same temperature. An error due to
temperature variation would equally affect both, thereby compensating each other. An estimation of error
can, however, be made as shown below.
Let Rm and Rs be the resistances of the gauges mounted

and connected as already indicated and R1 and R2, the
standard resistances for balancing the bridge of the circuit
of Fig. 2.7. Let a be the difference in the coefficient of
linear expansion of the combination of gauge and elastic
members, L, be the length of the member and T be the
temperature rise or fall, then due to this temperature
change, a strain will be produced causing resistance
changes as
DRm/Rm = DRs/Rs = l(a LT/L ) = laT (2.9)
Temperature change causes a change in the resistance
of the gauge as well. If bg and bs are the temperature
coefficients of resistance of the gauges and standard
resistances, then the altered values of the resistances are
Rm(1 + bgT), Rs(1 + bgT), R1(1 + bsT1) and R2(1 + bsT1),
where T1 is the change in temperature in the standard
resistances. Thus, the net changes in the resistance
values in Rm, Rs, R1 and R2 for temperature change alone
are obtained as Rm [1 + (bg + la)T] – Rm, Rs [1 + (bg + Fig. 2.7 Circuit pertaining to strain gauge error
la)T] – Rs, R1 (1 + bsT1) – R1, and R2 (1 + bs T1) – R2 calculation with change in temperature
respectively.
If a gauge with resistance Rs is strained, the change in resistance due to strain will be given by
(l ◊ De ◊ Rs) and hence the altered resistance due both to temperature and strain, of Rs, is Rs(l + lDe) [1 +
(bg + la)T]. For balancing this change let R2 be changed to R2 + DR2 and, for generalization, it is assumed
that Rm and Rs are at two different temperatures with the changes given by Tm and Ts respectively, then the
balance condition is
Rm [1 + (b g + la )Tm ] Rs (1 + lDe )[1 + (b g + la )Ts ]
= (2.10)
R1 (1 + b sT1 ) ( R2 + DR2 )(1 + b sT1 )
Rearranging and writing bs + la = f, Eq. (2.10) is obtained as
Rs (1 + lDe )(1 + fTs ) ( R2 + DR2 )(1 + b sT1 ) R2 + DR2
= = (2.11)
Rm (1 + fTm ) R1 (1 + b sT1 ) R1
Now since lDe and f are both small quantities, Eq. (2.11) is more simply written as
Rs(1 + lDe + f(Ts – Tm))/Rm ª R2 (1 + DR2/R2)/R1 (2.12)
But initially Rs/Rm = R2/R1, so that
lDe @ DR2/R2 + f(Tm – Ts) (2.13)
Thus, for non-identical temperatures in the two gauges as also on the materials a correction term
Ct = – (f/l) (Tm – Ts) (2.14)
is necessary.
Amongst the other sources of error are humidity, thermoelectric effect, magnetostrictive effect, etc.
Humidity causes error in two ways (i) it causes breakdown of insulation between the gauge and the
ground point, and (ii) it causes electrochemical corrosion of gauge wire due to electrolysis, whereby the
gauge resistance tends to increase considerably and a zero drift occurs. An appropriate protective coating
helps minimize these effects. The coating materials are chosen from waterproof compounds such as
microcrystalline silicon wax, bitumen, rubber compounds etc.
Thermoelectric effect arising at the leads sometimes causes error but this is very small.
Magnetostrictive effect in strain gauges of ferrormagnetic materials is observed when the gauge is in use.
It produces a disturbing voltage as large as 2 mV. The gauge, if properly conditioned by repeated straining
and passing current while on strain, may be free from this effect.
The gauge must be stable in operation. Instability occurs due to zero drift and hysteresis effects, when
on load. Adopting proper fixing techniques with adequate compensation, the stability can be increased to a
large extent.
Besides wire type resistance strain gauges, foil type bonded gauge, vacuum deposited thin metal-
film gauge, sputter-deposited thin metal-film gauge are some other resistance gauges used in practice
extensively. Evaporation-deposited or sputter deposited types are produced on the elastic members by the
deposition as mentioned. Because of absence of bonding materials in such cases, thin film gauges show
improved time and temperature stability.
Other than resistance strain gauges, semiconductor strain gauges are also becoming very popular. They
may be classified as bonded semiconductor type or the diffused semiconductor type.
Semiconductor strain gauges, in general, are used in
transducers; although the bonded type may sometimes be
used in stress analysis purposes. The bonded type is usually
made as wafers of about 0.02 cm in thickness with length
and resistance values nearly equal to the wire gauge. It
uses either germanium or silicon base materials to be made
available in both n- and p-type. The p-type gauges has a
positive gauge factor while the n-types have negative gauge
factor. Semiconductor gauges have very large gauge factors
varying from –100 to 150 but are very brittle and have
a high temperature coefficient, often exceeding 0.15/°C.
Temperature dependence of gauge factor is governed by the
resistivity of the material. At very high degree of doping,
resistivity is less and temperature dependence is also less.
Often this dependence is compensated by appropriate circuit
design as has already been mentioned for resistance strain Fig. 2.8 The gauge-factor temperature
gauges. The gauge factor-temperature characteristics with characteristics with different doping level
different doping levels are shown in Fig. 2.8.
The large value of the gauge factor in semiconductor gauges is attributed to the piezoresistance effect in
such materials and its value is mainly given by
ls @ yE (2.15)
unlike the cases of the resistance gauges where it is the dimensional change which is more important.
Semiconductor gauges are generally used for axial stress. With a supply voltage V across the wafer and the
unstressed resistance R, the current i in the stressed condition is given by
V/R = i(1 + DR/R) = i(1 + yE ◊ Dl/l) = i(1 + yS) (2.16)
where S = E ◊ Dl/l = stress. The gauge factor in the semiconductor material changes nonlinearly with strain.
In fact, for a strain e, the relative resistance change in semiconductor gauges at constant temperature is
given by a series form relation
n n
DR / R = Â a i e i = Â C j l j (2.17)
1 1
For a heavily doped silicon gauge with resistivity of 2 ¥ 10–4 ohm-m, a1 = 119.5 and a2 = 4000 whereas
for n-type gauge with resistivity of the order 3 ¥ 10–4 ohm-m, a1 = –110 and a2 = 10,000. Since e is quite
small, one would note ls is positive for p-type and negative for n-type. The diffused semiconductor gauges
are manufactured utilizing the diffusion process used in integrated circuit manufacture. This, therefore, is
very conveniently adopted in microsensor technology. The member whose strain is required to be measured,
such as a diaphragm in pressure measuring system, is formed with silicon and not with a metal and then
impurities are deposited in the diaphragm to form intrinsic strain gauges at localized places. Basic proper-
ties of such gauges are similar to the bonded type semiconductor gauges.
Example 2.1 A resistance strain gauge with gauge factor 2 and resistance 100 ohm is placed in an equal arm
bridge circuit. The supply voltage is 10 V. If the detector resistance is also 100 ohm, calculate the sensitivity of the
detector.
SolutionFrom Eq. (2.7), Dig/es = El/(4(R + Rg) = 10 ¥ 2/(4 ¥ 200)
= 0.25 A/strain = 0.25 mA/mcm/cm
Example 2.2 A nichrome gauge with a gauge factor of 2 and b = 10–4/°C is attached to a soft steel piece with
g
linear expansion coef icient ac = 0.12 ¥ 10–4/°C. The coef icient of linear expansion of nichrome is an = 0.13 ¥
10–4/°C. Calculate the per cent error in strain for 500 m - strain due to temperature change.
Solution la = 2 ¥ (0.12 – 0.13) ¥ 10–4/°C = – 0.02 ¥ 10–4/°C,
f = bg + la = l0–4 – 0.02 ¥ 10–4 = 0.98 ¥ 10–4/°C,
f(Tm – Ts) = 0.98 ¥ 10–4 for a difference of 1°C, and 500 m-strain = 0.0005. Hence, percent error =
f(Tm – Ts)/(lDe) = 0.98 ¥ I0–4 ¥ 100/(2 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–4) = 9.8 per cent/°C.
2.1.2 Inductance Transducers

Inductance transducers with ferromagnetic plunger type cores operate on the principle of variation of
reluctance in the leakage paths of a cylindrical coil. The magnetic field strength distribution along its axis
is peculiar because of the finite length of the coil; also it has a large air gap. If the coil length is l, mean coil
radius r, number of turns n, current flowing through the coil I, then the magnetic field strength H and core
movement inside the coil x are related by the approximate equation
In È l + 2x l - 2x ˘
H = Í + ˙ (2.18)
2l Í {4r 2 + (l + 2 x) 2 } {4 r 2
+ (l - 2 x ) 2 ˙
}
Î ˚
Figures 2.9(a) and (b) show the coil schematic and the plot of the above H – x relationship. A pair of coil
in the push-pull arrangement has a changed field strength along the axis and is given by
In È l - 2x l + 2x 2x ˘
H = Í - + ˙
2l Í {4r 2 + (l - 2 x) 2 } {4r 2 + (l + 2 x) 2 } (r 2 + x 2 ) ˚˙ (2.19)
Î
Figures 2.9(c) and (d) show the constructional features and H – x relationship of such a design.
Figure 2.9(b) shows that the change in inductance over the central part of the coil with armature
movement is almost linear. Inductance of the single layer single coil design is
L = 4p2n2r2 ¥ 10–9/l Henry (2.20a)
With a magnetic core of effective permeability mm and of almost the same length of the coil l and radius
rc its value changes to
L = [4p2n2{lr2 + (mm – 1)lcrc2 } ¥ 10–9]/l2, lc < l (2.20b)

If lc changes to lc + d lc, i.e., the core is pushed a little more inside, change in inductance is dL and is
given by
4p 2 n 2 2
dL = rc ( m m - 1)d lc (2.2la)
l2
to yield
dL/L = [1/{1 + (l/lc)(r/rc)2(1/(mm – 1))}]dlc/lc = kdlc/lc (2.21b)
x 2r (a)
100%
80%
H (b)
20%
– 1.2 – 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.2 ¥ l

2
x
arm 2r (c)
H 80%
– 0.6
– 1.2 l (d)
0.6 1.2 ¥
2
– 80%
x
Fig. 2.9 (a) The coil schematic, (b) plot of the relation 2.18, (c) the coil design with push-pull arrangement,
(d) H – x relation for the push-pull arrangement
For a combination coil it is the same but in opposite sign so that in a differential arrangement
dL = 2k(dlc/lc)L (2.21c)
In a situation mm >>1, lc close to l, rc close to r, k = 1.
This design assumes a linear distribution of the magnetic field inside the coil and neglects the losses
in ferromagnetic core and in the external sleeves. It has limited application because of (i) low sensitivity
due to large air gap, (ii) large number of turn requirement increasing stray capacitance and consequent
possibility of a resonant condition at some frequency, (iii) larger core losses resulting in low Q-factor, (iv)
external pick-up, etc.
The LVDT The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is an inductance variable type displacement
transducer. The schematic arrangement of the transducer is shown in Fig. 2.10(a) and the arrangement
of the system including the coils is shown in Fig. 2.10(b). It consists of three coils, one primary and two
secondaries, all in a linear arrangement, with a magnetic core free to move inside the coils. The core is
normally made of nickel iron alloy and has a longitudinal slot as shown, for reducing eddy currents. Ferrite
cores are also being used now for less loss and larger sensitivity. The core is positioned with a nonmagnetic
rod. The
Fig. 2.10 (a) The schematic arrangement of an LVDT, (b) actual arrangement of the coils
primary is supplied with an alternating voltage of amplitude between 5 and 25 volts and a frequency 50 Hz
to 20 kHz. The secondary coils are identical in design and for a centrally placed core, the induced voltage
in the secondaries e1 and e2 are equal. The secondaries are, however, connected in phase opposition so that
the output in the above condition is zero. This assumes that there is no transverse displacement also of the
core. Displacement causes asymmetry in the core location with respect to the secondary coils thus inducing
unequal voltages in them and a finite non-zero output e0. The output voltage versus the displacement or
the transfer characteristic is shown in Fig. 2.11(a). The output is linear with core displacement over a wide
range but undergoes a phase-shift of 180° when the core passes through the zero displacement position, i.e.,
the central location. This is explained more clearly in Fig. 2.11(b). There is a residual voltage of 1 per cent
or less of the maximum linear voltage at zero displacement. This incomplete balance is attributed to the
stray magnetic and capacitive coupling between the primary and the secondaries and presence of harmonic
contents in ei. It can be reduced by low-pass filters in the input circuit, by balancing the output circuits
individually with resistive and capacitive shunts or by adequate grounding. A scheme is shown in Fig. 2.12
where resistances R1 and R2 are arbitrary but should preferably be low without loading the source.
The important considerations are range and sensitivity of the transducer. The range depends on the
construction. Commercial transducers have a range varying from ±0.002 cm to several cms. In certain
special types, detection of even ±20 mcm displacement can be made.
Fig. 2.11 (a) Output voltage-displacement curve, (b) phase change characteristics
Fig. 2.12 Compensation scheme for proper balance
The sensitivity, defined as S = (eo/ei)/d, where d is the displacement, is dependent on the geometry of
construction as also on the electrical characteristics of the materials used. It is usually between 1 and 5
V/V/cm. Obviously, output can be increased by increasing the primary voltage but this involves a larger
primary loss and heating of the primary and, in consequence, an increase in the primary resistance, which,
in turn, changes the output as will be seen later. A constant current fed to the primary is one solution to
avoid these difficulties. A larger primary voltage gives 104

a distortion in the output as a consequence of its higher
harmonic contents. The sensitivity also changes with the
frequency of the input but this change is not fast enough to 103
ensure a rigid frequency control. Figure 2.13 shows eo/ei eo
versus frequency curves for different loads connected to the ei
secondary. Impedances in ohms of the primary and combined 102
secondary vary from model to model. A relation of their d = 0.1 m.
ratio with the sensitivity does exist. Generally speaking the
primary impedance varies from 100 to 2000 ohms while the 101
secondary impedance varies from 250 to 5000 ohms. 10 100 1000 100000
As there is a phase-shift of 180° when the displacement
crosses the zero point, a phase sensitive detector is generally f in Hz
required for linear indication over the negative to positive Fig. 2.13 Plot of normalized output versus
frequency for different loads
displacement region. Actually a phase sensitive demodulation
circuit is involved which requires that the output eo is in-phase with the input ei, to avoid nonlinearity in the
measurement. This can be accomplished by phase-lead or phase-lag circuits as shown in Fig. 2.14. The
phase difference of the output with respect to the input can be calculated following the equivalent circuit as
shown in Fig. 2.15 where Rm is the meter resistance and acts as the load. This is usually resistive in nature.
It is easy to obtain from Fig. 2.15
Fig. 2.14 Phase lag and phase lead circuits
Fig. 2.15 Equivalent circuit of the LVDT

ipRp + Lpdip/dt = ei (2.22a)

and
eo = e1 – e2 = (M1 – M2)dip/dt (2.22b)
The term (M1 – M2) is a quantity that varies linearly with the core motion such that one can write
M1 – M2 = kd (2.22c)
Differentiating Eq. (2.22a) and combining with Eqs (2.22b) and (2.22c) one finally gets, in operator
notation,
eo/ei(s)/d(s) = sk/(Rp + sLp) (2.23)
when Rm Æ •, i.e., es = eo.
However for a load Rm, a curent is flows in the secondary circuit, then the guiding equations are
ipRp + sLpip – (M1 – M2)sis – ei = 0 (2.24a)
and
s(M1 – M2)ip + (Rs + Rm)is + sLsis = 0 (2.24b)
yielding
eo/ei(s)/d(s) = [(skRm)/{(Rs + Rm)Rp}]/[s2(t2m + tpts) + s(tp + ts) + 1] (2.25)
where tp = Lp/Rp, ts = Ls/(Rs + Rm) and t2m = (M1 – M2)2/{Rp(Rs + Rm)}, and, since es = isRm, the frequency
response is
skRm /[ R p ( Rs + Rm )]
|es/ei( jw)/d( jw) | = (2.26)
[{1 - w 2 (t m2 + t pt s )}2 + w 2 (t p + t s ) 2 ]
The phase angle difference between es and ei is equal to

w (t p + t s )
90∞ - tan -1 (2.27)
1 - w 2 (t m2 + t pt s )
Equation (2.27) shows another important feature that when the output terminals are loaded, without
having to choose any lag or lead compensator circuit, the input and output can be obtained in the same
phase at a frequency w = 1/ t m + t pt s . The frequency is, however, depending on tm, tp and ts. The
2
frequency is chosen normally between 50 Hz and 20 kHz depending on the parameters as discussed.
An interesting feature of the LVDT is that the input-output connections may be interchanged—the
normal connection gives a large sensitivity, the reverse connection is often preferred for impedance
matching and reducing the stray magnetic fields. When metal masses exist close by, both the LVDT and the
equipment having the masses may be affected. Adequate shielding minimizes this effect. The shields are
provided with slots for reducing eddy currents.
The LVDT is less affected by temperature fluctuation except that the winding resistance might change
causing output changes. This can be compensated by a negative temperature coefficient resistor in series
with the winding.
The dynamic response of the LVDT is limited by the supply frequency and the core mass. Since the output
has a phase change in its range of operation a phase sensitive detector is used for measurement and the usual
requirement of the carrier frequency is generally required to be satisfied, i.e., fc ≥ 10fm. The phase-sensitive
detector is shown in Fig. 2.16(a). In recent years LVDT instrument packages are available commercially.
In a single monolithic block the following components are incorporated for convenience of the user:
eo
Rm
(a)
VRef.
– R4 R4
–
Gm + +
Syn.
+ Dem.
G–
2R1
R1 G=1+
Ro Ro
Ro
(b)
Sig +
+
–
–
VRef. Vo
(c)
Fig. 2.16 (a) Scheme of a phase-sensitive detector, (b) the scheme with the commercial monolithic block,
(c) the scheme of a half-wave synchronous demodulator
(a) variable frequency sinewave generator, (b) primary booster amplifier, (c) secondary amplifier, (d)
synchronous demodulator, and (e) dc amplifier. A typical scheme that exists in a chip is shown in Fig.
2.16(b). A low-pass filter and a gain setting resistance network for the dc amplifier are also shown in the
figure. The synchronous demodulator, basically, is an ac to dc converter with its output determined by
the phase of the input signal, with respect to a reference, and its amplitude. The phase sensitive property
is availed of by switching the signal by an SPDT switch driven by a squarewave reference. A half-wave
synchronous demodulator is shown schematically in Fig. 2.16(c). Such a system requires a dc supply and
this is then called DCDT.
2.1.3 Capacitance Gauges

The capacitance gauge for displacement measurement consists essentially of a pair of equal area parallel
plates. If the distance between the plates is l, area of the plates is a and e is the dielectric constant, then the
capacitance C is given by
C = kea/l (2.28)
where k is a constant. The value of k is 0.0885 when dimensions are expressed in cms, the capacitance is
expressed in mmF. In the above equation fringe effects have been neglected, which is not always possible.
The capacitance value changes due to this effect; it, however, leads to an error of less than 1 per cent for
a /p /l > 200. By changing the distance l with a displacement input, the capacitance is changed. Also, if
area a is changed the capacitor has a different value. The capacitor transducer sensitivity with distance is
given as
S = ∂C/∂l = – kea/l2 (2.29)
which can be increased with large plate area and small distance l. The higher limit of a is fixed by the space
and operational difficulties and the lower limit of l is fixed by the breakdown voltage which for air as the
medium is around 30 kV/cm.
In many systems a differential capacitor arrangement is used for displacement measurement as shown in
Fig. 2.17(a). In the normal position, the central plate is shown by the solid line and the capacitances Cl and
C2 are then identical and is given as C1 = C2 = C = kea/l. For a displacement x of the centre plate parallel to
itself, C1 and C2 are
C1 = kea/(l + x) and C2 = kea/(l – x) (2.30)
For measuring the displacement a circuit as shown in Fig. 2.17(b) may be used. Simple analysis would
show that Eo is given by
Eo = jwER(C2 – C1) (2.3la)
Using the values of Cl and C2 from Eq. (2.30),
Eo = j(2EwRkea)x/l2 (2.31b)
for l2
>> x2.
For a voltage E applied between terminals 1 and 2 in Fig. 2.17(a), the voltages across C1 and C2 are
given by
E1 = EC2/(Cl + C2) = E(l + x)/2l (2.32a)
and
E2 = EC1/(C1 + C2) = E(l – x)/2l (2.32b)
The difference voltage E1 – E2 = e is thus given by
E1– E2 = e = Ex/l (2.33)
Fig. 2.17 (a) Differential capacitor system, (b) the measuring circuit scheme,
(c) the circuit scheme for measuring difference voltage
Thus, the difference voltage is a linear function of the displacement of the middle plate and the
sensitivity is easily seen to be inversely proportional to l, since
S = ∂e/∂x = E/l (2.34)
and directly proportional to the supply voltage. However, increasing E and decreasing l are in contradiction
and a compromise is, therefore, to be made for optimum condition.
A scheme for measuring the difference voltage is shown in Fig. 2.17(c) where eo = e1 – e3 – (e3 – e2) =
e1 + e2 – 2e3 and is actually the difference of El and E2 of Eqs 2.32(a) and (b). In fact e0 is a linear function
of x if e1 and e2 are fixed and the distance between plates 1 and 2 is also fixed. When measurement with a
passive bridge circuit is made, the output is proportional to the ratio of the capacitors, such that
C2/C1 = (l + x)/(l – x) ª 1 + x/l for x << l,
which is again linear. But for comparable values of x and l linearity is not good.
The alternative scheme of capacitive transducer with change of area is not very common. It may have
sliding type configuration of the parallel plates or quadrant type configuration, one of the plates having a
rotating motion. Both the systems can be arranged to have a differential mode of operation.
Since the displacement, in general, would be small, a large sensitivity would be required for accurate
measurement. Another consideration is the force required to move the capacitor plate. For a parallel plate
system, this is given by
f = KE2a/l2
where K is a constant and is equal to 4.43 ¥ 10–12 in the cgs system of units with E expressed in volts.
This force is very small and, hence, capacitance pick-ups are useful when small forces are available.
Mechanical consideration, however, imposes some limitation. The output impedance of the transducer is
a major consideration which depends on the alternating input supply frequency and the magnitude of the
capacitor. Normally large impedance means a large signal but direct measurement in such a case becomes
disadvantageous. The connecting lead and stray pick-ups also vitiate results, and need be taken care of by
appropriate techniques of design.
Piezoelectric Transducer There is a class of solid crystalline dielectric materials which when deformed by
the application of force, generate electric charges, and vice-versa. In crystals, there is an assymetrical charge
distribution, and, the lattice deformation due to the applied force causes a relative displacement of the
opposite charges within the lattice. This displacement of the internal charge is associated with an external
charge distribution of opposite polarity on the opposite two sides of the crystal. This is what is known as the
piezoelectric effect. Piezoelectricity is actually defined as an electrical polarization produced by mechanical
strain in certain class of crystals. This polarization is proportional to the strain and changes sign with the
strain. A monolithic study of this effect has been made which clearly shows that the charge produced due
to the deformation for any mechanical input can be measured by a pair of electrode suitably mounted. It
has been shown that the crystal structure of a piezoelectric material like quartz can be represented, to a
first order approximation, by a helix with one silicon and two oxygen atoms alternating along the helix
forming, in consequence, a hexagonal plan view of a cell of the crystal. The rotational direction of the helix
represents right- or left-handedness of the crystal. Figures 2.18(a), (b) and (c) show the basic model of the
crystal cell looking down in the direction of the optic axis with stress along x-axis (longitudinally) and along
y-axis (transversely) respectively. Quartz, as is known, is SiO2 with silicon having positive charges and
oxygen atoms two negative charges. Figures 2.18(b) and (c) demonstrate that tension-induced polarization
has reverse polarity when compared with compression-induced polarization. Because of symmetry in the
z-direction, no polarization usually occurs with forces applied in the direction of the z-axis.
The class of materials exhibiting the abovementioned effect falls in a natural group consisting of
quartz, rochelle salt, etc., and a synthetic group consisting of lithium sulphate (LS), ammonia dihydrogen
phosphate (ADP), ethylene diamine tartrate (EDT), dipotassium tartrate (DKT), etc. Certain synthetic
materials like barium titanate require artificial polarization for generating assymetry in the lattice. The
piezoelectric transducer is cut from a larger crystal in the direction of any of the electrical or mechanical
axes perpendicular to the optical or crystal axis. These electrical axes which are three in sets for a hexagonal
crystal, are known as x-axes and the mechanical axes are y-axes. These are illustrated in Fig. 2.19(a) and the
cutting technique is illustrated in Fig. 2.19(b). The direction, perpendicular to the largest face, is the cut axis
referred to. The forms and orientations of crystallographic axes, are shown in the manufacturers’ literature,
see for example, Clevite Corporation Bulletin, where crystal properties and applications have also been
discussed to a certain extent. The crystals, in general, have mechanical and electrical anisotropy and with
the change in stress, the crystal constants are likely to change. For such reasons, an analytical approach
in the evaluation of the optimum crystal cutting is not available. The crystal is designated by two sets of
constants when used as transducers: (a) The charge sensitivity, also called the piezoelectric constant, d,
defined as the charge generated per unit force applied, and (b) the voltage sensitivity, g, defined as the field
produced per unit stress.
X
+ + + + + +
X +
X — — — — — —
Si -ion
+
+ – –
– – Y
– –
Y
Y
+
+ + +
+ + –
–
– + + + + + +
O2 -ion – – – – – –
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.18 Basic model of the crystal cell: (a) unstressed, (b) stressed in one direction,
(c) stressed in another direction
Fig. 2.19 (a) X–Y axes of a piezoelectric crystal, (b) explanation of the cutting technique
Figure 2.20(a) shows the piezoelectric crystal when used as a measuring element. The force f is applied
in the direction Z and the output voltage e is measured with the help of an electrode pair mounted in the
same direction. According to definitions
d = Q/f (2.35a)
and
g = (e/t)/(f/(wl)) (2.35b)
where, t-thickness of the transducer, l = length, w = width, and Q = charge developed. Constants d and g are
not unrelated as can be seen below:
g = (e/f)(wl/t) = eC/(ef ) = Q/(ef ) = d/e (2.35c)
where e = dielectric constant of the material and C = capacitance formed in the transducer. Depending on
the direction of application of force and of measurement, the constants d and g are separately suffixed like
dxz, dxy, gvz, gyx and so on. The values are not necessarily the same, and are dependent on the direction of the
crystal axes.
Two other coefficients of importance in piezoelectric crystals are h-coefficients and k-coefficients. The
h-coefficients are obtained by multiplying the g-coefficients by the Young’s modulus valid for the
appropriate crystal orientation of the material. It measures the emf gradient per unit mechanical deformation
and is expressed in (V/m)/(m/m) units. The k-coefficients are coupling coefficients and are computed from
(h ◊ d)1/2 representing the square root of the ratio of the mechanical energy stored in the crystal to the
electrical energy absorbed by the crystal or vice versa. It, therefore, is a measure of the crystal efficiency as
energy converter. The application of such a coefficient is, however, mainly in cases when the crystal is used
as electromechanical vibrator or filter.
The piezoelectric transducer may be operated in one of the several modes like (i) longitudinal
compression as illustrated in Fig. 2.20(a), (ii) transverse compression with dij or gki constants, (iii) face
shear action as shown in Fig. 2.20(b) and (iv) length shear action as shown in Fig. 2.20(c). Above modes
are utilized as per the requirement. For large output sometimes piezotransducers are stacked, known as
multiple arrangement. This arrangement may be suitably made to compensate for any unwanted vibrational
pick-ups.
The primary advantages with natural crystals and perhaps with barium titanate which is synthetically
made, are their mechanical and thermal stability, capability of sustaining higher stress, low leakage and
good frequency response, whereas the synthetic ones have large voltage sensitivity. Volume resistivity of
quartz may be as large as 1014 ohm-cm. Some piezoelectric elements are affected by humidity. Rochelle
salt, for example, is affected if relative humidity rises above 85 per cent or falls below 35 per cent. A
protective coating usually with wax or polymer material is recommended in such cases.
Barium titanate has the advantages of quartz and further it may be made in any desired shape and form.
It also has a large dielectric constant. The crystal axis is selectable by orienting the direction of polarization.
For obtaining the response characteristics of a piezoelectric transducer its equivalent circuit is first
formed. The main attraction of such a transducer is its high mechanical input impedance also called
stiffness. In transducer language this implies that it has high natural frequency. Unfortunately, in the output
side also, it has high electrical impedance and hence special care has to be taken so that measurement from
the transducer does not pose much of a problem. For the measurement of the charge voltage developed at
the output terminals of the transducer a high input impedance device like an oscilloscope or a FET-input
cathode-follower or a source-follower circuit is used. Due to the mechanical action, let a deformation in
z-direction take place and let this displacement due to the deformation be z, then one can write
Q = d ◊ f = d ◊ k ◊ z = Kz (2.36)
where K is a constant in coulomb/m unit. The equivalent circuit of the crystal with amplifier as a load is
shown in Fig. 2.2l(a). The leakage resistance and capacitance of the crystal are suffixed ‘cr’ while the load
resistance and capacitance of the amplifier are suffixed ‘amp’. From Eq. (2.36), by differentiation
Kdz/dt = dQ/dt = i (2.37)

where i is the total current flowing through Req and Ceq which are parallel combinations of Rcr and Ramp and
Ccr and Camp respectively, such that
i = ic + ir (2.38)
Fig. 2.20 Piezoelectric crystal as a measuring element: (a) (i). longitudinal compression, a
(ii). force-displacement axes, (b) face shear action, (c) length shear action
Fig. 2.21 (a) The crystal equivalent circuit with ampli ier as the load,
(b) the modi ied equivalent circuit
as shown in the modified equivalent circuit of that of Figs 2.21(a) in (b). The output voltage eo is given as
eo = Úicdt/Ceq = Ú(i – ir)dt/Ceq which on differentiation and rearrangement using Eq. (2.37) yields
Ceq(deo/dt) = i – ir = Kdz/dt – eo/Req (2.39)
Hence the voltage to deformation transfer function is obtained as
eo(s)/z(s) = s(K/Ceq)t/(1 + st) = s Keqt/(1 + st) (2.40)
where t = ReqCeq and Keq = K/Ceq in V/m.
Equation (2.40) indicates that for a fixed deformation the response is zero, meaning that the voltage is
measurable only with fluctuating deformation or force input and the voltage will decrease with decrease in
frequency of fluctuation. For a very large leakage resistance, t is very large and the response is quite good
to a very low value of frequency as can be seen from the relation below:
eo/|Keqz| = 1/ (1 + (1 / wt ) 2 (2.41)
It is also evident from Eq. (2.41) that to keep the response within 10 per cent wt > 2.0.
When fixed input in terms of deformation is applied such that z = A after t ≥ 0, output voltage is obtained
as
eo = KA exp (–t/t)/Ceq (2.42)
Hence the output voltage gradually decays exponentially the rate of which depends on the product CeqReq
and, eo and z are not measurable correctly at any finite time.
This difficulty was overcome by initially driving the crystal at resonance from a suitable oscillator,
measuring the required voltage. After the stress has been applied its resonance frequency and in
consequence, the power absorption or the voltage will change. This method has been used in many acoustic
transducers.
Example 2.3 A quartz crystal having a thickness of 2 mm and a voltage sensitivity of 0.005 volt-m/N is
subjected to a pressure of 1 psi. Calculate the output voltage.
Solution eo = gt (f/wl) = 0.055 ¥ 2 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 6.894 ¥ 103 = 1.52 V
Example 2.4 A piezoelectric pick-up having a dimension of 5 mm ¥ 5 mm ¥ 1.5 mm is subjected to a force of

1 kg. Calculate the voltage it develops.
Solution eo = gt (f/wl); wl = 5 ¥ 5 ¥ 10–6 m2, t = 1.5 ¥ 10–3 m, f/(wl) = l ¥ 106/25 kg/m2 = 4 kg/cm2 = 394
¥ 103 N/m2. Assume material is quartz, so that g = 0.055 Vm/N.
Hence eo = 0.055 ¥ 1.5 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 394 ¥ 103 = 32.5 V.
However, for most practical cases non-resonant type design is prevalent. Applications in microphone,
phonograph pick-up and accelerometers where the load comes as an input impedance of an amplifier
and voltage measurement is important at comparatively lower frequencies, unlike the case discussed in
Fig. 2.21 where the charge equivalent model is shown, have proved that an equivalent circuit as shown
in Fig. 2.22(a) is more appropriate. At reasonable frequencies, reactances of Ccr and Ca are very small
compared to Rcr and Ra, and, therefore, the resistances can be considered to be absent in Fig. 2.22(a). Figure
2.22(b) shows the response characteristics of the system of Fig. 2.22(a) for different values of R’s and C’s.
Low frequency range is extended only at the expense of the output level.
Generalized forms of equivalent circuits of piezoelectric crystals are also available in literature. The
prime consideration for these models is electromechanical representation of the crystal as a transducer. Size,
shape, material, dehydration, application—all these affect the performance of the crystals as transducers.
Fig. 2.22 (a) Equivalent circuit for the nonresonant type use,
(b) response characteristics of the system of Fig. 2.22(a)
2.1.4 Eddy-current Transducers

This type of transducers are comparatively new in measurement area and depends largely on the quality of
a high frequency alternating source which is fed to a set of coils numbering two, one acting as active coil,
the other provides temperature compensation by being in the adjacent arm of a bridge circuit. A conducting
material close to the active coil influences the latter by its absence or presence, or, by being closer or away.
Magnetic flux lines from the active coil pass through the conductive material surface producing in it eddy
currents whose density is greatest at the surface and decreasing fast with depth, becoming negligibly small
at about three times what is known as skin-depth, ds, below the surface. The skin depth is calculable from
the relation
d s = K r /( f m ) (2.43)
where K = a constant that has a value 50.3 for ds expressed in mm, r = the material resistivity in mW-cm,
f = frequency in Hz and m = permeability. Thus for 1 MHz frequency, which is the most common in
practice, Aluminium with a material m = 1 has a skin depth of about 0.07 mm, brass with same m, has
ds = 0.15 mm, and so on.
A typical scheme of the system of measurement is shown in Fig. 2.23. Probe P houses the two coils
as shown, the active coil AC is closer to the conducting material CM, often called the target, while the
compensating coil CC is on the other side of it. The high frequency source is the bridge supply and feeds the
coils across two capacitors. As the target comes closer to the active coil, eddy currents in it become stronger
and these change the effective impedance of the active coil by ‘coupling’, in turn causing an unbalance in
the bridge—the amount of unbalance being related to the target position. The bridge output is demodulated,
filtered with a low pass filter via the DF block and a dc output eo is obtained. The high frequency allows
a thin target to be used and also with this the frequency response becomes good up to a target fluctuation
frequency l/10th the supply frequency. The target displacement range varies for varying probe diameter
(d) and probe length (l). For larger range large diameter and length of the probe are necessary. For a 0.25
mm range, d ª 2 mm and l = 20 mm, whereas, for 25 mm range, d ª 70 mm and l ª 35 mm. The probes
are actually marked for the ranges they are designed. Mounting of each of these with respect to the target
is also very important—for a range R its distance from the probe would be (R ± 20% R) usually. Target
diameter should be larger or at least should be as large as that of the probe. A reduction of target diameter
reduces the output almost linearly. Shafts, when used as targets, should be much larger in diameter so that
their curved surfaces effectively behaves as flat surfaces. A thumb rule is to use a shaft diameter at least 4
times the probe diameter. Non-conducting flat targets may be fastened to a properly sized conducting sheet
for successful use of the probe. Presently available probe provides a resolution of about 10–4 mm.
Fig. 2.23 Measurement scheme with eddy current transducer
2.2 FORCE
Force is one of the quantities that is of very fundamental importance in engineering industries as well as
in process industries. Force measurement is usually done by comparison method—either direct or indirect.
Direct method of comparison is seen in weighing systems using equal arm levers in balanced condition
while the indirect comparison method uses calibrated transducers some of which have already been
discussed in displacement measurement systems.
2.2.1 Analytical Balance

A weighing machine, commercially known as scales is an appliance for comparison of weights, for
measurement of force as well as torque. Its elementary principle is establishing equilibrium between two
forces.
Most commonly used elements of scales are (i) the lever, (ii) the pendulum, (iii) the spring, and (iv)
the hydrostatic plunger. Of these (i) and (iii) are frequently used while (ii) and (iv) are used for specific
purposes.
Weighing instruments with levers are predominant and their forms are almost unchanged for over a few
thousand years. Analytical balance is an example of this type with the beam forming a pair of levers.
The requisites of a good balance are (a) truth, (b) stability, and (c) sensitivity. A balance is said to be
true when (i) the moments of the weights of the arms of the beam about the fulcrum measured from their
respective centre of gravity are equal, (ii) the scale pans with their attachment are of equal weight and
(iii) distances between the knife edges and the fulcrum are equal. The balance is stable when the fulcrum
is above the centre of gravity (CG) of the entire beam. When they are coincident, the balance is condi-
tionally stable while for the CG lying above the fulcrum, the beam is unstable. The sensitivity of the
balance depends upon several factors. It is defined as the angular deflection per unit unbalance. Normally
the balances are constructed such that the fulcrum lies on the line joining the end knife-edges and vertically
above the CG in the balanced condition. If the beam weight is wb, beam length is 2l and the vertical distance
between the fulcrum and the CG of the beam d, then sensitivity may be shown to be
S = l/(wbd) (2.44)
Thus with a long light beam and the CG very close to the fulcrum, the sensitivity is quite large. It may
be noted that by increasing the loading on the pans by equal amounts the CG is shifted more towards the
fulcrum, apparently increasing the sensitivity. However, because of the shift in the CG, the moment arms of
the weights change and the sensitivity remains unaffected.
Balances with micro-order sensitivity are required in chemical analysis. The chief source of error in
balances is the friction set up by the motion of their connected parts. Knife edges and bearings are the
places where such friction is generated. Choice of appropriate material and design and construction would
lessen errors due to friction.
Another source of error in the comparison of masses by a balance is the buoyancy force of the air.
Because of unequal volumes of the unknown mass and the counterpoise, usually ‘brass weights’, the
unbalanced buoyant force has to be taken care of. In fact true weight Wut of the unknown is given in
terms of the true weight of the counterpoise Wc and densities r1, r2, and r3 of the unknown, brass and the
surrounding air respectively as
Wut = Wc [1 + r3(r2 – r1)/{r2 (r1 – r3)}] (2.45)
knowing r1, r2, and r3, the correction term can be easily calculated.
Simple two-pan mechanical type chemical balances are now increasingly being replaced by single-pan
electronic microbalances. The counterpoising is done in much the same way as is done in a force/torque
balance type pressure transmitter described in a latter chapter. Typical schematic representations of such
balances are shown in Figs 2.24(a) and (b). The operation of these instruments are easily understood from the
w
MCE TARE
R ADC CPU Display
(a)
A & SN
If
W
St. R
MCE
I DD
(b)
Fig. 2.24 (a) and (b) Two typical scheme of electronic microbalances MCE: moving coil element, A & SN: ampli ier
and stabilizing network, St.R: standard resistance, DD: digital display, CPU: central processing unit
schemes. As shown in the schemes digital display can be easily made available and tare compensation etc.,
can be done using a microprocessor based system. The moving coil element (MCE) provides the necessary
feedback for balancing and across a standard resistor (R) the output may be drawn for analogue or digital
indication. This type of instrument can be used over a range from 20 g to 100 kg with a resolution of 0.1 mg
to 0.1 g.
2.2.2 Weighing Systems and Weighers

Commercial scales, known as platform machines or weighbridges depending on their capacity, use mostly
unequal arm levers of class 1 and class 2. These unequal arms are distinguished as load arm and power arm
with the associated forces termed as load and power. The load is the weight force that is to be measured
while power is the counterpoising force. The levers are specified in terms of mechanical advantage
defined as MA = Load/Power and the multiple defined as
Power arm Distance between the fulcrum and the poower point
M = =
Load arm Distance between the fulcrum and the load point
In Fig. 2.25 a number of levers are shown specifying their class, mechanical advantage and multiple.
It may be noted that for a lever to be in equilibrium mechanical advantage must be equal to the multiple.
A commercial scale consists of a platform supported by a number of levers such that the multiple M of
the lever system for any load point is precisely the same. The power point is obtained through an unequal
arm balance known as the steelyard. A steelyard may also be independently used for weighing purposes.
Its principle of operation is explained in Fig. 2.26. The points l, f, g, p in the steelyard li are the load point,
fulcrum, CG and power point respectively. The power point is movable with a counterpoise w. The whole
of the power arm is graduated so that at balance with zero indexing, the load W is given by
W = WBz/x + w y/x = m + ny (2.46)
Fig. 2.25 Parameters of class 1, class 2 and class 3 combination levers
The graduation may be directly done in appropriate weight units. As the load arm is exceedingly short,
it gives a low sensitivity figure with possibility of large inaccuracy when a slight error in poising occurs.
Steelyards are more appropriately used as the power point for a compound lever system platform weighers
or weighbridges where its mechanical advantage is of great help. Platform machines have limited MA of
about 112 or so whereas the weighbridges are designed to have MA of about 2500 or even more. Class 2
levers are mostly used in such machines.
l f p Index finger
i
+ g +
WB w
W Z
x
y
Fig. 2.26 Sketch of the steelyard
Two commonly used configurations of the compound Q p

lever system are (i) triangular lever type and (ii)
straight or A-lever type. The fundamental requirement L R
that the true weight of a load upon the platform should W
be indicated irrespective of its position on the platform,
A
can be achieved by adequate proportioning of the a¢
F
levers. Figure 2.27 shows the scheme of a straight a E
type compound lever machine. FAE and faB are the f
B
two levers of a platform machine with their fulcra at
F and f respectively. It can be shown that by choosing x b
y a
appropriate x, y, a and b, the measurement can be made
independent of the position of L on the platform. Of the Fig. 2.27 Scheme of A-type compound lever
load L, a fraction, say d, acts at a¢, the rest at a. If x/y machine
= f and b/a = y, then load acting at A is dfL and that
acting at B is (1 – d)yL. Thus the fraction of the total load L acting at A is [df + (1 – d)y], which will be
independent of d or position of L, if f = y. Thus it is necessary that
x/y = b/a (2.47)
In now FA/FE = l, the mechanical advantage of the lever system is
M ◊ A ◊ = 1/f l (2.48)
If now x = b, and y = a, the platform under loading will move parallel to itself. This is necessary as the
movement of the platform is magnified in actual measurement. The stability of the system will depend on
the relative positions of the knife edges in a lever and relative positions of the individual levers.
Generally the compound lever system is set underground with the platform in flush with the ground level
for easy access of the platform to the load. The power arm of the steelyard sometimes consists of three
branches, known as (a) capacity bar, (b) tare bar and (c) fractional bar. The capacity and fractional bars are
used for actual measurement while the tare bar is used for tare compensation.
In recent years load measurement has undergone changes where the accurate setting of levers could be
eliminated. The platform is supported by base-legs on which load cells are mounted. In fact the legs can
themselves act as elastic members on which strain gauges can be bonded in appropriate rosette form to
form load cells. Electrical output from these gauges could be a measure of the load put on the platform.
Provisions for tare and other compensations are there in the cell design or in the associated circuitry.
Different types of load cells are discussed in a later section of the chapter.
The pendulum scale is not common as the lever and the spring types. It is a deflection type scale. The
principle is to convert a load force to a moment which is balanced against the moment of a standard mass
arranged as a pendulum.
2.2.3 Spring Balance

Spring balances use spring as the element of measurement. The weight to be measured is balanced against
the spring force of the element. The deformation produced in the spring is suitably converted for indication
purposes. Different types of springs can be used for this purpose but the most commonly used ones are the
helical type because such a spring is compact, symmetrical and has a capacity for uniformity of strain.
When a straight rod of length l and diameter 2r, is rigidly fixed on one side and twisted on the other
with force f, it is found that the angle of twist q is proportional to l, the twisting moment T ( = f ¥ r) and to
l/(2r)4. In fact
q = Tl/[(p r 4/2)C] (2.49)
where C is the torsional rigidity. For a good amount
of deformation, l and f should be large and r small.
A cylindrical helical spring can have all these and
a good deformation can be obtained in such an
element. The principle of action of the helical spring
as a weight measuring device is explained from the
schematic arrangement shown in Fig. 2.28. When
it carries an axial load w, the spring has its every
cross-section subjected to (a) a torsion, (b) a bending
moment tending to alter the curvature of the coils,
and (c) a shear. When the spring coils are close
enough so that f is very small, the bending stress
is negligible compared to the torsional stress. Also,
for all practical purposes shear stress is unimportant,
with n number of coils and coil radius R, the length
of the spring material is 2pR and the twisting Fig. 2.28 Sketch of the helical spring as a
moment due to axial load is weighing device
T = wR (2.50)
For an axial deflection d due to the axial load, the work done by the load is to be equal to the resilience
of the spring which is defined as the energy stored up in an elastic strained body per unit volume. Hence,
wd/2 = Tq/2 (2.51)
which, when combined with Eqs (2.49) and (2.50) and rearranged yields
q = 4wR2 /(Cr4) (2.52a)
and
d = 4wR3 /(Cr4) (2.52b)
Thus the axial deflection is proportional to the cube of the coil radius and to the coil turns, and inversely
proportional to the 4th power of the wire diameter. The maximum elongation that can be obtained in the
balance is derived from the knowledge of the maximum shearing stress the material may be subjected to. If
fs is that stress allowable in the material, the maximum elongation dm is obtained as
dm = 2pR2nfs/(Cr) (2.53)
since fs = 2T/(p r3)
Instead of a circular cross-section of the spring material, a square cross-section is preferred for better
elastic strength. In fact, for the same area the strength is about 17 per cent more but the deflection is about
30 per cent less. For a square section of side a, the deflection can be shown to be 7wR2l/(Ca2).
Two types of spring balances known as the straight-down type and the circular type are most commonly
used. Their schematic diagrams are shown in Figs 2.29(a) and (b). In the former, generally, the spring is
coiled clockwise in the top-half and anticlockwise in the bottom-half or vice versa, to account for the bending
action neglected in the theory. The indicator pointer rigidly attached to the bottom of the spring moves in a
slot. The spring is encased in a drawing tube which protects the spring as also provides necessary damping.
In the circular type a smaller elongation is magnified with rack and pinion arrangement for better indication.
A number of springs are used here for increasing the range. The pedestal type circular design shown in the
Fig. 2.29 (a) Sketch of the straightdown type spring balance,

(b) sketch of the circular pedestal type spring balance
figure use the springs to undergo very small elongation so that no compensation for bending is required.
The springs S1 and S2 are fixed to the balance body on the top side and on the bottom side they are attached
to the movable frame of the balance. A small spring S3 attached to the lower side of the rack keeps the rack
in proper mesh with the pinion. The frame is supported in the vertical position by the stays which must be
parallel to each other for any position of the frame. The frame carries the load at the top.
The spring balances are generally calibrated with known weights. Errors due to mechanical positioning
and temperature change are the main ones and are minimized by proper adjustment and compensation.
2.2.4 Load Cells

Load cells are devices that convert force into pressure which is then measured. The area on which the load
is placed being known, the calibration can be done directly in load or force units.
Hydrostatic Type The schematic diagram of a hydrostatic load cell also called a plunger is shown in
Fig. 2.30. A closed chamber of about 0.75 mm height and provided with a gauge, is filled at a pressure
that compensates for the tare. A thin diaphragm closes the chamber from the top which also supports the
platform over which the load is placed. A deflection of about

0.05 mm only occurs under full load. The gauge pressure
is directly calibrated in force units. The hydrostatic load
cells, as they are commonly known, have a large capacity,
up to about 20 tonnes with good resolution and accuracy
although a range up to about 500 tonnes is also available. A
preload pressure of about 0.2 MPa is kept for tare and other
compensation as well as gauge check.
Pneumatic Load Cell The pneumatic load cell is similar to
the hydrostatic ones and its scheme is shown in Fig. 2.31(a). Fig. 2.30 Sketch of the hydraulic plunger
The advantage with this system is easy accommodation of
a flapper-nozzle assembly so that an amplified output signal is derived and measurement becomes more
convenient. The load platform works as the flapper. With increasing load, nozzle back pressure increases
which, in turn would push the diaphragm up and finally a balance is obtained for a specific gap between
the flapper and the nozzle and the gauge indicates the corresponding pressure which is calibrated in
load units. The system effectively becomes a feedback system as is shown in Fig. 2.31(b) where p is the
output pressure, ks is the diaphragm stiffness, kf is the flapper-nozzle gain and a is the effective area of the
diaphragm. For a small diaphragm displacement d, the output is thus
p = W/(ks/kf + a) (2.54)
In practice ks /kf << a, so that
W = ap (2.55)
indicating a linear relationship between the load and the pressure. The maximum pressure is limited by
the supply pressure and the size limitation limits the diaphragm area a and, in turn, the range of the load
to be measured. For tare compensation in pneumatic load cells, a secondary tare compensator chamber
is incorporated which is supplied from a regulated air supply. The system is schematically shown in
Fig. 2.31(c). This load cell should be provided with overload stop and the deflection restricted under
such a condition, as also in air supply pressure failure. Such cells have a typical range of about 50 tonnes
with an accuracy of about 0.1 per cent and a nominal deflection level of 0.25 mm consuming air of about
0.3 m3/h.
The above methods of load measurement are quite convenient for static measurement. For
dynamic measurement, generally, electric sensors are preferred. Direct electrical sensors are not many
in practice. Basic principle in general type of such measurement is to convert the displacement of
any suitable member or part of a system to an electrical quantity which can be easily handled. For
example, for load measurement elastic load cells are known which are replacing the levers in modern
day measurements as has already been mentioned. They consist of specially constructed elastic mem-
bers on which strain gauges are mounted. As these cells are loaded, the deformation is converted into
a resistance change in the strain gauge which can be easily measured. Besides strain gauges other
secondary sensors such as linear variable differential transformers can also be used for sensing the
deflection of elastic load-bearing members. Piezoelectric ‘loadwashers’ are also commercially available
which are primarily used in dynamic load/force measurement. Another variety is the magnetostrictive
load cell that utilizes the magnetic property of the elastic member for the measurement of force. Even,
a vibrating wire transducer, which essentially is a digital transducer, is conveniently used in civil
engineering jobs for the purpose.
Nozzle
Air
Supply
(a)
W–ap
d p
+ 1
kf
W ks
–
(b)
W
Flapper
nozzle
Tare reg.
Indicator
Air set
Tare chamber
Air
supply
Net wt. chamber Constant differential reg.
(c)
Fig. 2.31 (a) Sketch of the pneumatic load cell, (b) block diagram of operation,
(c) the pneumatic load cell with compensators
Magnetoelastic Load Cell Such a load cell functions on the principle that when a ferromagnetic mate-
rial undergoes a mechanical stress, a part of this energy goes to change the magnetic moments of the
Weiss domains effectively changing the magnetic permeability of the material. The degree of change of
this property has a direct relation with the applied stress/force. The load cell formed on this principle is
sometimes known as the pressductor.
Laminated sheets of special magnetic material are bonded together to form the transducer body in
which two pairs of holes are drilled symmetri-
cally, a pair being in each diagonal. Primary and
secondary windings are wound at right angles
through these hole pairs. When the primary
winding is excited by an alternating current, under
no load conditions, secondary winding remains
unaffected because of 90° axial shift with respect
to the primary winding. Load is impressed at
45° to the axes of both the windings as shown in
Fig. 2.32. Under this load condition, the stress in the
material changes the angle between the hole pairs,
i.e., the primary and the secondary, from 90° to q Fig. 2.32 The magnetoelastic load cell
(say). If a is the cross-sectional area of the material
in the plane of the winding and B cos q is the component of B linking the windings, the total flux linkage is
f = aB cos q (2.56)
so that the induced voltage in the secondary for a turn ratio n = n2/n1 is
es = – ndf/dt (2.57)
The range of such a load cell is from about 0.1 to 100 tonnes. Linearity, as such, is low but with
compensation, may be made to be within ±0.05 per cent and the cell is workable in a temperature range of
–40° to 100°C.
Piezoelectric Load Cell It usually is made in the form of a disc cut from a quartz crystal along the axis
to utilize the longitudinal piezoeffect. The disc is properly finished with a pair of electrodes holding it
preloaded with a spring sleeve. Under the loaded condition the charge collected by the electrode pair is
measured by charge-coupled devices/charge amplifiers. Such a transducer is often called a force washer
because of its look. It provides an output of about 3 to 4 pC/N (pico-Coulomb/Newton).
Elastic Load Cells Elastic load-bearing elements of various types are available wherein some sort of
deflection is produced due to application of load. A secondary transducer such as an LVDT, a strain gauge
etc., may be used to convert this deflection into a suitable output, generally in electrical form.
Disc or diaphragm type elastic members are more convenient to be used with LVDT whereas strain
gauge type sensor can be used in almost any type of elastic load-bearing elements. The elastic member
itself is of considerable design interest. It has to be made of homogeneous materials in appropriate size
and shape. The response characteristics are determined by material density, elasticity, strain characteristics,
deflection, dynamic behaviour etc. Structural configuration and material can be chosen to make the
dimensional change or strain to be a linear function of the load to be measured, up to a value that covers
the range (usual value of around 5000 m-strain is common). Hysteresis on repeated loading should be low
(£ 2 m-strain), creep on long duration loading or plastic deformation in the operating range should be
negligible. Carbon steel, chromium-molybdenum steel, aluminium or beryllium copper and stainless steel
are some commonly used materials. To achieve the characteristics mentioned above the elastic member is
subjected to special heat treatment, including subzero heat treatment cycle.
There are different designs of the load cells that use

strain gauges as the measuring elements. Some of these
are (i) column or rod type for load above 2 tonnes,
(ii) proving rings of circular or octagonal designs
for comparatively lower load, (iii) cantilever for still
lower load, and (iv) shear load cells often used for
motion weighing systems, hopper scales, tank and bin
weighing systems etc. A typical column type design is
schematically shown in Fig. 2.33. The strain gauges
are shown bonded on the elastic member with the
one marked 1 (and the one 1¢, on the opposite side)
measuring axial strain due to load and the ones 2–2¢
measuring circumferential or lateral strain for the
applied load L. With Young’s modulus Y, a = cross-
sectional area of the member column and Poisson’s
ratio = m, strains are given as
e1 = e 1¢ = L/(aY) and e2 = e 2¢ = –mL/(aY)
Equal resistance gauges of gauge factors l connected
in a bridge with 1 and 1¢ in opposite arms as also 2 and Fig. 2.33 The strain gauge load cell
2¢, with a bridge supply Vs, the output voltage obtained
is Vo so that load L is given in terms of Vo as
L = kVo (2.58)
where k is a constant and is given by k = 2aY/[lVs(1 + m)].
This arrangement should not allow any bending or shear. The elastic limit should never be exceeded;
for higher loads, therefore, a should be increased to keep stress level in the elastic member less than about
2 ¥ l08 N/m2 for steel. Arranging the strain gauges in a rosette form, as mentioned earlier, provides strain
calculation in full. There are various other arrangements.
The load cell needs an excitation. The output from the strain gauge bridge is then amplified wherein
provision for zero, tare compensation and span-setting is kept. This output is filtered and fed to an ADC
either for computer interfacing or for digital display and recording. Tare control can optionally be done
in final stage as well. With an ac bridge a demodulator is necessary and phase balancing with a capacitor
needed. Figure 2.34 shows a basic scheme of such a system. Several corrections and compensations
are required in the commercial strain gauge load cells which are partly done by appropriate connection
arrangement. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 2.35 where, Ric = input shunt compensating resistor, Rc1,
Rc2 = calibration resistors, Rsc1, Rsc2 = span temperature compensating resistors, Rsi = strain gauge
resistances, Rz1 = zeroing resistor, Rz2 = zero load output temperature compensation resistor and Ro = output
compensation resistor. As would be realized, there would be a number of load cells installed in a large
weighing system, the output from all such cells are either paralleled (as also their input supply) to obtain
the average of the n number of such cells. The scheme is shown in Fig. 2.36(a), where Ro’s and Vo’s are cell
output resistance and voltages respectively. Rm is the meter resistance. The average output is given by
n
Â Voj Roj
j =1
Vop = n (2.59a)
1 Rm + Â 1 Roj
j =1
Fig. 2.34 A typical scheme for circuit arrangement with digital readout for strain gauge load cell
RC1
RSC1
RS1
Supply RS2 RZ1
Output
RS4 R S3 RZ2
Ric
RSC2
RC2
Fig. 2.35 Strain gauge circuit with compensation
which with Rm >> Roj’s and Roj’s identical, becomes

n
Vop = Â Voj n (2.59b)
j =1
The measurement can be done with all the cells connected in series as shown in Fig. 2.36(b). In this case
the combined output is given as
n Ê n ˆ
Vos = Â Voj Á 1 + Â Roj Rm ˜ (2.60)
j =1 Ë j =1 ¯
n n
which becomes equal to Â Voj , if Rm >> Â Roj . But for series connection, separate supply for each bridge
j =1 j =1
circuit is necessary as indicated.

Rcn1 Rc11
Von Vo1 VS
Ron Ro1
Rc12
Rcn2
Rm
(a)
Vsn Vs1
Rcn1 Rc11
Ron
Von Vo1
Rol
Rcn2 Rc12 Rm
(b)
Fig. 2.36 (a) Parallel connection of load cells, (b) series connection of load cells
Other Miscellaneous Types In a subsequent chapter sensors based on surface acoustic wave (SAW)
devices have been considered, specifically SAW oscillators, for temperature and strain. In fact, the strain
measuring SAWO is also usable as a load cell with the SAW device in the form of a delay line attached to a
load bearing elastic member forming the oscillator. The strain produced due to load, changes the oscillator
frequency which thus becomes a measure of the load.
Toroids made of several layers of ferromagnetic ribbons containing amorphous materials are now
available. With a force acting along the diameter of such a ribbon, shape of its B-H loop changes. Also
these force sensitive ribbons may be used to design coils and transformers. Two such coils may be used in
a multivibrator circuits. With the coils having the above toroidal cores and one of these coils being strained
and the other not, a frequency change in the multivibrator occurs which can be a measure of the force in the
coil.
Wire type strain gauges can be replaced by optical fibres. Such a gauge, when bonded to the elastic
member, would stretch or compress with load so that the fibre length will change. If a monochromatic light
beam passes through this fibre, it would undergo a phase change which may be compared with that of the
reference beam and the corresponding load causing this change may be measured.
2.3 VELOCITY, ACCELERATION AND TORQUE
Displacement, velocity and acceleration measurement can be grouped together under the heading of motion
measurement. However, depending on the importance and techniques involved in their measurement
different ‘heads’ are maintained.
2.3.1 Velocity
Velocity may be linear, i.e., along the axis of movement
or angular, i.e., around the axis. For linear velocity
measurement, a number of methods are there. A very
conventional type of linear velocity transducer is the
electromagnetic type, schematically shown in Fig. 2.37. A
permanent magnet core moves as a result of velocity in
the core and dcpcnding on the magnitude of velocity of
the core a voltage would be induced in the coil which is
given by the relation. Fig. 2.37 Electromagnetic velocity transducer
v = –Ndf/dt
where df/dt is the rate of change of flux and is proportional to the velocity of the core. Reversal of
movement reverses the output polarity and hence a dc output is obtained across the coil. But the core all
along must remain inside the coil for the system to be operative and hence velocity range becomes limited
in value.
Medium to large linear velocity of a target body is very conveniently measured by Doppler radar or
Doppler laser unit system as it is often known. Police is known to use this system to detect the speeding
cars on highways and it is also used in missile targeting and in tracking of movement of aircraft. A series of
pulses is emitted towards the target which is reflected back from the target and the pulse intervals undergo
changes according to the relative velocity of the target. The received reflected signal is compared with the
transmitted signal for the interval/frequency, the shift between the two indicating the target velocity. It must
be remembered that a continuous wave (CW) can also be used for the Doppler radar operation.
In industry, measurement of angular or rotational velocity has acquired more prominence compared to
measurement of linear velocity and in the following a few methods to measure the former are described in
brief.
Revolution Counter The simplest of the rotational speed measuring equipment is the revolution counter
which is sketched in Fig. 2.38. It consists of a worm gear which is also the shaft attachment and is driven
by the speed source. The worm drives the spur gear on which a scale is inscribed. The scale is compared
with the dial on the frame. The method involves
measurement of both revolutions and time. It,
being a direct speed measuring device, is quite
accurate and is unaffected by environmental
variations. If speed does not remain constant for
a sufficiently long interval of time, the method is
unsuitable.
Capacitive Tacho It uses the principle of charging
a capacitor and discharging through a meter
alternately. If the charging and discharging is Fig. 2.38 The revolution counter
controlled by the speed of the equipment as shown in Fig. 2.39(a), the average discharge current would be
proportional to the speed. If w is the speed of rotation (rpm) then,
I = CRw (2.61)
Figure 2.39(b) shows the schematic arrangement of a capacitive tachometer which measures the direction
of rotation in addition to the speed. This is possible because with the reversed direction of rotation, the
direction of current also changes. By changing supply voltage or capacitor values, range of the instrument
can be changed. Resistance R is kept in series with the battery for any compensation of the battery voltage
change till a new battery is replaced after the stipulated period.
Fig. 2.39 (a) Capacitive tacho, (b) capacitive tacho with direction sensing
Drag-cup Type Tacho Eddy-current or drag-cup type tachometer is also very common in rotational speed
measurement. It is schematically shown in Fig. 2.40(a). The source angular speed rotates a permanent magnet.
An aluminium disc or cup is held close to the rotating magnet restrained by a control spring. When the magnet
rotates eddy current is set up in the drag cup or disc and a torque is produced which tries to oppose the field
produced by the eddy current. The cup is thus dragged or rotated in the direction of the rotating magnet. Due
to the restraining action of the spring angular rotation is indicated by the pointer which is proportional to the
speed w as shown in Fig. 2.40(b). The dynamic response and operation of the tachometer will be governed by a
second order equation of the form
q(s)/w(s) = K/(s2/w2n + 2zs/wn + 1) (2.62)
Fig. 2.40 (a) The drag cup tacho, (b) characteristics

A tachometer with the rotor shaped as a toothed gear and made of reluctance material and stator frame
having a magnet and coil assembly may be designed such that as the rotor rotates the magnet coil is coupled
more for a tooth coming close to it than a blank, giving a pulse corresponding to a tooth below the magnet
coil. The number of pulses per unit time is, therefore, proportional to rotor speed.
Tacho Generators The transducer that converts speed of rotation directly into an electrical signal is an
induction pick-up. Such a tachometer is more commonly used for speed control of the rotating equipment.
One form of it is shown in Fig. 2.41. This is effectively a dc generator with the output voltage from the
commutator given by
eo = [npncfpw ¥ 10–8/(60npp)]V (2.63)
where np = number of poles, nc = number of conductors in
armature, jp = flux per pole, npp = parallel paths between
positive and negative brushes, w = rpm to be measured.
Normally eo is 10 mV per rpm. The brush noise and
ripple are the sources of disturbance.
When a magnet rotates in a stationary coil as shown in
Fig. 2.42, an ac voltage is generated. For a negligible load
current, the output voltage in a dc or ac tachogenerator Fig. 2.41 DC tachogenerator
has the relation
eo = kw (2.64)
The ac voltage produced is actually in the form of
pulses—a pulse of one polarity is produced when the
north pole passes the coil and an opposite polarity pulse
is produced when the south pole passes the same coil.
With change in the speed of the shaft of the magnet the
amplitude and rise time change and hence appropriate
signal conditioning is necessary to make these pulses
compatible to counting devices. The stator winding can be
replaced by a Hall effect device such that with the field on
full strength the device is saturated and with the magnet at
right angles, it is open. The Hall device output is thus, in
the form of pulses proportional to magnet shaft speed.
Also for the circuit of Fig. 2.42, a large current drawn
for control or indication distorts the exciting magnetic
field and produces nonlinearity. An ac two phase squirrel
cage motor is used as a tacho by exciting one phase with Fig. 2.42 Recti ied output from an ac tacho
the supply voltage and taking the output from the other
winding. Its schematic arrangement and the response are shown in Figs 2.43(a) and (b).
Hall Device In this context a few words about Hall effect and the Hall device should be in order. Hall
effect essentially is a galvanomagnetic effect which is the result of the charge carrier transport phenomenon
occurring in the condensed matters like conductors and semiconductors when the carriers are subjected
to cross electric and magnetic or what is known as electromagnetic force. For a carrier charge q, carrier
velocity v, magnetic induction B and electric field E, the Lorentz force is given by
Fl = qE + q[v ¥ B] (2.65)
eo
Speed envelope
AC supply
Supply freq.
eo
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.43 (a) An ac two-phase motor used as a tacho, (b) response characteristics
Also, for charge diffusion coefficient D, conductivity s, and carrier concentration gradient c, the carrier
transport equation for one type of carrier is given as
J = qE – qDc + mH[(sE – qDc) ¥ B] (2.66)
where J is the total current density and mH is known as the Hall mobility. Solution of Eq. (2.66), subject to
appropriate boundary conditions, would give the output due to Hall effect.
Hall effect is actually a generation of a transverse field and a consequent voltage along a specific
direction in a strip when it is subjected to another electric field and a magnetic field—all perpendicular to
each other. The strip may be a conductor or an extrinsic homogeneous semiconductor material such that
c = 0.
With a magnetic field in the y-direction and an electric field in the x-direction, a field generated in the
z-direction is given by
Ez = –mHByEx (2.67)
This follows from Eq. (2.66), for c = 0 and J = 0. The above field gives rise to a voltage, known as the
Hall voltage VH, given as
z2
VH = Úz
1
E z dz = - m H B y E x w
(2.68)
where w = strip width as shown in Fig. 2.44. Hall coefficient defined as
By
El
w
VH Ex
Ez
El
Fig. 2.44 The Hall device

RH = –Ez/(Jx ¥ By) (2.69a)

shows the intensity of the Hall effect which, using Eq. (2.67), becomes
RH = mHEx/Jx (2.69b)
so that VH is given by
VH = –RHJxByw (2.70)
Hall sensors produced on the above principle are basically magnetic sensors which normally consist of
thin rectangular blocks of a semiconductor material so that its length l is much larger compared to thickness
t, and width w. As shown in Fig. 2.44, for providing Ex a pair of electrodes across (t ¥ w) sides are provided
and for obtaining the output, electrodes El – El are provided. If the current providing field Ex is given by
I so that Jx = I/(tw) the voltage magnitude is given by
VHc = fgRHIBy/t (2.71)
where fg is the geometrical correction term for finite length l of the sensor block and is given by VHc/VH.
The value of the term fg changes with the geometry of the sensor block, depending also on electrode area,
shape etc. Often fg is approximately obtained by experimental procedure.
The performance of a Hall sensor is characterized by its sensitivity, cross-sensitivity, offset and
dVH
nonlinearity. Sensitivity is defined as S = and expressed in volts per Tesla, although relative
dB l
sensitivity is given by Si = S/I = |(dVH/dB)/I| is also used as a criterion.
Cross-sensitivity is the sensitivity of the sensor to variations of parameters such as temperature, pressure,
light radiation etc. Offset is a static or slow varying output of the sensor in absence of the signal. The
reason for obtaining such an output is attributed to imperfection of the fabrication process and/or due to
the piezoresistive effect in the sensor material. It is characterized by an equivalent magnetic induction
Be corresponding to the offset voltage VHO. Thus Be = VHO/S. Nonlinearity depends on the material,
geometrical design and junction field effect. It is characterized by the ratio (VH – VHL)/VHL where VH is the
measured Hall voltage and VHL is the best linear fit of the measured Hall voltage.
Stroboscopic Methods Stroboscope is a device that can be used to measure rpm without making any
contact with the rotating body. An electronic stroboscope uses a multivibrator type circuit to produce flashes
of light at known and adjustable rates. When these flashes are directed on to a rotating member, the rotating
member appears to lose or gain speed. By adjusting the flashing rate, the member can be made to appear
motionless. The flashing rate then equals the rpm of the target. However, the flashing rate may also be an
integral sub-multiple of the rpm. By adjusting the flashing rate, synchronism is attained for the highest rate
of flashing and then gradually the synchronization is observed at reduced flash rates. If synchronization
occurs at n different flashing rates rl, r2, …, rn, the speed w is given by
w = r1rn(n –1 )/(r1 – rn) (2.72)
This varying synchronization technique is adopted when the equipment rpm is much larger than
the maximum flashing rate available in the stroboscope. Sharp flashes can be higher in number than the
time-on ones. A flasher can produce flash rates in the range of 100 to 25,000 per min., to measure rpm at
least ten times the maximum rate. A simple schematic of a stroboscope circuit is shown in Fig. 2.45. The
multivibrator has its frequency controllable by the resistance R and is coupled to the thyratron trigger circuit
which, in turn, is coupled to the strobo tube with a discharge capacitor in parallel.
Fig. 2.45 A simple stroboscope circuit
The photoeffect can be used directly for the measurement of rpm, the schematic arrangement of the
system is shown in Fig. 2.46(a). Light is allowed to be incident on the photocell from the rotating part as
shown in Fig. 2.46(b). Figure 2.46(c) shows a simple circuit scheme of the amplifier, the waveshaper and
the measuring part. When the collector of T2 is positive, Co charges via Ro and D2. If charging time is short
enough, it stores a charge CoV. When the collector of T2 is at 0 volts, Co discharges via the emitter-base
diode of T3 causing a current to flow in its collector circuit. This process is repeated each cycle. When Co
discharges, the cucrrent is CV/t and t = 1/f, where f is the frequency, the average current into emitter of T3 is
CVf. Hence the voltage across RL is CVfRL a, where a is the transistor parameter. If a = 1, output voltage Vo
= (CVw/2p)RL, thus giving a linear relation between w and Vo.
Another optical technique of rpm measurement, which also is nontouching type, is developed by
carefully placing narrow reflective strips on the nonreflective shaft/coupling and optical source and sensor
unit is brought close to the shaft. Usually IR beam is emitted by the source which gets reflected from the
strips and sensed by the sensor. If n strips are placed on the shaft, there will be n pulses per revolution and
hence over a period t, the pulses are counted and the count is then divided by both n and t to get revolutions
per unit time or a frequency-voltage converter circuit may be used. Such a circuit is now available in chip
form and is shown with associated trimming in Fig. 2.46(d). The comparator (C) positive input is given a
reference level and the negative input is given the frequency input. Normally Rd holds negative input of
the comparator with Vcc being greater than its positive input, thereby keeping one-shot (OS) and current
source switch (SWS) off. A falling edge of the frequency input to negative terminal is differentiated by
CdRd to give a negative spike momentarily putting the input here down below that of positive input thereby
firing the one shot and closing the current source switch for a period tc = 1.1 R3C1, after which the one
shot puts off till another pulse is received. Thus a train of current pulses of value Io = 2V/(R4 + R5), as per
manufacturers’ data, and of input frequency fin develops a voltage across load resistance RL. The average dc
voltage is thus
Vav = Iotc finRL (2.73a)
= {2/(R4 + R5)} ¥ 1.1R3C1 ¥ RL ¥ finV (2.73b)

Capacitance C2 serves to filter the output which may be replaced by a better/sophisticated filter for
cleaner output.
Fig. 2.46 (a) Photoeffect used for rpm measurement, (b) light incidence technique, (c) a simple circuit
scheme for V-F converter, (d) the F-V conversion scheme with a chip
The trimming parameters have the usual values as shown:
Rd = 10 K = R1, R2 = 68 K, Cd = 470 pF, C1 = 0.01 mF, C2 = 1 mF, R3 = 6.8 K ± 1%, R4 = 12 K ± 1%,
R5 = 5 K pot, RL = 100 K, Vcc = 15 V, D = 1N914
Example 2.5 For a re lective rpm sensor using 12 re lective strips on the shaft with size and position to produce
50% duty cycle, mark to space 1:1, the converter has to be designed to produce 10 V for a shaft speed of 3000 rpm.
Solution fin = 12 ¥ 3000 ¥ 1/60 = 600 Hz, Input pulse time tpi = 0.5/fin = 5/6 ms. Choosing output pulse
time tpo = 1.5/fin = 2.5 ms, let R3 be 6.8 K. Therefore C1 = 2.5 ms/(1.1 ¥ 6.8 ¥ 103) = 0.33 mF. We must make
Rd Cd << tpi, i.e., << 5/6 ms £ 0.02 ¥ 5/6 ms (say). If Rd = l0 K, Cd = (0.1/6)10–7 = 1.67 ¥ 10–9 F. Also
R4 + R5 = 2 ¥ 1.1 ¥ 6.8 ¥ 0.33 ¥ 10–3 RL ¥ 600/10 = 300 RL ¥ 10–3.
For RL = 100 K, R4 + R5 = 30 K, so that R4 may be 25 K and R5 a 10 K pot; also Io = 2 ¥ 10–3/30 A =
60 mA which is much less than 200 mA as stipulated by the manufacturers. The chip is a National LM 131.
2.3.2 Acceleration
The basic philosophy in the mechanical measurements like displacement, velocity or acceleration is to
obtain an electrical signal proportional to either of these quantities and perform successive differentiation
or integration to obtain the other two. The schemes are shown in Figs 2.47(a) and (b). There are a number
of electrical means of measuring displacements some of which have already been discussed earlier. Typical
types of a proximity effect reluctance type, a potentiometer pick-up and photocell or semiconductor solar
cell type pick-up are shown in Fig. 2.48.
Fig. 2.47 (a) Successive differntiation scheme for variable measurement,

(b) successive Integration scheme for variable measurement
Fig. 2.48 Different types of pick-up

As is known, differentiation is not an easy process and is possible to be performed only on smooth
signals whereas the process of integration is more common and easily done in electrical systems. Thus, it
is common practice to measure the acceleration directly and then obtain the velocity or displacement by
succesive integration. Since acceleration is more responsible for producing destructive forces in machinery
and variable acceleration actually produces shock, vibration etc., in a moving machine, the importance of
its measurement is never over-emphasized.
The general purpose accelerometer consists of a mass M, a damper D and a spring element S as shown
in Fig. 2.49(a). This method measures a fixed acceleration. In place of the relative displacement transducer
..
any of the ones described in Fig. 2.48 may be used. When the frame moves at a constant acceleration x , M
also moves at this acceleration and thus some force must act to produce this. This comes from the spring
for no relative displacement of the mass with reference to the frame. The spring displacement y, therefore,
is proportional to the acceleration. In short, the problem of acceleration measurement converges to the
problem of measurement of force required to accelerate a known mass which is known as the proof mass.
The main source of error in accelerometers is the presence of gravity forces which cannot be isolated in
most of the cases from the actual accelerating forces.
Accelerometers are constructed for two specific types of purposes (i) for measurement of shock and
vibration—this type generally employs the deflection method where basically the displacement is measured
by known displacement transducers and from the knowledge of the proof mass, the value of the acceleration
is found out which usually is the absolute value, and (ii) for gross measurement of acceleration of vehicles
like aircraft, submarines, etc.,—both deflection as well as null-balance methods are used. It may be noted
that for shock and vibration measurements piezoelectric accelerometers, to be described later, are very
suitable but they are unable to measure constant acceleration. Null balance types give better accuracy.
From Fig. 2.49(a), the equation of equilibrium of a general purpose accelerometer is easily written as
.
Ksy + By = M ẍ m = M(ẍ – ÿ) (2.74)
where the terms used in Eq. (2.74) are same as used earlier. From Eq. (2.74) the transfer function y(s)/ẍ (s)
is easily obtained as
y(s)/ẍ (s) = (1/w2n )/(s2/w2n + 2zs/wn + 1) (2.75)
where wn = K s / M and z = B/(2 K s M ) as usual.
If the displacement transducer provides an electrical voltage e as output such that e = key, Eq. (2.75) is
modified to
e(s)/ẍ (s) = K/(s2/w2n + 2zs/wn + 1) (2.76)
where K = ke/w2n . The frequency response of the instrument can obviously be improved by increasing wn
which means, however, that the sensitivity would decrease. For specific application a compromise is struck.
Response characteristics of a few commonly used transducers are given below in Table 2.2.
The table has not compared the effects of temperature, cross-sensitivity, noise etc., which are to be
considered as known for the individual sensors discussed already.
Variable reluctance transducer used in accelerometer provides very high resolution maintaining almost
same accuracy as of the others. A differential arrangement of the same used to form the accelerometer
with the moving mass itself as the moving armature of the system is shown in Fig. 2.49(b). Such an
accelerometer has an output range of not more than ± 4 g. The spring supporting (SS) the armature mass
(A/M) undergoes a deflection which is proportional to acceleration and its proximity with respect to the
differential pair of core-coils of the pick-ups changes flux pattern so that output eo after rectification and
low-pass filtering (R, LPF) gives a measure of the acceleration after due calibration is made. Often a bias is
provided at the output to obtain the phase sensitive response from the system.
Relative SS
displacement
M transd.
x
D y
S
x
Frame A/M R, LPF
Core
eo
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.49 (a) A general purpose accelerometer, (b) variable reluctance type accelerometer probe,
(c) schematic diagram of a piezoelectric accelerometer, (d) the response characteristics
Table 2.2 Transducer characteristics

Transducer Range in g z Freq. range in Hz Resolution in % Accuracy in %
1 Potentiometer ± 1 to 50 0.5 to 0.8 12 to 85 0.45 to 0.25 ±1
2 Variable reluctance ± 1 to 40 0.6 16 to 100 0.01 ±1
3 Strain gauge up to 250 0.06 up to 10 0.1 ±1
4 Piezoelectric up to 1000 0.01 10 to 105 0.05 ±1
Piezoelectric type has the highest frequency response and high output voltage making it convenient
for shock or jerk measurement transducer. Its low value of damping ratio (z) makes it more suitable for
dynamic measurement. A schematic diagram of a piezoelectric accelerometer is shown in Fig. 2.49(c).
The crystal with the two output connection terminals is sandwiched between the proof-mass and the
frame. A hemispherical spring over the proof-mass is kept under tension by a screwing cap to avail of (a)
bidirectional measurement, and (b) a linear scale in the otherwise nonlinear stress-charge characteristic. The
crystal transfer function has been derived in Eq. (2.40) as e(s)/y(s) = Kst/(l + st) which when combined
with Eq. (2.75) yields
e(s)/ẍ (s) = (Kst/w2n )/[(l + st)(s2/w2n + 2zs/wn + l)] (2.77)
The low frequency response of the piezoelectric accelerometer is limited by the crystal characteristic
whereas the high frequency response is governed by the mechanical resonance of the system and is common
to all accelerometers. The response characteristics are shown in Fig. 2.49(d).
Larger accuracy is obtained in null-balance accelerometers that use appropriate feedback to keep
the acceleration-sensitive mass close to the zero displacement position. The schematic diagram of
the system is shown in Fig. 2.50(a). The frame translational acceleration ẍ causes the inertia force F on
mass M to produce an angular movement f of the mass. This is picked up by the magnetic sensor and the
unbalance is amplified and demodulated, and fedback to the moving coil system to return it back to the
original condition. The output voltage is derived across a standard resistance R such that this is directly
proportional to the acceleration ẍ. If an operational amplifier is used f may be made inifinitesimally small
and a very large accuracy is obtained. The block diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2.50(b). From
Fig. 2.50 one obtains
Tl = Mx¨r (2.78a)
Tc = eKc/R (2.78b)
and
(Tl – Tc) A KmKa = e/R (2.78c)
where A = (1 /Ks)/(s2/w2n + 2zs/wn + 1). Combining the above equations one gets
Fig. 2.50 (a) Schematic arrangement of a null balance accelerometer, (b) block diagram of the system
MrR KmKaẍ/Ks = e(s2/ w2n + 2z/wn + 1 + KeKmKa/Ks) (2.79)

yielding the transfer function
e(s)/ẍ(s) = (MrR/Kc)/(s2/w2n + 2zos/wN + 1) (2.80)
where it is assumed that Ka >> 1 so that KaKmKc/Ks >> l, wN = w n K a K c K m K s
and zo = z K s ( K a K c K m ). Thus the sensitivity can be made constant as well. Value of w2n is increased
by a factor K a K m K c K s and z is decreased by the same factor. As this factor is quite large the range
of frequency is greatly enhanced. Resolution of this instrument is as high as 0.0001%. With about 1 K
resistance, output is of the order of ±10 V.
Based on this same principle the design can be modified to have micromachined quartz suspension
and instead of reluctance pick-up a differential capacitance pick-up system may be used. This is actually
available now where a servo lead compensator coupled with an air damping system provides adequate
damping. It would be noted that the damping is otherwise greatly reduced. The servosystem is designed
to provide the null condition as well. Resolution for such a system is around 10–6 g with a range of 30 g, z
varying from 0.3 to 0.8 and frequency range is up to 100 Hz with 2% output change.
While differentiation of velocity signal can give relative
acceleration, the process has its own limitations as has
already been mentioned. A direct relative acceleration
transducer can be made using a very simple technique as
shown in Fig. 2.51. With constant shaft rpm, eddy current
generated in the conducting disc due to magnet N-S is
constant and proportional to speed and because of steady
field, the coil output eo is zero. For an acceleration in the
shaft, the magnetic field undergoes change and voltage eo
proportional to acceleration is obtained across the coil. Two
coils in the two arms of the armature when connected in Fig. 2.51 Scheme of a direct relative
series increases sensitivity 4-folds; sensitivity ranges from acceleration transducer
2
0.05 to 10 mV/(r/s ) and frequency response is good from 0.2 to 1 kHz.
2.3.3 Torque
Torque measurement by employing spring balance is common for low horse power motors. A more general
nomenclature for such methods is ‘dynamometer type’ methods, and in these the torque is measured
usually on a machine housing involving reaction. Torque is transmitted through a rotating shaft usually
between a power source and a power sink (load). Either the source or the sink may be ‘cradled’ for torque
measurement; cradling actually means mounting the source/sink on supported bearings. Figure 2.52 shows
a cradled sink technique. The reaction force F acting at arm length l gives the torque. Often a load cell is
used for the measurement of the force. The signal from the load cell may be compared with the desired
torque and the difference signal utilized to control the source throttle.
The power dissipation in the sink is avoided and energy conserved by an alternative technique based on
what is known as the four square principle. This is used quite frequently in the dynamic test system in the
development of frontwheel drives of automotive vehicles and consists in providing a torque into the system
by twisting the flanges of a preloading coupler at assembly stage in the reverse direction so that a ‘locked-
in’ torque is induced. By this the shaft specimens are subjected to the desired torque and speed conditions
while driven by a variable speed drive motor through a gear assembly.
Fig. 2.52 A torque measurement scheme using load cell
The technique followed in the online shaft torque measurement is a little different. The principles
involved in this case are classified as rotating type and stationary type. In the former case, the sensors
are allowed to rotate with the shaft while in the latter, the sensors are held stationary and measurement is
possible by using induction.
The rotating type has already been mentioned while
applications of strain gauges have been discussed. The
compression or extension produced in the shaft due to
a torque is sensed by a set of strain gauges arranged in
the form of a rosette and the measurement is done by
a scheme shown in Fig. 2.53. The supply to the rosette
bridge is given from an oscillator through a transformer
T1 at the carrier frequency, the output of the bridge is
again taken out via another transformer and subsequently
amplified and demodulated. The dynamic strain measured
is a function of the torque. The stationary and rotating
parts are coupled through the transformers. The relation
between the strain and the applied moment or torque in a Fig. 2.53 Torque measurement by strain gauge
hollow shaft is easily calculated as
e45 = ±8TDo/[pC(D4o –D4i )] (2.81)
where T = moment, Do = outer diameter of the shaft, Di = inner diameter of the shaft, C = shear modulus,
and it is assumed that the strain gauges are bonded at 45° to the axis of the shaft.
The stationary method uses the Wiedmann magetostrictive law derived from what is known as Villari
effect. The principle is that under torsion/torque the permeability of the shaft changes, with extension it
increases and with compression it decreases. The change in permeability, however, is not so simple and is
dependent on the material, the type of stress and also the flux density in the sample. Two pairs of stationary
coils, one acting as primary, the other as secondary, wound on the same former are held close to the shaft
under torque at right angles to each other as shown in Fig. 2.54(a). When torque is absent and there is no
rotation of the shaft equal and opposing voltages are induced in the two secondaries with a supply in the
primary. With torsion, the unequal distribution of stress in the shaft gives unequal induced emf’s and a net
output is shown by the detector. This output voltage is directly proportional to the torque. An analysis with
a reluctance/magnetic bridge equivalent is often given but the need for an empirical sensitivity factor cannot
be ignord. The scheme is shown in Fig. 2.54(b). The terms R1 to R4 represent metal reluctances adjacent to
the air-gaps and Rp1, Rp2 and Rs1, Rs2 represent air-gap reluctances of the primary and the secondaries. The
reluctances Rp and Rs are different for a different set-up as also the Rk’s, k = l, 2, 3 and 4. Compensation
windings are often used for initial balancing.
Fig. 2.54 (a) Torque measurement using Wiedemann law, (b) reluctance bridge equivalent circuit
Measurement of torque by measuring the relative angular shift between the two sections of a shaft under
rotation is also possible. This can be accomplished in more than one way. In one method, two rings are
fitted to the two sections, the rings are provided with serrations. In the untwisted condition, two serrations
on the two rings are aligned and are fitted with small magnets. All other serrations are dummy. Two pick-
ups are held close to them as shown in Fig. 2.55(a). When the shaft rotates, there is a twist between the
sections and the signals from the two pick-ups are recorded at a definite interval of time t. Knowing the
shaft speed, the shift is easily calculated and from that the torque is found out. For a shaft speed S, torsional
rigidity C, the torque is given as
T = pCD4St/(16L2) (2.82)
where, L = distance between the two rings and D = diameter of the shaft. Using two slotted rings, aligning
the rings initially and having the slots provided with transparent scales with calibrated markers, optical
method can also be used for measuring the relative shift. The optical method generally chosen is the
stroboscopic effect method. The scheme of such a method is shown in Fig. 2.55(b). It is a little modified
version often termed as the torsion bar dynamometer. Of the three discs, rightmost has a transparent scale,
middle has the index mark and the leftmost has the slot for viewing.
Fig. 2.55 Torque measurement by relative angular twist (a) magnetic pick-up type (b) optical stroboscopic type
2.3.4 Shaft Power

As already mentioned shaft power is measured by dynamometers which are of three different varieties:
1. Absorption types when the power or mechanical energy is dissipated as torque is measured and is
useful for measurement of torque and power of sources like engines and motors.
2. Driving types where torque and power are measured but also energy is supplied to the devices tested
for operation and are useful for the measurement in cases of pumps and compressors.
3. Transmission types where energy or power is not added nor subtracted and are like passive devices
referred often to as torque meters.
A very old but still not uncommon absorption dynamometer using dry friction is the prony brake when
mechanical energy is converted into heat. It has a few variations, two of which are shown schematically in
Power absorption occurs in the brake assembly. Force measuring device—a platform scale or a spring
balance—limits the application. In Fig. 2.56 (a) torque T is given by
T = Fr
If the angular speed of the driver (of the pulley) is n rps, then power is
P = 2pnT = 2pFrn
= F ¥ (2p r n) (= force ¥ dist/time) (in watts) (2.83)
Tightening
force F
Spring
balance
Wooden
blocks
Pulley Several
Rope turns
Wooden Pulley
cleats/blocks
Platform scale
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.56 (a) and (b) Two variations of pony brake for shaft Dower
2p (T ) rps
[Since 1 joule = 1 Newton ¥1 m, Power = Nm/s = J/s = watt. In hp, it is ]
550
Another variety is designed with friction liquid, mostly
water is used. A chamber containing water and sealed Wheel
well is used with the wheel rotating in water as shown in Glands Water inlet
Fig. 2.57. Capacity of such a brake is dependent on speed (T.B.)
Glands
and water level. Power absorption is roughly proportional (Trunnion bearings)
to the (speed)3 and absorption is controlled by controlling
water level. Shaft (T.B.)
Example 2.6 If the force measured in a prony brake Water

system is 100 N with the force applied on the platform scale
at a distance of 1 m from the pulley shaft centre, what is the
power if the angular speed is 1500 rpm?
Water
Solution Using Eq. (2.83) outlet
1500
P = 2p . 100 ¥ 1 ¥ = 5p kW = 15.7 kW Fig. 2.57 Shaft power measurement with
60 friction in water
The torque is 100 ¥ 1 = 100 Nm
Example 2.7 A rope of 10 mm diameter is wrapped once round a brake drum of 1 m diameter in a rope brake
system where the spring balance reads 4 kgf and the counterpoise is 22 kgf. What is the power output of the engine
which the brake absorbs if the speed of the engine is 400 rpm?
Solution Effective brake radius is R = [Ddm + Drope]
1.01
= = 0.505 m
2
Torque is T = (W – Wsb)R = (22 – 4) 0.505 = 1.8 ¥ 0.505 = 9.09 kgfm

2p nT 2 ¥ 3.14 ¥ 400 ¥ 9.09 6.28 ¥ 4.04
Brake power (hp) = = = @ 5 hp.
4500 4500 5
2.3.5 Electrical Type Dynamometers
(a) Eddy Current Type When an isolated conductor moves to cut magnetic flux, voltage is induced in it
and currents called eddy currents flow in short circular paths within the conductor which in turn dissipate
power in the form of heat. Figure 2.58 shows a scheme of the stator-rotor assembly. A toothed rotor made of
steel rotates inside a stator usually made of cast iron. The stator is provided with excitation coils the supply
to which is from an external dc source. As seen in part (c) of Fig. 2.58 the stator is cradled on friction-
free trunnion and is provided with torque arm and measuring load cell assembly. The induced eddies on
the stator opposing the rotor rotation produce heat loss as stated. The brake arm measures the moment
of resistance (torque). The heat is carried partly by rotor (serration) and partly by cooling water passing
through grooves in the stator. This type of dynamometers is suitable for larger speed, range, smaller in size
and capacity. Power limit is 250 to 300 hp and speed limit is 100 rps.
Cradled on frictionless trunnion
Coolant
in Coolant out Engine
Rotor (toothed)
Small
Shaft
Bearing
Torque arm
Load cell
assembly
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.58 (a) Scheme of the stator-rotor assembly, (b) The rotor, (c) Cradling
(b) Motor Generator Dynamometer A dc shunt-wound motor is arranged in a circuit with switching arran-
gement such that it can be operated either as a motor or as a generator and it can show the characteristic
of either an absorption type or a driving type dynamometer. Figure 2.59 shows the basic electrical circuit
diagram of the arrangement.
For running the machine us a motor, with all switches open, rheostats, both field and armature, are
adjusted at the low speed position—(which give low current to armature and high current to field). The field
reversal switch is closed, armature switch is flipped to M-position, the circuit breaker is closed (manually)
and then the main line switch. The armature rheostat is in series with the armature in this switching
condition and for applying full voltage the control as necessary of the armature rheostat is made. By closing
switch M¢, load resistance comes across the armature alongwith the rheostat voltage divider in series with
it, this reduces the armature voltage and speed. For starting of the motor high field current is necessary to
provide large flux and large torque.
Supply
(220 V DC)
Field reversal
switch
Main switch
Field
Armature
Speed control
Circuit breaker (Armature reheostat)
Low
M
Load
resistance G
M'
Fig. 2.59 Scheme of a motor-generator dynamometer
For driving types, the machine is used as a generator. Now the rheostat controls are set at high speed
position, circuit breaker is closed and also the switch marked G and the field switch.
When the machine runs as a motor the power is absorbed by the machine and when used as a generator,
power is delivered; the power in both the cases is given by
ÊV ¥I ˆ
HP = Á (2.84)
Ë 746h ˜¯
when V and I are voltage and current measured and h is the efficiency. Instead of measuring V and I
separately, a wattmeter would measure W = VI directly.
A torsion dynamometer is one in which the shaft gets a twist when power is transmitted. The twist
angle between the driving and the driven sides becomes a measure of torque for given rigidity of the shaft
material, its polar moment of inertia and length. In fact, the relation is
Ê I pC ˆ
T =Á ◊q (2.85)
Ë l ˜¯
where
Ip = polar moment of inertia,
C = Torsional rigidity,
l = length and q = twist.
The power is obtained by knowing the rps as well using the relation
2p nT
P( hp ) = (2.86)
746
where n = number of revolutions per sec.

An example would make the situation clear.
Example 2.8 If the torsion dynamometer used to ind the hp of an engine is designed with a shaft (solid) dia of
0.25 m, length 4 m, the shaft material torsional rigidity 1011 kgf/m2 and the shaft rotates at an rps of 15 and over
the length has a twist of 1°, calculate torque and power transmitted.
p
Solution Ip = (0.25) 2
32
p 0.25 ¥ 0.25 ¥ 1011 p
T= ¥ ¥ kgfm
32 4 180
= 2.67 ¥ 106 kgfm
2p ◊15 3.14 ¥ 3.14
P= ¥ 106 hp = 337 ¥ 103 hp
746 7.2 ¥ 0.512
Review Questions
1. Distinguish between a resistance strain gauge and the minimum positions of the core.
and a semiconductor strain gauge on counts of [fx @ 237 Hz fn @ 350 Hz]
accuracy, sensitivity and temperature dependence. 5. How the parallel plate capacitor type
A resistance strain gauge with gauge factor displacement transducer is used in a system
3.5 and temperature coef icient of resistance to show an output vohage proportional to the
of 1.75 ¥ 10–4/°C is bonded to a steel rod with displacement. Draw the scheme and analyse.
linear expansion coef icient of 10–5/°C. Estimate 6. Why piezoelectric transducers are useful only
the error in the strain measurement per unit for dynamic measurement? A piezoelectric
temperature change assuming the gauge transducer has a capacitance of 500 pF and
material expands 2 times as large as steel. the constant K has a value 0.4 ¥ 10–5 C/cm,
[0.6 ¥ 10–4/°C] the measuring circuit input capacitance and
2. The gauge of question 1 is bonded to a steel resistance are 100 pF and 1 M-ohm respectively.
rod; a bridge circuit is arranged for strain Obtain the transducer sensitivity; sensitivity
measurement with proper compensation. of the entire system. Also obtain the lower
Calculate the gauge current at balance for an frequency limit at which the amplitude error is
equal arm 100 ohm resistance bridge which has within 5%.
a supply of 10 V. For a stress of 14 kg/cm2 in [Transducer sensitivity
the steel rod what is the change in this current? K e -t/t
Calculate the bridge output in the stressed St = and is time dependent
Ceq
condition of the rod.
System sensitivity
[0.0001 A, 0.1 V]
K eq
3. How is phase shift compensated in an LVDT type Ss = is frequency dependent,
displacement measuring scheme? What is the 1
1+ 2 2
effect of this phase shift? w t
4. How frequency of supply changes the sensitivity of 1
an LVDT? In an LVDT time constants of the primary
@ 4 w for
2 2
>> 1
w t
side and the combined secondary sides including
1
load resistance of the transformer are 1 msec and @ 6.7 ¥ 103 for 2 2 << 1
0.2 msec respectively whereas the time constant w t
due to the mutual coupling has a maximum of 0.5 lower frequency limit: 8.37 kHz]
msec. Obtain the frequencies at which the output 7. What arrangement do you suggest in a platform
and input are in the same phase at the maximum weigher so that the weighing is independent of
the position of the load on the platform? What is torque and acceleration measurement? Discuss
conventional method of scale indication in such with suitable diagrams.
machines? How are these replaced in modern 15. How can a capacitive tacho be adopted to
times? bidirectional speed measurement? What are its
8. What are load cells? Describe a magnetoelastic limitations?
load cell and a strain gauge type load cell. How Describe with neat diagram a strobo lasher
do they differ in operation aspects? circuit.
9. Explain with sketches the operation of a 16. How does a prony brake work for determining
vibrating wire type weighing system. What are shaft power? What are the three different types
its range and accuracy limits? of mechanical dynamometers and how do they
10. How are springs used in balances? Describe how differ in operation?
the capacity may be enhanced in spring balances. A force is measured in a prony brake system
11. Describe the principle of operation of a Hall applying it at a distance of 31 cm from the
effect sensor. How can it be used in displacement pulley shaft centre. If the angular speed is 1498
sensing? How are performances characterized? rpm, and the power is 12 KW, what is the force
12. Describe an optical technique of rpm measured?
measurement. How is the rpm converted into [0.2468 N]
voltage or any other electrical quantity here? 17. How does a motor generator dynamometer
Give necessary sketches. work? Draw the basic electrical circuit diagram
13. Obtain the frequency response of a piezoelectric of such an instrument. When is the machine used
accelerometer for K = 0.4 ¥ 10–5C/cm, C = 500 pF, as a generator and when motor?
t = 0.1 sec. z = 0.01 and f n = 10 kHz; and obtain A motor-generator dynamometer is used for
the optimum frequency range of operation. horse power measurement when it is found
[Use eqn(2.77) to get the plot to show 100 V and 10 A in the voltmeter and
Lower frequency fl = 1.59 Hz ammeter respectively. If the ef iciency is 0.9,
High frequency fh = 10 kHz] what is the horse power?
14. How is a variable reluctance transducer used [1.489 HP]
for displacement measurement and adapted for
Metrology
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Metrology is defined as the Science and System of weights and
measures of which the measures have gained predominance.
This science now is confined in the aspects of measurement of
dimensions like length, width, height, diameter, thickness of objects
from which both linear and angular parameters are known.
Dimensional measurement can be done directly with appropriate
devices exclusively made for the purpose specific for the range of
3
sizes of the object. Alternatively, displacement measuring devices
can be adopted by which linear or angular measurements are
possible.
Chapter Ordinarily, for rough and low resolution measurements, down to
10–4 m, measuring rules, dividers, calipers, surface and thickness
gauges are prescribed. For measurement down to 10–6 m resolution, the gauges prescribed are micrometres,
verniers, dial indicators, microscopes with variations in types and coupled with adaptive features. For
resolution down to 10–9 m comparators—pneumatic, mechanical and electrical/electronic, and optical flats
are used. Interferometers with lasers are used for resolution to the fractional wavelength size.
Linear dimension in the form of length is expressed in metre in SI system of units which has in it
1650 763.73 wavelengths of Krypton 86 line. This is the standard manintained in National Laboratries of
different countries. For day to day work, industrial standards are designed in the form of metal blocks and
bars of specified length, engraved scales etc. For changing temperature, adequate correction is needed.
3.2 LINEAR LENGTH

Standard measuring instruments are now available in the Upper jaws
workshops for length (linear) measurement. For small lengths, Lock nut
graduated metal or wooden scales or rulers are common with Main scale
an accuracy of 0.25 mm. For larger lengths tapes (metal and
cloth) are recommended. For higher accuracy in small length
measurement, calipers are used wherein addition to the single
graduated scale, a secondary or vernier scale with still finer
graduation is used as a combination. Figure 3.1 shows the Vern.
scale
schematic of the system.
Calipers are designed, generally, to measure internal
as well as external dimensions by the upper and lower Lower jaws
Fig. 3.1 A caliper
jaws respectively shown in Fig. 3.1. The calipers can measure with an accuracy or resolution of down to
0.02 mm.
Micrometer is another instrument to measure linear dimension. This is designed either for outside
measurement or for inside measurement—the former being the most common and is known as outside
micrometer or simply micrometer. Figure 3.2 shows the sketch of a typical such instrument.
The micrometer has three scales: a main scale on a barrel with a pitch of 0.5 mm, a bevel scale on a
thimble with 50 divisions each representing 0.01 mm. The least count is
Measuring
heads Spindle Main scale
Ratchet
Anvil
drive
Barrel Thimble
with scale
Vernier scale
Fig. 3.2 A screw gauge
1 Pitch of the screw

L.S. = 0.5 mm ¥ = 0.01 mm = (3.l)
50 Number of divisions on circular scale
and is obtained as the distance through which the barrel screw moves when the thimble is rotated through
one division. A third scale, a vernier is often provided along the main scale to increase the accuracy 10
times more. Micrometer is a more accurate instrument than vernier caliper.
Micrometers can have zero and backlash errors. With the anvils brought in contact at the optimum
pressure, the micrometer should read zero i.e. the zero of the circular thimble scale should coincide with
the axial (main scale) reference on the barrel. If it does not happen, either the circular scale has already
advanced by a few scale divisions which would be considered as negative error, or, it has remained behind
a few divisions, which would be considered positive error.
Backlash occurs when the screw does not move either way for a small amount of rotation of the head.
3.3 ENGINEERING FITS AND GAUGES

A major constituent of fits and gauges is the gauge block, which is industry’s dimensional standard.
Actually several standard blocks are kept for the purpose upto about 200 mm in different steps. They are
calibrated dimensional measuring devices consisting of small blocks of steel having parallel faces and with
the dimensions accurate to within the specified tolerances depending on the class. In SI systems, these
blocks are listed in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Gauge Block Accuracy

Block Grade Tolerance in mm
Min. Max.
0 ± 0.10 ± 0.25
1 ± 0.15 ± 0.40
2 ± 0.25 ± 0.70
3 ± 0.50 ± 1.30
Metrology 99
Gauge blocks are available in sets, the sets with the number of blocks are the most wanted as they
are more versatile as well. They are made of steel with appropriate heat treatment for no (or minimum)
dimensional changes over the years. The hardening is done usually to about 6.5 Rockwell C.
Gauge blocks can be assembled by what is called wringing to one or more blocks so that the required
dimension is made up. For this, it is necessary that appropriate distribution of sizes within a set is there.
Accurate combination in steps would then provide maximum number of dimensional variations. Normal or
commonly available set consists of 45 pieces of five different size ranges with increments of
1. thousandths,
2. hundredths,
3. tenths,
4. units, and
5. tens
each size ranges having 9 pieces in the set. The size ranges are number of pieces and increments are as
listed below.
Table 3.2 Normal Gauge Block set of 45 pieces

Size range mm No. of pieces Increments (mm)
1.001 – 1.009 9 0.001
1.01 – 1.09 9 0.01
1.1 – 1.9 9 0.1
1–9 9 1
10 – 90 9 10
An example of a comparatively more accurate set of gauge blocks would be 8-piece one consisting of
Blocks Increments (in) Ranges (in)
9 0.0001 0.1001 to 0.1009
49 0.001 0.101 to 0.149
19 0.050 0.050 to 0.95
4 1 1 to 4
Every set is also provided with two 0.050 in thick tungsten steel wear blocks also known as protector
blocks.
Temperature can cause error in dimensional gauging as it changes the gauge length and specimen length
differently. The correction can be made using the formula
Ls = Lg [1– (Da . DT )] (3.2)
where Ls = true length of the specimen at standard (reference) temperature Ts,
Lg = nominal length of the gauge blocks, usually determined by summation of dimensions etched on
them,
Da = differential expansion coefficient due to temperature = as – ag
Tt = Test temperature
Example 3.1 The gauge length matching the dimension of a specimen is given by 15 cm at a temperature of
30°C, 10°C more than reference temperature. If as = 13 ¥ 10–6/°C and ag = 1.5 ¥ 10–6/°C, what is the value of Ls?
Solution Ls = 15 [1 – 1.5 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 10] = 14.999775 cm.
3.4 LIMITS AND FITS
Fit/limit gauges are designed depending on the function of the parts of the machines to be inspected. Some
parts are checked as single units as in die casting, stamping etc. Some are checked as members in mating as
in hole for shaft etc. The latter type may have varying fitting requirement such as ‘loose’, ‘tight’, ‘force’ etc.
Three main classes of fits are usually considered here from the requirements specified. These are
1. Clearance fit,
2. Transition fit,
3. Interference fit.
Three kinds of clearances are schematically shown in Figs 3.3 (a), (b) and (c).
Hole Clearance
Shaft
½ Clearances Hole Shaft
(a) (b)
Main Hole
clearance tolerance
Shaft
Max tolerance
clearance Basic Shaft
(c)
Fig. 3.3 (a), (b) and (c) Three kinds of clearances
In mass production both shaft and hole dimensions (dia’s) differ from the ideal to a limited extent—the
ideal values are the ones given in the engineering drawing.
Transition is a situation when small positive or negative clearances between the shaft and the hole
members are employable as in spigots in mating holes, coupling rings and recesses.
In Fig. 3.3 some shaded zones are given in hole and shaft—these are tolerances. Tolerance is the
difference between the high and low limits of that dimension—which may occur due to errors in
workmanship and are permissible for the fit. For a shaft no positive tolerance is allowed but a negative
value is allowed. Example is
Ï+ 0.000 cm
Shaft: 1.325 cm: tolerance Ì
Ó- 0.002 cm
Ï+ 0.002 cm
(Matching ) Hole: 1.328 cm: tolerance Ì
Ó- 0.002 cm
Metrology 101
This gives maximum clearance 0.006 cm and minimum clearance 0.002 cm.
Allowance is a term used to denote the difference between the low limit dimension of the hole and high
limit dimension of the shaft representing the minimum clearance for the given type of fit.
Tolerances and allowances vary with nominal dia. of the fit. For a dia. d, tolerance and allowance are
given by empirical relations
Tolerance = k1 3 d (3.3)
Allowance = k2 3 d 2 (3.4)
where k1 and k2 are constants depending on the kind of fit.
Example 3.2 For automobile bearing its Ï k1 = 0.0009 when d is in inches. Thus for 3≤ shaft, tolerance is
Ì k = 0.0008
Ó 2
0.0009 3
3¢¢ and allowance is 0.0008
3
9¢¢ .
Various fits are in vogue following British, American and International specifications. In the international
standards, there are altogether 21 fits divided into clearance 8, transition 4 and interference 9. Each fit has
16 grades of tolerance—available in chart form—to cover the requirements of manufacturing precision.
3.5 LIMIT GAUGES
A limit gauge is generally made with two dimensions, the maximum and minimum allowable ones to ensure
proper fit of the part in question.
The snap gauge in the general type shown in Fig. 3.4 (a), which has an improved version whose
tolerance is adjustable.
For holes and shafts plug and hole gauges are also available.
+0.0004
–0.0002
Go No Go G N.G.
1"
(G) (NG)
(a) Single fit (push type) (b) Adjustable one
Fig. 3.4 (a) Single it (push type) (b) Adjustable one.
Taper Gauges Two types of taper gauges are shown in Figs 3.5(a) and (b) for internal and external tapers.
The plug type of Fig. 3.5(a), however, although ensures correct turning of the larger diameter, does not
ensure uniform tapering and true check is thus not made by this. For tapered shaft the hole gauges are used
with cutaway windows to check the ‘go’ and ‘nogo’ section.
Fig. 3.5 (a) Tapered plug, (b) Tapered hole

3.6 DIAL GAUGES
Dial gauge is a direct indicator of flatness of surfaces, parallelism of machine components like bars and
rods and for numerous other purposes. Its design, nomenclature, graduations, plunger, contact points, zero
setting and performance are all standardized. Figures 3.6(a) and (b) show the gauge uncovered and the dial.
Limits
10 – + 10
20 20
30 30
40 40
50
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.6 (a) and (b) Dial gauge explained.
The rack-pinion arrangement acts as an amplifier. The rack is on the spindle itself which is made to come
in contact with the workpiece. The linear displacement of the spindle is connected into a rotary movement.
The dial usually has 100 divisions + 50 to –50, each division representing a spindle movement of 0.01 mm
such that for 1 mm change a complete revolution of the pointer occurs. However, when the tolerances are
checked, limits are fixed, which can be set as desired, for the manufacturing processes.
3.7 COMPARATORS
These are measuring instruments employed for checking the more important linear dimensions of parts
made by production methods to an accuracy of within 0.0001≤ to 0.001≤ compared to standards of lengths.
Usually the instruments are calibrated with respect to the standards and then ‘test’ dimensions are checked.
One of the important functions of the instrument is to magnify/amplify the small input, in the form of
displacement, to have a large analogue scale movement.
Amplification/magnification being the most important aspect in a comparator, it is classified on the basis
of the type of magnification employed in it—although there may be combination of more than one type in a
single comparator. The types are
1. Mechanical
2. Optical
3. Electrical
4. Pneumatic
Metrology 103
Amplification between 2.50 and 10,000 and even more is attainable now and is so specified by the
standardization authority. There are certain fundamental requirements of a comparator as stated below:
1. It must be of robust design and construction to withstand ordinary usage without imparing accuracy.
2. The vertical column has to be provided with a means for adjusting the measuring head, as also,
locking means should be provided to hold the vertical head at any desired height. For thread
measurement provision should be there for tilting the head sideways.
3. High magnification should be there but it should be such that the readings are dead-beat, obtained
through adequate damping.
4. For quick insertion of the job, a means should be there for lifting the plunger.
5. The plunger contact part should be provided with a hard substance like hardened steel or diamond
for minimum wear.
6. Special jigs and fixtures may have to be provided for holding the job for comparison.
7. Range selection should be properly made so that overranging, like measuring ‘larger job’ with
smaller comparator, should not damage the instrument.
8. For versatility, provision should be there to tilt and clamp the comparator at right angles to the table
and head.
It must be stressed that comparators are, in general, used to check jobs within a very short range. Optical
method provides a wider scale for same accuracy and is preferred for this reason. For comparing screwed
hole, screw thread effective dia. (both outside and inside), pitch error for screw threads, internal and
external tapers, thickness etc., horizontal comparators are used with special provision.
A mechanical system that uses combination of lever and sector-pinion arrangement for magnification is
shown in Fig. 3.7. The scale divisions are 0.01 mm and 0.005 mm with a range of 0.2 mm. Contact member
1
is spring loaded and a force required to lift the plunger depends on the spring strength, it is usually kg.
16
Comparator size is 2.5 cm d ¥ 10 cm as shown. Spring S2 eliminates backlash.
– +
r4 Scale
Pinion r3
Sector
r2
10 cm
Spring
S2
Fulcrum r1 Plumger
Spring S1 Contact member

2.5 cm. dia.
Fig. 3.7 A mechanical comparator

Magnification is given by
r2 r4
¥ M = (3.5)
r1 r3
Such comparators have a sensitivity of the order of 10–4 mm/scale division. Electrical and pneumatic
comparators are being increasingly used because of convenience with which their magnification are adjus-
table as compared with the mechanical ones where the system of obtaining magnification is not easily
incorporable.
Figure 3.8 gives the schematic of a typical optical comparator. With the job change, through arrangement
of lever-pivot (1), mirror pivot, (2) operates where a rotation of mirror by an angle would produce a
collimated beam shift on the scale by 2f. Pivot system (1) gives mechanical magnification and mirror
system gives optical magnification.
60°
Objective
3.8
”r Green filter
ad
ius
0.116
Mirror
Pivot (1) Pivot (2)
6” radius
Vertical
0.1” column
Job table
Fig. 3.8 An optical comparator
3.8 PNEUMATIC COMPARATORS

The pneumatic comparators are the well known pneumatic amplifiers alias the flapper nozzle system which
can provide a magnification/amplification of the order of 105. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 3.9.
With the job (work) the clearance x varies depending on the ‘finish’ of the job so that the air escape
through the nozzle or gauge head changes changing the pressure (p) in the intermediate chamber as the
supply pressure ps is constant and is fed through the orifice of diameter d1. This pressure p gives a measure
of the ‘surface finish.’ Assuming that the nozzle head air escape system also behaves like an orifice, the
guiding equations for flowrates through orifice of dia. d1 and through orifice of clearance x would be
Metrology 105
Fig. 3.9 A pneumatic comparator
Êp ˆ
q = C1 Á d12 ˜ ps - p (3.6a)
Ë4 ¯
and
q = C2 (p d 2 x) p (3.6b)
where ps and p are gauge pressures and d2 is the nozzle dia. The nozzle is open to atmosphere. It is easy to
see that for small changes in d2, C2 and C1 donot differ at all so that C2 = C1 = C and, combining Eqs (3.6a)
and (3.6b)
ps - p p 2 d 2 x2
= 2 2 4
p (p /16)d1
giving finally
p 1 1
pn = = 2
= (3.7)
ps Ê d xˆ 1 + 16 xn2
1 + 16 Á 22 ˜
Ë d1 ¯
2
Ê d2 ˆ
where p is normalized to pn and x is normalized to xn. With supply pressure ps constant and 16 Á 2 ˜
Ë d1 ¯
constant, relation between p and xn (i.e., x, surface finish) is nonlinear and pn – xn is actually calibrated
against a master gauge so that the measurement obtained with the 1.1
gauging head represents only the deviations from the master gauge
dimensions. This, thus is a gauge that measures differences and not 1.0
basic dimensions.
Over a certain range of xn, the normalized pressure p/ps = pn shows 0.9
linearity. The plot between pn as xn is shown in Fig. 3.10. It has been
pn = p/ps
found that the range is linear over pn lying between 0.4 and 0.9. The Linear
supply pressure may be varied but for a particular use it is held fixed.
Often, 1 MPa is a good choice for ps. 0.4
The slope dpn is negative having a maximum value (negative) of
dxn xn
Linear
–2.59 at xn = 0.144 and pn = 0.75.
Fig. 3.10 Input-output curve of
lapper-nozzle assembly
Over the linear range, the equation is approximated as

pn = b + Slxn (3.8)
where b is a constant (shown in Fig. 3.10) and Sl = linear slope.
It has been suggested [Graneck and Evans] that for 0.4 £ pn £ 0.9, the linear form is
pn = 1.1 – 0.5 xn (3.9a)
Ê d2 ˆ
= 1.1 – 0.5 Á 2 ˜ x (3.9b)
Ë d1 ¯
Pressure p provides the scale reading and the change in dimension is given by x so that actual sensitivity
dp dR
is given by or still better where R represents scale reading. This sensitivity can be split into three
dx dx
different multiplying forms,
d (p d 2 x)
1. the measuring head sensitivity
dx
dp
2. the pneumatic head sensitivity, , and
d (p d 2 x)
3. the scale/indication sensitivity dR/dp. Looking at the relations one notes that the sensitivity can be
increased by increasing
1. d2,
2. ps, 1/d1.
Example 3.3 The lapper nozzle ampli ier used in a pneumatic comparator has a gain of 106. The control
ori ice and nozzle diameters are identical having value 0.05 cm. When the comparator operates in the linear region,
following relation (3.9) for pn between 0.5 and 0.8, obtan the measuring head sensivity and overall sensitivity. What
is the range of instrument? Assume supply pressure as 1 MPa (= 106 (N/m2).
Solution Measuring head sensitivity
d (p d 2 x)
= pd2 = 3.14 ¥ 0.5 ¥ 10–3 = 1.57 mm
dx
Pneumatic head sensitivity is
dp
d (p d 2 x)
Ê d2 ˆ Ê p d2 x ˆ
Now relation (3.8) gives 1/ps = b + Sl x Á 2 ˜ = b + Sl Á ˜ (Sl is negative).
Ë d1 ¯ Ë p d12 ¯
dp 106 ¥ 0.5 N/m 2

\ = ps Sl /p d12 = -
d (p d 2 x) p ¥ 0.5 ¥ 10-6 m 2
N
ª - 0.315 ¥ 1012
m4
Metrology 107
The scale sensitivity

dR
= 10-6 m/N/m 2 (given )
dp
Hence, overall sensitivity is

N m ◊ m2
S = -1.57 ¥ 10-3 ¥ 0.315 ¥ 1012 ¥ 10-6 m ◊ 4
◊ = - 0.49 ¥ 103
m N
p Êd ˆ
Instrument range = 1.1 - 0.5 Á 22 ˜ x
ps Ë d1 ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
pn = 0.5, 0.5 = 1.1 – 0.5 ÁË ˜ xi \ xi = 0.6 mm
0.5 ¯
Ê 1 ˆ
pn = 0.8, 0.8 = 1.1 – 0.5 ÁË ˜ xf \ xf = 0.3 mm
0.5 ¯
The range is 0.6 to 0.3 mm with a span 0.3 mm.
3.9 ELECTRICAL COMPARATORS

Such comparators are more elaborate and expensive but have better accuracy (error within 2 ¥
10–6 cm) and facility to have variable magnification to suit the gauging practice. Magnification range is
1100 to 50,000 and is alterable by electrical means.
The working principle is based on the principle of balanced ac bridge consisting of four induction
coils, two of which are built within the electric head (sec Fig. 3.11 coils C). Between these coils C, a steel
armature member A is suspended which, in turn, is connected with the contact plunger (D) also called the
gauging spindle. With the armature lying, midway between the coils C the bridge circuit is balanced to give
zero reading. The movement of the gauging spindle causes bridge unbalance, in turn, causing a current of
the microampere order to flow in the detector as shown in Fig. 3.12 (a). Figure 3.12 (b) shows the simplified
scheme. As the armature has bidirectional movement, the detector should be a phase sensitive one.
B
Coil
C Spring mount
A
Armature
A
B Armature
Coil distance D (Diamond
adjustment point
screw plunger)
Fig. 3.11 The electric head

Zero Reg.
V Supply
Xer
Magnification
Armature
mA
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12 (a) AC bridge-based comarator, (b) Simpli ied model of Fig. 3.12(a)
It is possible to use variable resistance (strain gauge) or variable capacitance transducers in place
of variable inductance type as described above. Such a comparator requires only electric power which
can just be switched in and electrical interfacing is very easily done (such as a computer for control,
averaging etc.).
3.10 OPTICAL METHODS
Optical methods used in linear measurement have two broad categories

1. Accurate measurement of small dimension/displacement using primarily the technique of light wave
interference or image magnification, and
2. Measurement of large dimensions by using telescope alongwith its required acessories like projection
systems.
3.10.1 Light Source

Light wave interference requires monochromatic light i.e. light of single colour/wavelength. In fact, instead
of using a single wavelength, a narrow bandwidth is used as an approximation because it is very difficult
and costly to have an ideal monochromatic source. The earlier method of breaking white light and filtering
for the narrowband is now replaced by the method of electrical excitation of atoms of prescribed elements
which radiate light at discrete wavelengths. The excitation is by a powerful lamp or a laser. The elements
include mercury (with isotope 198), cadmium, krypton (with isotope 86), helium, iron, sodium, thallium
etc. Of this, the most common one is helium for industrial standard which is obtained by connecting a tube
charged with helium to a high voltage source, when an intense glow occurs with a narrowband around 589
nm. The primary colour wavelength range is depicted in Fig. 3.13 and the source wavelengths are shown in
Table 3.3.
l 399 424 490 574 599 645 699

(nm)
Colour
Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Fig. 3.13 Colour wavelength band

Metrology 109
Table 3.3 Source Wavelengths

Source Wavelengths (nm)
1. Lamp elements: Hg (with Hg 198) 546
He 589
Kr (with Kr 86) 606
Na 598
Cd (Red) 644
2. Laser elements: Ar ion 457.9, 488.0, 514.5
Kr ion 413.1, 647.1, 676.4
He-Ne 632.8
For dimensional measurements gas lasers are most frequently used. The one noted last in the table He-
Ne is most common followed by bluish green Ar-ion. Lasers have very narrow wavelength band and the
light from laser is a narrow directional beam which is highly collimated polarized and coherent resulting
in high intensity as well. Coherency is a property that is needed most in interferometry where the phase
difference of two coherent beams is related. Since the wavelength is not ideally single the coherency exists
over a distance only and hence in measurement technique this term coherence length is very important
which is the distance or travel length of the beam over which it stays in phase with itself. Lasers have
greater coherence length than lamps. This means laser can be used to measure larger lengths (compared to
lamps), by inteference. In fact, lamps can be used to measure only a few centimeters while lasers can be
used upto a kilometer or even more when the source is appropriately stabilized.
3.10.2 Optical Flats

t t
Optical flat is an accessory used in optical technique of dimensional
measurement using monochromatic light. It is either square or a a
circular in shape and made of fused quartz or strain-free glass with
both or at least one of its surfaces finished by lapping and polishing
a
to a flatness with close tolerance. The sizes usually available are as
shown below in Fig. 3.14 and Table 3.4. Fig. 3.14 Optical lats
Table 3.4 Optical Flat Tolerances
a (in cm) t (mm) Tolerance mm
2 to 48 6.35 to 70 Commercial: 0.202
Working: 0.101
Master: 0.051
Ref: 0.025
Optical flats are used
1. as dimensional comparator
2. for variation in flatness
3. to contour a flat surface, etc.
3.10.3 Principle of Use of Optical Flats

The basic principle of measurement in metrology with optical flats is that of interferometry. In this, light
waves from a single source i.e. having same wavelength arrive at a place at the same phase, the light
intensity is greatly enhanced, conversely if they arrive in a subtractive node i.e. at opposing phases (180°
out of phase for two beams, for example), the intensity is greatly reduced (to zero even).
Figures 3.15 (a) and (b) demonstrate the situations. The same situations are produced when an optical
flat is used and a reflective surface that of the ‘work’ as illustrated in Fig. 3.16. As is seen in Fig. 3.15(b)
subtraction to produce darkness occurs when a phase difference of 180° occurs which is possible, for a
coherent source, if the two beams are shifted by l/2 or odd multiples thereof. Thus in Fig. 3.16, if we
consider the distances travelled by the beam reflected from the lower inside surface of the optical flat and
that from the workpiece, a difference of 2d is observed. For dark fringe, therefore, the condition would be
View
l Incident Beams reflected
1 beam
1 2 .
Beam 1 Beam 1 O.F
2 Sum
(Subtract) q
Sum l/2 d
Beam 2 Arrive at same Beam 2 Arrive at

phase, max opposing phase, Work
brightness min brightness
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.15 Fringe formation (a) same phase condition (b) Antiphase case Fig. 3.16 Optical lat used with
re lective surface
l
2d = (2n – l) (3.10a)
2
or
l
d = (2n – 1) (3.10b)
4
where n is any integer: 1, 2, 3 …, N.
Thus, for the system to be effective, following conditions should be satisfied:
1. An air gap of varying thickness between the optical and the workpiece should exist, and
2. the surfaces must be reflective.
As seen in Fig. 3.17 there may be a number of distances, dj’s with air wedge between OF and workpiece
for which condition (3.10b) is satisfied producing a set of fringes called fringe-pattern the in-beween space
being bright. The distance between the adjacent fringes for dj and dj – 1 gaps for example is called the fringe
interval. For a well polished finished workpiece the fringe pattern is very much regular, something like
shown in Fig. 3.18. Any distortion in the pattern would indicate flaw in the finish. For an inclination angle q
of the optical flat with the work, it is given by the relation
q
d4
d1 d2 d3
Fringe interval
Fig. 3.17 Generation of fringe pattern Fig. 3.18 The fringe pattern
Metrology 111
d j - d j -1
tanq = (3.11)
d
where, d = the distance between two successive fringes found by counting the total number of fringes over
a maximum measurable distance to give the mean value.
But, from Eq. (3.10)
dj – dj – 1 = l/2 (3.12)
so that
Ê lˆ
q = tan -1 Á ˜ (3.13)
Ë 2d ¯
If the dimensional check is to be made between
two work blocks optically different in dimension O.F.
(l-order) this principle can be used as shown in Fig. 3.19. p2
Obviously q is very small and any one of the blocks, B1 or
d(=l-order)
B2 may be a reference one. For a distance D between two p1 q
blocks as shown and with dimensional difference vertically
being d, B1 B2
(W) (W)
lD
d = D tanq = (3.14)
2d D
As mentioned in the previous section, this measurement
with lamp as source, is possible with the beam length not Fig. 3.19 Dimension check with optical lats
exceeding a few cm; about 20 cm is a good limit. Above this, laser beam is to be used.
Example 3.4 A Hg 198 source lamp is used to measure dimensional difference between two blocks as shown in
Fig. 3.19. The surfaces are in contact with the optical lat at points p1 and p2. Fringes produced for 100 mm are 6 in
number. What is the dimensional difference and the angle at which the optical lat rests over the blocks?
Solution Using Eq. (3.10)
Difference,
l 546 ¥ 10-9
d = (2 ¥ 6 - 1) = 11 ¥ = 11 ¥ 136.5 ¥ 10-9 m
4 4
= 1.5015 mm
1.5015 ¥ 10-6
Angle,q = tan -1 = tan -1 (1.5015 ¥ 10-5 )
100 ¥ 10-3
3.11 INTERFEROMETER
Previous section shows how a gauge block can be compared using optical flats. For absolute calibration
of these blocks interferometers are used. In these meters comparison is made with a fundamental standard
which is the wavelength of a specific light source.
At this stage difference between line standard and end standard must be pointed out. Length standard
was earlier defined by two finely drawn lines on a prototype meter-bar made of platinum-iridium and
gauges with this standard were called line standards. Ordinary gauge blocks are, however, end standard.
Gauge block dimensions are now measured using wavelength standard by an interferometer. The scheme
is shown in Fig. 3.20, which is the Mitchelson type. As optical beam from a laser (632.8 nm) falls on beam
splitter (BS), which sends 50% of its light to a mirror pair or a prism reflector (cube corner reflector) only
to get reflected back to the BS. A portion of this reflected light passes through an aperture to fall on a
photodetector. Another 50% from BS gets reflected from a movable CCR and gets superimposed with the
beam reflected from the CCR, and moves on to photodetector by the same process. At the photodetector
fringes (bright and dark) would appear depending on the difference of path lengths of the two split beams.
As is seen one reflector (MR) is kept movable axially. For a movement d of this reflector, beam path
traverses by 2d and if the number of successive dark fringes occuring at the detector is n this also is the
number of wavelengths (see Eq. (3.10)). Thus
Mirror CCR
pair
d
Laser BS
MR
Aperture
PD
Fig. 3.20 Scheme of an interferometer
2d = nl (3.15)
Number of fringes n can be counted for a movement d which is thus measured by knowing l. The
resolution of the instrument is 1/100 of a fringe.
3.12 MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE
Angular measurements are frequently necessary in connection with engineering operations—like

measurement of angles on gauges and tools. For small changes and deflections, this operation is also
needed. For most engineering works, measurement within 1 to 5 min of arc is sufficient. On special
occasions measurement within 5 to 15 sec of arc is recommended.
The list of the devices that are used for angular measurements is given below:
1. Vernier and optical bevel protractors
2. Sine bars
3. Clinometers
4. Optical dividing heads and circular division testers
5. Theodolite and collimator
A few of the above would be considered here briefly.
1. Bevel Protractor Figure 3.21 shows a schematic view. It consists of a fixed measuring stock and
a measuring blade that is rotatable. These two are set along the faces of the jobs whose angle is to be
measured. The rotatable blade (sliding blade) can be locked to a turret which again is rotable and mounted
on the body or the head. Between the turret and the body a circular scale with vernier is provided alongwith
Metrology 113
an index mark. Figure 3.22 shows the dial (optical) bevel protractor. A circular turret scale rotated by the
turret operates a gear to actuate the dial gauge pointer. The pointer position or the angular displacement is
read on the gauge using a high power magnifying glass mounted on the head.
Body
Slow
motion device
Stock
Locknut
Working edge
for blade
Fig. 3.21 The bevel protractor
Head (body) Fixed blade
Rotating
blade
Turret Dial
gauge
(a)
Job
Application Job
(b)
Fig. 3.22 Dial type protractor, showing applications
2. Sine Bar Sine bar has quite a number of variations in design and includes sine table and sine
centre. It is used for measurement of angle with an accuracy of at least 1 min of arc. It is also used to
locate a workpiece to a given angle accurately. Figure 3.23(a) shows a sine bar in use with gauge blocks.
Sine bar basically consists of a rectangular section bar of suitable gauge steel having two equal accurate
cylindrical pins or rollers fitted in the cylindrical grooves of the bar (see Fig. 3.23(b)). Obviously the axes of
the two pins are parallel to each other and equidistant from the upper flat surface of the bar. This distance
may be h with the bar height H = 2h or otherwise. The distance between the centres of this rollers is, say, L.
Then in use (Fig. 3.23(a)), angle q is easily obtained as
x
q = sin -1 (3.16)
L
Accuracy depends on the accuracy of x and L. From Eq. (3.16), one gets
Sine bar Upper flat
surface
L
x
q
L
Gauge block
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.23 (a) and (b) A sine bar and its variation
dx
cosq ◊ dq =
L
giving
dq sec q
= (3.17)
dx L
Knowing the nature of the function sec q, one would tend to
measure angle less than 45° as above. Function sec q increases
vary rapidly.
Sine bars, can be fitted with internal micrometer, vernier
height gauge, dial gauge etc. For very small angles filler gauges
may be used, Fig. 3.24 shows use of dial gauge for setting a sine
bar.
3. Clinometers It may be considered as the combination of a
protractor and a spirt level attached to the movable blade. It is
designed to improve accuracy. The instrument is made of two
base lengths 200 mm and 300 mm.
3.12.1 Angle Gauges, Angle Gauge Blocks and Angle Slip

Fig 3.24 Setting of a sine bar
Gauges
These are angle measurement standards like linear dimension gauges and are made of hardened steel lapped
upto a high degree of accuracy. These are available in sets of 3, 4 and 5 blocks to make upto 12 blocks,
5 for degrees, 4 for min and 3 for fractional min (or sec) as shown. A typical twelve number set to make
81° 40¢ 39≤ may be
Metrology 115
1° 3° 9° 27° 41° in 5 blocks Working edges

1¢ 3¢ 9¢ 27¢ in 4 blocks a4
3≤ 9≤ 27≤ in 3 blocks a3
They can be subracted as they can be added with a2
their narrow ends oppositly wrung or wrung at the a
a1
same side. Thus for an angle q = a1 + a2 – a3 + a4,
the combination is shown in Fig. 3.25(b), while (a) (b)
Fig. 3.25(a) shows a typical angle gauge.
Fig. 3.25 (a) Angle gauge (b) arranging angle
3.13 MEASUREMENT OF AREA gauges
Measurement of plane area is an engineering problem. This area may be enclosed by regular shaped
geometric curves when standard mathematical relations may be used for the computation of the area. If,
however, the area is within an irregular curve, graphical, numerical and/or mechanical techniques are used
for its computation.
1. Graphical technique is basically counting
squares. The geometrical figure whose area is
to be measured is traced on a graph paper with
appropriate scale factor. Squares and rectangles y
are now drawn on it to cover the area and counting
these squares and rectangles and computing their
area, the area of the figure is evaluated.
2. Numerical technique is only a variation of the y0 y1 y2 yn
graphical technique but is amenable to be used
by computers for accurate computation and the
same numerical analysis method can be used for x
the purpose. Considering the irregular curve of Dx Dx
Fig. 3.26, the area under whom is to be Fig. 3.26 An irregular curve
determined, one can easily write area A as
A = Ú y dx (3.18)
In the numerical method the base is divided into n equal parts Dx so that the ordinates y0, y1,… yn – 1,
yn are at the intervals of each Dx starting from Dx = 0. These ordinates form curvilinear trapezoids which
become approximately rectilinear if Dx is chosen to be very small. Then using the trapezoidal rule, area A is
y0 + y1 y + y2 y + yn
A= Dx + 1 D x + … + n -1 Dx 3.19a)
2 2 2
Ï y + yn ¸
=Ì 0 + ( y1 + y2 + … + yn -1 ) ˝ D x (3.19b)
Ó 2 ˛
If the base is divided into an even number of Dx’s, then a computation rule called Simpson’s rule can be
used. According to this rule
Dx
A = {( y0 + yn ) + 4( y1 + y2 + … + yn -1 ) + 2( y1 + y2 + … + yn )}
3
Example 3.5 Use trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules to ind the area
2
dx
A=Ú
0
1 +x
0 +1
Solution If the curve is divided into four parts, n = 4, D x = = 0.25
4
1 1 1 1 1
y0 = = 1, y1 = = 0.8, y2 = = 0.66, y3 = = 0.57, y4 = = 0.5
1+ 0 1 + 0.25 1 + 0.5 1.75 2 .0
Using trapezoidal rule, therefore.

Ï y + y4 ¸
A=Ì 0 + y1 + y2 + y3 ˝ D x
Ó 2 ˛
Ê 1 + 0. 5 ˆ
=Á + 0.8 + 0.66 + 0.57˜ 0.25
Ë 2 ¯
= 0.695
Using Simpson’s rule
Dx
A = [(y0 + y4) + 4 (y1 + y2 + y3) + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4)]
3
0.25
= [(1 + 0.5) + 4 (0.8 + 0.66 + 0.57) + 2 (0.8 + 0.66 + 0.57 + 0.5)]
3
= (1.5 + 8.12 + 5.06) ¥ 0.0833 = 1.22
Theoretically
A = [log (1 + x)]02 = log 3 = 1.098
0.695 - 1.098
Hence, the error in trapezoidal scheme is ¥ 100% = -36%
1.098
1.22 - 1.098
and that by Simpson’s rule = 100% = +11.1%
1.098
3.14 THE PLANIMETER
The planimeter is an integrating type mechanical instrument and is useful for measuring area enclosed by a
finite boundary. Where exact calculation is not possible, this instrument can be used and was originally used
in surveying and thermodynamic works. The diagramatic sketch of a polar planimeter is shown in Fig. 3.27.
It consists of two rigid arms
1. the pole arm, and
2. the tracing arm.
Both are pivoted at the bearing (at each other). The pole arm has a fixed point called pivot or pole while
the tracing arm has a pole at the free end. This tracing point is moved around the peiphery of the enclosure
whose area is to be measured with the pole arm pole fixed at a suitable arbitrary point. A record wheel is
attached to the tracing arm and is free to rotate. It rotates when the tracing arm moves. The record wheel is
Metrology 117
provided with vernier scale to count the revolutions as g arm

Tracin
also a fraction of it. The process of measuring the area
Pointer
with the planimeter is as follows:
1. The planimeter and the area to be measured, Tracing
point
that of a figure, are placed on a smooth surface Round wheel
so that the record wheel should slide when the
tracing arm undergoes an axial translational Bearing
motion. Pole arm
2. Placing the tracing point at any arbitrary point
of the periphery of the curve, the readings of Pivot/Pole
the wheel and the vernier are noted.
3. The tracing point is moved around the priphery
in one direction carefully till it reaches the Fig. 3.27 A planimeter
starting point again.
Be
4. The readings are noted again.
ar
in
The difference between the initial and final readings
g
a
gives the required one. Tracing
b point
r
l
The sketched diagram for the measurement is q
a
shown in Fig. 3.28. Record
wheel
Pole arm
Theory of Measurement Let the tracing arm and Tracing
pole arm rotate through angles dq and da respectively Pivot arm
during movement of the tracing arm to cover an Area
elemental area dA,
1 2 1 2
dA = l dq + lr cos b . da . + r da (3.20)
2 2
where l = length of the tracing arm Fig. 3.28 Mesurement of area with a
planimeter
r = length of the pole arm
b = angle between the two arms
The distance covered by the point on the periphery, ds on the record wheel
ds = a . dq + r cos b da (3.21)
where a = distance between the wheel and the bearing.
Now, from, Eqs (3.20) and (3.21), by integration
1 2 1
A= l Ú dq + lr Ú cos b d a + r 2 Ú d a (3.22)
2 2
s = a Ú dq + r Ú cos b d a (323)
Combining the two
1 2 1
2 Ú
A= l dq + ( s - a) Ú dq ) l + r 2 Ú d a
2
1 2 1 2
= (l - al ) Ú dq + sl + r Ú d a
2 2
If the pole is outside the enclosure, Ú dq = 0 and Ú da = 0
\ A=l.s (3.24)
If the pole is inside the enclosure, Ú dq = 2p , Ú da = 2p , and the area is

A = l s + p (r2 + l2 – 2al) (3.25)
2 2
The area A0 = p(r + l – 2al) is known as the zero circle area which is the area the tracing point would
sweep out when the pole point is inside the enclosure and the wheel reading is zero. This means, there is
no wheel rotation even though a finite area may have been traced by the point. This is a parameter of a
planimeter.
Example 3.6 A planimeter has a tracing arm of 100 mm and wheel diameter of 20 mm. The instrument is used
for measuring an area with the pole point outside it when the wheel records 2.51 revol, and with the pole point
inside it records 13.15 revol. What would be the planimeter count for measuring a circle of radius 210 mm?
Solution As per theory, when the pole is outside the area
A = sl + A0 = 100 ¥ 2.51 ¥ 62.8 + 0 = 1576.28 mm2
as the wheel circumference is 3.14 ¥ 20 = 62.8 mm
area of zero circle A0 = 1576.28 – 100 ¥ ( – 13.15) (62.8) = 84158.28 mm2
When the instrument measures a 210 mm radius circle the circumference would be
p ¥ (210) 2 - 84158.28
s=
100
138474 - 84158.28 54315.72

= =
100 100
= 543.1572 mm
Hence, the number of wheel revolution would be
s 543.1572
nw = = = 8.69.
62.8 62.8
Review Questions
1. How many scales are there in a micrometer? 3. What are the three main classes of its? Explain
What purpose do they serve? with diagrams. How is tolerance de ined in
If the pitch of the screw of the micrometer is 0.01 connection with its and limit gauges? What
mm and number of division on circular scale is is an allowance?
100, what would be its least count? Draw the schematic diagram of a single it push
[0.0001 mm] type gauge showing the details.
2. What are gauge blocks? How many blocks are 4. State the fundamental requirements of a
there in a commonly available set? How are they comparator. Dimensions of what magnitude are
divided? measured by the comparators usually?
How does temperature affect gauge blocks? Draw the scheme of an optical comparator and
The gauge length to match a specimen at 25°C explain its operation showing the magni ication
is 10 cm. If the coef icients of expansion due to obtained at different points.
temperature for the specimen and the gauge 5. Draw the circuit scheme of an electrical
materials are 1.2 ¥ 10–6/°C and 10 ¥ 10–6/°C, comparator and explain how it operates. What is
what is the specimen length at 20°C? the order of magni ication in such instruments?
[9.999956 cm]
Metrology 119
6. What is an optical lat? For what purpose is it measurement of angle. Discuss with diagrams
used? Explain the operation of an optical lat the operating principles of a sine bar.
with necessary diagrams. 8. How is a planimeter used for measuring area?
A lat rests on two blocks dimensionally different A planimeter with 200 mm tracing arm and
by 0.92 mm. With a source of wavelength 0.642 25 mm wheel diameter is used to measure a
mm, what would be the number of fringes per circular area of 90000 mm2. If the pole point is
100 mm? put outside the area, the number of revolutions is
[2866] 3.2, what would be the number of revolutions if
7. List the names of the devices that are used for the point is inside?
[8.932]
Pressure Measurement
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of pressure is of considerable importance in process

industries. Most of these pressures range from a little below
atmosphere to hundreds of atmospheres.
Another important aspect of pressure measurement is the
measurement of very low pressure or what is known as vacuum.
With the advancement of scientific research and industrial
application of the results, pressure as low as 10–6 mm of mercury
4
is often required to be measured is some systems. Measurement
of pressure, therefore, consists of two parts—that of pressure and
Chapter vacuum.
The force exerted by the fluid per unit area of the wall of the
container is called the absolute pressure whereas the gauge pressure
is the difference between the absolute and the local atmospheric pressure, and when gauge pressure is
negative, it is known as vacuum. Pressure is not an independent variable as it is derived from force and area
and it is not ‘ideal’ as it depends on other factors like elevation, fluid density, temperature, flow velocity,
etc.
In many cases, pressure is expressed in terms of atmosphere which is the height of the barometric
column at 0ºC at sea level, being equal to 76 cm of mercury (density 13.59 g/cm3) or equivalent to 14.696
pounds per sq. in. absolute, 1 kg/cm2 or 0.1013 MPa. While Pascal or Megapascal is the SI unit of pressure,
others are listed as follows:
1 psi = 6894.76 Pa = 0.0703 kg/cm2
1 Pa = 1 Newton/m2 = 10 m bar = 1 kg–m/s2 = 10 dynes/cm2
1 atm = 1.01325 bars = 75.97 cm of Hg = 29.92 in. Hg = 10332 kg/m2
1 pieze = 1 KPa
1 mmHg= 1333.22 m bar
1 Torr = 1 mm Hg =103 m (micron)
If h is the height of any liquid of density r, the fluid pressure p is given by the relation p = rh. As density
is affected by temperature, height of the liquid column is also consequently affected. If hm is the measured
height and rm is the density at the local temperature, them hr = rmhm, giving the true height at standard
temperature.
Basic methods of pressure measurement are the same as those of force measurement. For high vacuum,
however, some special techniques are necessary. Primary sensors are mostly, mechanical which through
secondary sensing means provide electrical outputs. Manometers and elastic element sensors are mainly
used as primary sensors while secondary sensing, often called transducing here, involves resistive, inductive
and capacitive changes for deriving electrical outputs.
Pressure Measurement 121
4.2 MANOMETERS
Manometers, more aptly known as liquid column p1 p2

manometers, are used for low range pressure Scale
measurement. It is simplest and most accurate of
all the types. It is generally used within a range of 2
kg/cm2, i.e., 0.2 MPa. Manometers are of two basic 6
types, (i) U-tube type and (ii) well type. Variations
in these types are also known such as enlarged leg 5
type, inclined tube type. etc. Another commercial
4
manometer is the ring-balance type. A simple U-tube
h
manometer is shown in Fig. 4.1. The differential pl
3 pm
pressure is obtained in the scale by the relation
2
p1 – p2 = h(rm – rl) (4.1)
where rm is the density of the manometric fluid and 1
rt is the density of the fluid over the manometer.
For general measurement of gas pressure p2 is the
Fig. 4.1 U-tube manometer
atmospheric pressure and p1 is the gas pressure and
p1 p2
also rl << rm. A more general manometer must have
a seal liquid over the manometer liquid to separate
the process fluid from the manometer fluid for any
probable source of trouble like absorption, mixing
or explosion, etc. Seal pots with large diameters are
also incorporated for avoiding extra calculation and h2
for increasing the range. Such a manometer is shown h1
in Fig. 4.2. At balance, one derives the same equation rl
as Eq. (4.1). Thus p1 – p2 = h(rm – rl) where changes h
in levels of liquids in the seal pots are neglected.
h4
In the well type manometer, shown in Fig. 4.3,
h3 rm
one of the legs of the U-tube is substituted by a
large well such that the variation in the level in the
well will be negligible and instead of measuring a Fig. 4.2 Manometer with large seal pots
differential height, a single height in the remaining p2
column is measured. If a1 and a2 are the areas of the
well and the capillary and Dh is the change in the
height in the well due to a pressure difference p1 – p2
p1
as shown, at balance, one derives a2
p1 – p2 = rmh(1 + a2/a1) (4.2)
which becomes, for a2 << a1, h
p1 – p2= rmh (4.3) Datum
Dh
In the enlarged leg manometer shown in Fig. 4.4,
rm
a is not negligible compared to a1. It has a float in
the enlarged leg which is utilized for indication or a1
recording. The two legs are connected by a separable
Fig. 4.3 The well type manometer
tubing and any of the legs can be changed for changing the p2
measurement span. The equation for differential pressure is
given by Eq. (4.3).
The inclined tube manometer is an enlarged leg manometer p1
with its measuring leg inclined to the vertical axis by an angle
b. This is done to expand the scale and thereby to increase
h
the sensitivity. It is shown schematically in Fig. 4.5(a). The
differential pressure is given by
p1 – p2 = rmh cos b(l + a2/a1) (4.4) Float a2
The factor cos b expands the scale of the instrument.
When b is quite large, h can be increased such that (h cos b)
remains constant. a1
The micromanometer is another variation of liquid column
Fig. 4.4 The enlarged leg manometer
manometers that is based on the principle of inclined tube
manometer and is used for the measurement of extremely small
differences of pressure. The meniscus of the inclined tube is adjusted at a reference level as shown in Fig. 4.5(b),
viewing through a magnifier provided with cross hair line. This is done for p1 = p2. The adjustment is done by
moving the well up and down by a micrometer. For p1 π p2, the shift in the meniscus position is restored to zero
by raising/lowering the well as before and the difference between these two readings gives the pressure difference
in terms of height. Such an instrument can have a resolution of the order of 40 ¥ 10–4 kg/cm2.
p1
p2
a1
b
a2
h
rm
(a)
p1 p2
Micrometer
Magnify
Well
Flexible
(b)
Fig. 4.5 (a) The inclined tube manometer, (b) the micromanometer
Manometer is demonstrated above as a static measuring device. Its dynamics can rarely be ignored.
Considering manometric fluid as a free body, the forces acting on it are (i) the weight distributed over the
entire fluid, (ii) the drag force due to its motion and the corresponding tube wall shearing stress, (iii) force
due to pressure differential p = p1 – p2, (iv) pressure force of the tube normal to the fluid, and (v) surface
tension ‘force’ at the two ends. These forces may be considered and combined to obtain the operational
transfer function between the height difference in the two legs and p as
h(s)/p(s) = l/(2w)/[s2/(3g/2L) + 2s ¥ 2mL/(R2 w) + 1] (4.5)
where w = fluid specific weight, g = gravitational acceleration, L = length of the tube covered by the fluid,
m = viscous drag coefficient and R = tube radius. The natural frequency of oscillation and damping
coefficient are given respectively by wn = (3g/2L)1/2 and z = 2.45 m (gL)1/2/R2w). In this analysis it has been
assumed that the effective mass of the moving fluid as 4/3 of its actual mass as is obtained by kinetic energy
study of steady laminar flow for a free body liquid. Equation (4.5) is often used for manometer design for
optimal performance by choosing appropriate parameter values.
Although the ring-balance manometer is not truly a manometer, it is often included in the category. It is
diagrammatically shown in Fig. 4.6(a). A tube, normally made of polythene or other light and transparent
material, bent into the form of a ring is supported at the centre by a suitable pivot. The tubular chamber is
divided into two parts by splitting, sealing and filling with a suitable light liquid like kerosene or paraffin
oil for isolating the two pressures. Pressure taps are made with two flexible tubings. Pressures p1 and p2 act
against the sealed walls as shown in Fig. 4.6(b) and rotate the ring which is balanced by the counter weight
w. For the tube cross-sectional area a, the ring diameter d, and, if the counter weight is located at a distance
R from the pivot as shown, the balance equation is obtained by taking moments about the knife edge as
Split and sealed p1
p2
d
2
Paraffin R
p2 p1
f
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.6 (a) The ring balance manometer, (b) the direction of the action of pressure
p1 – p2 = 2wR sin f/(ad) (4.6)

The consideration that the liquid acts simply as a pressure seal enables one to write the equation
independent of its density.
Of the various manometric fluids used, mercury has many advantages like low vapour pressure, non-
sticky nature, called ‘quick’ in nature, and wide temperature range (from –20º to 350ºC). Its high density
is disadvantageous for low pressure differential pressure measurements and it is quite expensive as well.
Other liquids like water, kerosene, ethyl alcohol and benzene, etc., are also used with colouring agents when
necessary, but their high vapour pressure and large coefficient of expansion make them quite unsuitable for
many applications.
4.3 ELASTIC TYPES
Liquid column manometers are, in general, suitable for low differential pressure measurement. Elastic
members are also used for measurement of pressure up to about 700 MPa. In this class three different types are
in practice (i) Bourdon tubes or pressure springs, (ii) bellows elements, and (iii) diaphragms. Bellows elements
and diaphragm gauges are suitable up to about 3 to 6 MPa whereas Bourdon tubes have very high ranges.
4.3.1 Bourdon Tubes

As early as 1849, Eugene Bourdon described the action of pressure over a thin walled shell. According to
his theory, a circular cross-sectional tubing when deformed in any way tends to return to the circular form
under the action of pressure. The commercial Bourdon pressure gauges have near elliptical cross-section
and the tube is generally bent into a C-shape or arc length of about 27 degrees. The tube is soldered or
welded to a socket at the base through which a pressure connection is made. The free end is sealed by
what is known as the tip. As the fluid under pressure enters the Bourdon tube, it tries to be ‘reformed’ and
because of a free tip available, this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The
simultaneous actions of bending and tension due to the internal pressure make a nonlinear movement of the
free tip. This travel is suitably guided and amplified for useful measurement of the internal pressure. But the
main requirement in the design of the gauge is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of
the tip should be the same and on withdrawal of the pressure the tip should return to the initial point.
The schematic arrangement of a complete gauge is shown in Fig. 4.7. The tip of the Bourdon tube is
connected to a segmental lever through an adjustable length link. The lever length may also be adjustable.
The segmental lever end on the segment side is provided with a rack which meshes to a suitable pinion
mounted at a spindle. The segmental lever is suitably pivoted and the spindle holds the pointer as shown.
A hair spring is sometimes used to fasten the spindle to the frame of the instrument to provide necessary
tension for proper meshing of the gearteeth and thereby freeing the system from backlash. Any error due to
friction in the spindle bearings is known as lost motion. The mechanical construction is the more important
consideration of a Bourdon tube gauge.
Scale
Bourdon
tube
Spring
Tip
Pinion
or
ct
Adjustable link
Se
Segment lever
Stop Pivot
Socket
Fig. 4.7 The Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Because of compound stresses developed in the tube, actual tip travel is nonlinear in nature. However,
for a small travel of the tip this can be considered to be linear and parallel to the axis of the link. The
small linear tip movement is matched with a rotational pointer movement. This is known as multiplication,
which can be adjusted by adjusting the length of the lever. A shorter lever gives larger rotation for the
same amount of tip travel. The approximately linear motion of the tip when converted to a circular motion
with the link-lever and pinion attachment, a one-to-one correspondence between them may not occur and a
distortion results. This is known as angularity which can be minimized by adjusting the length of the link.
Many commercial gauges have their link and lever lengths fixed and no arrangements are provided for
rectifying the error.
Besides C-type, Bourdon gauges may be made in the form of a helix or a spiral. The types are varied
for specific uses and space accommodations, for better linearity and larger sensitivity. For adequate
repeatability, the materials for Bourdon tubes must have good elastic or spring characteristics. The process
atmosphere is also important as corrosive atmosphere or fluid would require a material which is corrosion-
proof. The commonly used materials are phosphor-bronze, silicon-bronze, Monel metal, beryllium-copper,
brass with copper and zinc mainly, inconel, Ni-span-C and other C-Cr-Ni-Mo alloys, etc.
The design of Bourdon gauge is, in one way, quite simple but for the forming processes. Empirical
relations are known to choose the tube size, shape and thickness and the radius of the C-tube. Because of
internal pressure, the near elliptic or rather the flattened section of the tube tries to expand as shown by the
dotted line in Fig. 4.8(a) which is also shown in the lengthwise section in Fig. 4.8(b). The arrangement of
the tube, however, forces an expansion on the outer surface and a compression on the inner surface thus
allowing the tube to unwind. This unwinding is shown in Fig. 4.8(c) where an angular deviation Df of the
total angular length f has been assumed. For an applied pressure, P, material elastic modulus E, a relation
b
f
Df
a
(a) R
(b) (c)
Fig. 4.8 Effect of internal pressure on the elliptic section of gauge tube (a) expansion cross-sectionwise,
(b) extension lengthwise, (c) unwinding
Df = KfPf (a, b, t, R)/E (4.7)

is proposed by the designers. The constant K in the above equation is determined by practical tests. For the
section shown in Fig. 4.8(a) the more explicit formula is
S = Df /(fP) = 0.05aR1/5/(Eb1/3t3/5) (4.8)
Sensitivity S is seen to be defined as normalized sensitivity.
Bourdon tube pressure gauge is probably the most extensibly used type and hence various aspects of this
type need a little more consideration. The main points of interest would be (i) sensitivity, (ii) nonlinearity,
(iii) hysteresis, (iv) static errors, (v) elevation error, (vi) torque gradient constant, (vii) response time, (viii)
power rating, (ix) over range and under-range protection, and (x) life.
Sensitivity of the tip movement of a Bourdon element without restraint can be as high as 0.01 per cent
of full range pressure reducing to 0.1 per cent with restraint at the central pivot. With secondary sensors
associated with it this is further reduced. Nonlinearity in the form of angularity has already been discussed.
It can be kept to within 0.5 per cent FS.
Like all elastic elements Bourdon tube element also has some hysteresis in a given pressure cycle. By
proper choice of material and its heat treatment, this may be kept to within 0.1 and 0.5 per cent of the
maximum pressure cycle. Static error generally appears because of the change in elasticity due to change in
temperature. With temperature rising, elasticity decreases and hence, indication would increase. Materials
like Ni-span C, which consists of highest amount of Ni, lowest amount of carbon and also Cr, Ti, Mn, Si
and Al, is virtually free from this change and hence is suitable for low static error. For an a-fraction of span
pressure and temperature change Dt, the error in per cent full scale is e = 0.02 Dt a. Elevation error occurs
if the tubing connecting the pressure measuring element and the pressure point is partially filled. For a
pressure span Ps and an elevation difference of h error is calculated in per cent as hr ¥ 100/(Ps), where r is
the fluid density.
Torque gradient factor Tgf is the moment of the force applied at the tip about the restraining centre for 1º
angular rotation. Obviously, increasing pressure rating gives increasing Tgf. This is useful in the design of
the instrument, specifically when the gauge is required to be loaded.
Response time in pressure gauges is affected by connecting line lengths and diameters. For an isolated
gauge this is within about 100 ms.
Power rating of a Bourdon element is defined as the product of the force acting at the tip parallel to the
direction of motion and the amount of motion of the same. This is sometimes known as the work factor of
the element. Other elastic elements also use this characteristic.
Most of the pressure measuring instruments require over-range protection and is often provided by rigid
‘stop’ of the moving element or the pointer. In either case, the element is required to withstand the over-
range. Under-range protection, in contrast, is required on instruments calibrated for partial range and when
used in this smaller range, its torque gradient is greatly affected.
Life of a Bourdon element is an important factor and manufacturers have their tests by which to settle
the approximate operating life of the element.
The laboratory standard of pressure is a dead-weight tester and is very often used to calibrate Bourdon
gauges. It is an absolute measuring device although it can be adapted as a comparison calibration method
as well. It utilises the well-known Pascal’s law for its operation. A schematic arrangement is shown in Fig.
4.9. The hand-operated piston (2) is fully drawn out and oil is allowed in the system from the reservoir
through the needle valve (1). This valve is then closed and the gauge is connected by a suitable adapter. A
suitable weight is placed over the measuring piston (1) and the handle is turned to press in the piston (2).
The gauge tube will be first filled with oil and then pressure will develop in the hydraulic system of the
tester. The piston (1) will be just lifted for the balancing of the weight. This is then kept revolving by hand
for minimizing friction. The gauge would indicate pressure w/a, if w is the counter weight and a is the area
of the leg supporting the piston (1) as shown in Fig. 4.9. For a higher pressure, piston (1) will be raised to
the maximum height possible where it gets stuck. Needle valve (2) may be used to lock the pressure in the
gauge.
Gauge
Needle valve (1) w

Reservoir
Measuring
piston (1) to
hold weight
a
Oil
Needle valve (2)
Piston (2)
hand operated
Handle to apply
pressure
Fig. 4.9 The dead weight tester
The pressure is normally calculated by dividing w by the piston area. As the clearance between the
cylinder and piston is assumed to be very small, an axial fluid flow from high to low pressure regions might
occur giving rise to a viscous shear force which tends to support the dead weight partly, thereby, increasing
the area of support. The effective area is generally taken as the average of the piston and the cylinder area.
Corrections are also necessary for temperature effect on piston and cylinder areas, buoyancy effects of air
on weights and piston and of oil on piston, effect of gravity at site and difference of heights between the
lower end of the piston and the test gauge reference point. The lowest measurable pressure in common
dead-weight testers is the tare due to piston weight per unit area and not zero. This is countered in a design
called the tilted piston type in which the cylinder-piston assembly can be tilted from vertical position to any
angle which is accurately measurable as well, so that over this angular position the pressure is adjustable
from 0 kg/m2 to the tare pressure. Such a design, however, is more common with gaseous medium specially
nitrogen up to a range of 40 kg/m2.
Usually pressure gauges are calibrated against dead-weight testers. A more convenient standard is now
available that uses a combination of piston assembly with a magnetic null-balance scale. The pressure
medium, gas or liquid, with due regulation is allowed to enter at one end of the cylinder in which is housed
the rotating piston; the piston is supported at the other end by the weighing platform of the scale which
measures the force due to the pressure. The scale is usually provided with a digital read out device. The
piston-cylinder assembly is replaceable to suit the range which is generally extendable up to 80 kg/cm2.
The instrument is required to be periodically standardised against a set of precision masses. This is easily
done because the scale is provided with a auto-tare feature. The resolution of such an instrument is about
± 0.02 ¥ 10–4 kg/cm2 and is limited by the digital display least count.
4.3.2 Diaphragm Elements

Diaphragm elements are used for comparatively low pressure measurements. They are either metallic with
good spring characteristics or non-metallic with no elastic characteristics—the latter, being limp in use,
are usually opposed by a calibrated coil spring or any other suitable elastic member. The latter type is also
known as slack diaphragms.
The force that acts against a thin stretched diaphragm causes a deflection of the diaphragm with its centre
deflecting the most. But, for working the member within the elastic limits the deflection at the centre should
be restricted to less than 1/3 of its thickness. The relation between the pressure differential p1 – p2 and the
normalized deflection d/t is given by
p1 – p2 = 256Et4(r + 0.488r3)/(3D4(1 – m2)) (4.9)
where E and m are the elastic modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material, t is the thickness of the diaphragm
of diameter D and r is the ratio d/t. For a linear relationship one must make 0.488 r3 << r. Deflection
d is actually the deflection at the centre of the diaphragm. To pointer
In fact, the actual relation has some more higher order mechanism
Leaf spring
terms, becoming a scries form relation, mainly because of
the existence of tension alongwith the bending. The action
stiffens the element and changes the sensitivity as also the
linearity. Figure 4.10 shows the schematic arrangement of a
diaphragm gauge. The sensitivity can, however, be increased
by cascading several diaphragm capsules as shown in
Fig. 4.11(a). A capsule is formed by joining two diaphragm
capsules, at the periphery. An inlet line is provided usually
at the central position. With the pressure p1 applied to a
capsule assembly as shown in Fig. 4.11(b), the deflection d
of the instrument will be the sum of the individual capsule p1
deflections. Instead of straight diaphragms, corrugated
Fig. 4.10 The schematic arrangement of a
diaphragms are also used for making a capsule as shown in diaphragm gauge
Fig. 4.1l(c).
Pivot
Capsule
Capsule
p1
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.11 (a) Method of increasing sensitivity of diaphragm gauge, (b) the action of the capsule,
(c) corrugated diaphragm shells
Corrugation increases strength of the member and gives linear deflection. Number and depth of
corrugation, number of capsules, capsule diameter, shell thickness and material characteristic will determine
the total amount of deflection d for a given pressure differential p1 – p2. Empirically, for N number of
capsules, d is given by
d = kN(p1 – p2)Dntm (4.10)
In most practical cases n = 4 and m = –3/2. Thus doubling the diameter, deflection increases sixteen
folds. The term k is a constant of the shell material and design, being inversely proportional to E and a
function of the corrugation number and depth.
Slack diaphragms are used for still lower pressure measurement. The materials used arc goldbeaters’ skin,
animal membrane, impregnated silk cloths, silk and synthetic materials like teflon, neoprene, polythene, etc.
As already mentioned external springs must be used with these diaphragms for calibration and precision
operation. The range of such an instrument may vary from 50 Pa to 0.1 MPa. One such instrument is the
draft gauge. Draft gauges arc used in the boilers for indication of the boiler draft. Both combustion and flue
are controlled by appropriate draft. The schematic arrangement of a draft gauge is shown in Fig. 4.12. With
the draft, usually of pressure less than the atmosphere, connected, the power diaphragm moves to the left
and its motion is transmitted through the sealing diaphragm, sealed link and pointer drive to the pointer.
The power diaphragm is balanced against a calibrated leaf spring. The range adjusting screw determines
the effective length of the spring and thereby the range. By adjusting the zero adjustment screw, the right
hand end of the power diaphragm support link as also the free end of the leaf spring, is adjusted for zero
adjustment through the cradle as shown. The instrument is required to be calibrated at site. Materials for the
metal diaphragms are the same as those used for Bourdon tube.
Pointer
Link Range
++
SD
CS
leff
Spring
DL
Cradle
PD
Atmos
+
Draft
Zero
Fig. 4.12 Sketch of the draft gauge CS calibrated spring, PD power diaphragm,
DL drive and support link for PD, SD sealing diaphragm
4.3.3 Bellows Elements

The bellows element can be considered to be made of cascaded capsules as shown in Fig. 4.1l(a). In fact,
one method of manufacturing the bellows element is by fastening together several individual diaphragms.
The bellows element, basically, is a one piece expansible, collapsible and axially flexible member.
It consists of several convolutions or folds. It may be made from a continuous piece of thin metal. The
generally accepted methods of manufacturing bellows elements are: (i) by turning from a solid stock of
metal, (ii) by soldering or welding stamped annular rings, (iii) rolling a tubing, and (iv) by hydraulically
forming a drawn tubing.
The compound action of bending and tension operates the elastic members in general. But it is desired
that the tension be smaller and, in fact, negligible. The design involves the considerations given earlier to a
diaphragm design. Characteristics of bellows elements are easily obtained from the manufacturers’ data. It
is normally specified by (i) maximum stroke, and (ii) maximum allowable pressure. By increasing the folds
or convolutions the stroke length can be increased and by increasing the diameter the force obtained can be
increased. By increasing diameter D, the deflection can be increased as has already been mentioned. This
is all the more necessary for low pressure. The allowable stroke length is only within 10 per cent of the
maximum stroke for the clement to work within clastic limit with repeated operation.
The general criteria for choosing a specific material for an elastic member, specifically bellows
element, are: (i) range of pressure, (ii) hysteresis, (iii) fatigue on dynamic operation, (iv) corrosion, and
(v) fabrication ease. For good strength of the element, carbon steel is selected. For improved hysteresis
properties the choice lies between trumpet brass, phosphor bronze, silicon bronze, etc. Beryllium copper
gives better dynamic performance. Stainless steel is resistive to corrosion and for easy fabrication soft
materials are sought after. Brass is an alloy mainly of Cu and Zn. If Zn is replaced by Sn, it becomes
bronze. Beryllium when added to copper alloys gives rise to spring material of very high calibre but is often
too costly for general purposes. Carbon steel is easily corroded and is difficult to machine. Stainless steel is
not very good as elastic material but is sometimes preferred for its anti-corrosive properties.
In general, bellows elements are used with separate calibrating springs. The springs are positioned in two
different ways—in compression or in expansion when in use. Both these types, with internal compression
springs or external tension springs, are commercially known as receiver elements and are used universally
in pneumatic control loops. Figures 4.13(a) and (b) show the schematic arrangements of these two
types. In the control pressure range of 0.2 to 1 kg/cm2 spring-opposed bellows elements arc extensively
To pointer
d Zero adjuster
(Compress)
bellows
Spring
p1
p1
(a) (b)
Spring
(tension)
p1
(c)
Fig. 4.13 Bellows element gauge: (a) compressed type, (b) expanded type,
(c) arrangement with opposing spring element
used. Considering Fig. 4.13(a), the deflection d of the rod transmitting the bellows element motion is
obviously given by
d = p1ae /(kb + ks) (4.10)
where ae is the effective area of the bellows element, kb
is the force constant of the bellows element and ks is the
spring rate of the opposing spring. Bellows element may be
opposed by bellows element as well. Figure 4.13(c) shows
an arrangement where both a bellows element and a spring p1 deff
opposition are used. The open side of a bellows element is
usually rigidly held to the instrument casing and because of
this rigid fixing, the effective or active length of the bellows
element is smaller than its actual length. For n convolutions
of a bellows element, (n – 1) of them are only active as is
leff
shown in Fig. 4.14. Manufacturers provide tables and
data for designing the bellows element pressure gauges. A
Fig. 4.14 Effective length of a bellows
typical data set would be (i) outer diameter O.D., (ii) inner element
diameter I.D., (iii) approximate length per convolution, l1,
(iv) maximum stroke length per convolution, i.e., allowable value, l2, (v) maximum allowable pressure, pm,
(vi) number of convolutions, n, (vii) spring rate per convolution, ks, and (viii) maximum stroke length per
l2
conv. per unit pressure, l3. From the above data set it is easy to find pressure range as p = < pm, which
l3
when used in Eq. (4.10) obtains the deflection limit
d £ {(l2/l3)ae}/(kb + ks) (4.11)
The value of ae is generally known from the force-pressure constants elaborated later in this section.
If complete data are not available, it is customary to assume ae = 0.5 Amax = 0.5 p (O.D.)2/4. By choosing
similar bellows elements, it is simple to solve Eq. (4.11) for fixing up the range as also scale length with
required magnifications. Check is provided only at the initial stages.
Another important consideration is the life of the bellows element, particularly because of its dynamic
operation. Nomograms are available with the manufacturers, wherefrom the life in cycles can be read
directly knowing the per cent maximum pressure and per cent maximum stroke.
As already discussed, elastic sensors suffer from certain constraints. Two major drawbacks are:
(i) hysteresis, and (ii) sensitivity to fluctuating pressures. The former is reduced by adopting a proper
manufacturing technique. For example, a diaphragm when machined from a solid stock shows less
hysteresis compared to the one produced by stamping. Similar techniques could be followed for the bellows.
In the latter case, the dynamic nature of the variable is likely to induce resonance quickly depending on the
natural frequency of the system. The natural frequency is calculable from the dimensions of the system and
the gauge. For example, for a flat diaphragm this is given by
fo = k [g(p1 – p2)/(wstd)]1/2 (4.12)
where k is a constant dependent on units of selection, ws is the specific weight of the diaphragm and g is the
acceleration due to gravity. Naturally for the pressure range (p1 – p2), the fluctuating rate around fo is to be
avoided.
As has already been indicated that corrosive medium requires special precaution in terms of choice of
elastic material for the sensors. But there are other factors which suggest that the medium should not come
in direct contact with the measuring element. The factors are briefly stated as: (i) the direct impact of static
head on the measuring element may produce error in response, (ii) direct touch of the medium may cause
corrosion, high viscosity fluids may cause response error and entrained materials in the medium may clog
in the element, (iii) in some critical processes in food-processing and pharmaceutical industries, cleaning
of the measuring system is necessitated, and (iv) removal of the measuring element for servicing should
be convenient, etc. All these connote that a sort of seal should be there between the process fluid and the
measuring element. A diaphragm seal is what is mostly used. It is often known as the chemical seal. It uses
a flexible diaphragm made of corrosion resistance material and sealed within a chamber or ‘body’ that can
connect the process on one side and the measuring element on the other. Depending on the conditions,
different materials for the diaphragm may be used. On the measuring element side a filling fluid is generally
used for easy pressure transmission. Such a fluid should have (i) low viscosity and good chemical stability
at the operating temperature range, and (ii) low thermal expansion coefficient. Liquids like silicone oil,
mercury, special mineral oils etc. are used in different temperature ranges. Glycerine in water is a very good
seal liquid and is frequently used. Diaphragm seal unit may have threaded connection, flange connection or
other special suitable connection facility. Complete filling of seal fluid is essential and is ensured by proper
filling technique.
The effective area of an elastic element like diaphragm or bellows element is generally less than the
geometrical area. For finding out the effective area, a known load change is made externally on the centre
of the element and the corresponding deflection noted. For the same deflection the differential pressure is
then found out. The effective area will be given by the relation
Fc = Aeff Pc (4.13)
where Fc is the load change and Pc is the differential pressure. If the deflection is of unit value then Fc and
Pc are known as force and pressure constants respectively.
4.4 BELL GAUGES

The bell gauge is another kind of differential pressure meter used to measure a differential pressure between
0.06 Pa and 4 KPa. The static pressure may be as high as 4 to 6 MPa. The schematic arrangement of a
single element bell gauge is shown in Fig. 4.15(a). The movement of the bell is taken out by link and lever
mechanism or by some electrical methods. When the bell moves maximum up or down it closes the inlets
p2 Balance
l beam
Air tight l
shaft
d
Bell
W f
Sealing
liquid
Sealing
liquid
p1 p2 p1
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.15 (a) Single element bell-gauge (b) two-element balance bell-gauge
of pressures p2 or p1 whereby protection to overrange and reversal of pressure are afforded. The two element
bell differential gauge or balance is shown in Fig. 4.15(b). Two identical light bells are suspended from the
two knife edges of a balance beam. The differential pressure is balanced statically by the movement of the
counter weight w. For a small deflection the balance equation is written as
p1 – p2 = wd sin f/(la) (4.14)
where d is the vertical distance of the counter weight from the fulcrum and a is the cross-sectional area of
the bells.
4.5 ELECTRICAL TYPES

The electrical pressure transducers can be inductive, resistive and capacitive type. The inductive type
consists of an LVDT where core is positioned by the pressure through a diaphragm or a bellows element as
shown in Fig. 4.16(a). The technique can.be extended to develop a null-balance type instrument as shown in
Fig. 4.16(b). Feedback via the force coil, FC, produces the desired balance while the output is being derived
across a standard resistor R and is of value K (pl – p2), K being a constant.
eo
p2
p1
(a)
FC
N
R
ADF e = K (p1 – p2)
p2
p1
(b)
Fig. 4.16 (a) LVDT-elastic element pressure gauge, (b) system extended
to null-balance form of measurement
A high accuracy stable pressure transducer often recommended as calibration standard for gas pressure
and density, is obtained by making a thin walled cylinder oscillate continuously in one of its vibration
modes—specifically circumferential mode (the other important mode being the longitudinal one) using
limit cycle feedback system. Any change in the pressure causes change in the oscillation frequency and
the reluctance type pick-up cum drive system provides an output signal which is processed and displayed
by electronic means. Provision for temperature compensation is also made where a solid state temperature
sensor picks up temperature change and a microprocessor system makes the relevant compensation.
Commercial transducers of this variety are known to have an accuracy of 0.01 per cent full scale reading.
In the resistive transducers the pressure operates the primary sensors as in a Bourdon tube, a diaphragm
or a bellows element or even the liquid column in a manometer. The mechanical movement of this primary
sensors is then converted into electrical signals by resistance variations as shown in Figs 4.17(a) to (d).
Resistances may be between 2 K ohm and 40 K ohm, and current ranges from 3 to 10 mA. The pressure
range is from 0 to 35 kg/cm2. Figure 4.17(d) shows a contact type gauge where with increasing pressure
more and more resistances are shorted and the resistance R is decreased. A current meter will directly
indicate the pressure. The modification of this system is shown in Fig. 4.18 where a resistance ratio element
is used. Long resistance wires are introduced into two manometer legs containing a conducting fluid. The
unbalance current in galvanometer directly indicates the pressure difference (p1 – p2).
Bourdon p1
Resistance
Diaphragm
eo
ei
Resist
e o ei
(a) (b)
p1 p2 p1
Bellows
Resistance
R
ei
eo
Hg
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.17 Different types of electrical pressure transducers: (a), (b) and (c), elastic-element to resistance
pressure gauge, (d) liquid contact type resistance pressure gauge
G p1 p2
R3 R1
R2 R4
Fig. 4.18 Resistance ratio element gauge
Resistance strain gauges are also used as secondary element in pressure measurement. They may be
conveniently used in conjunction with bellows elements and diaphragms. Figures 4.19(a), (b), show the
scheme of a differential pressure measurement. Figure 4.19(a) shows an arrangement in which strain gauges
are mounted on a cantilever spring which is operated by a pair of opposing bellows elements. The cantilever
is properly chosen in dimension for compensation in the change in the Young’s modulus due to temperature
changes. Figure 4.19(b) shows a system with a flat diaphragm. Generally 4 gauges are mounted as shown
and the gauges are connected in a bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 4.19(c). Radial and tangential stresses
are developed in the diaphragm gauges complicating the measurement of true pressure. The approximate
formulae for the tangential and radial stresses at any distance x from the centre is given by
St = 3pR2m/(32t2)[(1/m + 1) – (1/m + 3) (2x/R)2] (4.15a)
and
Sr = 3pR2m/(32t2)[(1/m + 1) – (3/m + 1) (2x/R)2] (4.15b)
where t = diaphragm thickness and p is the differential pressure. Deflection at the middle is given by the
same relation (4.9). However, the diaphragm is stressed biaxially so that both tangential and radial stresses
contribute to tangential and radial strains to yield
et = (St – mSr)/E (4.16a)
and
er = (Sr – mSt)/E (4.16b)
With these et and er, change in gauge resistances is obtained from the gauge factors and the output
voltage obtained from the bridge sensitivity as is done in Chapter 2.
In recent years miniaturisation is effected where the discrete gauges are replaced by a rosette which
is available in various sizes. The rosettes may be configured such that the radial strains at the edge of the
diaphragm and tangential strain near the centre are easily picked up while the solder points/tabs are located
in a low-strain region. With such a design diameter R may be made quite small facilitating diaphragm
construction by direct machining.
Unbounded strain gauges can also be adopted for measuring strain and in consequence pressure with a
diaphragm. A simple scheme of such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.19(d). Empirical calibration for all
the above cases are always preferred.
When a wire is subjected to pressure from all sides its electrical resistance changes. This principle can be
utilized to obtain a primary type resistive pressure sensor and is often known as a Bridgman type transducer.
This change in resistance occurs due to the distortion produced in the crystal lattice when subjected to
external pressure. In most common metal wires, the resistance decreases with increase in pressure, while
for antimony, bismuth, lithium, manganin and a few others, it increases. In cesium, it initially decreases
for small values of pressure changes and reaches a minimum, beyond which it increases with increase of
pressure as shown in Fig. 4.20(a). The approximate relation for small pressure change Dp is given by the
linear equation
Rp = Ro (1 + b Dp) (4.17)
p1 p2
Bellows Bellows
Strain gauges
(a)
R
(tangential)
Tension
r1
Stress
(G 2, 4)
O
Compr.
p1
(i) (iii)
Tension
(radial)
Stress
2
1 2r1 3
4 (G 1, 3)
O
Compr.
R R
(ii) (iv)
(b)
(Contd)
Spring
2 3
1 4
p1
(c) (d)
Fig. 4.19 Different types of pressure gauges using strain gauges: (a) differential strain gauge type, (b) pressure
measurement with strain gauges on diaphragm element (i) side view, (ii) top view, (iii) tangential stresses measured
by gauges 2 and 4, (iv) radial stress measured by gauges 1 and 3, (c) connection distribution of the strain gauges on
the diaphragm, (d) measurement of pressure with unbonded strain gauges.
W
100
R=
Ro
Sb, Bi
(1) Mn, Li
(2)
Cs
(3)
DR Bone ring
(closed or open)
Dp Manganin 30 W/in
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.20 (a) Piezoresistance effect in different materials, (b) construction of Bridgeman gauge
where R0 is the resistance at standard atmospheric condition and b is the pressure coefficient of resistance
and is quite large for alkali metals, antimony and bismuth. But these metals are not very convenient as
far as practical realization of a bridgman gauge is concerned. The coefficient is as such independent of
temperature but the temperature coefficient of resistance alters the resistance and hence this gauge must be
used at a constant temperature. It has a range from 0 to 1000 MPa but usable only at high pressures, as, at
low values of pressure the change in resistance value is very small because of the small value of b.
The constructional feature of a Bridgeman gauge has improved since it was first proposed. The one
shown in Fig. 4.20(b) shows the basic principle. A bone ring of about 1 cm diameter and 0.5 cm thickness
is wound with a 38 gauge insulated manganin wire having a b = + 23 ¥ 10–7 cm2/kg so that the total
resistance of the wire is 100 ohm. The winding is generally bifilar for avoiding inductive effect. Carbon can
also be used for pressure measurement in the form of granules or discs. With pressure, its resistance also
changes, but nonlinearly and it is not very suitable for a linear scale measurement but is more often used in
push-pull connection for pressure control. A schematic arrangement of the system is shown in Fig. 4.21.
A primary type capacitance pressure gauge is based on

the fact that dielectric constants of liquids, solids and gases
change under pressure. Figure 4.22(a) shows an arrangement
Carbon
of a cylindrical capacitor that can withstand large pressure. disc
As the change in the dielectric constant is quite small—only stacks
about 1/2 per cent change for a pressure change of about 10
MPa—it is usable only at large change in pressure. Besides,
the guiding equation of this change is the Clausius-Mosotti Bellows
equation showing that the capacitance—pressure relation is
p1
nonlinear one and is affected by temperature variation. The
measurement of this capacitance is done by a resonance Fig. 4.21 Carbon resistance pressure gauge
circuit a scheme of which is shown in Fig. 4.22(a). The
oscillogram giving the variation of the output voltage with capacitance is shown in Fig. 4.22(b).
Electron
coupled
C2 C1 oscillator
CRO
Amp. + Det. L2 L1
C3
(a)
Output (volts) (diode)
n
gio
r re
ea
Lin
C3
(b)
Fig. 4.22 (a) Pressure measurement by change in dielectric constant using resonance circuit, (b) oscillogram
showing output voltage versus value of capacitance
Piezoelectric crystals are used to measure transient pressures from very low to very large value, from
3 KPa to about 700 MPa. When a tourmaline crystal is exposed to pressure from all sides it shows a
sensitivity of about 1.5 ¥ 10–9 coulomb/MPa. Such crystals

are used in the disc form in stacks as shown in Fig. 4.23. The + +
Steel plate
disc diameter is generally within 1.2 cm or smaller to avoid as holder
distortion of the pressure field. This method is also affected + +
by temperature fluctuations. But for transient measurements,
this change is not very harmful. Moreover, thermal insulation Fig. 4.23 Pressure measurement using
is always given to the transducer. piezoelectric effect
The other type of capacitive pressure transducer consists
effectively of a pair of parallel plates with the middle plate moving with pressure and producing a
differential capacitor system. Figure 4.24 shows a gauge of this type. Spherical depression of the glass plate
is less than 0.0025 cm. When a pressure differential exists, the thin steel diaphragm moves towards the
low pressure side and the output voltage eo measured as the difference of voltage e1 and e2 across the two
capacitors formed with this movable plate is approximately given by
Gold coated Glass discs
p1 p2
e1
R
Steel diaphragm
eo
e2
Fig. 4.24 Capacitive type pressure gauge
eo = e1 ~ e2 = Ex/d (4.18)
where x is the displacement of the diaphragm and d is its diameter. Capacitive transducers of the above type
are now frequently used in pressure transmitter. In a subsequent section of this chapter a little elaboration of
the same is made in appropriate context.
Optical type secondary pressure sensing is receiving considerable attention in recent years where the
movement of a diaphragm, a bellows element or such other primary sensors are detected by optical means.
The principle is nothing new but the technique of adaptation in commercialization is varied in nature. A
typical case with a diaphragm and a vane attached to it that covers and uncovers an irradiated photodiode
with changing pressure is shown in Fig. 4.25. The associated circuit diagram shows that if any instant
uncovered area of the measuring photodiode is Am and that of the reference one is Ar, with other notations
shown in the figure, the ratiometric output would be
Vf /VR = g (Am/Ar – a) (4.19)
– VR
+
r RSD
L P1 r
V
r
P2 +
– r
Vf
r
VM
Fig. 4.25 Optical type secondary pressure sensor with associated circuit (L: LED, V: vane, P1: Ref. photodiode, P2:
Meas. photodiode, RSD: ratiometric system with digital display)
where g = span adjusted and a = zero adjustment coefficient. Calibration may be made directly in pressure.
The ratiometric technique is often preferred for avoiding drift error in electronic components as they are
likely to be equally affected and cancelled. The vane movement or the diaphragm movement is kept small
for negligible hysteresis and good precision. Diode signals have nonlinearities which also vary from unit
to unit. The nonlinearities are often linearized using look up table in programmable read only memories
during A/D conversion process. The range may be adjusted from 0 to 400 MPa with an accuracy of 0.1
per cent span. Temperature, though compensated, affects measurement to a certain extent which in zero
scale may be compensated by auto-zeroing facility, in other ranges up to 100ºC it is about ± 7.5 ¥ 10–3
per cent/ºC.
The system is often adopted as a null detecting one in a force balance type pressure measurement where
the servosystem brings the sensor to the zero balance point and hence no linearization is needed.
Piezoelectric crystal is a good transducer that can measure in the same way a force or an acceleration
is measured. For low pressures, possible vibration of the mount should be compensated for. The pressure
measuring quartz disc stack faces the pressure through a diaphragm and on the other side of this stack the
compensating mass followed by a compensating quartz disc are arranged. The probe is provided with an
integral microelectronic amplifier to have a full scale output of 10 V at a pressure of 4.5 MPa.
Fibre optic pressure measuring system is gradually becoming popular because of its versatility in
application fields. Its adaptability in biomedical area has also been confirmed in which case it can be used
to monitor pressure in the human circulatory system. The basic principle of such a system is shown in
Fig. 4.26. There are two optical fibre bundles called guides—input and output—arranged as shown with
the end view giving the proper perspective. Chopped light from source is focusscd on to input guide which
on emergence is reflected from a flexible membrane. The membrane may be made of aluminized plastic
formed as a film. With pressures pl and p2 equal, the position of the membrane with respect to the input
guide is so kept that 50 per cent of the reflected light falls on the surrounding annular output guide. With
p2 > p1, the membrane becomes convex towards the guides and more light falls on the output guide, while with
pl > p2, the reverse occurs. A detector set at the other end of the output guide correspondingly receives
varied amount of light with changing pressure. The detector can be straightaway calibrated for pressure.
S
C OT
p1 p2
IG
IG
OG
M
OG
D
Fig. 4.26 Fibre-optic type pressure measurement system (S: source, C: chopper,
D: detector, M: membrane, OT: outer tube, IG: input guide, OG: output guide)
A surface acoustic wave (SAW) delay line consisting of two interdigital transducers (IDT) when
stretched along the propagation direction or bent as a cantilever beam, its substrate becomes stressed
causing an elongation of the substrate, in turn, causing an increase in the centre-to-centre distance between
the two IDT’s. High stress also changes the material and its elastic constants causing the velocity vs of the
surface acoustic wave to change. This change can also be brought about by change in temperature, pressure,
force and the delay line can thus be used as sensors for temperature, pressure, force, displacement etc.
One method of using the delay line as a practical sensor is to introduce it in the feedback path of an
amplifier to obtain an oscillator with its frequency as a function of the stress. The scheme is shown in Fig.
4.27 in which the total phase shift is
Sf = fo ± Dfo + fa (4.20)
fa
IDT
MC AA
Vs
fo
l
BCL PL BCL
Fig. 4.27 Surface acoustic wave sensor (MC: matching coil, AA: acoustic absorber,
BCL: bidirection and conversion loss, PL: propagation loss)
with fa being the phase shift introduced by the amplifier and matching network.
f0 = wt =2pf l/vs (4.21)
is the phase shift between the two IDT’s l distance apart between which the wave travels. The quantity
± Dfo represents the incremental phase shift due to the stress in the substrate because of pressure etc.
change. Usually fo >> fa. When Sf = 2np, n being any integer, and the total insertion loss in the loop
is less than the amplifier gain A, the system would oscillate generating a number of frequencies given
approximately by nvs/l. However, an IDT has an inherent response characterised by sin x/x and hence only a
few modes are sustained. In fact only one mode is sustained at a time because of nonlinearities in the amplifier.
Any change in the value of Dfo alters the frequency compensating for this change by adjusting Sf to be a
multiple of 2p. If fa is constant, f will change when l or vs change. Change in vs is only a small factor when
surface strain causes elongation in l and hence frequency change can be function of strain or stress.
As is the case of most of the materials, temperature affects the performance by changing the property
of the material. However, every quartz crystal cut appropriately has a ‘turnover’ temperature at which the
effect of temperature is minimum. Also, if surface wave is made to propagate on both faces of the substrate
using two pairs of IDT’s, the sensitivity increases and effect of temperature is reduced.
A pressure sensor is developed based on the resonator configuration using SAW devices and is shown in
Fig. 4.28(a) where the resonator is located in the middle of a diaphragm and pressure applied on the opposite
face. The decreasing change in frequency is seen to be linear with pressure as shown in Fig. 4.28(b).
PB
Decrease in f (kHz)
F S 4
SR
3
p Q 2
OR 0 10 20 30
p (cm Hg)
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.28 (a) Resonator con iguration pressure sensor, (b) frequency-pressure characteristics
(PB: phenolic base, S: sleeve, SR: saw resonator, Q: quartz substrate diaphragm, F: lange, OR: O-ring)
Table 4.1 shows a brief comparative chart of the types of pressure tansducers commonly used. Vacuum
gauges to be discussed later are not included in this chart.
4.6 VACUUM MEASUREMENT
For measurement of pressure below atmosphere or vacuum, different gauges are available. Manometers and
bellows element gauges can go up to 0.1 Torr. Diaphragm gauges are usable up to a pressure of 10–3 Torr.
For pressure below this value, electrical gauges like Pirani or ionization gauges are used. McLeod gauge is
a standard manometric type gauge and is usable down to 10–4 Torr. Vacuum measurement is thus broadly
classified into mechanical and electrical types.
4.6.1 Mechanical Type

The standard vacuum gauge in a certain range is the McLeod gauge and uses the manometric principle as
already mentioned. By using the pressure dividing technique its range can be extended from a value of
10–4 Torr. This technique is also called the multiple compression technique a scheme of which is shown in
Fig. 4.29. It is based on Knudsen’s laws of flow. There are two large bulbs 1 and 2 connected with the
McLeod and Test gauges through capillary tubings. If the pressure on the r.h.s. of the test gauge is very
small and the capillary connection between T and bulb 2 very long, then the flow law is written as
vdp2/dt = K (p1 – p2) (4.22)
Table 4.1 Comparison of pressure sensors

Types Range Accuracy % Resol./ Sensit- Freq. range Temp, range Linearity
FS ivity (Hz) °C
Liquid column Up to 0.2 0.01 to 0.1 Down to 4.0 ¥ 1 to 2 –20 to 100°C Linear
manometer MPa l0–4 MPa
Ring balance –do– 0.2 to 0.5 ª10–3 MPa 0.1 to 1.0 –20 to 350°C Nonlinear
Elastic element 2 to 700 0.25 to 0.5 ª10–3 MPa or 1 to 100 –20 to 100ºC Approx.
MPa 0.01% FS Linear
Bell Gauges 0.06 to 4 0.25 ª 10-3 KPa 1 to 5 –20 to 100°C Nonlinear
KPa
Strain-gauge on 0 to 200 0.1 to 0.2 KPa order Up to 2000 –20 to 125°C Linear
diaphragm MPa
LVDT/reluctance 0 to70 0.5 –do– Up to 400 –20 to 100°C Linear
MPa
Capcitance 0 to 10 0.1 –do– Up to 3000 or –10 to 300°C Not strictly
MPa more linear
Piezoelectric 0 to 70 0.5 to 1.0 -do- Up to 105 –30 to 400°C Made linear
MPa
Optical 0 to 70 0.1 -do- Up to 2000 –20 to 100°C Made linear
MPa
McLeod Test
M 1 T 2
Capillary v
Fig. 4.29 Technique of applying Knudsen’s laws of low for vacuum range extension
where v is the volume of bulb 2, K is the flow conductance in the capillary and dp2/dt is the pressure
gradient in time between the two elements. As p2 is negligibly small compared to p1 the flow rate is
practically constant and is proportional to the pressure. This forms the basis of the calibration.
The McLeod gauge has many variations. The basic type is shown in Fig. 4.30(a). The gauge is used to
compress a small quantity of low pressure gas to produce a readable large pressure. Bulb B of the gauge
is attached to capillary aa¢. The mercury level in the gauge is lowered up to l1 by lowering the reservoir,
thereby allowing a little process fluid at pressure p to enter B. By raising the reservoir, the gas is now
compressed in the capillary aa¢ till mercury rises to the zero mark in the side tube and capillary bb¢. The
capillary bb¢ is required to avoid any error due to capillarity. If the area of the capillary tube is ac pressure
of the gas in the capillary aa¢ is pc and density of mercury, the manometric fluid, is rm, then one easily
derives by pressure balance equation
p = [rmach2/(v1 – ach)] (4.23)

which for v1 >> ac h, as is usually the case, becomes
p = Ah2 (4.24)
where A = rm ac /n1. Typical values of gauge parameters are as follows: v1 = 200 cm3,
ac = 0.02 and h cm2
= 10 cm.
The McLeod gauge is independent of gas composition. If, however, the gas contains condensable
material and during compression it condenses, the reading of the gauge is faulty. The gauge is not capable
of continuous reading and the scale is of square law type. For linearizing the scale at comparatively higher
pressures, a second volume is introduced as shown in Fig. 4.30(b) where the scale shown is linear. The
formula for the higher pressures in terms of the linear scale reading is given approximately by
p = v2h/v1 (4.25)
Vac
p
0 a¢ b¢ Vac
h
Sq. law Linear
hm a b
v1
B v2
v1
Seal hp
Reservoir
l1
Reservoir
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.30 (a) The basic McLeod gauge, (b) McLeod gauge for linear scale
A bellows type vacuum gauge is shown in Fig. 4.31. It consists of a sealed bellows element. The motion
of the bellows element is transferred through sealing bellows. It can read pressures up to 6 Torr.
4.6.2 Electrical Types

In this category mainly the thermal, ionization and radiation gauges are included. As the output is in the
form of an electrical quantity or directly related to it, these are so categorized.
Thermal Types At normal pressure the heat conductivity of gases is independent of its pressure but as
pressure decreases to about 10 Torr and below, heat conductivity starts falling. This is because the number
of gas molecules in a specific volume is now smaller and there is less collision amongst them and with
the wall. It is this collision that is responsible for carrying the energy to the walls of the container. Thus
as pressure falls, less and less number of molecules Evacuated bellows

are available to carry the heat away from the source.
At normal pressure, the conductivity is given by the
relation Pressure
2 sealed
Ec = 4.186c (dT/dx) W/cm (4.26)
where Ec is the energy loss due to conduction in the
gas, c is the thermal conductivity in cal/cm/s per unit
temperature gradient.
At low pressures, the heat loss that occurs from a Brass seal
hot wire mounted in a glass or metal tube is due to: (i) bellows
convection which usually is negligible, (ii) conduction
through the lead wires, (iii) radiation given by the
Vac
relation
ER = 5.67 ¥ l0–12(e1T14 – e0T04 ) W/cm2 (4.27) Fig. 4.31 Bellows element type vacuum gauge
where ej is the radiant emissivity at temperature Tj, and
(iv) conduction in the gas. At pressure below 1 Torr, i.e., when the mean free path l is larger than the
distance between the wire and the wall, the loss due to conduction in the gas is given by the relation
Ek = (4/3)(a/(2 – a))cmPm(273.2/T0)1/2 (T1 – T0) W/cm2 (4.28)
where cm = molecular heat conductivity in W/cm2 at 0°C, Pm = pressure in microns and a = accommodation
coefficient which is the measure of the closeness with which a gas molecule acquires the temperature of the
surface from which it is rebounded. In the ideal condition, a is assumed unity. Both a and e are two surface
conditions which are rarely constant and are, therefore, the principal sources of error. The surface emissivity,
in fact, changes with the use of the gauge. A new clear wire has a low surface emissivity and produces high
temperature at low gas pressure. With use, the surface deteriorates by oxidation, carbonization etc., and the
low pressure range is seriously affected often showing as high an error as 10 to 20 m Torr.
For measurement of pressure by the thermal conductivity method, the losses due to lead conduction and
radiation should be negligibly small. The former depends on construction of the probe, the latter is made
smaller by choosing a low emissivity metal as the wire material. The value of e for tungsten and platinum
when properly treated can be made to be as low as 0.03 at 0°C and 0.1 at 500°C.
Example 4.1 Compare losses due to radiation and conduction in hydrogen used in a thermal conductivity cell
for eo = e1 = 0.05, a = 1, to = 0°C, t1 = 100°C with pressure changing from 12.92 m to 10–2m. Assume c = 41.3 ¥ 10–5
and cm = 45.54 ¥ 10–6 units.
Solution Here To = 273 K and T1 = 373 K, Pm1 = 12.92 and Pm2 = 10–2. Hence, using Eqs (4.27) and (4.28)
(EK/ER)P = 20 and (Ek/ER)P =1/5.
The commonly known thermal conductivity gauges are (i) Pirani gauges, and (ii) thermocouple gauges.
The basic Pirani gauge probe consists of a fine wire of platinum or tungsten of 0.002 cm in diameter
mounted in a tube which is connected to the system whose vacuum is to be measured. The heating cur-
rent is usually between 10 and 100 mA with a temperature range from 70 to 400°C. The Pirani gauge is
connected to the one arm of bridge circuit for measurement purpose as shown in Fig. 4.32(a). There are
three different modes of measurement: (1) Voltage V is maintained constant and the detector shows the
change in the current with change in pressure. The characteristic is shown in Fig. 4.32(b). (2) The current
through the gauge is kept constant and the resistance R2 of the gauge is measured, the relation is shown
graphically in Fig. 4.32(c). (3) By adjusting a potentiometer, the voltage or current to the bridge is adjusted
to maintain the null balance. This change in the supply voltage/current is a measure of the pressure.
Vac
I
R1
R2
R2 p
D
(b)
R2 R4
R5
V
R
Rs
E
(a) p
(c)
Fig. 4.32 The Pirani gauge, (a) bridge circuit with the gauge, (b) l-p characteristic, (c) R-p characteristic
Two similar Pirani gauges can be used in the adjacent arms of the bridge circuit one of which is evacuated
and sealed and used as a reference. This also provides compensation for variation in ambient temperature.
The gauge is composition dependent and requires empirical 7.0
ur
H2
calibration. The calibration curve for different gases are shown in He
po
va
Detector voltage (mv)
Fig. 4.33. The range of the instrument could be extended down er

r
Ai
at
to 10–3 Torr from 1 Torr for commercial purposes.
W
The problem of designing a very sensitive Pirani gauge was Ar

discussed by Ellett and Zabel who listed the following: 3.5
(1) If the probe is used in one arm of the bridge, the design
should be such as to obtain the galvanometer deflection
proportional to pressure;
(2) The sensitivity of the gauge is proportional to the wire
diameter; 0 3.5 7.0
(3) For maximum sensitivity the wire should be as long as p (mm mercury)
possible with the diameter adjusted so that the resistance
Fig. 4.33 Calibration curves for
of the wire is of the same magnitude as that of the
different gases with air as the standard
galvanometer.
Another method with the Pirani gauge using a FET in the detector circuit is shown in Fig. 4.34(a). As pressure
falls, resistance R1 increases, with the gate becoming more negative and showing a less scale reading in the meter
in the drain circuit. For R2 >> R1, current through them is approximately constant. The response curve is shown
in Fig. 4.34(b). The range of this scheme is specified as 10–3 to 10–2 Torr.
The basic principle of a thermocouple gauge is the same as that of a Pirani gauge except that the
temperature of the hot wire is now directly measured by a thermocouple which is attached to the wire as
shown in Fig. 4.35. The temperature is measured by the fine-wire thermocouple for different pressures, the
heating current being initially fixed by the resistance as shown. Murmann has found that the sensitivity of
such an instrument depends on the pressure and the wire current. He obtained a set of temperature versus
pressure curves for different probe currents as shown in Fig. 4.36 and found that the normalized sensitivity
S = (DT/T)/(Dp/p) (4.29)
E3
E2 R2
Scale
Es
R1 E1
0 p
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.34 (a) Circuit arrangement of the Scott gauge, (b) the response curve
Vac
Hot wire
T/C
Fig. 4.35 Scheme of a thermocouple gauge
I3 > I2 > I1
log T (°C)
I3
I2
I1
log p (cm mercury)
Fig. 4.36 Temperature T versus pressure p plots for various currents

is maximum at p = 10–2 Torr for I = 22.3 mA. For lower values of pressure, I is less. Thermocouple gauges
are generally used for comparison purposes. The arrangement in use is shown in Fig. 4.37. Two sets of
thermocouples are introduced to measure temperatures of heater wires in the two chambers and oppose
each other. When pressures are different there is an unbalance which is measured by a potentiometer
circuit. Instead of a single thermocouple per wire, a thermopile is often chosen to increase sensitivity. The
thermocouple gauge is also composition dependent and needs empirical calibration for the high vacuum
range. The curves are shown in Fig. 4.38.
Cal. Res.
–
+
–
+
Reg.
Sup. +
–
+
–
To null det.
Fig. 4.37 Vacuum comparison by thermocouple gauges
0.8
Xe
0.6
Ar
r
Ai
p (mm mercury)
2
H
0.4
0.2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Thermocouple gauge reading (per unit)
Fig. 4.38 Composition dependence of thermocouple gauges
lonization Gauge: Hot Cathode Type When a potential difference V is impressed across a column of gas
with free electron in the space, the electron with a charge e acquires a kinetic energy, Ve. If the gas in the
column has a pressure below a certain value called the critical pressure, then corresponding to a voltage
larger than the critical voltage Vc, the energy Ve may be high enough to initiate ionization, the electrons will
collide with gas molecules to produce positive ions. Among monatomic gases or vapours, Vc is smallest
for cesium being about 3.88 V and largest for helium being 24.58 V. For diatomic gases like N2, H2 etc.
it is roughly about 15 V. This is known as the ionization potential and at this potential the pressure is also
critical.
At low pressures, during the intervals of time for transit from the cathode to the plate in a vacuum
chamber, more than one collision is unlikely for an electron. Then for a fixed accelerating potential V > Vc,
the number of positive ions formed should vary linearly with pressure. Hence a determination of the rate of
production of positive ions for a given electron current should give a measure of the pressure. Thus, if ip is
the positive ion current and ig is the electron current, then sensitivity of the gauge is defined as
S = (1/p)(ip /ig) (4.30)
where p is the gas pressure. Value of S depends on the geometry of the gas tube, nature of the gas and the
operating voltages.
The gauge is generally constructed like a vacuum triode as shown in Fig. 4.39(a). The grid is maintained
at a large positive potential with respect to the cathode and the plate. The plate is at a negative potential
with respect to the cathode. Since the positive ion collector is external to the electron collector grid with
reference to the cathode, this method of arrangement is also known as the external control type ionization
gauge. The positive ions between the grid and the plate will be collected by the plate while those in between
the grid and the cathode will be drawn by the cathode. The other method of connection known as the
internal control type is shown in 4.39(b). Here the grid is the positive ion collector and the plate is the
electron collector.
ip ig
ig Vac Vac
ip
100–250 V
5–50 V
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.39 (a) Circuit arrangement of the ionisation gauge, external control type,
(b) internal control type ionisation gauge
Bayard-Alpert type is the most popular of the hot filament gauges. A helical grid at a potential of
+150 V attracts the electrons which cause gas ionization and the gas ions are attracted to the central ion
collector usually at –30 V. This provides an ion current of about 100 mA/Torr which is amplified and
displayed using electronic system.
The hot cathode ionization gauge measures the total pressure of all the gases present in the system and
response time is negligible because of negligible inertia. It measures pressure within a range of 10–8 to
10–3 Torr with an output current varying from 10–9 to 10–4 A. This, however, depends on the gas, other
things remaining constant. The calibration curves for the gases argon, nitrogen and hydrogen are shown
in Fig. 4.40. The calibration curves for two different types of connections show that the sensitivity of the
external control type is larger than the internal control type while linearity of scale in the internal control
type is over a wider range of pressure than in the other. It is also seen from the curves of Fig. 4.40 that a
gas with higher molecular weight yields a higher ion current

at the same pressure and temperature. There is a relationship, 10–1
though empirical between the sensitivity and number N often
called the ‘net atomic number of the molecule’ which actually
A
2
N
10–2
2
H
is the sum of the atomic numbers of the component atoms
and is given by ip
10–3
S = kN 0.8 (4.31) ig
where k for air is 0.118.

10–4
Where the pressure is higher than 10–3 Torr, the positive
ions make a greater impact on the cathode to heat it up and
ultimately destroy it. At pressures lower than 10–8 Torr, 10–5 –9
10 10–8 10–7 10–6 10–5
electron impact over the grid (in the external control type)
produces soft X-rays which in turn liberate electrons from the p (cm mercury)
plate as secondary emission. This secondary emission current
Fig. 4.40 Calibration curves for three
is of the same order as that of the positive ion current in the
different gases
plate circuit and thus neutralizes this current. The internal
control type is to some extent better from this view point, and at pressures as low as 10–9 Torr it works well.
At high temperature of the cathode, say 3000°C, the gas constituents, sometimes, react with the filament
or with themselves particularly at different pressure stages. This shortens the cathode life and also gives
erroneous results. At high temperatures and low pressures trapped gases, if any, may be released causing the
pressure to increase. This requires proper treatment of the electrodes before use. This is accomplished by
passing a high current through the electrodes, particularly the filament and the grid, and by high frequency
heating of the plate.
Cold Cathode Type To overcome the above problem the cold-cathode gauge has been developed. The cold
cathode gauge due to Philips and Penning is shown in Fig. 4.41(a). It consists of a pair of cathodes with a
hollow anode between them. A potential higher than 2 kV is applied between them. The gauge operates as
the electrons are ejected due to a strong electric field. At low pressures, below 10–2 Torr, the mean free path
of the gas is so large that a collision may not occur at all so that discharge is not sustained or ionization may
not be initiated. The difficulty has been overcome by a collimating magnetic field as shown. This increases
the path length for the electrons, enabling discharges possible at pressures down to about 10–5 Torr. The
relationship between the meter reading and the pressure is not, however, linear due to interaction between
the positive ions and electrons at high electric and magnetic fields. The characteristic curves are shown in
Fig. 4.41(b).
Another vacuum gauge based on the vac-ion technique described by Hall has been devised to measure
vacuum down to 10–9 Torr. The principle of measurement with this method is similar to the Philips cold
cathode ionization gauge, commonly known as PIG. The technique consists of devising rectangular box
fitted inside with electrically insulated crate-form titanium anodes. These electrodes are made very thin and
are mounted to form cells as shown in Fig. 4.41(c). The cathode is another thin titanium or an active metal
plate mounted as shown. The clearance between the crate and the cathode is kept small. A magnetic field
is given across the cell thus formed. The anode is given a positive potential and then each cell works as
a PIG and a large cathode area can initiate discharge even at very low pressures. The order of potential
applied is about 5 kV. The emitted electrons follow helical path along the lines of force and oscillation sets
in. In this process, the electrons gradually move from the cathode to the anode producing both positive and
negative ions. Positive ions immediately drift towards the cathode accounting for the most of the current
in an external circuit. This current, in turn, is approximately proportional to the pressure. For low vacuum,
current may be very large and needs to be limited by external means. Further, the impacts of the positive
ions over the cathode causes sputtering particularly when hydrocarbons are present in the system, thereby
damaging the cathode. The cathodes are, therefore, to be replaced after a stipulated period of operation.
Cathode
mA
Anode
Vac
2.4 kV
Cathode
500 – 1500 Gauss
(a)
800
Anode
.
ap
rV
600
2
,N
te
Wa
Air
2
O
2
H
mA 400
200 He
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Cathode

x 10–6 cm Hg
(b) (c)
Fig. 4.41 (a) Philips-Penning cold cathode gauge, (b) the characteristic curves, (c) the vac-ion technique
Another cold cathode gauge is the radioactive ionization gauge commercially known as alphatron. It uses
a-particles to ionize the gas in the vacuum chamber. The number of ions formed in the chamber is directly
proportional to the gas pressure, if the chamber dimensions are shorter than the range of a-particles. Figure
4.42 shows the schematic arrangement of the alphatron. The ions produced by the a-particles are collected
by the collector electrode and a current between 10–13 and 10–9 A will flow through the resistor R. A high
input impedance output meter is used for measuring the output voltage eo. The range of the instrument is
easily between 103 to 10–3 Torr. As the abovementioned gauges are composition dependent, the transfer
characteristics may be obtained relative to air for different gases and the system can be used as a leak
detector.
Vac
Insulator
Collector electrode
eo
R
a-Source
Fig. 4.42 The schematic arrangement of an alphatron
Knudsen gauge is independent of gas composition, particularly at pressures below 10–4 Torr and is a
suitable device for calibration of vacuum gauges at high vacuum. The gauge is rarely used commercially
because of its difficulty in adaptation commercially. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 4.43. It
consists of a light movable vane suspended by two fibre springs and is provided with a mirror. The absolute
temperature T1 of this vane should be known. Two fixed vanes close to this movable vane but on opposite
sides are kept as shown. They are kept heated by an external supply at a temperature T2 which also should
be known accurately. The gaps between the fixed and movable vanes are less than a mean free path of the
gas molecules. These gas molecules rebound from the heated fixed plates with a large momentum and,
therefore, a net force twists the movable vane against the suspension spring. A lamp and scale arrangement
gives the deflection which is proportional to this twisting force or the gas pressure. The approximate
relation for pressure is given by
p = f/[ K T2 / T1 - 1]
(4.32)
Vac
Movable vane
f
Fixed vanes
Fig. 4.43 The schematic of a Knudsen gauge

It has a range 10–7 and 10–2 Torr. But above 10–4 Torr it tends to be dependent on gas composition. The
spring suspension is very delicate and a sudden turn off from vacuum is not permitted in this gauge. Value
of T2 can be estimated from the heater or can be measured but measurement of Tl presents sufficiently
intricate problem. Litting and Taylor have overcome these difficulties by eliminating the temperature
measurement altogether. They have used the movable and the fixed vanes as capacitors, making the
measurement problem much simpler.
Other Calibrating Types Standard or calibrating gauges for subatmospheric pressure in the range 760
mm to 10–5 Torr are the McLeod or liquid column types. As transfer standards capacitance and quartz
gauges have been developed for the same range. Electronic signal processing techniques have improved
the performance of the capacitance gauges and now a diaphragm deflection as small as 2 ¥ 10–9 cm
can be resolved corresponding to an applied pressure of 10–6 Torr, so that the useful range of such an
instrument can be 10–5 to 1 Torr. Accuracy of such an instrument range from 0.05% at 1 Torr to 2.5% at
10–4 Torr. The system schematic is shown in Fig. 4.44. A supply voltage with a frequency of about 10
kHz excites the capacitance bridge including the differential capacitance sensor. The output of the bridge
is modulated and derived through a buffer amplifier. The supply acts as the carrier. The output passes
through a range selection and a calibration set up, to be amplified and detected. The sensor consists of
a radially stretched high nickel thin metal alloy membrane welded to massive support rings. Station-
ary plates are formed by depositing metal films on ceramic discs and mounted close to the membrane
diaphragm which is allowed to deflect effectively in proportion to the applied pressure. The sensor can
be used in the temperature range up to 400°C. A resolution of 10–5 pF corresponding to a deflection of
10–8 cm for a full scale range of 1 Torr can be obtained in the instrument.
Range
p1
p2 PSD T/D
Cal.
Fig. 4.44 Low pressure capacitance gauge with circuit (PSD: phase sensitive detector, T/D: transmit/display)
Quartz reference vacuum standard gauges utilize, to an extent, the Bourdon tube principle. Two quartz
Bourdon tubes are formed into a helix and when a pressure difference between the two occurs, the set up
rotates. This rotational deflection is optically picked up as shown in Fig. 4.45. Quartz has good spring
characteristics and if the unit is maintained at a constant temperature environment, the angular deflection
per unit pressure is repeatable.
The optical deflection is electronically converted, amplified and with a servo-control system the output
is annulled. The corresponding output is metered by analogue technique or counted digitally which can
be directly in pressure units. With a tachogenerator on the servomotor shaft a damping adjustment facility
can be provided, if necessary. The instrument may have a resolution of 1 milli-Torr for 100 Torr full scale
reading. It cannot be used in gases with fluorine content as this erodes quartz.
Another vacuum gauge known as the spinning rotor friction gauge, or, simply known as the friction
gauge, has recently been used to extend the calibration of pressure range down to 10–7 Torr. A rotating
steel ball in a pressure medium decelerates when allowed to levitate in a magnetic field. The amount of
deceleration is proportional to pressure. The basic scheme is shown in Fig. 4.46. If the ball radius is r, its
material density r, initial angular speed of the ball wo and that after time t is wt, then, the pressure is given
by
p = (prrvm/(10t)) ln wo/wt (4.33)
p1 p2
1 4
M 3
2
5
Fig. 4.45 The schematic of a quartz reference vacuum gauge (1: sensor 2: optoelectronic differential
mechanism, 3: ampli ier, 4: display, 5: servomotor and drive, Q: quartz tube, M: mirror)
VS S
P DC
C A
mP
Fig. 4.46 Spinning motor friction gauge (VS: vac. system, DC: drive control, mP: microprocessor,
F: ield, S. steel spinning ball, P: pick-up, A: ampli ier, C: counter, D: display)
where vm is the mean molecular velocity and is given by vm = 8 RT /(p M ) . In practice the speed wt is
measured with wo already known and thus p is computed for the specific gas through a microprocessor
system which controls the drive as well as shown.
At the end, a brief comparison, chart of the vacuum gauges is given in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Vacuum gauges compared

Types Range Torr Accuracy % FS Resol./ sensitivity Fre. range Remarks
McLeod 103 to l0–4 0.01 to 0.1 10–5 Torr (max) 0.1 to 1 Hz Linear scale made by design
Pirani 1 to 10–3 0.5 10–5 Torr (max) up to 2 kHz Scale nonlinear, composition
dependent
Thermocouple 1 to 10–3 0.5 –do– –do– –do–
Ionization 10–3 to 0.1 10–8 Torr (max) –do– Approx. linear scale, comp.
10–7 dependent
Capacitance 1 to 10–5 0.05 to 2.5 10–6 (max) 3 kHz Approx. linear scale
4.7 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
It is often necessary to transmit a variable to a certain distance for further processing, such as from site to
the control room. Process variables measured locally are not, in general, conformable to transmission. Often
these are converted to pressure signals for easy transmission via differential pressure transmitters. Before
going into such a transmitter, some of its components are first described.
The Flapper-nozzle Ampli ier This is used as a basic component of pneumatic and hydraulic measurement,
control and transmission as well as precision gauging equipment. A schematic arrangement of the system
is shown in Fig. 4.47. In the majority of practical applications, air at low pressure is used as the working
fluid. When the flapper moves to the left about its pivot less air will leak out and a larger pressure will
be developed between the fixed restriction and nozzle head. For approximate static sensitivity calculation,
the flow through the restrictions may be assumed incompressible. If pressure changes are not large this is
sufficiently valid. Flow through the fixed restriction of diameter d1 is given by
po
Vol. or
gauge
– +
Air
supply
D d1 d2
ps
Fixed Nozzle Pivot

Flapper
Fig. 4.47 Schematic arrangement of a lapper-nozzle system
q1 = C(pd12/4)(ps – po)1/2 (4.34)

and as the nozzle outlet is to the atmosphere, assuming identical discharge coefficients, flow through the
nozzle outlet is
q2 = Cpd2 xpo1/2 (4.35)
where x is the distance of the flapper from the nozzle tip. Assuming now the condition of flow continuity,
one gets by equating q1 to q2,
po/ps = 1/[1 + 16(d2x/d12 )2] (4.36)
The normalized response curve is shown in Fig. 4.48. In

Eqs (4.34) and (4.35) the velocity of approach is neglected. Linear range
For small x, the area of nozzle outlet to atmosphere is
justifiably taken as in Eq. (4.35). Identical values of C in
the two equations are not strictly true but is acceptable
in most of the situations. The response slope d(po/ps)/d po
xn is approximately linear for short xn and pn ranges. The pn = p
s
maximum slope or sensitivity is obtained by making
d2pn/d xn2 such that dpn/d xn = –2.59 at xn = 0.144 and pn =
0.75. When xn is sufficiently large, pn becomes nearly
constant. To avoid this zero sensitivity portion of the curve,
the amplifier is worked between the limits pn = 0.75 and pn
= 0.15. For ps = 20 psi or 1.33 kg/cm2 this is between 3 and
0 x=0
15 psi or 0.2 and 1 kg/cm2. These are the limits of industrial 0.144
d 2x
xn =
control pressure. The upper limit is fixed by the pipe d 12
thickness while the lower is not kept zero to enable positive
check on the control pressure on the low side as also to avoid Fig. 4.48 The normalized response curve
any leakage from outside into the system besides the elimina-
tion of the poor sensitivity.
Example 4.2 Calculate the maximum allowable lapper movement for restriction and nozzle diameters both
being equal to 0.05 cm.
Solution One obtains x for pn maximum as 0.144 ¥ 0.05 = 0.0072 cm, while for pn = 0.15, xn is 0.6 giving
x = 0.6 ¥ 0.05 = 0.030 cm. Hence the maximum movement of the flapper is 0.0228 cm.
It is assumed in the deduction that the pressure changes are small. This is accomplished by an air relay. A
control pressure of 0.2 to 1 kg/cm2 is, in fact, obtained from the relay by a process pressure change of only
0.2 to 0.33 kg/cm2 and this involves only l/6th of the original movement of the flapper calculated earlier
in the example. This small change actually means that the flapper position is directly proportional to the
pressure change. Or the system is strictly operated in the linear region.
A control relay with the feedback principle is shown in Fig. 4.49. When the process pressure operates
the free end of the bellows element, the flapper also moves, creating a pressure on the right side of the
diaphragm and operating the ball valve in turn. Output is then proportionally connected to the supply
through the ball valve. The bellows element also acts Process
as the feedback element to position the flapper. operated
The basic transmitter scheme is shown in po
Fig. 4.50. When the process pressure increases, it
causes the beam to move about F against R through B1, Leak
thereby causing the beam to move closer to nozzle N
and the pressure po increases, which again is fed-back
Ball valve
through B2. A torque balance will be arrived at finally
and it will be to a large extent decided by the spring, Spring
which in many cases is replaced by another bellows
ps
element fed from a regulated supply pressure for range Diaphragm
adjustment. For a large beam with appropriate pivot
Fixed
point, a small pressure change is easily detected as the restrictor
movement of the flapper beam can be made larger on
the nozzle side with a large leverage. Fig. 4.49 A feedback control relay
po
From process
ps
p
Feed back
Nozzle
N B2 B1
Range
Fulcrum spring (R)
(F)
Fig. 4.50 Basic scheme of the pneumatic transmitter
A torque balance type transmitter of practical design is shown in Fig. 4.51. The diaphragm movement
is transmitted to the flapper through the link rod, torque tube, range tube and beam. All the components
including the flapper and nozzle are adjustable in position from their nominal location. The relay works
in conjunction with the feedback bellows element as shown in Fig. 4.49. The complicated transmission of
diaphragm motion is easily done away within the force balance type transmitter, shown schematically in
Fig. 4.52. The differential pressure moves the diaphragm stacks thereby changing the distance between the
flapper and the nozzle. The balance is established when the force on the sensing member equals that on the
feedback member. Eliminating the levers and fulcrums the errors have been made smaller.
Hinge
Feedback Beam
bellows
Range tube
po
Flapper
Relay
Torque tube
Vents
ps Flexure tube
Nozzle
High Low
pressure pressure
Zeroer Link rod Diaphragm
Fig. 4.51 Torque balance type transmitter

Low pressure High pressure
Restriction
ps
Zeroer
Range
po Flap
Sealing
diaphragm
L.P. H.P.
diaphragm
Fig. 4.52 Force balance type transmitter
The basic scheme of an electrical type transmitter is shown in Fig. 4.53. The input variable in the form
of pressure requires conversion to electrical quantity. This may be done by any one of the electrical type
transducer described earlier. A typical pneumoelectric transmitter is shown in Fig. 4.54. The differential
pressure is transmitted through the force beam about the pressure seal pivot. This pressure produces a force
at the upper end of the beam proportional to Dp. This in turn produces a force at b. The link mechanism
is so arranged that by another span adjustment mechanism as shown, the ratio of the force at b to that at a
can be given by tan f. By moving the slide S, f can be changed and, consequently, the force at b. Another
Ref.
Signal Remote
Comparator Amplifier
control room
Feedback
Fig. 4.53 Basic scheme of the electrical type transmitter
inverted L-shaped flexure beam is linked to point b and hooked at a flexure pivot as shown. The force at
b simultaneously positions this beam and the force coil. Consequently the input to the amplifier changes
through the position detector changing the output that passes throught the force coil, and this acts as the
feedback coil and helps to restore a balance condition in the movement of the system parts as long as Dp is
fixed. The output of the transmitter is between 4 and 20 mA. Arrangements for zero adjustment and range
suppression along with span adjustments are provided with spring loads. The transmitter gives a 16 mA
change in output with a mechanical shift of only 0.5 thousandth of an inch of the diaphragm. A formal
analysis of the relation between the output current and the pressure will now be made taking a diaphragm
input force balance transmitter as shown in Fig. 4.55. For the diaphragm effective area a and a differential
pressure p the force acting at the left end of the beam is pa. This force is balanced by a pair of force coil or
compensation coil which takes a current i whose value depends on the deflection of the beam. The position
detector and another pair of coils form an induction pick-up which controls the amplifier output depending
on the separation x as shown in figure. The balance equation is thus
Range
S
Span
a f
Force beam F Flexure link

P Pivot
C
Det. Magnet
Force coil
b
– Dp +
Zero
A Output
4-20 mA
Fig. 4.54 Diaphragm type pneumoelectrlc type transmitter; F: Flexture pivot, P: Flexure pressure seal and pivot
pa = Ex + ki (4.37) Force
pa Position k, i coil
where E is the elasticity constant or the rigidity detector
coefficient of the diaphragm and the beam, Beam
k = force coil constant and is dependent on the x
p
magnetic flux. E and k also take account of the Amplifier Permanent
length ratios of beam sections. As, normally, i i magnet
Induction
and x are linearly related, one derives pick-up
i = pa/[k(1 + E/(Sk))] = fp (4.38) 4 < i < 20 mA
where S is the slope of the i – x curve, and f Fig. 4.55 Another model of the pneumoelectric transmitter
is a constant dependent on the pressure sensor,
balance beam, force coil system and amplifier. For a diaphragm movement of less than 5 thousandth of
an inch a does not change effectively nor does E. The terms S and k are easily made constant with proper
design. It may be instructive to note that S may be made very large using an operational amplifier as also k
and for reasonable value of the rigidity E, one may make E/(Sk) << 1 so that
f = a/k (4.39)
A typical value of E/(Sk) is about 0.005. Another interesting feature is the conversion of pressure to
square of the current. For flow transmission, this becomes very convenient since in a flow transducer, the
differential pressure is proportional to the square of the flow rate, q. Thus one can have q = yi.
The method of obtaining this is to replace the permanent magnet of the force coil pick-up by an
electromagnet which is supplied by the same current i, such that the balance equation changes to
pa = E i/S + ki2 (4.40a)
ª ki2 (4.40b)
It may be observed that the magnetic pick-up assembly is easily replaceable by a linear variable
differential transformer with proper modification in arrangement.
Recently in transmitters capacitive pressure transducers are mostly used. The transducer consists
of a low pressure diaphragm and a high pressure diaphragm which are attached with a connecting
rod that moves a central movable electrode from its zero position held by spring diaphragm between
the two fixed annular electrodes. The high pressure and low pressure diaphragms are compound
diaphragm systems with provision for temperature compensation. The electrode assembly is enclosed
in a pair of ceramic disc assembly. The guiding connecting rod is provided with damping gasket. The
moving system is immersed in oil and provision is made for damping adjustment externally. Electrical
terminals are taken out through hermetically sealed terminal posts. Figure 4.56(a) shows a schematic
diagram of the system. Damping is adjusted by the damping gasket arrangement and the damping
adjustment restriction is connected to the low pressure side (pL) diaphragm. The measuring diaphragm
consists of an inner circular area and an outer circular area and is held at the outermost circumference
by welded ring while the inner circular portion is welded at its circumference to the connecting rod
for absorbing forces produced due to volumetric changes of the filled fluid thereby compensating for
temperature change.
The leads taken out are connected to a suitable electronic circuit that at first stage produces an electrical
voltage output which can then be converted by a voltage to current converter to a 4 to 20 mA output as
required by the standard. Figure 4.56(b) shows the schematic of the first stage where the constant current high
frequency oscillator drive is maintained by the comparator that compares the drop across Rc due to the total
current io over a half wave. The differential amplifier A produces the output eo proportional to the pressure
(pH – pL). Capacitors C3 to C4 are for smoothing purposes of the rectified voltage. The other half of the
wave is used for zero adjustment (Rz). Provision for span adjustment is also kept in the circuit. Various
ranges for such a transmitter are available in decade and half decade steps from 1.25 kPa to 30 MPa. In the
analysis it is assumed that 1/(jw C1, 2) >> R1, R2, Rc so that the branch currents i1, 2 is given as
i1, 2 = itC1, 2/(C1 + C2) (4.41)
and e1, 2 = (i1, 2) (R1, 2) (4.42)
Also, the voltage difference e2 – e1 is given as
e2 – e1 = it (R2C2 – R1C1)/(C1 + C2) (4.43)
= es(C2 – C1)(C1 + C2)

for R1 = R2 = R, and, where es = it R.
Now for a small displacement of the moving electrode, we have
Dd = k¢ (pH – pL ) (4.44)
But (Cl – C2)/(Cl + C2) = Dd/do, where do is the zero displacement between the fixed and moving
electrodes. Hence
eo = e2 – e1 = k (pH – pL ) (4.45)
where k = k¢ es/do.
LEADS
HS
MD
M
E O
CR
pH pL
TCD
DG
CD
WR
FE SD ME DA
(a)
it
+
i1 C1 p1 p2 C2 i2
D1 D2 D3
D4
RZ Rf
r2
C –
OSC
+
R1 eo = k (pH – pL)
r3
R2
ZD RC C3 R3 C4 r4
(b)
Fig. 4.56 (a) The modern-day capacitive transmitter (HS: hermetically sealed, MD: measuring diaphragm,
DG: damping gasket, CR: connecting rod, TCD: temperature compensation diaphragm, CD: ceramic disc,
WR: welded ring, ME: measuring electrode, FE: ixed electrode, SD: spring diaphragm, DA: damping
adjustment, O: oil), (b) the transmitter circuit
Transmitters often require voltage to current converters with offset for providing 4 to 20 mA
corresponding to input voltage range 0 to Vin. A schematic circuit for such a converter is shown in
Fig. 4.57(a). The operational amplifier acts as a summer here (non-inverting type). Resistances Ri, and Rk
are usually large, of the M-ohm order, to avoid interloading voltages Vref and Vin. For inputs Vin (max) and
Vin (min) to get current outputs Io max and Io min respectively a transfer characteristic curve is first drawn from
which value of Rs can be found out. From Fig. 4.57(a)
Io = Vb/Rs = Va/Rs (4.46a)
and
Vin – IinRi – IinRk – Vref = 0 (4.46b)
also, since Vin – Iin Ri = Va, Eqs (4.46) can be solved to obtain Io as
Io = {(Vin + Vref)/(Ri + Rk)} (Rk/Rs) (4.47)
In Eq. (4.47) Io max and Io min are obtained putting Vin (max) and Vin (min) in place of Vin so that Rs is obtained as
+
Ri Va
+
Iin
–
+V Io
Rk RL
Rr
Rs
Vref
–V Zero Span
(a)
Rin Rin
Vin 1
+ Vb
R1 2 Ve
– Vbe Rs
VR
R2 Rin
Vo
Rin Span RL
Zero
(b)
Fig. 4.57 (a) A scheme of the V-I converter, (b) the V-I converter of the example
Rs = [Vin (max) – Vin (min)}Rk]/[Io max – Io min) (Ri + Rk)] (4.48)

Also, from Eq. (4.47) one can derive
Vref = Io max Rs (Ri + Rk)/Rk – Vin (max) (4.49)
Example 4.3 A current converter is to be designed for 4 to 20 mA output for an input of 0 to 4 V.
Solution Rs = 4Rk ¥ 103/{(20 – 4) (R1 + Rk)};
Let Rl = Rk = 1 M-ohm, then Rs = 125 ohm, and Vref = 0.125 ¥ 2 ¥ 20 – 4 = 1 V. Often in industries
grounded load converters are more useful. A schematic of such a converter is shown in Fig. 4.57(b).
Considering that points 1 and 2 are effectively at ground potentials, one easily derives
Vo = –Vin,Vz = –Ve, so that
IRS = (Ve – Vo)/Rs = (Vin – Vz)/Rs (4.50)

and
IL = Vo/RL = (Vin – Vz)/Rs – Vo/Rin = (Vin – Vz)/Rs + Vin/Rin (4.51)
Rin’s are chosen to be very very large and equal for unity gain so that Vin / Rin << Vin – Vz)/Rs in normal
conditions, where Vz is negative. Also Vz = R2VR / (R1 + R2).
Example 4.4 Convert 0 to 5 volt into 4 to 20 mA with grounded load. What maximum load is allowed for your
design?
Solution IL = 4 mA for Vin = 0 V, hence, from Eq. (4.51) Rs = – Vz /4 mA;
For 20 mA, Vin = 5 V, hence, 20 mA ¥ Rs = 5 V – Vz = 5 V + 4 mA ¥ Rs or Rs = 5 V/l6 mA = 312.5
ohm and Vz = – 1.25 V.
Now VR = – (R1 + R2) ¥ 1.25 V/R2, if VR is from –15 V supply we can choose R1 = 2.2 k (say) so that R2
is 200 ohm. For zero adjustment a 500 ohm pot may be used for R2. The circuit analysis would show that
voltage Vb is effectively V0 + Vin – Vr + 0.6 V (Vbe) i.e., IL RL + Vin – Vz + Vbe and Ve must be kept less than
saturation voltage so that
ILRL + Vin – Vz + 0.6 V < Vsat, i.e., RL < (Vsat – Vin + Vz – 0.6 V)/IL
For 20 mA IL, Vin = 5 V, Vz = – 1.25 V and for supply 15 V a Vsat is taken as 13 V so that ,
RL < 6.15 ¥ 103/20, i.e., RL < 307 ohm.
Nowadays manufacturers make available dedicated IC, V to I converters for ready use. One such chip
using the above technique is XTR 110 (BB).
Although it is advantageous to transmit electrical signal over a fairly long distance, it is often necessary
in industrial practice that the final control element or the actuators be pneumatically operated. The electrical
signal then is required to be subsequently converted back into pneumatic signal. The process of conversion
is simple. The output signal from the transmitter is fed into an electromagnet which actuates a balance
beam as shown in Fig. 4.58. The output is derived from a flapper-nozzle assembly. For stable operation, a
feedback is also necessary, which may be provided in the usual way.
Electrical
input Electromagnet
actuator
Flapper
nozzle
Feedback assembly
bellows
po
ps
Fig. 4.58 The pneumoelectric transmitter with signal conversion facility
4.8 SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Discussion on pressure measurement would remain incomplete if it does not cover a little bit of sound
pressure measurement. Sound is basically propagated by producing compression and rarefaction of a
medium, i.e. by producing a pressure fluctuation, and sound level is also specified by sound pressure level,
abbreviated as SPL expressed in dB unit by comparing with a standard reference value of 2 ¥ 10–10 bar
which is believed to be average threshold of human hearing level at 1 kHz tone when the sound level is
called 0 phon. Thus,
SPL = 201og10 (p/2 ¥ 10–10) dB (4.52)

where p is the rms sound pressure in bar. Some sound pressure levels are given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3 Sound pressure levels of some common cases
Source SPL in dB p in Pa
Human threshold 0 0.00002
Common office with type/tabulating machines 74 0.1
Busy road with vehicles 120 20.0
Human tolerance level 150 640.0
Rocket engines 170 6400.0
One atmosphere 194 100000.0
It must be remembered that SPL in dB at 1 kHz is also termed as Phon.

The commercially used sound level meter consists of a microphone as transducer for sound pressure
which converts the pressure into motion employing a thin diaphragm and the motion is then converted
into a voltage using a capacitive type transducer like piezoelectric crystal or a moving coil inductance
type transducer. However, for general engineering work piezoelectric type is more common. In this a thin
conical metal diaphragm is coupled to a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) ceramic beam. With pressure received
by the diaphragm, it is transmitted to the beam which is bent and a piezoelectric output is obtained in the
form of charge or corresponding voltage. The transducer is shown schematically only partly in Fig. 4.59.
A back up plate is necessary for avoiding excessive sag or creep and holes are provided in the cone for
equalizing average pressure, which in this case is the atmospheric pressure, and also to prevent damage to
the diaphragm because of a large differential pressure.
Pressure
Holes
Conical diaphragm
with back-up plate
Ceramic beam
Supporting
metal body
Insulator
Terminals
Fig. 4.59 The microphone using a lead-zirconate-titanate ceramic piece
Another variety, the ‘electret’ type, uses a polymer film as the diaphragm with a backup plate. In the
above case of electret, the polymer film itself produces a voltage on stressing and neither this nor the
piezoelectric type requires a polarizing voltage as is necessary in the commonly used capacitive type
discussed below.
The capacitive type microphone is schematically shown in Fig. 4.60. A thin diaphragm made of metal
sheet of thickness 0.002 to 0.05 mm is mounted as shown to form one of the capacitor plates, the other
being solid cone type with damping holes drilled in it,
provided to control the resonant peaks. A capillary air- Air-leak capillary
leak channel is provided for equalizing and to prevent
Insulator
damage to the diaphragm. The capacitor plates are
x p2 Air gap
polarized or energized by a dc voltage of the order x
of 200 V and a resistance R is used for deriving the x
output voltage across it. With static pressures pl and p1
x
p2, output V0 is zero but for fluctuating pressure, V0 x
changes and as the output impedance of the transducer x
is very high a buffer stage FET preamplifier of input Diaphragm
impedance of the order of 109 W or more is used to
amplify the varying component of V0 which, however,
is very small in value. Since the frequency response R Vo
is very important factor in acoustic studies, frequency
range selective filters are used in the system after the
preamplifier. The filter output is again amplified and,
for indication, fed to an rms meter which may be Fig. 4.60 A commonly employed capacitive
microphone
calibrated directly in dB.
However, measurement of SPL with microphones is not as simple as it appears. In fact, placement of
the microphone in the propagating medium changes the characteristics of the medium itself because the
microphone with its diaphragm is basically a rigid body and acoustic waves are reflected from it in a
very complex manner depending on the frequency of the wave, its direction of propagation governing the
angle of incidence, and, the size and shape of the microphone. Usually when the wave propagation is per-
pendicular to the diaphragm, the angle of incidence is said to be zero while for propagation parallel to the
diaphragm it is 90°. Manufacturers provide charts of response of microphones in dB versus frequency for
different angles of incidence. If the microphone is absent in the medium the condition is said to be free-
field and if in that situation the pressure is designated as pf, then for zero degree angle of incidence the
approximate response curves are compared in Fig. 4.61 with and without the microphone in the medium.
The ratio of outputs at 0° angle of incidence to any arbitrary angle of incidence can also be obtained
from the directional characteristics charts of different microphones available with the manufacturers.
Interestingly, at higher frequencies this ratio reduces sharply with increasing angle up to 90°.
Free field
dB
A
Pressure
(Volts/mb)
102 103 104 105 106 f(Hz)
Fig. 4.61 The microphone response in free- ield and non-free ield conditions
The microphone is basically a second order instrument when it converts pressure into motion behaving
like a mass-spring-damping system, while the part converting motion into voltage, the electrical equivalent
scheme is a first order system so that the overall equivalent scheme is a third order one. The frequency
response of the microphone system, therefore, is guided by this consideration. Microphones are now
designed to have flat frequency response over a bandwidth of 100 kHz starting from about 1 to 10 Hz.
4.9 ACOUSTIC INTENSITY
Acoustic intensity measurement has acquired importance because of the necessity of determination of the
location of the noise source, amount of sound absorption and transmission etc. The vector sound intensity,
also called the sound energy flux is defined as the quantity and direction of flow of acoustic power per
unit area averaged over a time at a given position. Thus, if p1 is pressure at a position, vz is the velocity of
medium particle at a given position and direction x, t is the time of averaging then, acoustic intensity Iz in
that direction is
t
I z = lim (1/t ) Ú p1 (t )vz (t )dt (4.53)
t Æ• 0
and it is expressed in W/m2. Both pl and vz are considered as functions of time. Usually, p1 is measurable
by microphone and vz can be measured by anemometers, but in doing so, uniformity in instrumentation is
not maintained and the computation to find Iz becomes quite involved. Instead, a dual microphone method
is suggested, the application of which has been guided following Euler’s equation for zero mean flow. It is
given by
r∂vz /∂t + ∂p1/∂z = 0 (4.54)
for fluid density r. From Eqs (4.54) one gets, by replacing ∂p1/∂z with Dp1/Dz,
t
vz = (1/ ( rDz )) Ú ( p12 - p11 ) dt (4.55)
0
where p11 and p12 are pressures measured at two microphones positioned along the same direction z at z1
and z2 respectively. If now one can write p1 = (p11 + p12)/2 as the microphones are placed very close to each
other, then
1 t
I z = (1/ (2 rDz ))
t Ú0 ( p11 + p12 )( p12 - p11 ) dt (4.56)
The two-microphone probe for p11 and p12 measurement is of various relative orientations but the
face-to-face pair with a spacer in between has been the most successful one where z1 ~ z2 is kept small
compared with the acoustic wavelength. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 4.62. It must be mentioned that
the computation of data is still necessary but the measuring technique is uniform and simpler.
Spacer
Mic
Fig. 4.62 A typical paired microphone for intensity measurement

Review Questions
1. What type of manometer is recommended for tangential and radial stresses at a distance of 1
measuring the pressure of the inside of the cm from the centre.
reheating furnaces? Why? [Stress pressure 103.66, 80.31]
Which is the most accurate pressure sensor? 7. What is a Bridgman gauge? On what property of
A well type manometer has its capillary diameter the element does this gauge work? What is the
to well diameter ratio as 1:20. If it is required to range of such a gauge?
measure a pressure differential of 0.1 kg/cm2, Manganin has a pressure coef icient of resistance
what should be the approximate height of the of 2.3 ¥ 10–6 cm2 /kg. What should be the change
mercury column in the capillary? How much in pressure for a 0.1 per cent change in resistance
error is there in the pressure value with this value?
approximate indication? [43.47 ¥ 103 kg/cm2]
[h = 7.35 cm, error = 5%] 8. How small de lections of diaphragms/bellows
2. Why elastic element type gauges are preferred to elements with pressure are accurately measured
liquid column manometers in industry? Which one using optical means? Explain with sketches.
of the former variety is most sensitive and which What are the range and accuracy of the method?
one has the largest range? What is the range? 9. Describe a ibre-optic pressure measuring system.
3. When and how are non-metallic slack What basically is the function of the optical ibre
diaphragms used? A metallic diaphragm of in it?
thickness 3 mm used for the measurement of a 10. How thermocouple gauges are industrially
differential pressure 2 kg/cm2 is required to give adopted? How is the sensitivity of such a
a de lection of its centre by 1 mm. What should gauge de ined? Discuss its dependence on gas
be its diameter if the Young’s modulus and composition.
Poisson’s ratio of the element are 1,00,000 kg/ 11. Which one of the two ionization gauges is
cm2 and 0.3 respectively. considered better and on what considerations?
[D = 10.75 cm] The pressure in an ionization gauge chamber
4. De ine force constant, pressure constant and is 10–5 Torr, for a plate current of 10–6 A, what
effective area of an elastic pressure diaphragm. should be the grid current to have a sensitivity of
How these parameters are obtained in practice? 100/Torr?
5. Why is bellows-element gauge is preferred to [10–3 A]
other elastic gauges as a receiver gauge. How 12. How capacitive transducers are used for
is this gauge designed for a pressure up to measurement of pressure between 1 and 10–5
2 kg/cm2? Torr? Draw the schematic of the method and
A bellows element is opposed by a spring explain its operation.
element of same spring constant of value 0.7 13. How lapper-nozzle system is adapted in
kg/cm. If the effective diameter of the bellows differential pressure transmitters? For a supply
element is 20 mm, what maximum pressure can pressure of 2 kg/cm2 and a nozzle diameter
it measure when the limiting maximum de lec- of 0.1 mm what should be the gap between the
tion is 10 mm? lapper and nozzle for an output pressure of 0.8
[0.446 kg/cm2] kg/cm2?
6. How strain gauges are used in diaphragms for [0.03 mm]
measuring differential pressure? How tangential 14. Describe the capacitive type D/P transmitter
and radial stresses in the diaphragm vary along showing how it is adopted with a circuit for a
its radius? 4–20 mA output.
If the radius of a 1.5 mm thick metal diaphragm 15. Draw the scheme of a V-I converter and show how
is 5 cm and its Young’s modulus is 106 kg/cm2, for a zero to 5 volt it can give 4 to 20 mA output?
its Poisson’s ratio is 0.3 and it has 4 resistance Indicate the steps with parameter values.
strain gauges of gauge factor 2 and resistance 16. Explain how a pair of microphones is adopted
120 ohm each bonded to its surface as per the in measuring acoustic intensity. When such
scheme of Fig. 4.19(b) (ii) derive the values of the intensity is required to be measured?
Temperature Measurement
5.1 DEFINITIONS AND STANDARDS
The process variables like pressure, flow, level and most other
physical quantities are calibrated in terms of mass, length and
time standards. Temperature, because of its intrinsic nature, is
not independently definable like the other quantities. In fact, it
tends to depend on the material property and is non-additive in
nature. Defining an independent or absolute temperature scale or
standard, therefore, becomes something of a challenge. International
Chapter 5 committee of weights and measures (CIPM) is authorized to recom-

mend an internationally acceptable temperature standard which
has been done and is reviewed at regular intervals of time. For
a standard to be established it is necessary (i) to have a reference
temperature for determining the size of the unit, and (ii) to suggest an appropriate interpolation technique
for measuring temperature differences.
A physical system whose state is specified by two variables x and y can serve as a temperature measuring
system provided that the variables x and y do not change when external conditions remain unchanged. It
was suggested that isotherms in pressure p and specific volume v may serve this purpose with a specific
isotherm acting as a reference and any convenient numerical value of p or v on it may initiate the
interpolation technique needed. With the relation between the isotherm temperature T and p or v defined
theoretically as
pv = nRT (5.1)
and the relation between heat Q and T defined as
Qn + 1 /Qn = Tn + 1/Tn (5.2)
following a heat-work reversible cycle, a primary thermometer could be obtained that defines absolute
temperature. But in such a situation the behaviour of the ideal gas becomes the basis of temperature
measurement. Ideal gas, however, is a hypothetical entity and the real gases that obey the above laws very
closely within limited range of pressure variations are used allowing correction by extrapolation technique
to establish the thermodynamic/absolute scale.
As Eq. (5.1) suggests, either a constant pressure or a constant volume gas thermometer can be used
for measuring temperature on the absolute scale. The absolute Ta was named as degree Kelvin first and
subsequently in 1954 simply as Kelvin and taken as 1/273.16 of the interval between absolute zero and the
triple point of water-making a single point of reference sufficient for the purpose.
The ideal gas thermometer, while accepted as reference standard is not practical as far as industrial
use in concerned. The practical temperature Tp should be so defined that it is invariable and equal to the
Temperature Measurement 169
thermodynamic temperature Ta. With the Kelvin already specified, practical units of temperature scale
was defined and named °C, degree Celsius, by International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) first in
1929, revised in 1948, then in 1968. While the name is still retained, the definition had to be revised fur-
ther due to discrepancies noted in the values of Ta and Tp. Due to considerable advancement in the overall
measurement techniques and availability of digital equipment and computer capability IPTS-68 was
updated in 1990 as it was detected that (i) uncertainties of Ta – T68 curves are quite large, (ii) there is a
discontinuity in the slope at 680ºC, (iii) above 630ºC the difference is unacceptably large mainly because
of the choice of the measuring instruments which were not that accurate and precise at that time, (iv) below
0ºC the interpolation overlapping in calibration introduced losses as the interpolating equations were not
satisfactory.
Recognising thermodynamic temperature as the fundamental quantity, the conversion is given in 1990 as
t90/ºC = Ta/K – 273.15 (5.3)
where magnitude of degree Celsius is equal to that of Kelvin. The earlier definition of degree Celsius as
per international agreement required two fixed points—the ice point at 0ºC and the steam point at 100ºC.
Valuewise there has not been any change because of the single point reference made later.
IPTS90 has been defined following the early lines and now seventeen phase equilibrium states of pure
substances have been considered assigning appropriate temperature values of these points. Interpolation
between these points is to be done by defining instruments using assigned formulae. Depending on the
range, four instruments have been recommended. These are (i) gas thermometer, (ii) platinum resistance
thermometer (iii) platinum/platinum-rhodium thermocouple, and (iv) radiation pyrometer. The seven-
teen fixed points with the substances and their states are given in Table 5.1. The states are considered at
equilibrium at a pressure of 101325 Pa.
Table 5.1 The ixed points of temperature standard

No. Temperature t90/°C States Substances
1. –270.15 to – 268.15 Vapour pressure point (VPP) Helium
2. –259.3467 Triple point (TP) Hydrogen
3. –256.15 VPP Hydrogen
4. –252.85 VPP Hydrogen
5. –243.5939 TP Neon
6. –218.7916 TP Oxygen
7. –189.3442 TP Argon
8. –38.8344 TP Mercury
9. 0.01 TP Water
10. 29.7646 Melting point (MP) Gallium
11. 156.5985 Freezing point (FP) Indium
12. 231.928 FP Tin (stannum)
13. 419.527 FP Zincum
14. 660.323 FP Aluminium
15. 961.78 FP Argentinum
16. 1064.18 FP Aurum
17. 1084.62 FP Cuprum
The interpolating equations for temperatures between the fixed points and for above and below end points
are given below:
(1) Up to No. 1: vapour pressure p of He is used, thus
j
9
Ï ln ( p/pa - B) ¸
T90 /K = Ao + Â A j Ì ˝ (5.4)
j =1 Ó C ˛
Values of the constants are available in tables for 3He, 4He including l-point.
(2) Up to No. 5 from No. 2: constant volume gas thermometer (3He and 4He is recommended) and use is
made of equation
T90 = (a + bp + cp2)/(1 + Bv (T90) N/V) (5.5)
where N/V is the gas density in moles per cubic meter in the thermometer bulb and Bv(T90) are the
virial coefficients for the gas used. Coefficients a, b, c are obtained by calibration at triple points of
Neon (24.5561 K) and Hydrogen (13.8033 K) and a temperature 3K < T3 < 5 K depending on the
gas used, i.e., 3He or 4He.
(3) From No. 5 to No. 9: platinum resistance thermometers are recommended) and when rr (T90) is the
resistance ratio related to T90 by the relation
rr(T90) = r(T90) – Dr (T90) (5.6a)
where
r(T90) = R(T90)/R(273.15 K) (5.6b)
where R denotes the electrical resistance, then the interpolation relation is
15
T90 / 273.15 K = Bo + Â B j {( rr (T90 )1 6 - 0.65)0.35} j (5.7)
j =1
Coefficients are available in tables, r(T90) are obtained at specified fixed points.
(4) From No. 9 to No. 15: here again ratios of resistances of platinum resistance thermometer are
recommended and Eq. (5.6(a)) is to be used; however, the interpolation equation is
9
T90 / K - 273.15 = Do + Â D j {( rr (T90 ) - 2.64) / 1.64} j (5.8)
j =1
Coefficients are again obtained from tables provided. Platinum in above cases must be strainfree,
annealed pure platinum.
(5) Above No. 15: Blackbody temperature measuring apparatus such as radiation pyrometer is
recommended with the guiding equation
Wl (T90 ) / Wl (T90 (a )) = {exp (C2 / lT90 (a )) - 1} /{exp (C2 / lT90 )) - 1} (5.9)
where Wl (T90) and Wl (T90) (a)) are the spectral radiances of a blackbody at wavelength l at T90
and T90 (a) respectively. C2 = 0.014388 m.K and T90(a) refers to freezing points of the recommended
metals like Ag, Au and Cu. In the range given by Nos 14 to 16 often the recommended instrument is
Pt/(Pt – 10% Rh) thermocouple with emf-temperature relation being quadratic in form.
As would be evident by now that Kelvin is the unit of absolute Celsius whereas for Fahrenheit, the
absolute is degree ‘Rankine’ and in this scale, ice point is 491.67°R. Celsius and Fahrenheit are related as
ºC = (5/9)(ºF – 32)
Besides Fahrenheit and Celsius, the other important scale is ‘Reaumur’ used mostly in alcohol industry
in Europe but it is steadily becoming obsolete. Its ice and steam points are 0º and 80º respectively.
5.2 TECHNIQUES AND CLASSIFICATION
Any temperature dependent effect of materials can be used for the measurement of temperature. Not
all effects are of practical consequence for this purpose but quite a few are. For a solid, the longitudinal
change; for a liquid and a gas, volume change; for a gas of constant volume, pressure change—are some
of the physical changes with temperature that are utilized in thermometry. Resistance of materials and
semiconductors change with temperature and such changes are quite conveniently used in temperature
measurement. Dissimilar metals form a couple with two junctions and a difference of temperature
between the two drives a current in the metal loop which is a measure of the temperature difference.
With temperature change in the cryogenic level some type of magnetic materials change their magnetic
property in a reversible manner, electrical oscillation frequency of some crystals change with temperature,
velocity of sound changes in a medium with change in its temperature—all these can thus be used as tem-
perature measuring elements. Materials when heated to high temperature, emit optical radiation of different
frequencies the energy contents of these radiations are dependent on the temperature of the material. This
effect is also usuable in temperature measurement.
Not all the above suggestions are useful in industrial thermometry. Some are confined to only laboratory
practices. Table 5.2 gives a brief list of the thermometric elements/thermometers with range, accuracy limits,
and resolutions etc. Only the industrially important ones are included in the list. Some of the types considered
have their own variations with changes in the range etc. Only a broad classification is made in the table.
Table 5.2 Performance speci ications of the class of temperature measuring systems
Technique/Type Range °C Accuracy % FS Resolution °C Scale
Solid expansion –150 to 500 ±1 1–2 Nonlinear
Liquid expansion –125 to 500 ±1 0.02 – 0.2 Linear
Gas and vapour pressure –120 to 450 ±1 0.001 Nonlinear, Cramped at
bottom
Resistance thermometer –200 to 700 ± 0.01 0.0001 Approx. linear
Thermistor type –50 to 300 ±1 0.01 Nonlinear
Thermocouple type –150 to 1500 ±1 1 Approx. linear
Optical/Radiation pyrometry 700 to 3000 ±1 1 – 10 Nonlinear
Alongwith liquid expansion, gas expansion should also be considered. Thermocouple type has many
variations and ranges vary accordingly; besides ranges, accuracy also varies, depending on continuous and
intermittant use. Such variations are not very apparent from the table but would be discussed in appropriate
places with a basic idea given in the table only for general appreciation.
5.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING

CHANGE IN PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Although electrical output temperature transducers are becoming more common, the thermometers using
the change in the physical properties are also many in practice. These include the solid expansion type, the
fluid expansion type, gas and vapour pressure type etc.
5.3.1 Solid Expansion Type

The commercial solid expansion type is a bimetal thermometer. Its principle of operation is explained in
Fig. 5.1(a). Two strips A and B of dissimilar metals are bonded firmly together at a temperature To. The
strips have thickness tA and tB and coefficients of expansions aA and aB respectively. One side of the bonded
member is held rigidly as shown in the figure. If now the temperature changes from that of the bonding
temperature to T1, because of unequal expansion in the two strips its free end will curve forming an arc, as
it were, of radius r (Fig. 5.1(b))
(t A + t B )[3(1 + t B /t A ) 2 + {1 + t B EB /(t A E A )}{(t B /t A ) 2 + t A E A /(t B EB )}]
r= (5.10)
6(a A - a B )(T1 - To )(1 + t B /t A ) 2
where EA and EB are Young’s moduli of the materials of the strips A and B. If tA ª tB ª t and the materials
are chosen such that EA ª EB, Eq. (5.10) is more simply written as
r = 4t/{3(aA – aB) (T1 – To)} (5.11)
Generally r is very large and movement of the tip of the member is very small. However with a large
(aA – aB), this can be increased. Normally B is invar which has the lowest expansion coefficient and A is
chosen to have large coefficient of expansion.
tA
tB
r
b
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.1 (a) Sketch of the bimetal thermometer, (b) bent condition of the bimetal cantilever
Example 5.1 A bimetal element formed with stainless steel and invar at 100°C is raised to 200°C. Each strip has
a thickness of 0.0107 cm. Calculate r.
Solution aA = 1.6 ¥ 10–5/ºC (stainless steel), EA = 2 ¥ 106 kg/cm2
aB = 1.7 ¥ 10–6/ºC (invar), EB = 1.5 ¥ 106 kg/cm2
Hence assuming EA = EB, Eq. (5.11) is used to obtain
r ∫ 4 ¥ 0.0107/(3 ¥ 14.3 ¥ 10–6 ¥ 100) ª 10 cm
The deflection of the free tip for small deflection is proportional
inversely to r and thus directly to temperature. Unfortunately this
is not true for a substantially measurable range. In fact, the curves
shown in Fig. 5.2 show that the linearity range is too limited and is
dependent on the material pair.
Bimetallic elements can be made in various configurations.
A spiral or a helix shape gives a larger deflection of the free tip. Fig. 5.2 Response curves for ive
By decreasing the thickness of the bonding strips, the deflection different bimetallic elements
can be increased further. Bimetals are used mostly Dial

in temperature compensation and in thermostats for
controlling temperature at a reasonably fixed value and in
relays and cutouts. Range of a thermostat or thermometer
varies from 100 to 500ºC. A typical thermometric device Fixing screw
using a helical bimetal is shown in Fig. 5.3. Accuracy is
good to within 1% but repeatability is slightly less and Shaft
good frequency response is not expected. Guide for
the shaft Helical bimetal
5.3.2 Fluid Expansion Type: The Filled-in Sheath
Systems
The fluid expansion thermometers use the volumetric Fig. 5.3 A practical bimetallic thermometric
expansion unlike the solid expansion type where device
normally the linear expansion principle is utilized. The
liquid and gas thermometers form a special class of
Bourdon spring
thermometers in industry known as filled-in systems.
These types are quite rugged, cheap and need no
maintenance. These have fairly good response, but
accuracy and sensitivity much less compared to electrical
Scale
types, and with capillary lines remote indication up
to 80 to 100 meters is possible. These are also self-
contained and self-operated. But ranges are quite limited Capillary
and when they fail total replacement is necessary. A
common example of a liquid filled-in system is a clinical Wall
thermometer. The industrial type has a long capillary
and a pressure spring. A schematic sketch of filled-in Bulb
system is shown in Fig. 5.4. The system consisting of a
pressure spring, a capillary and a bulb all interconnected
as shown, is sealed after filling with an appropriate liquid
at a pressure at the normal ambient temperature. With the Fig. 5.4 Schematic sketch of a illed-in
change in the temperature in the bulb, a change in the thermometric system
volume of the liquid due to expansion occurs which causes the Bourdon pressure spring to expand. The
effect of the stiffness of the Bourdon element under this condition is small enough. The expansion relation
is given by
È n ˘
Vt = Vi Í1 + Â g j t j ˙ (5.12)
ÍÎ j =1 ˙˚
where Vt and Vi are volumes of the liquid at the final and the initial temperatures respectively and g j’s
are the volumetric expansion coefficients. The common liquids that are used in metal thermometers are
mercury, ethyl alcohol, xylene, ether, toluene etc. Their range chart is given in Table 5.3.
Table 5.3 Liquids used in volume expansion thermometers with ranges
Liquid Range °C
Mercury –40 to 650
Ethyl alcohol –45 to 150
Xylene –40 to 400
Ether (ethyl) 20 to 90
Toluene –80 to 250
For mercury g2, g3, etc., are negligibly small and the range is almost linear over the entire range, while for
the organic liquids, linearity is good to about 150 to 200ºC. By filling the system at high pressure, the range
can be increased.
The bulb size and the coefficients of expansion considerably affect the range. The coefficient of the
bulb material is also important. Normally to avoid corrosion problem, stainless steel is chosen as the bulb
material. Most of these solid metals have smaller coefficient of expansion than liquids. If Vb = bulb volume,
d = differential expansion coefficient between the liquid in the bulb and the bulb material, R = range of the
instrument and DV = allowable change in the volume of the Bourdon element, then DV = VbRd. Hence, with
given DV, known d, Vb can be found out as
Vb = DV/(Rd) (5.13)
Generally, DV lies between 0.04 cc and 0.15 cc, mercury has g1 = 18 ¥ 10 per degree Celsius; for
–5
the organic liquids, this figure is about 6 times larger. The coefficient of expansion of steel is about 5.4 ¥
10–5/°C. Thus for a hundred degree Celsius temperature change (range) with DV = 0.1 cc, Vb, for mercury as
the liquid, is 0.1 ¥ 105/(100 ¥ 12.6) ª 8 cc. Calculating similarly, the bulb volume for xylene is only 1.3 cc.
Gas expansion thermometers are constant volume thermometers. When gas temperature is raised at
constant volume, it develops a pressure which operates the Bourdon for indication. The bulb volume design
in this case is usually made by following the ideal gas law equations. For a constant volume, the pressure
temperature relation is given by
prange p - pmin Tmax - Tmin Trange
= max = = (5.14)
pmax pmax Tmax Tmax
which is derived form the relation (5.1). From Eqs (5.1) and (5.14) the bulb volume is calculated as Vb
= nRTrange/Prange. Thus when the allowable span of the Bourdon is known and the temperature range of
the instrument is specified, one can easily calculate the approximate bulb size for a given filling gas. For
nonideal gas the relation used is
pV = fRT (5.15)
where f is the compressibility factor as is available for different p and T in the chart form.
Generally, the bulb volume is chosen to be nearly 100 times larger than that of the capillary and the
Bourdon element. The Bourdon tube expands substantially and if bulb volume is not very large compared
to its original volume, the constant volume postulate does not hold good.
As Eq. (5.1) indicates, gas expansion thermometer has a nearly linear scale. Nitrogen is the gas most
commonly used in gas thermometers. It gives a range form –120 to 450ºC. At high temperatures, the gas
might leak out through the porosity attained by the thermal system and thus create trouble.
The vapour pressure thermometer is also a filled-in system
but works on the vapour pressure of the liquid that partially
fills the bulb of the thermal system. Vapour pressure is a
function of the free-surface temperature only of the liquid
and this, thus, must be kept within the bulb. The bulb size
is quite large in these thermometers, because at the lowest
temperature, bulb must hold the liquid of the entire system Vapour
(Class III type design, see later). At a temperature higher than Free surface
the ambient, the volume of the liquid must completely fill the Volatile liquid
entire thermal system. There must be a free surface of the liquid Non-volatile liquid
in the bulb at the lowest as well as the highest temperatures.
This can be accomplished by having an arrangement shown
Fig. 5.5 Sketch of a vapour pressure
in Fig. 5.5. The vapour pressure across the measuring thermometer
temperature range must be sufficiently large to avoid the
barometric pressure error and to derive sufficient large power to operate the Bourdon element. The liquids
often used have vapour pressure characteristics as shown in Fig. 5.6. The temperature range is limited
by the critical point of the liquid. Also at higher temperatures, organic vapours deteriorate affecting
the performance completely. The range is about –25 to 250ºC with a vapour pressure change of 0.15 to
5.2 MPa. Speed of response is dependent on the thermal system and the capillary length. The curves of
Fig. 5.6 show that the scale of vapour pressure thermometers is nonlinear and is cramped at lower sides. For
different ranges different liquids are used to use the upper parts of the curves for linearization of the scale.
A chart showing the boiling points, ranges and critical pressures for a few commonly used liquids is given
in Table 5.4.
1
4
2
3
3
Vp
(MPa) 2 4
5
1 6
–1
–50 0 50 100 150 200 250
Temp. (°C)
Fig. 5.6 Vapour pressure characteristics of different liquids (1 ethane, 2 propane,

3 ethyl chloride, 4 ethyl ether, 5 chlorobenzene, 6 toluene)
Table 5.4 Properties of common liquids used in vapour pressure thermometers

Liquid Boiling point °C Range °C Critical point °C
Methyl chloride –23.7 0 to 50 143
n-Butane –0.6 20 to 80 154
Ethyl chloride 12.2 30 to 100 187
Ether 34.5 60 to 160 194
Ethyl alcohol 78.5 30 to 180 243
Water 100 120 to 220 375
Toluene 110.5 150 to 250 321
Argon –185.7 Down to – 253 –122
(Specially used for
very low temp. in gas
liquefaction)
Errors in Filled-in Systems and Their Compensation The common errors in the filled-in systems arise
due to (i) ambient temperature effect, (ii) the head or elevation effect, (iii) the barometric effect, (iv) the
immersion effect, and (v) the radiation effect.
(1) The change in ambient temperature causes volume changes in the capillary and the pressure spring
thereby causing error in measurement. Its value when exists is given by
tE = (Vctc + Vptp)/Vb (5.16)
where suffixes b, c, p and E stand for bulb, capillary, pressure spring and error respectively and V
indicates volume, t, change in temperature.
(2) If the thermometer bulb is placed at a different height with respect to the pressure spring, elevation
error arises. Figure 5.7 explains the situation. For the bulb at a higher position, the reading is higher and
vice versa. The error expressed in per cent span is given by
Fig. 5.7 Explanation of the elevation error
%Es = 100h r(kb + kf )Vb/DV = 100h r(kb + kf)/(Rd) (5.17)

where h = difference in height as shown, r = fluid density, kb and kf are bulb and fluid stiffnesses
usually in cc/cc/kg/cm2.
(3) The barometric effect arising due to atmospheric pressure change, changes the effective pressure
differential in the pressure spring. For a pressure change Dp in the system and a barometric pressure
change DpB, this error expressed in per cent of the span of temperature scale ts is given by
tb = 100DpBts /Dp (5.18)
(4) If the bulb is not properly or fully immersed in the process and the head of the bulb is not properly
insulated, heat from the bulb is lost due to conduction through the extension neck and thermal well
causing what is known as the immersion error for which indication is usually small. The error is
roughly proportional to the unexposed area of the bulb.
(5) Radiation error occurs due to temperature difference between the bulb and other solid bodies around
it.
The filled-in systems have been classified as Classes I and V in case of volume expansion types with
fluids other than mercury and mercury respectively and as Classes III and II in case of pressure types with
gas and vapours respectively. There has been subclassification depending on the amount of compensation
provided—specifically for ambient temperature variations, in volume expansion and gas pressure types and
design details also with reference to ambient conditions in vapour pressure types. When case compensation
only is provided within the instrument by using a bimetallic material suitably adapted the subclassifications
are IB, IIIB and VB as shown in Fig. 5.8(a) where true compensation is at a single temperature only. In this
category also falls a case compensated system where a compensating spring adapted with a differential link
is used as shown in Fig. 5.8(b). When complete compensation is effected for pressure spring and capillary,
a duplicate dummy system without the bulb is so arranged that the second capillary runs alongside the
active one as shown in Fig. 5.9. This is classified as IA, IIIA and VA. For vapour pressure system since
the liquid surface is mostly at the bulb, this ambient effect is negligible but depending upon its overall
ambient operating condition, four different subclasses are there. Class IIA is a design for the condition that
the bulb temperature is always above the temperature of the rest of the thermometer system implying that
the pressure spring, capillary and part of the bulb is always filled with the liquid. This requires a large bulb.
Class IIB is a design for the condition that bulb temperature is always below the temperature of the rest of
the system and hence it is the vapour that fills the capillary and the pressure spring and the bulb volume in
this design becomes minimum. Class IIC is a design for the condition that the measured temperature is both
Meas. Compens.
Bourdon Bourdon
Bimetallic strip
Differential link
Bourdon
Capillary
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.8 Different types of compensation (a) compensation with a bimetallic strip,
(b) compensation with a differential link
above and below the temperature of the rest of the system. It is not very reliable during the transition across
the ambient condition and requires a very large bulb. Class IID is a design for all temperatures including the
ambient. Its schematic is shown in Fig. 5.5 where the volatile liquid is confined to the sensitive portion of
the bulb with the transmission function passed on to a non-volatile liquid.
Elevation error is normally negligible if the filling
is at high pressure compared with the head due to
elevation difference. The barometric effect is usually
calculated and accounted for as it is not easy to
compensate this by hardware arrangement. Immersion
error is eliminated by proper immersion and adequate
insulation wherever necessary. A radiation shield Compensating capillary
around the bulb minimizes radiation error.
Not all the filled-in system types are equally
Measuring capillary
affected by the errors. Some are really immune to
some types of errors and others are not. The Table 5.5
gives a comparative list of the error sensitivity of the Fig. 5.9 Compensation for capillary expansion
filled-in systems.
Table 5.5 Error sensitivity of the illed-in system

Types of errors Volume exp. type Vap. pres. type Gas pres. type
Ambient Yes, needs be compensated No, as the liquid surface at Yes, needs be compensated
the bulb is the only determining
factor
Elevation Yes, needs be corrected Yes, large error, as the system No, as gas density is small and
pressure is low filling is at high pressure
Barometric Yes, to be corrected Yes, to be corrected Negligible as the filling is at
high pressure
Immersion Yes May be neglected if the liquid Yes
surface is inside the process
Radiation Yes Yes Yes
Even when adequate compensations have been provided in the systems, the other factors that affect
reproducibility are the material characteristics of the thermometers. Thermal stresses, mechanical stresses
and material failure due to prolonged operations are some of the these disturbances that produce drift.
The filling media such as mercury, nitrogen or toluene get contaminated due to metal porosity or get
decomposed at high temperatures and may introduce calibration drift. A regular check is, therefore, essential
for drift-free performance of the thermometers.
Other Considerations Generally, thermal systems are inherently sluggish because of the thermal time
constant of the filling media, the measuring system and also of the process fluid. Also film coefficient of
heat transfer, heat transfer area and the condition of the process fluid are to be considered for determining
the speed of response of the system.
When the process fluid is in continuous motion heat transfer is quicker from the process of the
measuring system and the response time correspondingly becomes shorter. Bare bulb would be
mounted in a process where there is less chance of damage due to shock, and, corrosion problem is
negligible. In such a case, a first order response is expected. If a well is to be used in conjunction with
the bulb as shown in Fig. 5.10 for reasons of protection, the response characteristics change considerably.
Figure 5.11(a) shows the response characteristics of a filled-in system without and with well. The thickness
of the well is also important. The well mass is separated from
the bulb mass by a thermal resistance, which also produces
Thermometer
poor response characteristics. The motion of the process bulb
fluids can, to a certain extent, reduce the lag but this cannot
be introduced as a compensating means because the process Well
behaviour is entirely independent. Figure 5.11(b) shows
a time lag versus process fluid velocity curve indicating
the performance characteristic. The type of the process is
also important as heat transfer depends on this. When the
bulb is completely enclosed in a well there is no movement
of the interspace fluid and consequently no reduction in Fig. 5.10 Sketch of the thermometer well
film coefficient resistance. This causes serious error in and bulb
measurement.
100
Without well
75 1.00
% Response
Time lag
0.75
50
With well
0.50
25
0.25
0 0
1 2 3 4 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4
Time (min) Log velocity (ft/min)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.11 (a) Response of characteristics of illed-in systems with and without well
(b) time lag versus velocity curve
Thermal resistance and capacitance determine the time constant of the measurement system and
consequently the response time of the system. The thermal resistance is defined as the temperature
difference between two points causing a heat flow rate. Thus
RT = (t1 – t2) (dq/dt) °C/cal/sec (5.19)
When there is a flow of heat through a body, there will be some sort of storage of heat, resulting in
an increase in the temperature of the body which serves as a heat
conductor. This is much the same as the storage of charge on the 100
plates of a capacitor, which increases the voltage across the termi-
nals. 75
There are other lags in pressure spring thermometers which
% Response
are specific for specific systems. For vapour pressure-type a cross 50

ambient effect occurs if the instrument range is across the ambient
25
temperature, as has already been mentioned. When the temperature
crosses the ambient value, a change in position of vapour space 0
and liquid space takes place automatically but it requires a certain dip
amount of time which comes as a lag in response. Another effect –25
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
in mercury in steel thermometer is known as the dip effect. Due to
lag
the fact that the metal bulb expands before mercury, an apparent Time (min.)
contraction in liquid volume occurs showing a dip in the indication
Fig. 5.12 The dip effect
as shown in Fig. 5.12. The lag may be as large as 6 to 10 secs. The
dip effects in vapour and gas thermometers are negligible.
Example 5.2 For a liquid illed-in system the compensation is effected at the middle of the scale by a bimetallic
compensator for ambient temperature variation. If the differential expansivity of the luid and the spring material is
9 × 10–4/°C, calculate the ambient temperature error at the end scales.
Solution Volume change variation on either side from central scale is ± (1/2) DV ∂e DT, where ∂e is the
differential expansivity. Hence the maximum error per degree is
te max = ±100 ¥ (1/2)DV ◊ ∂e DT ¥ (1/DV) ¥ (1/DT) = ± 50 ¥ 90 ¥ 10–4
= ± 0.045%
5.4 ELECTRICAL TYPE TEMPERATURE SENSORS
In recent years varieties of electrical type temperature sensors are being marketed either for direct
temperature measurement or in association with radiation type, acoustic type etc. In this section main
concern will, however, be about resistance thermometers including thermistors and thermo-emf sensors.
5.4.1 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

A metallic resistance element changes its resistance with temperature in a very specific manner. Pure
elements have been used for measurement of temperature by this effect and the method is one of the most
accurate ones. Electrical conductivity of a metallic element is given by
s = ne2tr/m (5.20)
where e is the electron charge, n is the number of electrons per unit volume and m is the mass of electron;
tr is known as the relaxation time. With temperature this time varies, its value ordinarily being of the
order of 10–13 sec. Electrons travel through the metal as plane waves and these waves are modified by a
function having the periodicity of the lattice. With imperfections in the lattice, metal acquires resistivity.
Imperfections may arise due to point defects, grain boundaries, foreign atoms etc. as these give rise to
additional scattering increasing resistivity (= 1/s). When phonon is emitted or absorbed, the lattice vibrates,
then also electrons are scattered. Each scattering has its own relaxation rate (1/tr) so that
r
1/tr = Â 1/tr i (5.21)
i =1
r
Thus the resistivity r = 1/s = (m/(ne 2 ))Â (1/tri ). However, phonon-electron scattering is only dependent
i =1
on temperature, the others contribute a fixed increment in resistive value. Hence one can write
r = ro [1 + (m/ne2)(1/trk )] (5.22)
From such a relation, relation (5.23) below may be derived considering that 1/trk is a series function of
Dt the temperature change.
The relation between resistance and temperature change Dt is, thus, expressed by the series
Ê n ˆ
Rt = Ro Á 1 + Â a j ( Dt ) j ˜ (5.23)
Ë j =1 ¯
where aj’s are temperature coefficients of resistance. In the narrow ranges of operation, aj’s, j ≥ 2 are
negligibly small so that Rt is given by
Rt = Ro (1 + a1Dt) (5.24)
a1 is positive for a metallic resistance element and is often determined experimentally. The commonly used
metals are platinum with a range –190° to 660ºC international scale with second degree relation, copper
with a range –150° to 250°C and nickel with a range 0° to 325°. The resistance temperature relations for
these elements are graphically shown in Fig. 5.13. The choice of the materials will be governed by (a)
high temperature coefficient—this gives larger sensitivity; (b) high resistivity of the material—this ensures
small length of the wire for a high resistance value implying that a larger resistance for the same wire
length is obtained and the output also is larger; (c) linearity of resistance-temperature relation—this greatly
adds to convenience in measurement; (d) stability of electrical characteristics of the material and resistance
to contamination—this is necessary for good repeatability, and (e) sufficient mechanical strength—this is
necessary as the wire must be drawn to a very fine/small diameter for reducing response time and yet must
possess adequate ruggedness for the construction of the thermometer. A comparison of the most important
materials on the above basis is given in Table 5.6.
Table 5.6 Comparison of relative merits of the RTD materials

Material Range °C a1, W/W/ºC r, mW–cm Min. wire MP, ºC Tensile Relative
diameter, cm strength cost
kg/cm2
Platinum –250 to 700 0.00385 (S)* 9.83 0.002 1775.5 1286 150
0.00392 (R)**
Copper –200 to 250 0.0043 1.56 0.002 1084.6 2144 1
Nickel –100 to 350 0.0063 to 6.38 0.002 1455.0 8577 10
0.0067
*Standardized value; ** For reference grade platinum.

At a range below 120 K, a gold-silver alloy has been tried 10
and it has been seen to have characteristics similar to platinum.
For a temperature below 7 K a phosphor-bronze alloy shows
7.5 Ni
good change in resistance with temperature. In fact, sensitivity Rt
55 times as large as in ordinary types is obtained with this type Ro Cu
in this range. This large sensitivity has been attributed to the 5.0 Pt
superconductivity effect because of the presence of lead. A small
quantity of iron, about 0.5%, making an alloy with Rhodium 2.5
produces a resistance anomaly with positive temperature
coefficient at low temperature. This alloy can be used in the range I
0.5 to 30 K. Diluted Pt-Co alloys have similar properties. –100 0 200 400 600 800
Usually resistance wires of about 0.01 cm dia. is used in this Temp. (°C)
–1.25
thermometers but depending on the range and other factors it
varies from 0.002 to 0.06 cm. The wire is initially tested for Fig. 5.13 Resistance-temperature
purity by measuring resistance coefficient and by melting a relations for different materials
small length which must melt without sputtering, scintillating
or evolving volatile materials. The tested wire is then bifilarly wound on a framework to form a coil. For
ordinary measurements the framework may be a mica cross, a ceramic flat or round arbors. In special cases
metal arbors are chosen, in which case the resistance is electrically insulated. For surface temperature
measurement a woven wire-mesh, i.e., a grid form on the flat surface of an insulating cylinder is chosen. A
construction similar to the strain gauge is also not uncommon. Ribbons and streaks are also used which are
fastened to the surface by adhesives or by wrapping. The surface temperature in the range –200 to 500°C
is measurable by resistance thermometers. The area of the grid mesh may be as small as 1 sq. mm and
it can be conveniently used for hot spot temperature measurement. Temperature of air, either stagnant or
moving, requires to be measured in many cases. The design changes according to the degree of mobility
and temperature range. A self-supporting helical form is quite common for this purpose. This is mounted on
an insulating frame as shown in Fig. 5.14(a). Figures 5.14(b) and (c) show a mica cross winding type and
strain gauge type surface temperature measuring probe respectively.
The resistance thermometers are made either tip sensitive or stem sensitive. Figure 5.14(b) may be
considered to be tip-sensitive while Fig. 5.14(a) is obviously stem-sensitive. Stem-sensitive constructions
are more commonly used where the tip-sensitive constructions are of use in special cases only. The
actual tip-sensitive type consists of a silver tip for easy and quick heat transfer to the winding primarily
concentrated close to the tip.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 5.14 Types of resistance elements: (a) self-supporting helical type for lowing luid temperature,
(b) mica cross winding type for general purpose, (c) mesh type for surface temperature
Generally, resistance thermometers have resistances varying from 0.1 to a few hundred ohms; for
example, transformer industry uses copper resistance thermometers with 10 ohm resistance at 25ºC.
Advances in thin film technology has been exploited successfully to produce high resistance thin film
platinum RTD specially on a small area. A 1000 ohm thin film platinum RTD has now been standardized at
a lower a-value of 0.00375 W/W/ºC in which platinum content is less than cent per cent. Industrial platinum
RTD’s are available in different resistance values ranging from 100 to 500 ohms and in different physical
dimensions. Sheath diameters vary from 0.3 to 0.6 cm and a few centimeters in length.
The resistance thermometers are protected from the medium being measured by encasing tubes which
are made from glass, quartz, porcelain or even nickel. The most used ceramic tube today is of 99.7%
Al2O3. The sheaths may be filled with air at high pressure, i.e., pressure higher than the measuring medium
pressure. For high temperatures, the excess pressure is 1/3 to 1/2 atmosphere, for low temperatures it
is 1 atom. or so. For very low temperatures, air is to be avoided to prevent condensation, and helium is
preferred. The thermometer winding should be protected against water vapour for avoiding corrosion and
also to avoid increased leakage resistance between the windings, between the arbor and the winding, and
between the protecting sheath and winding. The insulating material chosen for the wire, when not bare, are
enamel, silk, paper, special fibre glass, teflon and mica. Then insulation resistance is required to be 20 mega
ohm for an applied voltage of 100 V if the usual voltage of measurement is 1/4 of the test voltage. For
resistance relation above 0°C Callender equation given below is preferred
tc = (R – Ro)/(R100 – Ro) ¥ 100 + d(tc/100 – l)tc/100 (5.25)
where 1.49 < d < 1.5 for platinum. Equation (5.25) can also be written as
tc = (Rt – Ro)/(aRo) + d(tc/100 –1)tc/100
Conforming to IPTS standard this is written as
tIPTS = tc + Dt (5.26a)
where Dt is the correction term given as
Dt = 0.045tc/(100) + (tc/100 –1) (tc/419.58 –1) (tc/603.74 – 1) (5.26b)
Resistance thermometers are the most accurate of all the temperature measuring systems and an accuracy
of 0.0001ºC can be obtained in these. They are very convenient for measurement of a small temperature
difference where the more commonly used thermocouple type gives no appreciably measurable output.
Bridge circuits are preferred for the measurement of the resistance. For accurate measurement, provision
must be made to compensate for the lead wire resistances as also for nonlinearity which comes in for higher
temperatures because of the relation
Rt = Ro(1 + a1Dt – a2(Dt)2)
Lead wires in internal use are usually from a base metal alloy with high temperature capabilities such
as inconel or nickel clad copper. In external part, the lead wires are usually teflon insulated copper wires.
Compensation for lead wires is done with 4-lead construction of the thermometer. The scheme is shown in
Fig. 5.15(a). In the indicated position
Ra+ Rk = Rt + RT (5.27a)
and with the switch flipped to the other position
Ra¢ + RT = Rt + Rk (5.27b)
It has, however, been assumed that Rm and Rc are designed to have equal values. This is not essential
though, in view of the fact that both Rm and Rc come in the supply/detector circuits. Adding Eqs (5.27a) and
(b) one gets
Rt = (Ra + Ra¢ )/2 (5.27c)
A triple pole mercury switch can be used for the purpose. This is the commonly known Mueller bridge
used in laboratory practice.
For linearizing, the detector side is provided with the converter as shown in Fig. 5.15(b). The
nonlinearity is compensated for by proper choice of the resistance Rfb which determines the amount of
positive feedback from the output of amplifier A1.
Rk
K
R2 Rc
m
c Rt
Rm
T
R1
Ra
R’a
RT
(a)
Rfb
A1 +
+ V1 A2
B.O. +
–
–
+ Range
Zero O.P.
(I)
(b)
Fig. 5.15 (a) Circuit arrangement for 4-lead measurement scheme, (b) the circuit
for linearized current output (BO: bridge output, OP: output)
Commercially the slide wire methods are more popular because the contact resistances may be easily
transferred to the source or the detector arms without affecting the bridge resistance. The three lead method
is preferred as it helps to compensate for variable lead wire resistance. The three lead wires are parallel run
in a single sheath for identical temperature distribution. To improve the lead wire resistance compensation,
double slide wire method has been adopted by Leeds and Northrup Co. Figure, 5.16 shows the scheme of
the method. The wipers of the slide wire potentiometers are mechanically connected and fraction of the
slide wire resistances Rs1 and Rs2 is the same for both the cases.
From the figure, for balance-condition, one derives
(Rt + Rl) /(fRs2 + R3 + Rl) = (R2 + Rs1 – fRs1)/(R1 + fRs1 + Rs2 – fRs2) (5.28)
where Rl is the lead wire resistance assumed identical in both. If we can make r.h.s. of Eq. (5.28) equal to 1,
we shall have
Rt = fRs2 + R3, i.e., Rt µ f (5.29)
Rs1
R1 f
R2
i2 i1
f S
Rs2
R3 R1 R1
Rt
Fig. 5.16 The double-slide wire scheme
The above proportionality can be obtained if one chooses

R2 – R1= Rs1 = (1/2) Rs2 (5.30)
The bridge unbalance is generally sensed by a servosystem and the wipers are automatically moved by
the system to restore balance. Any or both of the potentiometers may be calibrated in temperature directly.
An ac supply can also be used for the bridge and in such a case, a capacitance bridge is used for
measurement. The automatic balancing ac bridge circuit
is shown in Fig. 5.17. The change in resistance of the
Rt
thermometer can be used to give deflection of a pointer
+
in a millivoltmeter if the null detector is replaced by
S
this device. Obviously, there is less accuracy with such
a meter. It is generally preferred when it is a must and
when variation in temperature is quite small from a Voltage and
Power Amplifier
specified value.
With a highly stable constant current source power
supply which is available off-the-shelf now, alternative
schemes of null-balance techniques of measurement are Fig. 5.17 Arrangement of the automatic balancing
getting better reception in industries, particularly where ac bridge circuit
many temperature measuring points are there and require auto/manual scanning. With the RTD clement of
Fig. 5.15(a), the constant current source supplies the element through points m and c, a constant current I
(say) so that the voltage output at the terminals K – T is given as E = f (I Rt) = f2 (T), as, with I constant Rt
= f1(T). The constant current I is kept small, less than 2 mA, for avoiding self-heating error. Often for large
range, a linearizer is used and the output voltage can be converted 4-20 mA, output by a converter described
in Chapter 4. Also digital display of the output can be easily accomplished. A scheme is shown in Fig. 5.18.
DCPS
Rt
AL VIC 4-20 mA
DD
Fig. 5.18 Large range linearized output scheme with digital display (DCPS: DC power supply,
A: ampli ier and linearizer, VIC: V-I converter, DD: digital display)
The performance of a resistance thermometer is discussed in the following with reference to different
errors and delays in response:
1. Self-heating Error One objectionable feature in resistance thermometry is the self-heating error. This is
more pronounced if the measuring current is quite high causing an appreciable I2Rt loss. With a change of
current the reading may, therefore, change. For a current I1, if indicated temperature is t1 and for I2 if it is t2,
the corrected temperature t can be shown to be
t = t1 – (t1 – t2)I 21 /( I 21 – I 22 ) (5.31)
Hence, a correction is possible. But from the practical viewpoint it is advisable that the heating be kept
low without causing any appreciable error. As the magnitude of the error depends on the heat transfer as well,
one method to minimize self-heating error is to immerse the resistance in a high thermal conductivity fluid.
Another method is to use an unsymmetrical pulse type of excitation so that effective self-heating is negligible.
From a dc source this pulse type excitation is obtained by commutation. This gives the added advantage of
bringing in several sensors to the same bridge circuit. The schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.19.
R1
R2
eo Commutator
R3
R4 Rt1 Rt2 Rt3
Fig. 5.19 Commutation circuit scheme for minimizing self-heating error

2. Thermo-emf The terminal wires of the resistance element are generally of a material different from that
of the element material. If the terminal junctions are at different temperatures, a thermo-emf may develop to
cause error in the reading. The remedy is to keep the junctions at close quarters so that they have the same
temperature. An averaging can also compensate, for this.
3. Leakage Current A leakage current between the resistance element and the ground should be avoided.
This is tested initially as indicated earlier.
4. Power Pack The thermometer requires an auxiliary power supply as has already been discussed and is
not self-contained in that respect. This adds additional cost, requires additional space and obviously is a sort
of disadvantage. The advancement of IC technology has, to a large extent, reduced the size of the power
supply and increased stability and enhanced performance of the supply with a simultaneous reduction in
cost.
5. Lags Resistance thermometers in majority of applications are enclosed in protective sheaths called
wells. These are shaped like a tube with a little flattening at the end for better heat transfer facility. The
speed of response is governed by the same criteria as were discussed in the filled-in systems. Approximate
response characteristics are shown in Figs 5.20(a), (b).
5.4.2 Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconducting resistance temperature sensors. They have been commercially used since
1940 and have a large temperature coefficient of resistance. The negative temperature coefficient (NTC)
is more common. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors are used within limited range of
temperature and for protective purposes as has been discussed later in the chapter.
Bare in stirred air
100 100
Bare in stirred air
75 75
% Response
% Response
Double
Bare in dead air protection in
50 50
stirred water
Steel well in
25 stirred air 25 Steel well in
stirred air
0 1 2 3 4 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0

Time (min) Time (min)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.20 Response curves for resistance thermometers: (a) in air, (b) in water
The NTC thermistor has a resistance-temperature relation as shown in Fig. 5.21. This is shown alongwith
the characteristic of platinum for comparison. Conductivity in semiconducting crystals, sintered metal oxi-
des, carbon resistors etc. is due to the movement of holes and electrons of densities dp and dn respectively
in the conduction band. In such cases energy gap is large (denoted as Eg) between the conduction and the
valence bands when compared to KT. With increasing temperature, more number of electrons participate in
conduction. Assuming that the electrons follow Fermi-Dirac statistics and the Fermi level is fm, the densities
are given as
dp = 2(2pmhKT/h)3/2 exp (–fm/KT) (5.32a)
and
dn = 2(2pmeKT/h)3/2 exp{–(Eg – fm)/KT} (5.32b)
where mh and me are effective hole and electron masses respectively, K = Boltzmann constant and h
= Planck’s constant. For intrinsic semiconductors like pure silicon, pure germanium, dp = dn, so that
conductivity is
s = 2q(2pKT/h2)3/2 (mhme)3/4 (qth/mh + qte/me) exp (–Eg/KT) (5.32c)
106
104
102 Thermistor
(Sp. res.)
10–2
10–4 Pt
10–6
–100 0 100 200 300
Temp. (°C)
Fig. 5.21 Resistance-temperature relations for thermistor and platinum
where th and te are relaxation times for interactions of photons with holes and electrons respectively. The
terms qth/mh and qte/me are usually different. Also both dp and dn are temperature dependent. Equation
(5.32c) can be simply put as
s = so exp (–b/T) (5.32d)
with so being dependent on temperature or, else, r = ro exp (b/T) with ro dependent on temperature. The
last equation is now generalized as
Rt =Ro exp [b(1/T – 1/To)] (5.33)
where Rt is the resistance at T K; Ro, the resistance at To K; b, the thermistor constant which is dependent on
the material and manufacturing techniques and is in degree K. Its common value lies around 4000 K.
The above relation can be empirically obtained as well. A generalized empirical relation is
n
ln R = Â a j /T j (5.34)
j =0
The value of b in Eq. (5.33) is assumed constant for all practical purposes but it has generally a rising
tendency with temperature. The assumption that b is constant gives a relation for the temperature coefficient
of resistance, a, as
a = (dRt /dt)/Rt = –b/T 2 (5.35)
The parameter a is not constant as is seen from Eq. (5.35) and decreases as the temperature rises.
Thermistor is a low current device and its dissipation factor is important. The power dissipation should
not be large. The dissipation factor D is given by
D = P/ DT (5.36)
where P is the power dissipated and DT is the steady state temperature rise due to the dissipation of power.
The important considerations in the making of the thermistor are its nominal resistance Ro, its thermal
dissipation factor D, thermal time constant t, and its shape, size and mechanical construction.
Thermistors are manufactured generally from the oxides, sulphides and silicates of metals like copper,
cobalt, manganese, nickel, iron, zinc, aluminium, magnesium and uranium. The oxides mixed with
appropriate proportion of sulphides and silicates of these metals are milled, pressed into desired shape
with appropriate binders and finally sintered. The electrical terminals are embedded before sintering or
are baked afterwards. The bead, rod, disc type thermistors are more common and are shown in Fig. 5.22.
The composition of the thermistors determines their resistivity to a large extent. It may have values of
r from 0.1 to 109 ohm cm. For general use, its value is kept between 100 and 106 ohm cm. Impurities,
where present, lower the value of r by a large factor and hence the value of Ro. It is generally accepted
that for measurement of temperature, the resistance value should change between 10 to 30 per cent within
the working range of temperature. Above 300ºC zirconia-based thermistors and in cryogenic range iron
oxide-based thermistors are found to be very useful. Iron oxides exhibit very low activation energy with
sensitivity of 15 per cent at 20 K increasing to 300 per cent down at 4.2 K.
Bead type Glass container
Rod type Disc type
Fig. 5.22 Thermistors of various shapes
With barium and/or strontium titanate in pervoskite type oxides, positive temperature coefficient
thermistors are produced. It is believed that the ferroelectric property of these materials is responsible for
such an anomaly. The ratio of barium to strontium gives the value of the sensitivity. Its range is rather low
from 10 to 115ºC approximately.
The thermal dissipation depends on the thermal coupling or isolation to the surroundings. Value of D is
normally within 10–5 W/ºC, when thermistor is coupled to the free air.
The time constant of the thermistor may vary from 0.1 sec to a few minutes, depending on the materials
and form of the thermistors. It is calculated from the formula
t = mC/(hA) (5.37)
where, m = mass, C = specific heat, h = heat transfer coefficient, and A = area of heat transfer. In bare
spherical beads, t is quite small. Beads of diameters from 0.01 to 0.2 cm are common. The specific heat of
the semiconducting materials is generally low and, therefore, t also becomes small. This low specific heat
is advantageous in another way, since heat drawn from the process is negligibly small, measurement is not
practically affected by way of energy redistribution.
The thermistor range for common purposes is specified as from –100ºC to 300ºC. This, however, is
compressed for stable operation. Special thermistors from aluminium oxides have been formed to cover
a range on the high temperature side (800ºC to 1100ºC). Compression in the range on the upper side is
necessary for possible physical changes at high temperatures. The lower side of the range is fixed by the
increased resistance which should be matched with the measuring circuit. At very low temperatures, below
20 K, increase in resistance per degree Kelvin is quite large and is approximately given by the relation
log10R + C/(log10R) = A + B/T (5.38)
where A, B and C are constants of the thermistor. Besides, semiconducting materials have aging effects like
increasing resistance over a period of years or months. This happens due to slow changes in the constitution
by decomposition and other effects. The aging effect may be reduced when materials are chosen properly so
that electronic conduction only works in it and by encapsulating the bead in glass or other such materials.
For obtaining high stability, pre-aging with a temperature 1.6

within +10% of the maximum of the range is also preferred.
% Change in resistance
After manufacture, resistance from 0.5 to 1.5% may change in
1.2
a day or two, subsequently rate of change is lower. Pre-aging
reduces the rate to less than 0.2% in a year Figure 5.23 shows
the aging characteristics for two samples. When thermistors are 0.8
given cycling heat input, relaxation characteristics are observed
in them and this presents certain difficulties in changing 0.4
temperature measurement.
Positive Temperature Coefficient thermistors (PTC) are
mainly used as protective elements in electric machinery 0 1 day 2 yrs
particularly of their windings as in transformers and motors Time
etc. These are usually made from titanates of barium, lead Fig. 5.23 Aging characteristics of two
and strontium. Their R-T characteristics are somewhat similar typical thermistors
to the I-V characteristics of a forward biased silicon diode.
Up to a certain temperature, often referred to as switching or
reference temperature, the resistance increases very slowly,
but after that temperature, the increase is very rapid. The
PTC thermistor is connected in series with the winding of the
machine such that after a reference temperature is reached, the
high resistance drops the current to such a low value that the
Resistance
machine effectively becomes off. The R-T characteristic curve

of a PTC thermistor is shown in Fig. 5.24.
The main disadvantage of a thermistor thermometer is its
nonlinear scale over the range of operation. This, however, to
some extent is annulled by simple compensation techniques
one of which is to parallel the thermistor with a low resistance.
Temp. ts
This reduces the sensitivity but increases the linearity. Figure
5.25 shows the scheme, and the graphs of uncompensated and Fig. 5.24 R-T characteristics of a PTC
compensated thermistor characteristics for comparison. As thermistor
the parallel combination has a much less resistance value it is
only natural to expect that its percentage change will also be less. This can be calculated theoretically with
approximation, or graphically, or by numerical computation. If Rt and Rc are paralleled for an equivalent
resistance Re, one can easily calculate
|dRe/dT | = b(Rt/T2)(Rc/(Rc + Rt))2 < bRt/T2 = | dRt/dT | (5.39)
Rt Rc
Resistance
Th (Rt)
Rt alone
Rc
Temp.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.25 Compensation for nonlinearity of thermistor response: (a) scheme by paralleling with a low
resistance, (b) graphs of compensated and uncompensated thermistor resistances
since Rc/(Rc + Rt) < 1. Thus the sensitivity is less but as is seen from the curves of Fig. 5.25(b) the linearity
is improved to a certain extent.
Active linearization schemes for thermistors and the likes that obtain a voltage or current proportional
to temperature have been extensively studied. Such schemes have been shown to linearize the thermistors
to a good extent but in varying ranges of temperatures. A very novel technique that linearizes the entire
range almost ideally utilizing a log amplifier and the nonlinear characteristics of an FET is shown in
Fig. 5.26(a). With the thermistor relation given by Eq. (5.33), the output of the log amplifier V1, for an
ambient temperature Ta in K, reverse saturation current of the transistor Q as Is and the common base
current gain of the transistor as a, is
V1 = (kTa/q) ln [ViR/(R1RoIsa) + b/To)] – kTa b/(qT ) (5.40)
(–) V2 VR
R2
R Q R8 R3
R7
Rt
(–) – – +
Vi –
+ + V1 R – Vo
R1 6
+ Vgs
R5
R4
(a)
1.5
1.4
1.3
Vo
1.2
(Volts)
1.1
1.0
0.9
290 310 330 350 370
Temp. (K)
(b)
Fig. 5.26 Active full range linearization scheme of thermistor: (a) the circuit, (b) the linearized output
Voltage output V1 is now fed to the gate-source of the FET after weighted summing with a voltage V2 (–)
while the FET is supplied with a reference voltage VR. Thus
Vgs = V1R7/R6 – V2R7/R8 (5.41)
Also, Rds = Ro/(1 – Vgs/Vp), where Ro = Rds when Vgs = 0, and Vp = pinchoff voltage. Now, Vgs is kept less
than or equal to (1/2) Vp and R2/ R3 is made equal to R4/R5 to obtain the output voltage Vo as
VR Ro (1 + R5 /R4 ) /R2
Vo = (5.42)
1 - V2 R7 /(V p R8 ) - {kTa R7 /(qV p R6 )}(b /To + ln (Vi R) /( Ro R1 I sa ))) + b R7 kTa / (qV p R6T )
which, for
1 –V2R7/(VoR8) – {kTaR7/(qVpR6)} (b/To + lnViR/(RoR1Is a) = 0 (5.43)
yields
Vo = CT (5.44)
where C = qVRVpRoR6 (1 + R5/R4)/(bR2R7kTa) (5.45)
One would note from the above that only VR can be arbitrarily controlled while R2/(1 + R5/R4) can be
controlled in a little constrained manner for sensitivity control. The other parameters are device dependent,
and/or are constrained as shown in Eq. (5.43). The error in this linearization technique is not more than
0.2%. Figure 5.26(b) shows a typical experimental plot of |Vo | –T curve over a range of 290 to 370 K.
Nonlinearity of thermistor response and the likes is now being linearized through software techniques as
well, and in recent years a lot of work has been done towards this direction. A typical generalized technique
is described here briefly. Use has been made of standard approximation techniques such as curve-fitting
and interpolation to obtain approximate polynomial forms and rational functions required. Driving the
thermistor with a constant current I, its voltage output V ={IRo exp (–b/TC)} exp (b/T) = Co exp (b/T). The
linearized form of V is a straight line of negative slope. Choosing any two points on the curve of the above
voltage-temperature relation (T1, V1) and (T2, V2) which also determine the range, the linearized output is
Vl = A1T + Ao (5.46)
where obviously Ao = (T2 V1 – T1 V2)/(T2 – T1) and A1 = (V2 – V1)/(T2 – T1).
Introducing a known complementary function Vc so that Vl is the mean of V and Vc, one would measure V
to obtain Vl directly and hence T is obtained. Mean can again be of three types: arithmetic mean, geometric
mean and root square mean. Actually Vc is also a function of V so that one can write
m
Vc = Â aiV i (5.47)
i =0
Function Vc, as written above, is of generalized form and for obtaining it as required, ai’s are to be
computed and stored and hence several exponentiation operations are needed. In the algorithm given below,
the number of such operations has been greatly reduced. The flow chart of Fig. 5.27 explains this algorithm
which consists of three parts, the first part initializes the system by taking specifications through keyboard
when a PC or a microprocessor is used. The second part solves for the coefficients of the polynomial
function of Eq. (5.47) using any of the techniques, (i) general interpolation technique using m + 1 data, and
(ii) standard curve-fitting methods with number of data > m + 1. The third part is the actual online linearizer
programme where the exponentiation operations are reduced by representing Eq. (5.47) as
Vc = ao + V [a1 + V{a2 + ... + V(am–1 + Vam)}] (5.48)
Equation (5.48) is computed with m do-loops. After Vc is evaluated any of the mean forms may be
considered to obtain the linearized output. The rms form is
Vl = {(l/2)(V 2 + V 2c)}1/2 (5.49)
It can be shown that with increasing m, full-scale error in percentage, fslp, decreases. In fact, for m = 5,
the fslp following Lagrange interpolation technique is well within 1 per cent up to a temperature of 300 K.
With Vc expressed as a rational function, the error is reduced further even for lower orders of the numerator
and denominator polynomials.
Fig. 5.27 Flow chart relating to temperature linearization scale for thermistors
Current in the thermistor is limited for a limited dissipation factor and also at higher currents, the
semiconductors used show negative resistance characteristics, the system tending to be oscillatory. Figure
5.28 shows the typical V–I characteristic of a thermistor. Many schemes are available for using thermistors
as direct thermometers or as compensators or as transducers for transmission and control. A circuit that
utilizes the thermistor in the frequency determining network of the one-half of a stable multivibrator is
shown in Fig. 5.29. The changed mark-to-space ratio with temperature will give an average output which
can in turn depend almost linearly on the temperature. Another temperature-to-frequency conversion
scheme is shown in Fig. 5.30(a). With the specified b and Ro of the thermistor and proper selection of Rp
and Rs, the output frequency of the circuit is almost a linear function of temperature over a considerably
wider range. Figure 5.30(b) shows the relationship graphically. Choice of Rp and Rs, with respect to Ro also
accounts for the sensitivity of a linearized range TR of the thermistor. Such a scheme can be used for digital
instrumentation system and telemetering.
12
0
0.3 1 5 10
I
Fig. 5.28 V-l characteristic of a thermistor

+
Rt
Fig. 5.29 Temperature measurement with a thermistor using a multivibrator scheme
K>1
C
Freq.
Rt
Rp
R'
TR
Rs
Temp.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.30 (a) Temperature to frequency conversion network for thermistor,

(b) frequency-temperature curve for the circuit of Fig. 5.30(a)
5.4.3 IC Temperature Sensors

Integrated circuit temperature sensors are becoming popular in recent years because one can combine
the sensing element and the signal conditioning electronic parts into a single monolithic package. The
commonly available chips are AD592 which provides current output of 1 mA/K and LM335/334 with
output of 10 mV/K and 1 mV/K. Another IC thermosensor AD590 provides 1 µV/K and still another LM34
provides about 18 mV/K. Thermosensors like LM34/35 are internally compensated with 34 giving output in
terms of /K, whereas 35 giving it in terms of /°C. Taking the typical case of LM335 which is a temperature
sensitive zener diode, it is seen to produce an output, as shown in Fig. 5.31(a),
Vt = (10 mV)T/K (5.50)
It is usable in the range –55 to 150ºC. It lies between 400 µA and 5 mA with the test being performed
at 1 mA, above which the accuracy falls because of dissipation and self-heating. For choice of the circuit
elements one must make Rb = (Vcc – Vnominal)/l mA; IL << It min, i.e., Vt max/RL << (Vcc – Vt max)/Rb. Linearity
of such a device is around ± 1ºC. At 0ºC it has an output of 2.73 V which becomes an offset and needs to
be compensated as shown in Fig. 5.31(b). By adjusting Rz, –2.73 V is given at point A and by appropriate
adjustment, the wiper of 10 K pot is kept at the midpoint. Rz is usually kept small with respect to Rb, which
usually is 10 K, so that It is least affected by its adjustment.
Vcc Vcc
It Rb
Rb
Vt K Vt
It LM 335
10 K
–2.73
A
–Vcc
Ra Rz
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.31 (a) The temperature sensitive zener diode (b) the compensated circuit scheme of the above zener
Even ordinary diodes like IN194 can be used as thermosensors for simple applications with the diode
voltage varying linearly with temperature. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 5.32(a). For a fixed current
through the diode its voltage output Vd is as shown in Fig. 5.32(b). The nature of the curves indicate that at
a fixed temperature switching may be done using a comparator.
The sensors AD590 or 592 being current output devices, a voltage conversion is obtained as shown in
Fig. 5.33(a) where the voltage output across RL is Vo = ItRL. An active element is also quite often used for
voltage conversion which can also provide the necessary stable zero offset. A typical scheme is shown in
Fig. 5.33(b).
Above the overall view of a thermal sensor based on diodes/transistors considered mainly in the chip
form has been presented. Because of its growing importance and popularity in the application in a specified
range of temperature, a little more discussion is given.
For the basics of the system start is made with a transistor as it is more easily available and common
because it has good long-term stability, high sensitivity over the range specified and cost-effectiveness.
Relation of its base-emitter voltage VBE with temperature T(K) is also predictable and known to be drift-
free. Thus the voltage VBE can be straightaway a measure of the temperature. Additionally there are two
other variations in the application of the device—(i) a type in which the difference DVBE between the base-
emitters of two transistors is a measure of the temperature, the device being known as the PTAT-device
which stands for Proportional To Absolute Temperature and (ii) the one that uses an intrinsic reference and
uses both VBE and DVBE to provide the temperature. The empirical relation of VBE (T) is given as
VBE = 1.27 V –C1T (5.51a)
Vcc (15 V)
R3 R2
0.75 ª 2.3 mV/°C
Vd
0.50
+ Vo
1 mA
Vd R1 – 0.25
100 mA
10 mA
R4
0 50 100
t (°C)
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.32 (a) Temperature sensitive diode in the circuit scheme, (b) diode voltage with
temperature for different currents
SET ZERO
+Vcc
+Vcc
It –
Vo Vo
+
It
LM336
RL
AD590
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.33 (a) Equivalent scheme with AD590/192, (b) a generalized scheme for voltage output
where C1 is a constant. A linear decrease of VBE is actually indicated which starts from 1.27 V at absolute
zero. C1 is a function of the bias current density and process parameters. However, generalized formulation
of VBE (T) needs some more considerations. The generalized relation for collector current is well known
Ic = Is exp (qVBE/KT) (5.51b)
for zero-collector-base voltage (obtained by shorting the two terminals) to avoid basewidth modulation and
hence its effect on VBE; Is is the saturation current being proportional to emitter area and dependent on the
doping level and on temperature in such a way that Ic can be written as
Ic = C2Tm exp{q(VBE – Vo)/KT} (5.51c)
where Vo is the extrapolated band-gap voltage at 0 K and m is a constant varying, however, slightly with
doping level and C2 is a constant. It is thus seen that Ic is a function of VBE and T. In fact the transistor has
to be biased at an Ic whose temperature dependence is known. Often it is represented as
Ic = C3T n (5.52)
However, in measurement Ic is kept constant so that n = 0. Now, two temperatures—one of which is the
measuring one of an arbitrary value Ta and the other is the reference one Tr—are considered, combining Eqs
(5.51c) and (5.52), one derives
VBE(Ta) = Vo(1 – Ta/Tr) + TaVBE(Tr)/Tr – (m – n)KTa ln (Ta/Tr)/q (5.53)
As Vo > VBE (Tr) and remembering that Tr usually is not absolute zero, Eq. (5.53) can be rearranged in
constant, 1st and higher order terms in Ta as
Ï KTr ¸
V + (m - n) - VBE (Tr ) Ô
Ï KTr ¸ ÔÔ o q Ô k
VBE (Ta ) = ÌVo + (m - n) ˝-Ì ˝ Ta - (n - m) (Ta - Tr - Ta ln Ta /Tr ) (5.54a)
Ó q ˛ Ô Tr Ô q
ÔÓ Ô˛
The last term, representing the nonlinearity, can be expanded in Taylor’s series and first three terms
taken for small temperature difference (Ta – Tr) << Tr. This shows small deviation for the range specified
with the last term having a value (1/2) (n – m) (KTr/q) (DT/Tr)2 only. Linearization is thus around Tr only.
The constant term has a value of 1269.5 mV for n = 0 at a reference temperature of 50°C as Vo is 1171 mV
and m = 3.54 for a typical thermotransistor MTS 102. Also at this temperature VBE (50°C) = 547 mV, so
that the coefficient of the first order terms, i.e., the sensitivity of the PTAT term is 2.24 mV/K. A typical
VBE (Ta) – Ta curve is shown in Fig. 5.34. As is shown above, Ta is obtained by measuring VBE (Ta). If the
nonlinear term is to be kept, the measurement would require a memory for the storage of the calibration
curve. For constant Ic, m = 0 and Eq. (5.53) is rewritten as
Vo a = Vo + (m - n )KTr /q = 1270 mV | IC
KTa¢ È Ta¢ - Tr T¢˘
b = (m - n ) Í - ln a ˙
q Î Ta¢ Tr ˚
VBE (Ta) f = tan-1(coeff. of Ta )
0 Tr T'a Ta
Fig. 5.34 A typical VBE (Ta) – Ta curve
Ta = [Tr/(Vo – VBETr)] [(Vo – VBE (Ta) + mKTa ln(Tr/Ta)/q] (5.54b)

A microprocessor may be used to find Ta with VBE (Ta) as the input which is compared with a reference
for appropriate resolution. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 5.35. By replacing the Vref with another sensor
a differential temperature meter can be obtained.
The PTAT sensor is designed with two transistors and

DISPLAY
the difference of their VBE’s, DVBE becomes the signal Ic
measured. When two transistors are at the same temperature
Ta, from Eq. (5.51b) P
DVBE = {KTa ln(rc rs)}/q (5.55) +

where rc is the ratio Ic1/Ic2 and rs = Is2/Is1 which actually ADC
–
is constant being the ratio of the areas of the emitters. For
constant Ic’s, DVBE is proportional to T. A typical simplified Vref
PTAT current source in IC form is shown in Fig. 5.36. There
are cross connections in the bases of the transistors Q3 and Fig. 5.35 A microprocessor-based instrument
Q4. If unequal emitter areas Is1/Is2 = rs12 and Is4/Is3 = rs43 system for better resolution
are for the transistor pairs Q1 – Q2 and Q3 – Q4 respectively
and R1 and R2 are resistance as shown, then, one can write Ib
VBE2 + VBE3 – VBE1 – VBE4 = IE1 R1 + IE4R2 (5.56a) Q1 Q2
from which r
S12
(KTa/q) ln (rs12 rs43) = IE1R1 + IE4R2 (5.56b) R1
If R1 = R2 = R, one can write output current IE1 + IE4 = I and,

therefore, I = (KTa/Rq) ln (rs12 rs43). Here I is independent
of Ib. The above circuit is a current source circuit, current Q3 Q4
sink circuit can be similarly obtained. r
S34
For the single transistor scheme or for PTAT module, a
large initial offset that exists requires high resolution for R2
sufficient accuracy and accurate references are provided for
improving accuracy. The reference can be provided in the I
intrinsic reference type design. The basic principle of such
a scheme is shown here in Fig. 5.37. The current source Fig. 5.36 A simpli ied PTAT current source
generates a current VPTAT/R as per the scheme of Fig. 5.36 in IC form
and transistor Q3 has the bias current from the current mirror
(Q1 – Q2) pair and the high gain operational amplifier A, with feedback, forces and collector current of Q3
to be the output of the current mirror. The output voltage Vo of the scheme is
Q1 Q2
VPTAT A
R
Q3
Vo
R1
Fig. 5.37 A simpli ied voltage output scheme with the current source
Vo = VBE3 – VPTATR1/R (5.57)

Since VBE is approximately given by Eq. (5.51a) or by an equation of the form VBE ª Vk – C1T, by
making Vo = 0 at a temperature To, the output is approximately written as
Vo ª –[(T – To)/To] Vk (5.58)
To is adjustable by R1, However, this is a very approximate analysis and the detailed analysis does show
nonlinearity which, however, can be minimized by appropriate design.
5.4.4 Thermo-emf Thermometry

Industrially the most important temperature Metal A
transducer is the thermocouple. Thermocouple
J1
works on the principle that the contact potential
between two dissimilar metals changes with
J2
temperature. It was discovered by Seebeck in
1821 that when two dissimilar metals are joined
t1 t2
as shown in Fig. 5.38 with the two junctions J1
and J2 at temperatures t1 and t2 respectively, then Metal B
an emf arises, causing a current to flow in the
Fig. 5.38 Principle of a thermocouple
circuit and this effect is known as the Seebeck
effect. Seebeck effect is a bulk property and is expressed as
—E/q = as—T (5.59)
where E is the Fermi energy and E/q = f is the electrochemical potential, as is the Seebeck coefficient
which is dependent on material and temperature.
However, due to the flow of current, it was observed by Peltier that the low temperature junction gets
heated up due to evolution of heat while the high temperature junction gets cooled due to absorption of
heat. This is known as the Peltier effect in consequence of which an emf is expected to arise across the
junction with a magnitude and the direction dependent on the temperature. Mathematically, one writes,
Q = –b12J12 (5.60)
where Q is the heat absorbed from ambient, b12 is the Peltier coefficient for a junction of materials 1 and
2 and J12 is the current flowing through the junction from material 1 to material 2. The Peltier coefficient
can be expressed in terms of as by the following set of linear equations interrelating electrical and thermal
quantities in the materials and the electrical and thermal forces present:
J = –s—f + sas—T (5.61a)
Q/T = (sb/T)—f – {(x + sasb)/T}—T (5.61b)

It was shown that the coefficients describing the cross effects are equal in irreversible linear
thermodynamics so that
b = asT (5.62)
which is known as the first Kelvin relation.
From energy conservation principle Lord Kelvin suggested that an electric current flowing in a
temperature gradient absorbs or releases heat from or to the ambient according to the relation
Qt = g J—T (5.63)
where g is the Thomson coefficient. He showed that g is closely related to as and obtained the relation
g = T das /dT (5.64)
Whatsoever, a difference of temperature between the
junctions produces a thermal emf which can be measured to Lead wires
calibrate this temperature. The simplest measuring system, M
C
however, consists of a single apparent junction as shown t3
in Fig. 5.39. The hot junction J1, is at a temperature t1, the
connecting wire and the thermocouple (T/C) junctions J2
and J3 are at a temperature t2. Then the emf is proportional to J2 J3 t2
(t1 – t2). If J2 and J3 are at different temperatures, then the emf
has to be found out by algebraic addition of the three junction
Metal A Metal B
emfs. Temperature t2 with both J2 and J3 at this value, serves
as the reference junction temperature. The relevant laws of
thermoelectricity as given by Roeser are as follows:
(1) Law of Homogeneous Circuit No current flows in the
J1 t1
circuit made of a single metal by the application of heat
alone.
(2) Law of Intermediate Metals If between any
Fig. 5.39 Measuring junctions of the
two points a number of junctions appear but all at the thermocouple
same temperature, emf between these two points is
independent of the intermediate metals.
(3) Law of Intermediate Temperatures Emf for a couple with junction temperature t1 and t3 is the sum
of two emfs of two couples of same metals having junction temperatures t1 and t2, and t2 and t3
respectively.
A thermodynamical relation between the output millivolt and the junction temperature can be established
following the suggestions of Seebeck and others, but in industries, the empirical relation
k
E = Â (1/n)a n t n (5.65)
n =1
has been found to be more appropriate. In practice, in Eq. (5.65), k = 3 is sufficient. Also constants ak
are dependent on materials of the thermoelements and are obtained in tables. The term t is the hot
junction temperature when the cold junction is kept at zero degree Celsius. The sensitivity figure of a
theremoelement is defined as
S = (dE/dt) = Sant n – 1 (5.66)
Sensitivity figure obviously is dependent on material preparation and processing and is found to
vary considerably with temperature. For good measurement, a thermocouple should generate a large
thermoelectric power which is another name for the sensitivity figure, and the E versus t relationship
should be linear. A large S can be obtained by choosing materials from the electrochemical table of
elements and linearity of relation is checked by referring to their thermoelectric characteristics. Details of
more commonly used industrial thermocouples are given below: entries are consecutively as: the couple
materials, the approximate composition, the materials polarities, corresponding to the first entry, cable
colour code, type as standardized, operational range in °C, range of the thermoelectric power in mV/°C,
error and remarks.
(1) Copper-Constantan; Cu 100, Cu 57 Ni 43 traces Mn, Fe, C; + –; Blue-Red; T, –200 to 350; 15 to 60;
0.5°C/0.004 |t|; beyond the stipulated range, oxidation of copper occurs—spoiling the output charac-
teristics.
(2) Iron-Constantan; Fe 100, as above; + –; White-Red; J; –200 to 1000; 45 to 57; 1.5°C/0.004 |t|; this
works better in a reducing atmosphere and within 600°C works well in an oxidising atmosphere as
well.
(3) Chromel-Alumel; Ni90 Cr 10, Ni94 Mn3 A12 Sil; +, –; Yellow-Red; K/N; –200 to 1200; 40 to 55;
± 1.5°C/± 0.004 |t|; this works much better in an oxidising atmosphere and is commercially used
almost universally within the range 600 to 1100°C.
(4) Platinum-Platinum-rhodium; Pt 100, Pt 90 Rh 10 or Pt 87 Rh 13; –, +; Red-Black; S, R; 0 to 1400; 5
to 12; ± 1°C/ ± 0.0025 |t|; this is the most stable thermocouple in any atmosphere.
(5) Chromel (Tophel)-Constantan (Cupron); as above; + –; Purple-Red; E; –40 to 800; 15 to 60;
± 1.5°C/±0.004 |t|; can work in oxidising atmosphere.
(6) Chromel-Nickel alloy; as above, trade mark; +, –; Yellow-Red; N/K; –40 to 1000; 35 to 45;
± 1.5°C/±0.004 |t|; same as type K/N.
(7) Platinum-rhodium-Platinum-rhodium; Pt 70 Rh 30, Pt 94 Rh 6; +, –; Grey-Red; B; 600 to 1700; 5 to
10; ± 0.0025 |t|; like types R and S.
(8) Tungsten-Tungsten-rhenium; W 100, W 74, Re 26; +, –; White with blue trace-Red; G; 0 to 2300; as
type B; 1%; used for short duration.
(9) Tungsten-rhenium-Tungsten-rhenium; W 95 Re 5, W 74 Re 26; +, –; White with red trace-Red; C;
rest similar to type G.
(10) Tungsten-rhenium-Tungsten-rhenium; W 97 Re 3 W; 75 Re 25, +, –; White with yellow trace-Red;
D; rest similar to type G.
While specifying error, two figures are quoted with a stroke—in these the one which is greater is to be
considered. Here t stands for temperature.
The thermoelectric characteristics for some of the more important types are shown in Fig. 5.40.
50
2 3
E
(mV) 25
4
1 R h
13%
4
Rh
10%
0
400 800 1200
Temp. (°C)
–12.5
Fig. 5.40 Thermoelectric characteristics of thermocouples: 1. copper-constantan, 2. iron-constantan,

3. chromel-alumel, 4. platinum-platinum/rhodium
Thermocouple Wire Sizes, their Processing and Preparation The commonly used wire sizes for different
thermocouples of wider use are as follows:
Material Size in SWG Size in cm (of dia)

Copper-Constantan 20 0.08
Iron-Constantan 8, 14 0.32, 0.16
Chromel-Alumel 8, 14 0.32, 0.16
Platinum-Platinum-rhodium 26 0.056
The wires should necessarily be homogeneous to avoid any temperature gradient along the wire. The
inhomogeneity in the thermocouple material causes changes in the Seebeck coefficient and the temperature
distribution also causes error. These factors affect the measurement. A procedure to account for this is
available in the literature. The wires are generally annealed at a temperature higher than the maximum of
the range. The junction is made by welding or soldering. Welding is done without using any flux and is
commonly so for Platinum-Platinum-rhodium and Chromel-Alumel thermocouples. For the other types,
besides fluxless welding silver-soldering may be done.
Industrial thermocouples have only one junction, the hot junction in the process, the cold or the reference
junction is in the meter and requires compensation by different techniques for ambient temperature
variation. The temperature of the cold junction is assumed constant which is not always true and variation
of this is accounted for or is actually compensated for.
The thermojunction needs protection for contamination from the process materials and this is done by
enclosing the thermojunction in a protective sheath. This introduces an extra thermal time constant thereby
increasing the lag.
It is often necessary that the thermocouple wires be long for sufficient penetration into the process, the
protective sheath in such a case may touch the thermocouple wires along the length or the wires themselves
may get entangled unless proper care is taken. In fact, proper separation between the wires and the
sheath is done by passing the wires through ceramic twinhole insulators as shown in Fig. 5.41. If a long
thermocouple wire is to be mounted horizontally and the wires do not have sufficient strength due to higher
gauge sizes, 4-hole insulators, shown in Fig. 5.41, are often used. In these, two holes are small in diameter
to fit the thermocouple wires while the other two are large-sized for inserting a pair of stiff wires to hold the
assembly properly.
Fixing screws
T/C Head
T/C wire hole
Junction Twin hole

insulators
Fixing wire hole
Fig. 5.41 An industrial thermocouple along with a 4-hole insulator
In recent times mineral insulated (MI) thermocouples are becoming popular. In this form the
thermocouple is made on the principle as that of MI cables. The conductors of the cable are now the wires
of the thermocouple and the sheath is stainless steel. The insulation is in the form of finely powdered
and densely packed ceramic such as Al2O3 and MgO. The thermocouples are available in any length and
diameter varying from 1 mm to 6 mm. Like other thermocouples, the junction may be insulated from the
sheath or it may be welded to the sheath. In the latter case the sheath requires to be isolated from the ground
potential. For quick response such arrangement is sometimes done. The MI thermocouples are available as
in cable rolls and have good mechanical flexibility.
The wires on the other end of the junction are taken to an insulating head with two fixing screws to
which the thermocouple wires are fixed. From the fixing lugs which are shaped as per convention to denote
the positive and negative terminals, connections are taken through what are known as compensating coils or
wires to the indicating voltmeters. The lugs are made of brass and the negative terminal is shaped as a prism
while the positive as cubic.
To determine the time constant, the junction mass and area are important with the media in which they
are located. This also determines the response time. If m is the mass; C, the specific heat; h, the heat transfer
coefficient; and A, the area of heat transfer, the time constant is
t = mC/(hA) (5.67)
for a bare thermocouple.
The protective sheaths introduce the second time constant. The materials for these sheaths depend on
their use. Porcelain, fused silica or fireclay are often used as inner protecting sheaths with an outer sheath
made of metal. The inner sheath protects the junction and wires from contaminating gases. The outer
from oxidising the reducing atmospheres and provides resistance against thermal and mechanical shocks.
The commonly used metal sheaths are Ni-Cr-Fe sheaths for oxidising atmosphere, Cr-Fe for protection
against sulphating and Ni-Fe sheaths for caustic conditions in molten baths. For measuring temperature of
liquid metals like molten steel, expandable thermocouple probes are used as the cost of a fully protected
thermocouple is high and response is slow. The expendable probes are often dipstick types—the probe
itself is very robust and constructed as a plug designed to fit Head Furnace wall
into the main body thermocouple arranged as a socket. The d
disposable probe stands the molten metal for few seconds
(£ 15 secs) in which period the measurement is completed.
Installation of a thermocouple is important for proper
measurement. The insertion length is fixed from experience.
For a sheathed thermocouple, this is roughly ten diameters Screw
of the sheath. Normally flanges are provided to the 10d
thermocouples for mounting purposes. In special cases, Cable socket Flange
screw mountings are also made. Figure 5.42 shows a method Fig. 5.42 Thermocouple mounting
of mounting with flanges.
The Cold Junction and Other Compensations It is often necessary that the metering of temperature
be done at a considerable distance from the mounting place of the thermocouple. The connecting wires
from the thermocouple head to the meter are, therefore, sufficiently long and are normally not at the same
temperature throughout their length. Also, variation of the ambient condition changes the temperature of
the cold junction located at the meter-head. This is likely to cause error which can be avoided by using
connecting wires made of the same materials as that of the thermocouple wires. If this is not possible due
to cost and other reasons, materials are chosen such that the temperature-emf relation of these materials is
the same as those of the thermocouple wires, at least within the range of temperatures existing between the
reference junction and the thermocouple head. These connecting wires then are called compensating cables.
Table 5.7 lists the materials used for some important thermocouples.
Table 5.7 Materials Used for Compensating Cables

Couple Compensating cables Temp. range for compensating cables
+ – + –
Pt-Rh Pt Copper Copper-nickel alloy 20 to 200°C
Chromel Alumel (a) Chromel Alumel –20 to 200°C
(b) Copper Constantan 20 to 100°C
(c) Iron Copper-nickel alloy 20 to 200°C
Iron Constantan Iron Constantan –20 to 200°C
Copper Constantan Copper Constantan –50 to 200°C
The temperature variation of the reference junction is taken care of by a number of methods. The
cold or reference junction may be kept in an ice bath or a small oven at a constant temperature but it is
possible only in laboratories. Another method uses a temperature-sensitive resistor such as thermistor in the
measurement circuit. This element must be very close to the reference junction. The scheme of the method
is shown later in the chapter. Another variation of the above method uses a small voltage in series with the
standard cell. This voltage can be adjusted by means of a temperature-sensitive resistance bridge.
The temperature compensation may also be
effected by the use of a suitable bimetallic element
fixed to the spring of the moving coil meter. The Spring
temperature variation of the reference junction or
the meter casing changes the temperature of the
bimetal element also, which introduces a compres-
Coil Bimetallic
sion or extension in the spring thereby changing the
compensator
meter reading. The scheme of the system is shown in
Fig. 5.43.
For reference junction compensation, it is, perhaps,
wise to measure the temperature of this junction Pole pieces
and make adequate correction. Measurement of this
Fig. 5.43 Bimetal element compensation in
reference temperature Tr may be used in software
indication
compensation techniques in one of which this is
converted into a reference junction voltage Vr; Vr is Ref. Block
then subtracted from Vm—the measuring junction M 1
voltage—to get the difference voltage Vd which in
turn is converted back into the temperature Tm. Tr JM
may be measured by an RTD, thermistor or an IC- M2
based thermosensor. Such IC sensors (like AD590) It
can be used in what is called the electronic ice-point
compensation in analogue form as shown in Fig. 5.44.
In recent times monolithic amplifiers for IC—Temp. Sensor Converter
thermocouples with cold junction compensation
Fig. 5.44 Cold-junction compensation with
facilities are available. AD594/595 are some of such IC chip
chips.
Temperature T (= Tm – Tr) is a nonlinear function and tables are formed of Vd – T over the entire range.
For use in practice, after Vd is measured this table is to be referred to. Where computer is used, with all
these values in look-up table, the situation turns out to be unwieldy because of inordinate requirement of
memory size. Instead temperature is expressed by the power series polynomial
n
T = Â a jVdj (5.68)
o
with aj as the polynomial coefficients whose values are dependent on the types of thermocouples. Using the
measured value Vd, with a sensitivity of 0.1°C at least, and using the coefficients aj’s up to an order as may
be required for the desired accuracy the polynomial in the nested form
T = ao + Vd (a1 + (Vd (a2 + Vd (a3 + … + …))…) (5.69)
may be used to compute the temperature which process would require a much smaller memory space.
A maximum of nine coefficients are used in practice normally. National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
(now NIST), has released the coefficient values a list of which for chromel-alumel and Pt-Pt/Rh (13%)
thermocouples is given in Table 5.8 up to the 8th order.
Table 5.8 List of coef icients
Type K Type R
Coefficients Chromel-alumel, Range 0 to 1350°C ±0.7°C Pt-Pt/Rh (13%), 0 to 1000°C ± 0.5°C
a0 0.226584602 0.263632917
a1 24152.10900 179075.491
a2 67233.4248 –48840341.37
a3 2210340.682 1.90002 E+ 10
a4 –860963914.9 –4.82704 E + 12
a5 4.83506 E + 10 7.62091 E+ 14
a6 –1.18452 E+ 12 –7.20026 E+ 16
a7 1.38690 E+ 13 3.71496 E + 18
a8 –6.33708 E + 13 –8.03104 E+ 19
Obviously, the measurement sensitivity of the instrument must be very good. The average thermoelectric
coefficients of the different thermocouples of commercial importance are given in Table 5.9.
Table 5.9 Thermoelectric coef icients of thermocouples
T/C type R S K T J E
Coeff. (mV/°C) 7 7 40 40 51 62
At high temperatures, radiation effect affects temperature measurement by thermocouples or any other
stemmed primary device. The surrounding material temperature affects this measurement very much. This
can be avoided by adequate shielding. The shields are placed as close to the thermocouples as possible so
that their proximity enables them to be nearly at the same temperature as that of the measured temperature.
Figure 5.45 shows a number of concentric radiation shields which improve the accuracy of measurement to
a large extent.
The error due to radiation can be calculated with a gas circulation being considered due to heat. If hc
is the convective heat transfer coefficient between thermocouple and the gas, tc is the thermocouple
temperature, being a temperature intermediate between that of the gas and the wall, tw is the wall
temperature and tg is the gas temperature, then one has
hc(tg – tc) = hc(Tg – Tc) = se(T4c – T4w) (5.70)

If, however, the convection is a forced one, one gets
hcD = l f(R) (5.71)
where D is the thermocouple diameter, l is the gas thermal
conductivity and f(R) is a function of R = VDr/m, V being the T/C
velocity of the gas near the thermocouple, r, the gas density
and m, the gas viscosity. Writing f(R) as f, one derives from
the above two equations
tg – tc = seD(T4c – T4w)/lf (5.72)
The error, i.e., the difference between tg and tc is obtained Radiation shield
if the wall temperature is estimated and all the parameters
given in Eq. (5.72) are known. In practice, curves of s/(lf)
are available for different (V ¥ D) with temperature (mean) as Fig. 5.45 Radiation shield arrangement
a parameter. Above analysis is true for forced convection only.
For flowing gas of high velocity, temperature is not measured very correctly by simple mounting because
the gas suffers adiabatic compression in front of the thermometer. The error due to this effect is shown to
be roughly proportional to the square of the velocity of the gas. A flat shaped thermocouple when properly
mounted gives a correction factor
Cf = – (1/8)yV2g/Cp (5.73)
where Vg = gas velocity, Cp = specific heat at constant pressure and y = a function of the gas, being 3.38 for air.
Circuits Thermocouple is used in conjunction with a potentiometric circuit for measurement. A typical
commercial form of measuring circuit is shown in Fig. 5.46. It consists of a standard cell (SC) for
calibrating the slide wire. The standard cell is brought into the circuit either manually or automatically
by a drive motor. By putting the switch in position 2 and adjusting Rc, the calibration of the slide wire
is completed. By the automatic system the switch may be operated at regular intervals for checking the
calibration which may be affected due to cell (E) voltage change. The bridge unbalance due to reference
junction temperature variation can be easily compensated for by choosing R1 as a negative temperature
coefficient resistance or adopting the methods elaborated earlier. In recent years in industrial measuring
circuits, standard and measuring cells are replaced by zener reference sources. The basic scheme of such a
source is shown in Fig. 5.47. In actual industrial schemes the circuits are a little more elaborate.
E
Rc
R3 R4
T/C
+ + Rs
1 2
SC
R1 R2
Fig. 5.46 Commercial circuit with standardization facility

Fig. 5.47 Arrangement for the zener reference source to replace the standard cell
The automatic balancing potentiometers are more commonly used in industry for indication and
recording of the thermo-emf calibrated in the terms of temperature. A reversible motor is used to slide the
wiper of the slide wire obtaining null balance. A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.48. The unbalance
dc voltage obtained from the thermocouple as eDC after cold junction compensation by the bridge circuit
is fed to a chopper amplifier, the output of which is connected to the control winding of a servomotor. The
other servowinding is fed from the ac supply which also controls the chopper for its output to be of the
same frequency but of phase shift of 0° or 180° depending on the polarity of the eDC. This would rotate
the servomotor clockwise or anticlockwise which, in turn, moves the slide-wire contact till the balance is
obtained. The analogue indication may be obtained straightway from the servoshaft while digital recording or
indication may be obtained from the wiper arm after proper conversion. Earlier choppers were all mechanical
vibrator type. Nowadays solid state choppers are being used but care should be taken to see that the resolution
condition of these choppers satisfies the practical need. The amplifier is designed to amplify a 20 mV input
to a 20 V output. When the wiper is moved by the motor, overshoot and oscillatory tendency may be
observed specially in high sensitivity designs. Adequate damping is, therefore, necessary which is effected by
tachogenerator feedback or by using a suitable capacitor across the thermocouple. As the balance condition is
approached, the charging current in the condenser gives a voltage in opposition to the input. This voltage may
be sufficiently proportional to the motor speed. The other schemes used by different manufacturers utilize (a)
carbon modulator, (b) mirror galvos, (c) vane pick-ups, (d) Hall generators, (f) photocell pick-ups etc.
Fig. 5.48 The null-balance with a thermocouple

If the thermocouple burns out or is damaged to make an open circuit condition so that no millivolt is fed
to the control circuit, the usual scheme will permit more heat to be supplied to raise the temperature further
and the process is, therefore, in danger. This is prevented by providing what is known as thermocouple burn
out feature which allows the pointer to move upscale when the thermocouple breaks. It incorporates the
thermocouple in one of the bridge arms and the design is made so as to impress a full scale voltage across
the detector under the fault condition. The scheme is shown in Fig. 5.49. When T/C breaks off, current i1
gives a voltage drop i1R4 which drives a current through the detector for upscale indication. Value of i1 is
calculated from R2, R4 and part of R5 and the supply voltage e.
T/C
R5
R1 R2
i2 e i1
R3 R4
R6
Fig. 5.49 Circuit arrangement of thermocouple burn-out feature

Thermopiles Thermocouples in numbers are often connected in series to increase sensitivity in
measurement. A number of junctions are generally mounted on a small circular disc of less than 1 mm
diameter. The junctions are insulated from each other. Such a device is known as a thermopile and is used
in the temperature measurement of hot baths or molten industrial baths by using radiation heat measurement
principle which will be discussed in a little more detail in a later section of the chapter.
The thermocouple response is governed by the time constant of the couple junction and the media
condition as has been mentioned already. The time constant is given by Eq. (5.67) which shows that a
thicker wire would have larger junction and a longer delay. Relative response characteristics for three wire
sizes are shown in Fig. 5.50. A low speed of response thermocouple cannot measure fluctuating temperature
accurately. Compensating circuits are, therefore, often used. A typical passive compensating scheme is
shown in Fig. 5.51 in which the frequency response is governed by the relation.
eo( jw)/ein( jw) = g (1 + jwt)/(1 + jg wt) (5.74)
100
WG
20 S
WG
14 S
% Response
G
8 SW
50 R1
ein C eo
T/C R2
0 5 10
Time (min.)
Fig. 5.50 Response characteristics with Fig. 5.51 Compensating circuit tor
varying wire sizes luctuating temperatures
where g = R2/(R1 + R2) is the attenuation and t = CR1; w is frequency of fluctuation of temperature in rad/
sec. As w approaches a very large value eo becomes effectively equal to ein. Thus the above compensation
scheme is for high frequency fluctuation.
Example 5.3 A nickel resistance, temperature
coef icient of which is 0.006/°C, is connected across the
indicator meter which in turn is connected with the ther- R 50
mocouple with a series resistance R (Fig. 5.52). If the
ambient temperature changes from 20°C to 30°C and the V
output of the thermocouple changes from 30 and 29.5 RN
mV, calculate the nickel resistance and R for complete 100
compensation when meter has a rated current of 100 mA
and a resistance of 50 ohms.
Fig. 5.52 Circuit arrangement for compensation of
Solution The meter is a 50 ¥ 0.1 = 5 mV full scale
ambient temperature variation
meter. For 30 mV T/C output, drop across R must be
25 mV and for 29.5 mV, the drop across R is 24.5 mV. In the first case let RN be equal to Rn and in the
second case it must be Rn(1 + 0.06)= 1.06 Rn.
Now, let meter resistance be Rm; then
R(5/Rn – 5/(1.06Rn)) = 0.5 giving R = 1.76Rn, and
30/[R + Rn Rm/ (Rn + Rm] Rn/(Rn + Rm) = 0.1
giving Rn = 97 ohms and hence R = 170 ohms.

Example 5.4 A spherical thermocouple junction has a diameter of 1/3 cm. The junction material density is
6 g/cm3 and has a speci ic heat of 1 cal/°C. The heat transfer coef icient h is 0.05 g-cal/sec-cm2/°C. Calculate its
time constant and design a high frequency compensating circuit for the same.
Solution Using Eq. (5.67) t = mC/(hA) = (4/3) pr3 r ¥ C/(h ¥ 4 p r2) = rrC/(3h)
= 6 ¥ 1/6 ¥ 1 ¥ 1/3 ¥ 1/0.05 = 6.7 sec.
Assume, R1 = 10 M ohm, t = RlC = 6.7 sec. Hence C = 6.7/(107) = 0.67 mF
For g = 0.1, R1 = 9R2, hence R2 = 1.1 M ohms.
5.5 RADIATION THERMOMETRY
When the thermometers cannot be brought in contact with the process media because of possible damage or
when the hot bodies are moving objects, radiation techniques are satisfactorily applied for temperature mea-
surement. The principle is to measure the energy a hot body radiates, directly or by colour comparison.
In the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, the wavelength range between 0.01 and 100 m belongs to
thermal radiation. The energy (Wb) emitted by a blackbody per unit area per unit time, i.e., the emissive
power, is given by Stefan-Boltzman law
Wb = sT 4 (5.75)
Between two bodies at temperatures T1 and T2 (T1 > T2 ) the energy transfer relation is given by
Wb1, 2 = s(T41 – T42) (5.76)
The emissive power of a blackbody is actually a function of spectral wavelength and is given by
Wbl = C1 l–5/(exp (C2/lT) – 1) (5.77)
where l is in cm; C1 = 3.74 ¥ 109 erg/sec/cm2/0.01 m; and C2 = 1.438 cm-K, so that Wbl is in erg/sec/cm2/
0.01m
The term Wb is also called the spectral intensity of radiation. The plot of Wbl versus l is shown in
Fig. 5.53 for three different temperatures. Curves in Fig. 5.53 point to an important radiation characteristic
first observed by Wien. As the temperature of an emitter source changes, its colour changes and at a lower
temperature, the colour is duller. Analytically it is stated that with rise in temperature the spectral intensity
is maximum towards a shorter wavelength. Wien has actually shown that
lmT = 2900 (m.K) constant (5.78)
12.5
10.0
T1
Relative Wbl
7.5 T1 > T2 > T3

T2
T3
5.0
2.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
( )
Fig. 5.53 Plots of Wbl – l for three different temperatures
where lm is the wavelength at which spectral intensity is maximum for temperature T of the body. This is
the basis of colour comparison technique of temperature measurement.
Unfortunately, the above considerations with a blackbody are not fully true for a practical radiation
source or receiver. However, parameters like emissivity, e, absorptivity, a, reflectivity, g, and transmissivity
t, can be considered and approximate relations obtained to match the practical cases. Using the suffix ‘a’
for actual, i.e., practical bodies, one defines
ea = Wa/Wb (5.79a)
and
eal = Wal / Wbl (5.79b) = 1 (black body)
Practical emitting surfaces have varying emissivities at

varying l-values. To account for this irrational behaviour
an imaginary grey body with constant emissivity is (grey body)
proposed whose spectral characteristic is approximated W
to the practical bodies when averaged. This is explained <1
in Fig. 5.54. Spectral emissivity is related to the material
resistivity by Drude’s law
eal = 0.365(r/l)1/2 (5.80)
where r is the resistivity of the material, and consequent
upon its (eal) dependence on wavelength, it also is
dependent on temperature. With higher temperature, l is Fig. 5.54 Spectral radiation characteristics for
also less and eal more. Equation (5.80) is fairly accurate the grey body approximation
as long as l > 2m. Further, any radiation on a surface should be absorbed, reflected and transmitted within
the material, so that for any material
a+g+t=1 (5.81)
However, for solid bodies normally t = 0, so that
gl = 1 – al (5.82)
Obviously reflectivity is directly related to emissivity and thus one easily notices that emissivity of the
surface is a function of temperature and the direction and angle of observation of the emitted radiation.
There are three different types of radiation pyrometers: (i) Total radiation type, (ii) Optical type and (iii)
Ratiometric type.
5.5.1 Total Radiation Type

In the total radiation pyrometry, use is made of Eqs (5.76) and (5.79a). A pyrometer consisting of a sensing
element and an indicating or recording device is schematically shown in Fig. 5.55. The most commonly
used pyrometer has a lens or a mirror system for radiation focusing purposes. The radiation from a specified
area of the hot body, also called the target, is received by an appropriate detector element through a focusing
system. The detector temperature is different from the casing temperature and, therefore, losses from the
detector in all the three ways are not precluded. However, if the detector temperature finally settles at T2
with the casing temperature at To and target temperature at T1, one can, with approximation, write the heat
loss as
ko (T2 – T0) = k1T41 = heat input (5.83)
Compensating wire
Hot body
Focusing lens Diaphragm
Target area Sensor
Casing
Meter
Fig. 5.55 Sketch of a total radiation pyrometer
The value of To is more important for some detectors such as thermocouple or thermopile because it is
the cold junction temperature of the detector and the output voltage is proportional to (T2 – To) which, in
turn, is proportional to T41. Actually, however, the empirical relation
V = kvT N (5.84)
is more freely accepted. In Eq. (5.84), V is the output voltage and N, known as the N-value, generally
lies between 4.5 and 5.5. Constant kv is obtained from experimental calibration. The curve is shown in
Fig. 5.56. From the effective wavelength concept, the N-value can be shown to be
N = C2/(le(T)) (5.85)
where le = (C2/T2) (VDT/DV ).
100
V (mv) (log scale)
0.01
0 800 1600 2400 3200
T (°F)
Fig. 5.56 Calibration curve of a pyrometer
By far the most important consideration is to be given to the detectors. Commonly used detectors are:
(i) thermopile, (ii) photocell, (iii) metal bolometer, (iv) thermistor and, now, (v) semiconductor thermopile,
and (vi) pyroelectric detectors. Except item (ii), the others are thermal detectors. They are specially
prepared, specifically items (i), (iii) and (iv), by giving a black coating to absorb maximum radiation at all
wavelengths. Temperature, range, accuracy, reproducibility, speed of response and measurement conditions
such as target size, intervening medium, etc., are some of the considerations in the design of a pyrometer
with any of these detectors. Of the thermal detectors, thermopile gives a comparatively larger output, quite
low response time, down to 0.1 sec, and is easily adaptable in industrial fitting. In recent years non-metallic
thermopiles are also being produced. Seebeck effect has been investigated in semi-metals and found that
their Seebeck coefficient is larger than metals. Advancement in Si-based microsensor technology has further
extended the activity in the investigation of Seebeck effect and coefficient of silicon. This coefficient of
silicon is approximated by the relation
as = mk ln (r/ro)/q (5.86)
where k is Boltzmann constant, q, electron charge, m, a constant and r, resistivity of the material. Thus
a resistivity change becomes a factor for this coefficient. Consequent upon this investigation Si-Al
thermopiles have been produced in IC level. These are series connected Si and Al couples where the
Si-strips are fabricated by one of the known processes of diffusion, ion-implantation or epitaxy process
steps. Here the single crystal silicon with varying impurity concentration is of significance. Polysilicon-
gold thermopiles have also been studied and utilized in thermoelectric applications. They are being
commercialized gradually.
Resistance bolometer has a fast speed of response and adequate sensitivity but is not that cost-effective.
Thermistors or semiconductor bolometers are less commonly used because of poor repetitive performance
and compensation difficulty although they have quite low response time.
The photon detectors or photocells have the fastest speed of response and quite large sensitivity but are
limited due to limited spectral sensitivity. The response characteristics with different wavelengths of the
photon and thermal detectors are shown in Fig. 5.57. Figure 5.57(a) gives the response of a light-dependent
resistor (LDR). This is suitable for the range between 1 and 2.5m only, whereas a Hall device has a range
from 2 to 7m. Commonly used LDR’s are hexagonal CdS, CdSe, HgS which provide large change in
resistance value with radiation incident upon them with high values of dark resistance. The spectral and
speed of response of these can be controlled to a certain extent by physical control of the processes of
manufacture and careful regulation of the added impurities which are also called activators. For CdS cells
these impurities also include gallium, copper, silver etc. With addition of impurities, additional energy
states are introduced between the valency and conduction bands called electron traps which are responsible
to give the characteristics these devices have. Temperature-resistance characteristics actually become
logarithmic within a certain range. As the radiation is the main working energy here, investigation with
it has revealed that beyond a certain wavelength of radiation the material becomes transparent to it, the
l-value is also called the threshold value which may be different for different materials.
20 40 60 80
100 100
Thermal
detector
75 75
% Response
% Response
50 50 In Sb (Hall Device)
25 25
0 1.5 3.0 4.5 0 2 4 6 8 10

( ) ( )
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.57 Response characteristics of different types of radiation detectors (a) an LDR,
(b) hall device and a thermocouple
Photodiode is also used as radiation detector. It is a semiconductor diode such as a silicon or germanium
junction diode constructed so as to have its junction irradiated during the operation. The diode is kept
reverse-biased and hence in dark condition the electrons do not have sufficient energy to cross the energy
gap of the junction and produce conduction. With radiation incident on the junction some electrons gain
sufficient energy mainly by collision with photon to cross the junction. As the photon energy is inversely
dependent on wavelength of incident radiation the sensor has a limited spectral response particularly on
the long-wavelength side while on the short wavelength side the limitation is imposed by the transparency
of the semiconductor material. Silicon has a response band 1.1 to 0.4 mm while germanium has from 2.5 to
1 mm. The radiation bands correspond to specific temperature range as has already been mentioned earlier.
Pyroelectric thermal radiation detectors have recently been added to the list of detectors. Pyrorelectricity
is the characteristics of certain crystal materials that exhibit electric polarization with temperature
change, the effect arises because of temperature dependence of spontaneous polarization in some crystals.
Ferroelectrics show the largest pyroelectric effect. They can be used in polycrystalline form like ceramics
making the application more convenient. The molecules in a pyroelectric material have a permanent
electric dipole and these molecules are randomly oriented in the normal ambient condition. Above a certain
temperature called Curie point these molecules acquire ‘rotational’ mobility and a piece of pyroelectric
material, if subjected to an electric field, would have its molecules aligning parallel to the field. Once
this operation is performed, orientation of the molecules does not change even if the temperature is
brought down below the Curie point and the electric field is removed. Without applying any field, now,
if the temperature of the ceramic is increased, by allowing thermal radiation to be incident on it, up to
the Curie point, the diploes rotate from the existing orientation
by a certain angle changing the overall dipole moment of the
slice material. In fact, if the material is provided with a pair of d
electrodes as shown in Fig. 5.58 with its thickness d, area of
electrode a and dipole moment per unit volume p, then total
dipole moment is
Mt = pad (5.87)
At any instant for specific temperature the charge Qm Fig. 5.58 The scheme of a pyroelectric
developing at the surfaces of this material is given by sensor
Qm = pa (5.88)
With rising temperature, the angle of the dipoles increases from the orientation parallel with the electric
field, effectively reducing the length of the dipole and hence reducing the polarization. The charge on the
electrodes, Q, would now be in excess because of this and an externally connected high input impedance
voltmeter can detect this excess charge in terms of the voltage if the capacitor formed with the electrodes is
C. For a temperature change DT the pyroelectric coefficient of a material is defined as
f = Dp/DT (5.89)
so that
DQ = fa DT (5.90a)
and the corresponding voltage is
DV = fa DT/C (5.90b)
In a steady state condition, the charge decays and the voltage due to change in temperature from a
previous value is not correctly measured. In the external circuit the current, in fact, is given by
i = fa dT/dt (5.90c)
This is somewhat similar to the piezoelectric conditions. This device can, thus, detect the change in
incident radiation. A scheme is shown in Fig. 5.59 where a chopper produces this changing condition.
Pyrodetector
Target Vo
Chopper
Fig. 5.59 The measurement scheme with changing pattern of radiation
There are various pyroelectric materials. The ferroelectric types such as BaTiO3, Triglycerine sulphate,
lithium titanate etc. are common.
The response criteria of a radiation detector are given by: (i) responsivity, (ii) noise-equivalent power
(NEP), and (iii) response time. Responsivity is the output voltage per watt of the incident radiation. This
should obviously be large for a better detector. NEP is the watts of incident radiation to produce an output
equal to the noise, i.e., the radiation power to make the signal/noise ratio unity. This should obviously be
low. The detectors are compared in Table 5.10 for their response characteristics
Table 5.10 Comparison of response characteristics of different radiation detectors

Detector Responsivity in V/W NEP in mW Response time sec Spectral range
Metal thermopile 1 to 100 About 3.0 0.1 to 0.5 Total
Metal bolometer About 0.4 About 0.07 3.0 ¥ 10–3 to 5.0 ¥ 10–3 Total
Thermistor About 1000 About 0.03 2.0 ¥ 10 to 4.0 ¥ 10
–3 –3 Total
Si-Al thermopile Up to 109 About 10–3 about 10–6 Almost total
Pyroelectric 1 to 10 10–2 10–6 order Selective but wide
Photon 5000 to 15000 About 0.004 0.05 ¥ 10–6 to 2.0 ¥ 10–6 Selective
–6
Hall 1 0.01 10 Selective
The detector is placed inside a housing (Fig. 5.55)

with radiation focussing lenses or mirrors. The casing
temperature is important. If it rises, cooling arrangement
is generally prescribed. A large target area is essential to
cover the complete field of view of the optical system. The d
distance of the target and its orientation are as important as
the area. The area and directional effects are expressed by b1 a1
the equation, with reference to Fig. 5.60, b2
a2 Emitter
Radiation incident on a 2 cos b1 cos b 2
= ◊ a2 (5.91) a = area
Radiation emitted from a1 pd2 Receiver
Generally, the arrangement is such that b1 = b2 = 0 and d
Fig. 5.60 Generalized emitter-receiver
is large compared to areas a1 and a2. When d is sufficiently con iguration
large, b’s are zero and full field of view is covered,
the distance factor is constant and the output signal is 2.0
independent of distance. For this a ratio of a1 : d = 1 : 20
is generally prescribed. Figure 5.61 shows the variation 1.0 d
of % error with d/ a1 ratio in normalized conditions, 1
% Error
obtained, however, from experimental data.

4 4 8 12 16 20 24
The ratio d/ a1 cannot be indefinitely decreased
because of the mounting difficulties close to a hot target
–1.0
of an indicating system including the detector. The above
discussion has not taken into consideration the losses in the
intervening media and the optical system. The intervening –2.0
medium often consists of gases like CO2, SO2, water
Fig. 5.61 Normalized error-distance
vapour, ammonia which cause absorption of radiation in relation
selective bands of wavelengths. The medium is, sometimes,
kept clear of these gases by purging purified air through a
target tube. Ordinary air contains water vapour and traces of CO2 to produce resonance absorption bands
between 6 and 8m, at 3m, 10m etc.
The optical system used with radiation pyrometry consists generally of lenses whose materials must be
properly selected for the given range of radiation wavelength to avoid absorption by them. The transmission
characteristics for some lens materials are shown in Fig. 5.62. For a large range of temperature thallium
iodide is more suitable but with reduced transmission. For a normal temperature range of 250 to 1900°C
wavelength range is from 2.7 to 0.3m and materials 100 Fused silica
like calcium fluoride, fused silica and pyrex are Pyrex
recommended with a transmission of about 80%. The 80 Sapphire
% Transmission
image of the target is focussed on a diaphragm opening Arsenic trisulphide
(Fig. 5.55) by the lens system so that a clearly defined 60
optical relation must be satisfied between the target and Thallium
40 Bromide and
the diaphragm with respect to the lens. In fact, they are Iodide
conjugate foci of the lens. In the mirror types, stops and 20
apertures are incorporated with calibrating marks and
the image of the first stop is projected on the detector. 0
1 10 100
The optical system increases the sensitivity by allowing
( )
resolution of small area targets. With such losses in the
media and the optical system it is always advisable to Fig. 5.62 Transmission characteristics of some
resort to site calibration. optical materials
5.5.2 The Optical Pyrometer

The optical or the monochromatic brightness Objective Filter
radiation pyrometer is usable in the range between Eyepiece
700 and 3000°C and is the most accurate of the radi-
ation pyrometer varieties. The range limitation arises
because the human eye actually makes a comparison
in such a system. A disappearing filament type optical
pyrometer is schematically shown in Fig. 5.63.
Radiation from the target is received by the objective Aperture
Aperture
lens to focus it on a filament which is viewed by a
microscope system consisting of an objective and
an eye-piece. Appropriate apertures are used. The
image of the target is formed at the filament position
and the filament appears against the background
of the target surface. The red cadmium filter makes Fig. 5.63 Set-up of an optical pyrometer of the
the radiation appear monochromatic to the eye. The disappearing ilament type
wavelength range of such a filter is usually a band
of 1m at 65m. The filament brightness is controlled
by adjusting a resistance in the circuit as shown. In
the field of view of the eyepiece then appears the fila-
ment in contrast to the target brightness. By adjusting
the current through the filament the brightness of the B T > BF BT < BF BT = BF
filament is made identical with that of the target when
the filament disappears in the field of view. The image Fig. 5.64 Images of the ilament and the target in the
in the three possible cases is shown is Fig. 5.64, ield of view for three possible cases
where BT and BF are target and filament brightnesses.
In the measuring condition BT = BF. The indicator, usually a milliammeter may be calibrated directly in
temperature. The above photometric method controls the lamp brightness to match the target brightness.
Alternately, by allowing an optical wedge the incoming radiation may be abated. The wedge has a variable
thickness and by moving it with a lead screw the radiation can be controlled. The varying thickness
wedge and a filament control may be used in combination for the purpose. Such a typical instrument is
shown in Fig. 5.65. Normally the lamp is kept at a standard brightness by adjusting R and the wedge is
moved for the control of the receiving radiation. Both these are changed to requirement. By brightness
comparison a temperature comparison is actually effected in this system. Let TT and TL be the target and
lamp temperatures respectively at balance. Using Planck’s law
elC1l–5/exp (C2/lTT) = C1l–5/exp (C2/lTL) (5.92)
Wedge
Prism
Filter
Fig. 5.65 Sketch of a double control optical pyrometer
where el is the target emissivity and it is assumed exp (C2/lTL) >> 1 as is usually the case. Thus
TT = 1/[1/TL + (l ln el)/C2] (5.93)
For a non-blackbody, el < 1 and TL is to be corrected to yield TT . However, the percentage error due to
small changes in el is relatively small at a high temperature. The error is given by the relation
dTT/TT = – (lTT/C2)del/el (5.94)
Due to the intervening media of radiation absorbing gases, the target brightness is effectively reduced.
However, the absorption range is mostly in the low wavelength side and affected little for the red band
of the spectrum. Sometimes, glass absorbers of known transmissivity are interposed in the radiation path
for range extension. For a transmissivity tl at wavelength l the correction term is easily calculated. This
can be derived as in Eq. (5.93). The term TL obviously represents the actually measured temperature.
For measurement purposes it is necessary that the lamp filament have good stability. A hundred working
operation of a tungsten filament gives an error of less than 0.1%. For high temperature measurement, the
filament is more quickly eroded and needs replacement quite often.
5.5.3 The Ratiometric Type

As mentioned, besides wideband or total radiation type and narrowband or optical pyrometer type, a third
type called the ratio thermometer is also frequently used in practice. It consists essentially of two radiation
thermometers in a single housing designed in such a way that lens, detector etc., are shared by the two. The
output from the two thermometers having separate wavelength are ratioed. Because of ratio measurement,
the instrument becomes relatively independent of target size but not of field of view which should
essentially be the same in both the wavebands. Depending upon the range of temperature, commercial
manufacturers have used waveband centres 0.55 and 0.70 to 1.65 and 2.2 mm.
5.6 OTHER MISCELLANEOUS METHODS
Quartz Crystal Thermometer A quartz crystal when properly cut has a resonance frequency linearly
dependent on the temperature. Thus, frequency measurement by such a crystal amounts to measurement
of the crystal temperature. This technique has been used in oceanographic exploration where very small
temperature difference is to be measured. This
method has also been used in absolute temperature
measurement. The frequency shift is small, about 50
Shift in Osc. freq. (ppm)

1 kHz/°C at 10 MHz but a direct digital readout is
possible.
SAW-device Thermometer As has been mentioned
in a previous chapter, a SAW device can be used 25
to measure temperature because of the change in
the substrate property due to change in temperature
which, in turn, changes the resonator frequency.
When quartz crystal is cut not to meet the turn-over
temperature conditon in substrate preparation of the 0 25 50 75 100
IDT’s, temperature changes the interdigital distance Temp. (°C)
by changing the elastic property of the substrate. A
plot in the change of the oscillator frequency in ppm Fig. 5.66 Shift in oscillator frequency versus
with temperature shows a parabolic nature as shown temperature plot
in Fig. 5.66.
Fibre-optic Thermometers Temperature measurement using fibre optics is a comparatively recent
innovation. Quite a few schemes have been suggested with a few of them already available in commercial
forms. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 5.67. Here
the optical fibre as a whole is used as temperature
sensitive element. A laser beam is split into two
parts—one part follows the reference path, gets
reflected by the mirror M1 and recombines at BS2
(beam splitter No. 2) with the other part, which after
reflection at mirror M2 from BS1 propagates along
the fibre to reach BS2 with the fibre being exposed
to the temperature to be measured. The detector,
often a Mach-Zhander interferometer, detects the
phase difference that occurs between the two paths
because of temperature variation, in terms of the
change in the interference pattern. A 632.8 nm
He-Ne laser is generally used as the source in this
method.
An optical fibre thermometer using a blackbody
cavity has also been developed that can measure Fig. 5.67 A ibre-optic temperature measurement
temperatures from about 500 to 2000°C. A small technique shown in schematic block diagram
blackbody cavity made at the end of a sapphire fibre of diameter 0.25 to 1.25 mm and length 0.05 to 0.3
m usually by sputtering a thin iridium film on the surface of the fibre which is then coated with a thin film
of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) for protecting the iridium coating from being oxidized. The cavity and the
scheme as such is shown in Fig. 5.68. The radiance from the cavity, which is placed in the hot atmosphere,
is utilized for the measurement. A 0.6 mm diameter, 10 m long low temperature optical fibre brings the
radiation to make it incident on the lens L from which the paralleled beam passing through a beam-splitter
and a narrowband filter is detected by a photomultiplier detector. Two sets of filters and detectors are used
so that calibration can also be checked. The filters are 0.55–0.65 mm and 0.65–0.75 mm bandwidth. The
system is designed to emit an optical power of 0.1 mW over this bandwidth (centered at 0.6 mm) with a
cavity of 0.25 mm at 1000°C. Optical flux changes by 2% approximately per degree change in temperature.
It has a resolution of 1 in 108 with a drift less than the same figure. It is now being used as standard for
Aluminium and Platinum points 630.7 and 1769°C respectively.
A quartz fibre about 1 mm diameter and 1 m long is often used to sense the thermal radiation in
a machine hot spot. The fibre portion exposed to the heat from the machine spot becomes a blackbody
cavity. Two fibres, one exposed to the spot and the other in normal thermal equilibrium are compared by
a two-colour detector of germanium or silicon at the end. A spot temperature between 120 and 750°C is
ascertainable by this technique.
Iridium
coating
BS L
SF
D1 F1
LTF
End of SF
Al2O3
D2 F2 M
Fig. 5.68 Scheme of an optical ibre thermometer with a blackbody cavity (M mirror, SF sapphire ibre, LTF low
temperature ibre, L lens, F1 & F2 narrowband ilters, BS beam splitter, D1 & D2 photomultiplier detectors)
Another fibre optic-based system in the range 0 to 200°C has been developed that utilizes the wavelength
shift of fluorescence. A Ga-As crystal bound at the end of a fibre-optic probe is placed in the medium while
modulated light from an LED source is made to irradiate the crystal probe via the fibre. A beam splitter is
used to compare light direct from the LED and that emitted by the crystal and coming via the fibre. Two
photodiodes with associated electronic circuits are used for intensity comparison and measurement. The
wavelength shift of the light emitted by the crystal depends on the medium temperature and the ratio of
the signals received by the photodiodes depends on this shift. A schematic view of the technique is shown
in Fig. 5.69. A similar scheme is used for measuring the temperature by measuring the decay time of
fluorescence in the crystal. LED excitation if obtained in pulse form which when sent to the crystal causes
fluorescence that lasts in time depending on the surrounding temperature. For higher temperature, emission
time of fluorescence is less. Counting circuit is used to count this fluorescence emission time which is
calibrated in terms of temperature.
LED
Optical
fibre
Meas.
system
Connector Photodiode
assembly
Medium
GaAs crystal
Fig. 5.69 Sketch of a thermometer with ibre optic transmission where

wavelength shift is dependent on temperature
Very High and Very Low Temperatures The principle that is utilized for measurement of temperature
exceeding 2 million degrees is the Doppler phenomenon. At very high temperatures, the gaseous substance
is ionized. The nucleic positive ion having some electrons bound to it produces characteristic wavelength
but because of high speed movement of this charge due to thermal agitation, the spectral line viewed in a
spectrograph broadens. The broadening is dependent on the square root of the temperature of the object, i.e.,
Dl = k(T)1/2 (5.95)
As the temperature increases, a greater number of electrons loose bindings and the characteristic
wavelength moves towards the shorter range. This, of course, depends on the constituents present in the
substance. For short range spectrography of the Doppler-spread lines mirror-grating vacuum spectro-
graphs are prescribed. At very high temperatures, the free electrons may have a different energy level
and consequently a temperature different from that of the positive ions, provided the energy is not lost by
collision. However, radiation losses increase and the system stability is greatly hampered.
At such high energy and temperature, the distribution of particles with energy content tends to become
non-Maxwellian.
The broadening of the spectral line, although it indicates a thermal state, may also be due to magnetic
fields, both external or internal type, and large ion-deviations. Precautions should be taken to avoid this
effect. Secondly, in an unstable ‘plasma’ the tormenting movement (not due to thermal effect) might also
broaden the line. This has been counteracted by measuring broadening of two different lines and the effect
due to this cause may thus be eliminated.
For temperatures below 100 mK, thermometers based on nuclear orientation has been produced on
laboratory scale. It has the principle that there is directional emission of b or g radiation from a radioactive
nucleus and that the distribution of this emission is dependent on the degree of ordering of a system of
nuclear spins which, in turn, is directly related to the temperature via Boltzmann distribution as it actually
governs the substrate population of the nuclear spin system. The relative populations pr are thus given by
pr = exp (–Er/kT)/S exp (–Ej/kT) (5.96)
where Ej = energy of the nuclear hyperfine states, j has the values I, I–1, ... –I, I being the nuclear quantum
number. When T >> Er /kT all of pr are nearly same and then the g-radiation is emitted isotropically. If,
however, T << Er/KT, pr’s are different and there occurs a nuclear orientation and anisotropic emission
about the axis of quantization of the nuclear spin system results showing a distribution similar to the pattern
obtained from a radar antenna. This distribution intensity versus angle of emission is symmetric with spherical
lobes on the two sides for 100 mK < T < • and T = 0, but in the range 0 < T < 100 mK there is a gradual
transition between these two cases. In this range, the direction of distribution of the g-radiation which gives
the count rate, from axially symmetrically oriented nuclei is a function of pr and hence of T. It also depends on
a particular radioactive decay scheme, and is taken care of by coefficients and correction factors.
By incorporating suitable radioactive nuclei in a host lattice, which is usually ferromagnetic, a
thermometer may be designed on this principle. In the mK region, the nuclei undergo spontaneous ordering
in the hyperfine magnetic field of the host. Count is made over a long interval (minutes) and is repeated
several times for a constant T. Radioactive heating such as self-heating due to emission uncertainty may
arise. It is, however, calculable. Heating due to g-radiation is difficult to calculate and correct for.
Thermometer based on acoustic velocity measurement has been developed for measurement of absolute
temperature. Longitudinal acoustic wave in an ideal gas of ‘unbounded extent’ moves with a velocity C given by
C = (g RT/M) 1/2 (5.97)
where M = molecular weight of the gas, R = gas constant, T = absolute temperature and g = Cp/Cv (= 5/3 for
monatomic gases). For a non-ideal gas van der Waals’ equation is more appropriate, so that,
(V – b)(p + a/V2) = MRT (5.98)
where V = gas volume, p = gas pressure, a/V2 = av and b are molecular constants. For small av and b, one
can obtain
C = (gRT/M)1/2 (1 + kp/(RT)) (5.99)
where k is a function of av, b and also of T making C not a simple function of T and not independent of
pressure p. In fact, C is directly proportional to pressure and if temperature remains constant it can be used
for measurement of pressure by measuring acoustic velocity.
The schematic model of an instrument using the above principle is shown in Fig. 5.70. A quartz
crystal q operating at resonance frequency f is used as a trans-receiver of a wave that is reflected from a
reflector R, usually a piston placed in an acoustic medium. The piston reflector requires to be accurately
actuable longitudinally so that the reflected wave returns to the crystal. With the piston moving by l/2,
the gas column also resonates at the same frequency f and the energy supplied by the crystal should show
a peak. Thus for every 1/2 wave movement of the piston a peak voltage would be indicated as shown
in the figure. The system effectively becomes an acoustic interferometer. For a known distance d of the
column measurement of the time intervals of the voltage peaks would give the gas velocity from which T is
obtained for constant p (or p obtained for constant T).
q, f
A
Crystal d = n /2
q, f
A'
2
Vq
Vq = Voltage across
crystal
Fig. 5.70 Acoustic thermometer (Vq, voltage across crystal)

Such a technique is usable both at very low and very high temperatures. In fact, it is usable at the plasma
temperature of about 8000 K.
Review Questions
1. How temperature scale has been standardized? commutation scheme? What are its limitations?
What are ixed points and how are they used in [97.223°C]
temperature standards? 6. Why is a cold junction compensation necessary
2. Where bimetallic elements are used as in temperature measuring schemes using
temperature sensors and where as compensating thermocouples? What is the recent trend in
elements? Discuss and explain with sketches. making such compensation?
A bimetal cantilever with invar and brass as 7. How thermistor output is linearized using
two metal strips of equal thickness has a total analogue circuit? Sketch a scheme and explain
thickness of 0.125 cm and length 5 cm. Its one the operation of the same. Is the linearization
end is ixed, estimate the end de lection for possible over the entire range?
change of temperature of 40°C. 8. How does a IC temperature sensor work? Draw
[0.1956 cm] a simple scheme and explain the thermometric
3. What are the possible sources of errors operation. What compensation does the chip
in illed-in thermometers and how are need and how is it done in commercial level now?
they minimized/compensated for? Give the name of a speci ic chip and its range.
In a illed-in system that uses pressure spring 9. What physical law governs the operation of a
as the pointer actuator, the bulb, capillary and total radiation pyrometer? What are commonly
pressure spring volumes are in ratio used radiation detectors? Compare their
Vb : Vc : Vp : : 10 : 1 : 2 performance in a table.
and the temperature changes in them are in the In an optical pyrometer the measured
ratio temperature is 1600°C while there is a
tb : tc : tp : : 60 : 4 : 1, glass absorber for scaling with 70 per cent
calculate the error in indication in terms of °C transmittivity at 6200 A, what is the actual
if the pressure spring temperature changes by temperature of the target?
0.5°C only. What is the basic difference between the optical
[0.3°C] pyrometer and the total radiation pyrometer?
4. How does resistance change with temperature [1655°C]
for resistance thermometers? Which is the best 10. Discuss with diagrams how sapphire ibres are
material for such a thermometer? Compare its used in temperature measurement? Can optical
property with two other possible materials. ibre itself be used as a temperature sensor?
What are the advantages of using double slide Discuss.
wire bridge circuit arrangement in measuring 11. What are Peltier and Seebeck effects? How are
the temperature with RTD as a sensor? they responsible in thermo-emf generation?
5. How self-heating error is corrected for in De ine thermoelectric power. How is it measured?
resistance thermometry? What is its physical signi icance?
A resistance thermometer shows a temperature Brie ly discuss the microlevel development of
of 100°C when a current of 1 mA lows through thermo-emf generators.
it and a temperature 99°C when a current 12. What are the different methods of very low
0.8 mA lows through it. What is the correct temperature measurement? Explain the
temperature? operation of a temperature measurement system
How self-heating error is minimized using a based on atomic velocity measurement.
Flow Measurement
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of flow rate and quantity of flow is probably the oldest

record in the history of Instrumentation. It is acquiring ever growing
importance since then, because of its increasing field of applications,
starting from physiological processes to rocket sciences. Industrially,
such a measurement is important for determining proportions of the
materials flowing in or out of a process. Day-to-day applications
of flow measurement are found in gas or water service meters or in
Chapter 6 gasoline pumping stations.

Flow measurements are made both for fluids and solids. There
are, in fact, innumerable methods of fluid flow measurement each
of which cannot be individually dealt with here. The more common
ones of industrial importance will be considered here. The very commonly used terms used in connection
with flow-meters are ‘turn-down’ and ‘rangeability’. The former is defined nominally as the ratio of the full
scale flow to the minimum flow that can be measured within the stated accuracy. The turn-down may be
10 : 1, which means with a specified accuracy figure, the meter can measure flow rate from 10 per cent
to 100 per cent of the scale. Rangeability is the ratio of the maximum range to the minimum to which the
meter may be calibrated. It essentially is a measure of the extent to which the range can be adjusted without
any major modification.
As would be seen shortly, many of the very common flowmeters have nonlinear scales with output
proportional to flow rate squared. Square-root extracters, both in pneumatic and electronic versions, are
available for linearizing the scale. In microprocessor-based systems for such sensors square root extraction
is done by the software technique.
Many of the flow rate measuring devices connote accurate pressure and temperature measurement.
Adequate importance should, therefore, be given to the measurement of these variable’s as well. A small
error in flowmetering may mean enormous loss in money, quality and efficiency of the process. There
are standard recognised conditions of pressure and temperature which however, may vary from industry
to industry. Volumetric flow units are often specified with standard, normal, nominal and/or actual such
conditions. Pressure values of 1 bar, 14.7 psi, 14.696 psia, 14.4 psia and temperature values of 15°C, 16.6°,
0°C etc., form standard recognized conditions, while nominal or actual are found from the process.
Fluid flow rate measurement techniques are broadly divided into the following: (a) head types, (b) area
types, (c) mass flowmeters, (d) positive displacement types, (e) electrical types, (f) open channel types and
(g) solid material flowmetering. Some of the commonly used flow meters are listed in Table 6.1 for ready
reference.
Flow Measurement 223
Table 6.1 Some common lowmeters

Flowmeters Remarks
1. Head type
a. Orifice a. More used than the others as it is cheap and easily reproducible
b. Venturi b. More accurate than 1a, but more costly
c. Flow-nozzle c. Cheaper than 1b, more accurate than 1a
2. Area type
a. Rotameter a. Used for normal fluids, a common variety of direct-indicating type
b. Piston type b. Usable in very viscous fluids
3. Mass flowmeters
a. Turbine type a. Not usable at low flow rates and with fluids having suspensions
b. Coriolis force type b. Usable with slurries and liquids with suspended materials, range limited
c. Calorimetric type c. A low range instrument
4. Positive displacement type
a. Nutating disc a. Common with liquid, less accurate
b. Rotary vane b. Better accuracy and independent of viscosity
c. Lobed impeller c. Usable for gas-flow rate as well
d. Reciprocating piston d. Usable for all types of flow with good accuracy
5. Electrical types
a. Turbomagnetic a. Can give digital output and be adopted for mass flow rate measurement
b. Electromagnetic b. No obstruction in the flowchannel and usable for fluid with suspension etc.,
but needs that the liquid has some minimum conductivity
c. Ultrasonic c. Can be used with all types of fluids, is being extensively used, versatile but
costly
d. Hot-wire d. Usable in steady as well as unsteady flow of liquids and gases
6. Digital type
a. Vortex a. Is being increasingly used because of better adaptation with newer types of
signal processing equipment
b. Flow-marker type b. Specialized application
7. Open channel type Special use related to agriculture, river flow studies etc.
8. Solid flowmeters A special variety and uses different types of sensing and signal processing
Units of volumetric flow rates are many such as m3/hr, litre/sec, litre/min, gallons/hr and so on, while for
mass flow rate kg/hr is quite common. Above units are referred to as Engineering units.
6.2 HEAD TYPES
In the head-type flowmeters a restriction of known dimension is generally introduced into the pipe or flow
line; consequently, there occurs a head loss or pressure drop at the restriction with increase in the flow
velocity. Measurement of this pressure drop can be shown to be an indication of the flow rate.
A one-dimensional flow system is assumed, its schematic arrangement with a restriction like an orifice
in the line is shown in Fig. 6.1. As shown, sections 1 and 2 are positions of upstream and downstream taps
respectively of pressure. The terms T, A, r, V, p and z represent temperature, area, density, stream velocity,
pressure and central line elevation respectively. If this elevation is quite small such that z2 – z1 is negligible,
then, from the Bernoulli equation for incompressible, frictionless and adiabatic flow, one easily obtains the
volume flow rate q as
q = A2V2 = [A2/{1– (A2/A1)2}1/2]{2g(p1 – p2)/r}1/2 (6.1)
T2, A2, p2, V2
Restriction
T1, A1, p1, V1
Z1
Z2
Datum
Fig. 6.1 Schematic arrangement of a one-dimensional low system with a restriction
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

This is the ideal volume flow rate. For actual flow conditions with frictional losses present, correction to
this formula is necessary. Besides, the minimum area of the flow channel occurs not at the restriction but at
some point slightly downstream, known as the vena contracta. This in turn depends on the flow rate. While
the tapping positions are fixed, the position of maximum velocity changes with changing flow rate. An
empirical relation derived from Eq. (6.1) is generally used for practical flow calculations. Thus the simply
stated empirical relation is given as
q = KA2(2gh)1/2 (6.2)
where K = (qactual /qideal)/(1 – (d/D)4)1/2 = discharge coeff. / (1 – (A2/A1)2)1/2
and
(p1 – p2)/r = h = differential head expressed in units of length (6.3)
Writing discharge coefficient as C and d/D as b, Eq. (6.3) is rewritten as
K = C/(l – b4)1/2 = flow coefficient (6.4)
The term (1 – b4)–1/2
is known as the velocity of approach factor. In Eq. (6.2), if h varies, volume flow
rate varies, provided K is constant. Unfortunately, K depends on flow Reynold’s number and channel
geometry. Reynold’s number relating the inertial and viscous forces of a flowing fluid is given by
R = rV2d/m = 4rq/(pmd) (6.5)
where V2 = average fluid stream velocity and m = absolute viscosity. Tables, charts and graphs are available
relating to flow coefficient, Reynold’s number and pipe diameter ratio, i.e., d/D. These tables are consulted
for actual flow calculations.
As is known, turbulence occurs where R exceeds roughly 2000. Industrial flow generally is turbulent
with R ranging from 104 to about 106. Consequently if actual data sheet relating R, K and b is not used,
error in flow calculation is likely to be enormous.
As the differential head h is measured by a manometer, a correction for the fluids over the manometer
liquid on the two sides is to be made (Fig. 6.2). If the manometer fluid density is rm, the density of the
fluid over the manometer is rf, which usually is different from the flowing fluid p1 p2
because of different temperature condition, and if the flow rate is to be converted
at the control room or any other standard temperature at which the density of the
fluid is rs, then from Eqs (6.1), (6.2) and manometric relation, one gets rf
h
q = KA2 ( r ( rm - r f ) /rs ) 2 gh (6.6)
rm
All the quantities on the right hand side are measurable excepting K which is
obtained from the standard table.
If the fluid is compressible, a flow rate can be obtained if the gas is considered
ideal and the flow is considered adiabatic. The appropriate energy equations and
mass flow rate (w) continuity equation may be combined with Fig. 6.2 Manometer
indicating connections
(V22 – V12)/(2g) = J(H1 – H2) = g /(g – 1)RT1[1 – (p2/p1)(g – 1)/g ] (6.7) needed
to yield
w = A1b 2 2 gp1g /{(g - 1)v1} [1 - ( p2 /p1 )(g -1) /g /{(v2 /v1 ) 2 - b 4 }]1/ 2 (6.8)
where R is the gas constant, J, the work equivalent of heat, H, the enthalpy, g, the ratio of specific heats and
v, the specific volume.
Using the relation pvg = constant, Eq. (6.8) is further changed to
1/ 2
Ê 2 g g p1 ˆ
w = A1b 2 Á [{( p2 /p1 ) 2 /g - ( p2 /p1 )(g + 1) /g }/{1 - b 4 ( p2 /p1 ) 2 /g }]˜ (6.9)
Ë (g - 1)v1 ¯
Manometer, however, measures (p1 – p2) and not p2/p1 It is, therefore, necessary to convert Eq. (6.9)
such that w is a function of (p1 – p2). Writing p2/p1 = 1 – x such that x = 1 – (p2/p1) and knowing that for gas
flow p2/p1 is very close to unity such that x is very close to zero, one can write
( p2 /p1 ) 2 /g @ 1 - 2 x/g = 1 - 2 /g + (2 /g )( p2 /p1 ) ¸Ô
˝ (6.10)
( p2 /p1 )(g + 1) /g @ 1 - (g + 1) /g + (g + 1)( p2 /p1 ) /g Ô˛
Using Eq. (6.10), Eq. (6.9) is modified to
w = CA1b2[2g (p1 – p2)/{V1(1 – b4(p2/p1)2/g)}]1/2 (6.11)
where C is the discharge coefficient.
In practice, however, it is unnecessary to calculate compressible flow on the basis of the above equation.
For quick calculation an additional parameter, known as the rational expansion factor Y, is defined as
Y = (compressible mass flow rate)/(incompressible mass flow rate)
By determining the mass flow rate of the incompressible fluids and multiplying with Y, flow rate for
compressible fluids can be found out. Instead of calculating Y using an actual relation available in
the literature, empirical relations are suggested which give good results for limited p2/p1 values such as
0.8 £ p2/p1 £ 1.0. For flange taps in orifices this is given by
Y = 1 – [0.41 + 0.35b4] (p1 – p2)/(g p1) (6.12a)
For the gases containing moisture, a moisture factor correcting for the vapour density is introduced.
Following Eq. (6.6), the final form of the vapour flow equation is written as
qv = KA2Y(vs/Ms)(2gM1(rm – rf)h/v1)1/2 (6.12b)
where it has been assumed that p2/p1 @ 1, such that
1 – b4 (p2/p1)2/g @ 1 – b4
and
M1 = moisture correction factor = 1 + (pv/p)(Sv/S – 1) (6.13)
In Eq. (6.13), pv = abs. vapour pressure, Sv = vapour specific gravity referred to air at the same pressure
and temperature, p = pressure of the gas, and, S = specific gravity of the gas.
Moisture in a gas affects the flow rate for a differential head in two ways. The density of the moist gas
changes and the gas becomes only a part of the mixture. With the above notations one writes the ratio of the
density of the moist gas to that of the dry gas as the correction factor. The ratio of the weight of the dry gas
to that of the mixture should be the actual moisture correction factor but very often it is simply considered
with the single assumption of density change and the correction factor is then given by
M = rd/rm
The gas Reynold’s number is found from Rg = 4q/(pmdv1). The specific volume of the gas occurring in
the above equations can be found out from the relation v = Cf RT/p, where Cf is the compressibility factor,
being a number correcting the ideal gas laws to actual pressure, volume and temperature. This is found out
from the available charts.
Another quantity called the critical pressure ratio is important in gas flow systems. This is the pressure
ratio at which maximum flow occurs. It can be found out from Eq. (6.9) by differentiating w with respect
p2/p1 and equating it to zero. This yields, under approximation,
(p2/p1)cr = {2/(g + l)}g /(g – 1) (6.14a)
In industrial practice, normally,
p2/p1 > (p2/p1)cr (6.14b)
Example 6.1 Calculate the low rate of water through a 10 cm pipe with an ori ice of 5 cm diameter as
restriction. The differential head read over a mercury column manometer for vena contracta taps is 30 cm. The
lowing water temperature is 40°C, manometer temperature is 25°C and the standard temperature at which the
data is desired is 15°C. Assume m40°C = 0.05 p.
Solution Here A2 = p 100/4 = 78.5 sq.cm, h = 30 cm, b = 0.5, rm = 13.4 gm/cm3, rf = 0.996 gm/cm3, r =
0.993 gm/cm3, rs = 0.9998 gm/cm3.
Using Eq. (6.6)
q = K ¥ 78.5 ¥ 0.993(13.5 - 0.996) ¥ 2 ¥ 980 ¥ 30 / 0.9998 = 67004 K
Also, R = 4 ¥ 0.993 ¥ q/(p ¥ 0.05 ¥ 5) = 5.04q
It is now a question of trial to find q; first, a Reynold’s number is assumed and from table, K is found out
and then q, after which R is checked. A close reach determines the required value of q.
Assume R = 105, this gives K = 0.6271 and q from Reynold’s number is 1.9 ¥ 104 while from the
formula it is 4.2 ¥ 104 which is wide out. Now the second trial assumes R = 2 ¥ 105 giving q as 3.97 ¥ 104
and K = 0.6240 so that from the formula it is (q) 4.18 ¥ 104 cc/sec which is very close and this value is
accepted.
The Ori ice Of the four types of commercially available restriction type primary flow measuring elements,
orifice is the most common. It is the cheapest and takes the form of a thin plate square edge orifice and is
mounted in between the flanges. The others are venturi, flow nozzle and Dahl tube.
The orifice may be concentric, segmental or even eccentric. While the concentric one is more common,
the segmental or the eccentric types are used for fluids containing solids and these types are to be mounted
in such a way that the bottom of the orifice is flush with the bottom inside of the pipe. The disadvantage
with these types is that standard flow coefficient tables are not available for them. Figure 6.3 shows these
two types of orifice. Machining of the orifice plate depends on the specific use. Three diagrams shown in
Fig. 6.4 explain the machining methods. Types 1 and 2 are very commonly used; F is known as the plater.
These two are easily reproducible and easier to manufacture while type 3 is not. Thickness t is chosen to
withstand the buckling forces. Type 1 has also reduced pressure losses. Flow coefficients for these types are
slightly different and are available for known d/D, F, t and a. Type 3, known as the quadrant-edged orifice,
is used for more viscous fluids where for low Reynold’s number viscosity correction is usually necessary.
The design may be made without requiring any viscosity correction. Materials for orifice plates are steel,
stainless steel, Monel, phosphor-bronze, brass etc.
Plate
Pipe
Orifice
Concentric Segmental
Fig. 6.3 Sketch of ori ice of two different types
d D
F
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Fig. 6.4 Machining methods of ori ices
A general mounting feature of the orifice is shown in Fig. 6.5. Tapping positions greatly influence the
measuring accuracy. A downstream tap at vena-contracta would generate the largest differential pressure,
but flow rate and d/D ratio greatly influence the location of this tap position. For vena-contracta tappings,
generally d1 is made equal to D, the pipe diameter, while the downstream tapping position is determined
from the curves shown in Fig. 6.6. Other types of tapping commonly encountered are given in Table 6.2.
D d
d1 d2
Fig. 6.5 Mounting of ori ice

2.0
1.5 Max.
d2
d1
1.0
0.5
Min. Recom.
0
0.15 0.3 0.6 0.9
b
Fig. 6.6 Curve to choose vena-contracta tappings
Table 6.2 Ori ice tappings

Tapping type d1 d2 Remarks
Pipe taps 8D Mainly used for gas lines, when D is small and pressure differential is
2 12 D
small, b < 0.70.
Radius taps D 1 Prescribed to keep the tapping positions fixed irrespective of b, not as
2
D
common as the others.
Flange taps, or. 1 in. 1 in. Used mainly for D > 1 in. It is the most popular tapping position.
Corner taps
Any fittings close to the orifice, up or downstream, changes the flow coefficient as the flow pattern itself
undergoes changes. Hence minimum distances are specified in terms of the pipe diameters when a fitting
of any kind may be required to be made. For different types of fittings different distances are prescribed
which are also dependent on d/D ratio. But generally, in the downstream side it is more than 5D, while on
the upstream side minimum distance is 20D. Installation of flow straighteners, however, can reduce this
distance on the upstream side.
Venturi Venturi tubes may be of two different designs: the p1

short recovery cone type and the long recovery cone type p2
also sometimes known as the Herschel standard type. Figure
6.7 shows the line sketch of a venturi with a straight throat
of length equal to the throat diameter (b = d) and the throat D a1 d a2
tapping is made midway. Other dimensions are shown in
the diagram, and, a2 varies from 5° to 15° depending on the
c
long or short recovery cone type design. The design data a b
for venturi, flow nozzle or other head type primary flow
elements are available in design manuals and handbooks. a = 0.25 D to 0.75 D a1 = 21°
The short venturi is suitable for short obstructed lines. Fig. 6.7 Scheme of a straight throat venturi
It has larger pressure losses than the Herschel type. The
throat generally is a separate cast body so that it can be easily replaced. The venturi is more accurate than
the orifice as it has less pressure losses. For furthering the accuracy the average pressure differential is
measured by replacing the pressure taps with piezometer rings. Its range of operation is very high and
because of the constructional shape, has less wear and abrasion with high reproducibility.
The flow equations are similar to the orifice type with a different discharge coefficient. The discharge
coefficient is, as usual, found from the table. Its value is larger than that of an orifice and is usually between
0.9 and 1.0.
Flow Nozzle The flow nozzle is a variation of the venturi in Sec.1 Sec.2
which the exit section is omitted and consequently the approach
section is bell-shaped with a cylindrical throat. The schematic
sketch is shown in Fig. 6.8. The ASME standard flow nozzle has
an elliptical entrance as compared to the ISA standard that has D d
a radius entrance. Such designs are used for high velocity, > 30
m/s, vapour (steam) flow rate. A design, sometimes known as
the critical nozzle venturi, is used in special applications such as D < 0.6d
critical flow. It has further been developed to have high differential
pressure, low permanent pressure loss, shorter length and lower Fig. 6.8 Sketch of a low nozzle
weight.
If venturi and flow nozzle are called upon to measure 1.0
compressible flow the rational expansion factor is obtained from
the chart which is shown in Fig. 6.9 for air. This chart is prepared g = 1.4
Y
from the standard equation for Y.
b=
Dahl Tube Dahl tube is another restriction type primary element 0.6
0.8
for flow measurement. It produces large pressure differential 0.7
with low pressure loss. A theoretical explanation of such
behaviour is not readily given but experimentally this has been 0.8
found to be true. A typical Dahl tube is schematically shown in
Fig. 6.10. A comparative study of the pressure loss with b for 0.6
the above restriction type flow elements is made in Fig. 6.11. 1.0 0.8 0.6
p2
This indicates that the Dahl tube is most efficient as far as loss
p1
is concerned but the machining problems make the device very
Fig. 6.9 Chart of rational expansion
costly. Orifice and venturi are more commonly used because of factor
overall advantages.
0.04 Orifice 15
Pressure loss (inch / psi)
Nozzle
mm / kg / cm2
p2 p2 0.02 7.5
Venturi SRC
LRC
Dahl tube
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
b%
Fig. 6.10 Schematic sketch of a Dahl tube Fig. 6.11 Comparison of pressure losses for different types
of restrictions
Example 6.2 Dry air lows in a 5 cm pipe at 8.2 kg/cm2 and 15°C. If at the given temperature and pressure, low
rate is 48.55 ¥ 104 cc/min with a manometer head of 60 cm mercury at 25°C, calculate the ori ice diameter. Assume
m = 0.003.
Solution Here vs = v1 = Cf 1 RTl/pl = 2881 ¥ 288/(1000 ¥ 9.2) = 89.3 cc/gm, as R = 2881 cm/°C and Cf 1 = 1.
q = 48.55 ¥ 104 cc/min = 8.09 ¥ 103 cc/sec, rm = 13.5 gm/cc, h = 60 cm,
Hence, q = Kb2A1Yvs rm /v1 2 gh
or 8.09 ¥ 103 = Kb2Y ¥ 19.6 ¥ 89.3 ¥ 13.5/89.30 ¥ 2 ¥ 980 ¥ 60
or Kb2Y = 0.035
Also, Y = 1 – [0.41 + 0.35b4] (60 ¥ 13.5)/(1.4 ¥ 9.2 ¥ 1000) ª 1 – 0.025
= 0.975, neglecting the term containing b4, as it is very small

Thus Kb2 = 0.035/0.975 = 0.0359
Now R = 4rq/(pmbD) = 4 ¥ 8.09 ¥ 103/(p 89.3 ¥ b ¥ 0.003 ¥ 5) = 7693/b

First trial with R = 10,000, b = 0.7693, K (from table) > 0.7, does not tally. A second trial gives R = 3 ¥
104, b = 0.24 and K = 0.62, so that orifice diameter is 0.24 ¥ 5 = 1.2 cm.
Example 6.3 A venturi tube is to be used to measure a maximum low rate of water of 50 gpm at 20°C. The
throat Reynold’s number is to be at least 105 at these low conditions. The upper scale limit is to be scheduled to
correspond to the maximum low rate. Determine the size of the venturi and the maximum range of differential
pressure.
Solution From tables: r = 1 gm/cc, m = 0.0097 poise, 1 gallon = 3785.9 gm, by weight and = 3609 cc by
volume.
w = 50 ¥ 3785.9/60 = 3154.9 gm/sec, R = 4w/(pdm) ≥ 105
giving dmax = 4 ¥ 3154.9/(p ¥ 105 ¥ 0.0097) = 4.14 cm.
Consulting the table, for R to lie between 105 and 3 ¥ 105 with D = 5 cm and b = 0.5, a value of C =
0.976 appears reasonable, so that, actual R with these data is 1.62 ¥ 105.
4 0.976 ¥ 0.784 ¥ 6.25 2 ¥ 980( p1 - p2 )

Now q = (CA2 / (1 - b )) 2 g ( p1 - p2 ) /r = = 54.63 ( p1 - p2 )
(0.9375 ¥ 4) 1
However q is given as q = (50/60) ¥ 3609 = 3007.5 cc/sec. Hence p1 – p2 = 3 kg/cm2.
Often the meter is designed to read and record without any integral correction gear and it gives results
that are true only under the metering condition as it is called. Sometimes it is necessary to translate the data
to a reference or base condition. A suitable multiplying factor serves this purpose as has been shown earlier
in Ex. 6.1. Using suffix m for metering condition and r for reference condition, the correction factor Fc
involving pressure, temperature, specific gravity and moisture is given by
Fc(true flow/indicated flow) = [(pm/pr) ¥ (Tr/Tm) ¥ (Sr/Sm) ¥ (Mr/Mm)]1/2
Installation Notes on Head- low Meters Differential pressure manometers like the diaphragm gauge,
bell gauge, bellows gauge, U-tube manometers, ring type gauges, enlarged leg manometers etc., are very
commonly used in conjunction with the restriction type primary devices described above. The installation
of the above secondary devices with respect to the primary devices is to be carefully done as the head
due to the flow may be quite small and any small error in this measurement would greatly affect the flow
calculations. Proper piping arrangements for four different types of special fluids are shown in Figs 6.12(a),
(b), (c) and (d). For correct indication the gauge should be at the same level of the tapping position but
because of other installation components necessary in special cases as shown in Fig. 6.12, this condition
is not possible to be maintained always. In such situations the generally preferred method of installing the
gauge is below the level of the taps. For a positive downstream pressure, the meter level may be higher. The
installation consists of (a) taps, (b) shut-off valves, in the high and low pressure sides, (c) lines leading to
the gauge, and (d) the equalizing valve.
Installation of the gauge at a height different from the tapping position causes what are known as ‘zero-
elevation’ or ‘zero-suppression’—both being errors in the gauge range on the zero side. With the gauge at a
higher position than the tap, the gauge zero is at an elevated value than the actual zero and this error needs
to be compensated. In the gauge scale this difference in height is actually considered as the suppressed
range or simply suppression or zero elevation. Similarly, for the gauge installed at a height h lower than
the taps, h is called elevation or zero suppression. Both are required to be taken into account during
measurement.
Tappings If the pipe is tapped at the bottom, any solid matter flowing in the line might choke/clog the tap.
If the pipe is tapped at the top, any dissolved gas might escape through the tap and reach the manometer
upsetting the true reading. Generally recommended taps are the side of the pipe, at an angle between 30°
and 90° from the vertical (Fig. 6.12). The pipes are arranged so that in case of an eventuality the meter
can be recovered or removed without much difficulty. The equalizer valve, marked E in Fig. 6.12 helps in
zeroing the gauge reading without disconnecting the pipelines.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 6.12 Piping arrangement in four different cases, (a) steam, (b) gas, (c) corrosive liquid, (d) corrosive gas
Many flowing liquids (a) are corrosive, (b) may freeze out, (c) are thick and viscous, (d) contain foreign
matters, or, (e) evaporate easily. Corrosive liquids are generally kept out of the manometer. Large chambers
containing sealing liquids are mounted in the pipelines so that the liquid does not come in contact with the
manometric fluid. These chambers are known as sealing pots, and sealing liquids are chosen such that they
do not mix with the process liquid or the manometric fluid and are unaffected by them. For such systems
additional equalizing valves are located between the sealing chambers so that the effect of the height of the
sealing fluids can be cancelled out when necessary. The commonly chosen sealing liquids are (i) ethylene
glycol and water (50-50), (ii) glycerine and water (50-50), and (iii) dibutyl pthalate for freezing types. For
heavier liquids chloronapthelene and chlorinated oils have been used. Generally the sealing fluid should be
heavier than the flowing fluid. The sealing chambers are usually half-filled, through filling plugs with visual
checking facility such as gauge glasses.
Correction is sometimes necessary to allow for the differences in density of the flowing fluid, sealing
liquid and manometer fluid and for the relative displacement of the sealing liquid height. The pressure
balance equation can then be written as
h = hm (rm – rs)/rf + hs(rs – rf)/rf (6.15)
where h = head to be measured for the flowing fluid, hm = manometer head, hs = sealing liquids height
difference, rm = manometer liquid density, rf = flowing fluid density, and rs = sealing pot liquid density.
Sometimes in high-pressure systems, a liquid which will not harm the process, is introduced in a small
quantity under pressure into the space above the manometric fluid. This very small amount does not produce
any reasonable pressure head. This system is known as the purging system. Installation considerations vary
and are widely different for different types of processes and process fluids. Only a brief outline has been
given here for horizontal flow lines. For more details, standard manuals should be consulted.
Pitot Tube Another restriction type primary element used mainly for fluid velocity measurement is the
Pitot tube. When a solid body is held centrally and stationary in a pipe line with a fluid streaming down,
due to the presence of the body, the fluid while approaching the object starts losing its velocity till directly
in front of the body, where the velocity is zero. This point is known as the stagnation point. As the kinetic
head is lost by the fluid, it gains a static head. By measuring the difference of pressure between that at
normal flow line and that at the stagnation point, the velocity is found out.
The simplest design of such a sensor consists of tube with an impact opening of 3 to 6 mm diameter
pointing towards the approaching fluid. This measures the stagnation pressure. An ordinary upstream tap can be
used for measuring the line pressure. A combined pitot tube, the schematic arrangement of which is shown in
Fig. 6.13, also has the provision for static pressure measurement. It consists of an assembly of two concentric
tubes. The inner tube has the impact opening while the outer tube has one or more holes on the side as shown.
Stagnation pressure
Static pressure
Stagnation point
30°
Static openings
Fig. 6.13 Schematic arrangement of a combined pitot tube
The energy equation for incompressible fluid can be rearranged to yield

V f = [2 g ( pi - p f ) /r ] = 2 gh (6.16a)
where the impact pressure is pi, unobstructed fluid pressure and velocity are pf and Vf respectively and r is
the fluid density. Introducing a velocity coefficient Cv and correction due to the manometer, one gets,
V f = Cv [2 gh( rm - r f ) /r ] (6.16b)
Pitot tube is a simple device, easily installed and can measure velocity both in closed pipes and
open channels. It has a low-pressure loss but is not suitable for fluids containing solid suspensions. For
compressible fluids, if the flow is adiabatic and reversible in thermodynamic sense, the energy equation is
manipulated to obtain
È ÏÊ (g -1)/g ¸˘
2 gg Ô pi ˆ Ô
Vf = Í p v ÌÁ ˜ - 1˝ ˙ (6.17)
Íg -1 f f ÔÓ Ë p f ¯ Ô˛ ˙˙˚
ÍÎ
Expanding (pi/pf)(g – 1)/g and for small {1–(pi/pf)}, neglecting higher order terms, this simplifies to
V f = 2 gv f ( pi - p f ) which, on taking account of the manometer head and velocity coefficient, is written
as
V f = Cv [2 gh( rm - r f )v f ] (6.18)
For the gas being moist, correction for moisture is to be made as specified earlier.
The pitot tube has no standard design data. Value of Cv is obtained by experiment. It varies from 0.84 to
1.02. For short impact opening line, the value is low. The head h is normally very small and is, therefore,
not very conveniently measured. The construction with an impact and a suction opening, that faces the
down stream side, is popular as a larger head is generated in this type. Such a construction is known as
multiplying pitot tube.
Example 6.4 Calculate the velocity of air in a pipeline where with a pitot tube a manometer head of 1.3 cm
of mercury has been obtained. The low-line pressure is 7 kg/cm2 and temperature 90°C. Manometer is at 20°C.
Assume Cv = 1.
Solution Here vf = RT/p = 2881 ¥ 363/8000 = 130.7 cc/g
rm = 13.5 gm/cc and rf << rm, also h = 1.3 cm.
Therefore, V f = (2 ¥ 980 ¥ 1.3 ¥ 13.5 ¥ 130.7) = 2117 cm/s
Two other flowmeters dependent on the principle of head developed at a place in the flow line with
specified type of restrictions are the (i) annubar flowmeter and (ii) target flowmeter. The principle of the former
is sketched in Figs 6.14(a), (b), (c). It is basically a multiported pitot tube for spanning the pipe diameter.
Static pressure
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 6.14 The sketches of an annubar low meter; (a) and (b) sketches to explain mounting and principle,
(c) low line distribution and holes in the tube
A rectangular tube with ports (holes) located at mathematically defined positions based on axisymmetric
pipe velocity profile is inserted in the pipeline. The static pressure is monitored with a separate short tube or
a single ported tube facing the opposite side and forming the assembly of probe. The distortion in the flow-
lines is shown in Fig. 6.14(c) which appear to be much less distorted when compared to orifice metering.
More than one hole may be made in the pipe for the purpose. Such meters are available for flow-pipe sizes
ranging from 2.5 cm to 180 cm diameter.
Accuracy is specified as ±1.0% with repeatability of 0.1%. Ease of installation, low cost, low loss are
some of its features.
The target meter consists of a circular plate, called target, Signal
supported concentrically with the flow line. A difference of Flapper-nozzle
pressure develops across the annular orifice so formed and this,
in turn, produces a force on it, the force being proportional to
Air supply
the square of the flow rate. This force is then carried out of the
flow line through a rod or baffle passing through a diaphragm
seal. A force balance flow-transmitter or an electrical transmitter
may be constructed with this baffle as shown in Fig. 6.15. It
must be noted that the system is constructable in a single unit
basis with the primary and the responsive mechanism as a single
structure and it does not need differential pressure tappings like Target
orifice and suitable for sticky or dirty liquids as well as liquids Fig. 6.15 The target lowmeter
at elevated temperatures. Because an annular opening is to have
unobstructed flow at the top and the bottom of the flow line,
trappings of solids or gas in liquid flow or of solids and liquids p1
in gaseous flow are avoided. The instrument is recommended to
be calibrated at site for uncertain coefficients.
When the direction of the fluid flow changes via an elbow in a
a pipeline, the resulting centrifugal force produces a differential p2
pressure in a pair of radial taps as shown in Fig. 6.16. This R
differential pressure can be a measure of the amount of fluid
flow. Such a flow measurement system has not found wide
use as yet because of the inherently low pressure differential
produced, specially at low flow rates. The coefficient of flow is
Fig. 6.16 Schematic representation of
also not very satisfactorily obtained from the dimensions. The the elbow as a low measuring device
approximate rate of flow is given by
q = kv hRD3 (6.19)
where h = head developed, in inches or cm of water, R = central line radius of the elbow (in./cm), D = pipe
and elbow diameter (in./cm) and kv = flow coefficient. For a mass flow rate in lb/hr, value of kv is 244 ±10.
When the elbow diameter is smaller than the pipe diameter, differential pressure increases and vice versa.
It has also been found that when the plane of the taps is at an angle a of 22 12∞ instead of 45° as is common,
with the elbow inlet, stability of measurement increases.
This type of flow-measuring system is used where large flow occurs as in the scroll of turbines in hydel
stations. The advantages are that the installation is easy, economical and it does not add to pressure losses
as in other head type flowmeters. The taps and also the flowlines should, however, be horizontal for best
results, with no sedimentation clogging the tap ports. In pipe lengths of about 25D upstream side and at
least 10D in the downstream side no other bending is generally allowed. The measurement is sensitive to
viscosity, pipe roughness, etc. Tap diameter is roughly 3/32 to 1/8 pipe diameter.
6.3 AREA FLOWMETERS
In head flowmeters the restriction area was kept constant generating a pressure differential, whereas in area
flowmeters the differential head is held constant by a variable area. This change in area can be a measure
of the fluid flow rate. But, in practice, the variable area measurement is difficult, if not impossible, and the
principle is utilized for flow rate measurement without actually doing it, i.e., without actually measuring the
variable area. There are two general types of area flowmeters (i) rotameters, and (ii) piston type meters.
The rotameter is the more common method for fluid flow measurement. It is schematically shown in
Fig. 6.17(a). The fluid enters the vertical tapered rotameter tube at the bottom and flows out from the top.
A weighted bob or float placed in the tube is maintained at equilibrium by the joint action of the upward
dragging force due to the flowing fluid, the downward force i.e., weight of the bob and the buoyancy forces.
The position of the bob will, therefore, be an indication of the flow rate. In the equilibrium position, the
differential pressure across the restriction, which is variable as the float moves vertically up and down in
a tapered tube, is zero. The tapered tube is generally made of glass so that the float may be viewed from
outside. Sometimes the inner side of the metering tube is provided with vertical ridges to guide the float. In
equilibrium, one has
Fd + r1v = r2v (6.20)
where Fd = drag force, v = volume of the float, r1 = fluid density, and r2 = float density. The drag force is
given by
0.50
R
R
0.25
D %
a h 0
2 0.9 1.0 1.1
1– 1
d 1 (for r2 = 2r1)
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.17 (a) Sketch of a rotameter, (b) error curve for changing density of rotameter
Fd = CdA2r1V12/2g (6.21)
where Cd = drag coefficient, A2 = float effective area, normally the frontal area, V1 = fluid average velocity
in the annular restriction. Combining Eqs (6.20) and (6.21), one obtains the volume flow rate
q = V1 Aa = ( Aa / Cd ) {(2 gv/A2 )( r2 - r1 ) /r1} (6.22)
where Aa = annular restriction area.
Equation (6.22) can also be derived from the energy equation for the liquid flows. The term 1/ Cd is
also known as the contraction coefficient or the flow coefficient.
Generally the tube diameter at the inlet is equal to the float diameter so that at no flow the float fits
snugly in the inlet opening. At the equilibrium position, let the tube diameter be D and the height of the bob
from the inlet end be h. Let the tube inlet diameter be d and a a constant indicating the tube taper such that
for small a, D = d + ah. The term a is also known as the scale length factor. The inlet area being the float
frontal area A2 the annular area is easily calculated as
pa
Aa = (a h 2 + 2hd )
4 (6.23)
Combining Eqs (6.22) and (6.23), one gets,
q = (pa / Cd )(h + a h 2 / 2d ) {gvd 2 ( r2 /r1 - 1) / 2 A2 } (6.24)

For many practical purposes, a denoting the taper is very small and d is quite large, so that h >> ah2/2d,
and, hence
q = (pa h/ Cd ) {gvd 2 ( r2 /r1 - 1) / 2 A2 } (6.25)

In Eq. (6.25) all quantities except h are constant. Therefore,
q = k1h (6.26)
Thus the flow rate is directly proportional to the height of the float. The quantity k1 is known as the meter
constant.
The drag coefficient is dependent on the Reynold’s number, i.e., viscosity. Thus, if the effect due to the
change in viscosity can be made zero, the meter can also be made independent of viscosity. This can be
done by making the drag coefficient Cd constant by appropriate design of the float. Inverted cone shaped
floats are found to have reasonably constant Cd. But for a very wide variation in viscosity, viscous drag over
this float also varies.
From Eq. (6.25) it is seen that the flow rate also depends on the float and fluid densities. If the fluid
density changes from r1, to r¢1 the reading of volume flow rate q changes to q¢ as given by
q ¢ = q [( r2 - r1¢ ) r1} /{( r2 - r1 ) r1¢}] (6.27)
The mass flow rate w is given by
w = q r1 = k2 h {( r2 - r1 ) r1}
(6.28)
If the rotameter indication is to be independent of the fluid density, dw/dr1 must be equal to zero; from
Eq. (6.28), this gives
r2 = 2r1 (6.29)
or, the float density must be twice the density of the fluid. It is clear that as the fluid becomes more dense,
buoyancy force increases forcing the float up, although, flow rate may remain the same. However, from
Eq. (6.25) it will be seen that q becomes almost insensitive to r1 if r2 >> r1. For volume flow rate
measurement, the float material chosen generally is stainless steel while for weight rate of flow, a blend of
plastic and metal known as plasmet, is used.
From Eq. (6.28) it would be observed that w/h, known as the metering ratio R, must be constant. If
relation (6.29) is not satisfied, R changes and the meter reading is in error. However, with a 10% change in
density, change in the metering ratio is only 0.5 per cent. This is sketched in Fig. 6.17(b).
The rotameter has a number of advantages in industrial flow rate measurement and these are (i) low and
constant pressure loss, (ii) usability for corrosive fluids, (iii) good accuracy at low and medium flow rates,
(iv) possibility of compensation for fluid density variation and viscosity, and (v) ruggedness due to use of
plastic and metal metering tubes.
The design consideration of rotameter should include the pressure, pipe diameter, chemical and
physical nature of the fluid and the metering capacity. Up to about 35 kg/cm2, glass tube rotameters are
available. For higher pressure, steel tube rotameters are more common. Such rotameters will have an
extension rod attached to the float which moves in a scaled gauge glass chamber for indication as shown in
Fig. 6.18. The viewing chamber may be made as small in diameter as possible while the metering tube may
be a large diameter pipe for increased capacity. The extension rod also facilitates mechanical, electrical or
electronic transmission of the float position. In the inductance bridge type transmission system (Fig. 6.19),
the extension rod is fitted with an armature which moves in the field of two transmitting coils. As the float
armature moves, the bridge unbalance moves the receiving armature. The armature may be fitted with an
indicator or a recorder as shown and the transmitted flow rate can be obtained easily. Besides, the bridge
unbalance output may be converted to obtain digital output as well.
View chamber
Extension rod
Bob
Fig. 6.18 Sketch of a steel tube rotameter
Fig. 6.19 Sketch of the inductance bridge type low transmitter
For transmitting flow rate to a distant location rotameter with converter is being used now. The motion
of the float and the extension rod is detected here by a magnetic coupling device which with a link-lever
mechanism operates a position transducer. The schemes of the system and the position sensor are shown
in Fig. 6.20(a) and (b) respectively. With the extension rod rising/falling the lever gets a movement via the
magnetic coupler and through a link arrangement from the lever, the stem of the position sensor rotates
alongwith which a ferrite core moves. An exciting or primary coil and a receiving or secondary coil are
formed on a circular printed circuit board and are electromagnetically connected by this U-shaped ferrite
core. Arrangement is such that with the extension rod rising the rotation is in the direction to have the area
of connection between these two coils increasing so that the receiving coil has more induced voltage which
is then amplified, rectified and converted to 4 to 20 mA format. The exciter (supply) frequency is around 20
kHz and is provided by an oscillator. The scheme is shown in Fig. 6.20(c).
FC DC VR
PS
EC
M C
FC C
PS
LL
A R
Osc
PCB
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.20 (a) Magnetic coupling type rotameter transmitter, (b) details of the position sensor, (c) the measurement
scheme (MC magnetic coupling, PS position sensor, LL link lever, DC detecting coil, EC exciting coil, FC ferrite core
(U-shaped) PCB printed circuit board, VR voltage regulator, A ampli ier, R recti ier, C converter, Osc oscillator)
The piston type area flowmeter, a sketch of which is shown Fig. 6.21, consists of a sleeve or cylinder
held rigidly in a cast body and a well-fitted piston, also known as the metering plug. Usually, rectangular
openings are cut in the sleeve for the fluid passage. A calibrating spring is sometimes used for proper
positioning of the piston at no flow condition and for range adjustment. The flow reading is usually
transmitted using a reluctance type transducer as shown. Depending on the chemical activity and fluid
pressure the materials for the piston and the sleeve are suitably chosen. There are variations in the design
of the sleeve. A cylindrical sleeve with reamed circular holes drilled helically is available without any
calibrating spring. This provides area variation continuously with the height of the piston. Without the
spring, the pressure differential is constant. By spacing the holes in the sleeve properly, the instrument scale
may be made linear. For range variation, sometimes the piston is adequately loaded.
Armature
To measure
Double
Solenoid
Sleeve with
slots
Piston
Calibrating spring
Fig. 6.21 Sketch of a piston type area lowmeter
In another variation two rectangular vertical slots are provided in the sleeve and the piston is controlled
by the spring thereby obtaining a good linear calibration. The slot area may be increased for increasing the
range, however, this may be at the cost of scale linearity. A spring attachment is useful instead of a loaded
piston, because, in the latter case, a very large weight may be necessary. A dashpot damping device may be
incorporated for taking the resonating effect into account.
A piston meter is less affected by viscous drags and is often used for fuel oils, tars, chemical liquors and
other high viscosity fluids. It is also used for flow rates of corrosive and cloggable fluids. The range of such
an instrument can have wide variations. It can be designed to measure flow rates of the order of 0.08 cc/
min, where restriction type meters are unsuitable. Also on the higher side it measures flow rates up to about
14000 gph.
Example 6.5 A cylindrical loat of diameter 1 cm and height 1 cm is used in a rotameter which is tapered at
5° from the bottom inlet. If for a low rate of 25 cc/s, the bob reaches a height of 2.5 cm from the reference level,
estimate the metering ratio and the low coef icient for water low. The loat density is 4 times the luid density.
Solution Substituting a = 5° = 0.087 rad, A2 = 0.784 sq. cm, h = 2.5 cm,
g = 981 cm/sec2, v = 0.784 cc, r2/r1 = 4 and q = 25 cc/sec in Eq. (6.25)
Cflow = 1/ Cd = 0.95
Metering ratio R = w/h = qr1/h = 25 ¥ 1/2.5 = 10 g/cm.
6.4 MASS FLOWMETERS

Mass flowmeters ensure direct measurement of the true value of the mass flow rate. A number of principles
can be utilized for such measurements. In one type, an additional movement is imparted to the flowing
fluid whereby an intermediate measuring parameter is derived in the system. Depending on the type of
movement, (i) an inertial torque, (ii) a Coriolis force or (iii) a gyroscopic effect is developed/produced
which can be measured and which is proportional to the mass flow rate.
The first type known as the turbo flowmeter utilizes the principle of conservation of angular momentum,
popularly known as moment of momentum law in turbo mechanics. Figure 6.22 shows the schematic
arrangement of such a flowmeter. Two impellers are mounted coaxially at an axial distance in the line.
There are channels provided in both the impellers round the periphery. The channel axes are parallel to the
impeller axes.
Impeller Driven wheel
Sync. motor Rotation
pickup
Spring
Stationary disc Magnetic

coupling
Fig. 6.22 Schematic arrangement of a turbine mass lowmeter
The impeller on the upstream side is rotated at a constant speed by a synchronous motor and gear
arrangement. The second impeller also called the driven wheel or the turbine is restrained by a spring or
some sort of an elastic element. A rotation pick up with magnetic coupling is provided at this stage which
produces a signal proportional to the mass flow rate. The liquid entering the metering tube passes through
the channels made in the first impeller. The rotating impeller exerts an inertial moment in the liquid causing
a torsion in it. This liquid when passing through the channels of the second impeller will exert a pressure on
the blades of the driven wheel causing it to rotate through an angle. The moment acting on this wheel will,
however, be balanced by the elastic moment of the spring and bring the wheel to an equilibrium condition
if the flow rate is steady. A simple relation between the mass flow rate and the moment so developed can be
obtained by considering that the flow is one dimensional, lossless and incompressible. It is known that for
such a flow the derivative of moment of momentum about the axis of flow is equal to the total moments of
all the forces about this axis and for a lossless flow the total moment on the fluid by the first impeller equals
the total moments on the shaft of the second impeller. If this is denoted by T and the moment of momentum
by M, then
T = dM/dt (6.30)
If dJ is the moment of inertia of a mass of liquid dm, then for a mean radius r of rotation of the channels
about the flow axis,
dJ = r2dm (6.31)
Also if w is the angular velocity of the first impeller, then
dM = wdJ (6.32)
Combining Eqs (6.30). (6.31) and (6.32), one obtains
T = dM/dt = wr2dm/dt (6.33)
As dm/dt is the mass rate of flow w (say), the relation is easily obtained as, since both w and r are
constant,
w = T/(wr2) = kT (6.34)
Thus by measuring the torque T by an electrical transducer, w can be found out. However, the
assumption of lossless flow is never valid as some part of the moment of momentum is spent in overcoming
the flow resistance between the driving and the driven impellers. In the figure a stationary disc has been
shown which is often used to reduce the viscous coupling between the impellers. When flow is zero, the
effect of viscous coupling is quite large. Thus the error in such a flowmeter is large at low flow rates due
to friction and viscous effects. The disadvantage of such a design is that it can measure only unidirectional
flow rates.
A bidirection design incorporates two driving impellers on the two sides of the driven impeller. The two
impellers are driven by a single motor with appropriate gearing arrangements. The angular momentum on
the fluid produced by any of the impellers is removed by the driven impeller which is restrained as usual.
For integrated flow measurements, the same instrument can be used by replacing the restraining spring
with the combination of a retarding disc and retarding magnets. The revolutions of the disc are proportional
to the integrated flow. However, the calibration of the instrument for different flow conditions is to be
done initially using standard methods. Integration gives actual results only when the rotational speed of
the driven impeller is exactly proportional to the mass flow rate. Because of the retarding disc this is not
exactly true.
Coriolis flowmeters can be used to measure the mass flow rates of foams, slurries, mixtures, besides
the usual fluids whose flow rates are measurable by conventional types of flowmeters. It can measure flow
rates of special types of materials such as sticky, thick, viscous fluids, oils and sand mixtures, peanut butter,
liquids containing gases etc. Flow measurement in food-processing industry is specially to be considered
in this context. Any object moving with a constant velocity v on a surface rotating with a constant angular
velocity w would acquire an acceleration fc called the Coriolis acceleration which will be perpendicular
to both v and w. This property was first detected by Coriolis for a body moving on the surface of the
earth. Based on this principle, the Coriolis flowmeter is developed which consists of an U-tube flow line
suspended like a cantilever with its two ends supported in appropriate mountings and as the fluid passes
through it at a constant velocity v it is made to vibrate sinusoidally with an angular velocity w instead
of rotating it because of practical difficulty. In such a case the acceleration fc is given by 2w ¥ v, a cross
product of vectors w and v. Hence, the inertial force acting on the pipe wall produced by fc is
d F = dm fc = (r ◊ a ◊ dl)(2w ¥ v)
= 2w (ra v) dl = 2ww dl (6.35)

with dF acting in a direction perpendicular to the length of the pipe and the total force over the length l is
given by
F = 2wwl (6.36)
Interestingly, v’s in the two lengths of the U-shaped pipe are in opposite direction constituting an inertial
torque T = 2w wl ◊ r as shown in Fig. 6.23(a), r being the separation between the two legs of the U-pipe.
Because w is sinusoidal, torque T also is sinusoidal with a frequency equalling the natural frequency of
the U-pipe in the bending mode of vibration. However, this torque tends to twist the U-tube producing a
torsional mode of vibration the frequency of vibration in this mode being much higher than the frequency
of the bending mode of vibration. The flow pipe with the fluid can be approximated as a second order
system and under static condition of this system, the torsional deflection qt of the pipe is given by
qt = T/Ks = 2wrwl/Ks = kw (6.37)
where Ks is the system stiffness. Thus measuring qt, the mass flow rate w may be measured.
l
F
F F
D F=0 D D D
qt
r T
F
(a) (b) (c)
Vp
qt
(d)
Fig. 6.23 Sketches to explain the Coriolis force lowmeter (a) the general principle, (b) the case with
F = 0, (c) the case with a inite F, (d) the movement, as seen, of the end of the U-tube
As has already been mentioned, the bending mode induced by the drive system and the torsional mode
of vibration produced by the Coriolis force have different frequencies and they also have different phase
conditions in their angular displacements. Angular displacement qv due to vibrational mode has a 90° phase
difference with angular velocity w = dqv/dt but w is in phase with the Coriolis acceleration fc and, hence,
F is 180° out of phase with fc. Also, F and T are in phase, and qt the displacement due to torsion may be
considered to be in the same phase as that of F or T because it is the output of a resonant high frequency
condition for a small frequency input vibration. This makes qt to be at 90° phase departure from qv, that due
to drive system,
A zero-crossing detection system would allow qt to be measured. This is done by placing the detectors,
optical or magnetic, at the pipe neutral positions as shown in Figs 6.23(b) and (c) so that when the pipe
crosses these positions pulses are picked up. The twist produced allows the vibrating tube to cross the zero
line at two different instants with an interval Dt (say), thus Dt would be a measure of qt and in turn of w. Dt
is usually measured by a gated oscillator and counter system.
The end view of the vibrating U or C tube would be quite interesting. It would look like a vibrating beam
oscillating about its middle point i.e. the central line of U-tube as shown in Fig. 6.23(d), with a maximum
deflection of qt of the either end of this beam. The vertical velocity Vp of the tube end, as indicated, is given
by the relation
VpDt = rqt
Also, Vo = l ◊ w so that qt = lwDt/r.
Using Eq. (6.37), one gets
lw Dt/r = 2w wlr/Ks
from which
w = KsDt/(2r2) = k¢ Dt
The drive system of the U-tube is actually a force motor assembly which consists of a driver coil and a
sensor coil in the middle leg of an E-shaped magnetic core. The sensor coil picks up the frequency variation
due to fluid velocity change as then the resonance frequency of the system changes and a feedback system
is incorporated to bring it back to resonant condition. A phase-locked loop (PLL) control system is often of
use here.
There are two types of the U-tube design. A single-tube model has elaborate installation gadgets
requiring isolation from the main piping system through flexible coupling and arranged with V or T shaped
leaf spring for the drive system to be effective. In the split tube model, two U-tubes are used, one as
measurement tube, the other as the compensating tube with the flow in the tubes being parallel.
Gyroscopic flowmeters use the principle of a gyroscope. In this the gimbals are the input and output
‘axes’ as shown in Fig. 6.24 where these are marked as A-A and B-B. The output axis may be spring-
restrained through flexure pivots. The angular vector of the spinning ‘wheel’ is thus displaced by small
angles. The spin axis is the C-axis and a fluid motion is allowed perpendicular to this axis, i.e., along A-axis
about which the assembly rotates and this rotation is the ‘precession’. The mass flow rate produces a torque
TB about the output B-axis. The loop of the piping parallel to spin axis corrects for the centrifugal force
produced because of deflection about the output axis. The deflection is measured by appropriate transducer
and this deflection q is proportional to the mass flow rate.
A
C
B
Output
axis
B
A
f Spin axis
C
Input axis
Fig. 6.24 Sketch to explain the operation of gyroscopic lowmeter

The detailed analysis of such an instrument is quite complex and is not given here in view of the fact
that a gyroscopic flowmeter has restricted use, such as in rocket engine test, and not very popular till now in
common industrial set-ups. The complete instrument with all its attachments is very bulky as well.
A bridge type flowmeter for measuring mass flow rate of liquids is also available. It consists of four
identical orifices in the four arms of a bridge and a constant speed constant discharge rate pump as the
detector element. The pressure drop across the pump is directly proportional to the mass flow rate.
Figure 6.25 shows the schematic sketch of the system. For the symmetric bridge configuration, the flow
rates through the orifices on the diagonally opposite arms are identical. The two flow rates will differ by the
discharge rate of the pump. It is easily seen that
(q – qo)/2 = k1 ( p1 - p3 ) /r (6.38a)
and
(q + qo)/2 = k1 ( p1 - p4 ) /r (6.38b)
Combining Eqs (6.38), one obtains
Dp = p3 – p4 = (r/4k21)[(q + qo)2 – (q – qo)2]
= rq qo / k21
= qow/k21 (6.39a)
giving w = kDp (6.39b)
q – qo q + qo
2 3 2
q 1 p 2 q
qo
q + qo 4 q – qo
2 2
Fig. 6.25 Sketch of liquid bridge mass lowmeter
Thus if Dp is measured, the mass flow rate is directly obtained with the conversion factor k which in turn
depends on the pump discharge rate and orifice flow coefficient. The latter dependence is a disadvantage
since for varying flow, k1 changes. However, if the system is worked in such a range that orifice flow
coefficient does not vary sufficiently with q, the method is quite adequate.
An electrocaloric flowmeter using the temperature difference of a heated flowing fluid at boundary layer
and at the central flow line is described now. It consists of two coil type resistance thermometers placed at a
distance in the pipe line surrounding the pipe, the coil diameter of the thermometers being equal to or larger
than the pipe diameter. A heater placed close to the downstream thermometer but slightly upstream is so
regulated that a difference of temperature between the thermometers is maintained constant irrespective of
the flow change. Then the mass flow rate is given approximately by
w = kP1.25 (6.40)
where P is the heater power, and k is a function of the fluid thermal conductivity, specific heat, viscosity,
pipe diameter, heat transfer area and the temperature difference.
This difference of temperature is actually the difference between the core and the boundary layer
temperature at the downstream thermometer position. It has been seen that a thermometer placed 8 to 12
cm upstream of the heater measures a temperature equal to the temperature of the core fluid downstream of
the heater. For maintaining a constant differential temperature, a closed loop system may be used as shown
in Fig. 6.26. The differential temperature is given by
3" to 5"
Heater
T1 T2
XX
B.L. T
W
XX
Power amplifier
Fig. 6.26 Sketch of the closed loop system of a calorimetric lowmeter

(T1, T2 thermometers, B.L boundary layer, W indicator)
DT = koP/h (6.41)
where h is the film conductance of boundary layer and ko a constant. This method is used for blood flow
measurement with a heater with radio frequency field between the two capacitor plates. An approximate
formula q = kP/DT is used where k is the apparatus constant. The scheme is shown in Fig. 6.27. Liquid
mass flowmeter can also be computed from a volume flowmeter and a densitometer, that is, from pressure
differential and from density by suitable operation. A schematic diagram of the system is shown in
Fig. 6.28. A differential pressure bellows element works against a nonlinear spring with its stiffness
proportional to square of the displacement, thus creating a displacement d proportional to Dp . The
transforming transducer excitation is derived from a densitometer as shown. There are a number of float
switches in a chamber filled with the flowing liquid. With the change in the liquid density different float
switches will operate changing the excitation voltage proportional to density, r. Thus the transducer may be
designed to obtain a output vo given by
vo = k1dr = k2 Dp ◊ r = ko w (6.42)
where k1, k2 and ko are some constants. As the float switches operate only on discrete changes of the fluid
density, the resolution of such a mass flowmeter is not very good. Float switch type densitometer may be
replaced by other types such as a pipe vibration type or a piezocrystal type with associated conversion
circuits.
rf Source
Eo
Fig. 6.27 Sketch of a calorimetric lowmeter for blood low measurement
Counter wt.
Densitometer
p-Bellows
Core
d
Rn R1 Vi
Float switch Power supply

Vi r
Spring
Ks d2
Fig. 6.28 Schematic diagram of a mass lowmeter with a volume lowmeter and a densitometer
6.5 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPE FLOWMETERS
Positive displacement flowmeters are generally used for accurate measurement of steady flow. These meters
measure flow directly in terms of quantity usually separating the quantity into different discrete volumes
which are then counted to give the summed flow quantity. Flow rate measurement with these meters would
require additional time bases.
There are a number of positive displacement flowmeters like (i) nutating disc type (ND), (ii) oscillating
piston type (OP), (iii) sliding vane, retracting vane or spring-loaded rotary vane type (SV), (iv) lobed
impeller type (LI), (v) oval-shaped gear type (OG), (vi) reciprocating piston type (RP), (vii) fluted rotor
type (FR), (viii) bellows gas meter (BG) etc.
Table 6.3 gives a comparative study of these types on counts of use, sizes, accuracy and operating
temperature ranges. In fact operating pressure and temperature depends very much on the materials used,
types of materials flowing through etc. Choice of meter materials also depend on economic considerations.
Some meters like FR-types require continuous lubrication facility and installation of the meters in the lines
are also to be considered.
Table 6.3 Comparison of positive displacement meters

Meters Available in sizes (cm) Accuracy in % Temperature range °C Applications
ND 1.25 to 5.25 ±1 –150 to 120 Commercial and domestic water
supply
OP 1.25 to 5.00 ±1 up to 150 -do-
SV 4.00 to 60.00 ± 0.2 up to 200 Fluids including gases and also for
viscous fluids and slurries.
LI up to 40 ± 0.2 up to 400 -do-
OG 1.25 to 10.00 ± 0.5 up to 120 Water, LPG, gasoline, other
petroleum products with viscosity
< 200 cps.
RP 1.25 to 20.00 ± 0.5 up to 150 Common liquids.
FR 5.00 to 40.00 ± 0.5 –30 to 65 Crude and refined petroleum
products.
BG 1.25 to 5.00 ±0.5 up to 50 Domestic gas services.
Operations of a few selected from this chart are briefly described with simplified sketches here.
(a) The schematic diagram of a nutating disc (ND) meter is shown in Fig. 6.29. Water enters the left side
of the eccentrically mounted disc. The disc is pivoted at the geometric centre and is allowed to nutate
or wobble in a specially designed chamber as shown. Eccentric Shaft
Disc with partition
When the disc wobbles, it generates a cone with the
apex at the geometric centre. The liquid pressure sets
the disc in motion and as a result the quantity of liquid
that enters the left side chamber will be rolled out
through the outlet. Each complete cycle of nutation
of the disc will be counted by the counter mechanism
(not shown) which can be directly calibrated in terms
of the volume of the liquid received or discharged.
The method is used in many home water meters as Fig. 6.29 Schematic diagram of a nutating
given in the chart. disc lowmeter
(b) The sliding vane (SV) meter is schematically shown Eccentric rotating
in Fig. 6.30. An eccentric drum rotates inside the drum
meter casing. A number of spring-loaded vanes also
rotate maintaining contact with the meter casing
and forming separate chambers inside. While the
vanes rotate because of the differential pressure
across the meter, a fixed quantity of fluid is trapped
inside each chamber which is ultimately pushed out
through the outlet. Through the shaft of the eccentric Spring
drum, a counter may be connected and flow quantity loaded vane
registered as usual. This meter is insensitive to density
and viscosity changes. Fig. 6.30 Sketch of rotary vane
lowmeter
(c) The lobed impeller type (LI) whose schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 6.31 has two rotors or impellers with lobes for proper measuring and fitting
as depicted. The rotors rotate in a close-fitting chamber. The liquid is trapped in between the two
rotors from the inlet and is guided on to the outlet during

their rotation. With a revolution counter fitted to the shaft Impellers
of any of the rotors the flow can be ascertained. This type
of meters can also be used for gas flow measurement as is
mentioned already.
(d) In the reciprocating piston meter shown schematically
in Fig. 6.32 the reciprocating piston passes the liquid
alternately through each end of the cylinder from the inlet
to the outlet and also the slide valve which controls the
inlet and outlet ports and operates the counter. A number
of pistons operating on a centre crank are generally Fig. 6.31 Schematic diagram of a lobed-
incorporated in this type of meter. For low flow the impeller lowmeter
differential pressure is small, for which large diameter
pistons and small piston strokes are chosen with minimum
of friction. Piston
(e) A typical fluted rotor (FR) meter measuring chamber
is schematically shown in Fig. 6.33. In this, two spiral
fluted rotors are housed in the measuring chamber in
hydraulically unbalanced but dynamically balanced
condition. When the liquid enters this measuring chamber Slide valve
the rotors divide the liquid into precisely defined volume
segments instantaneously but then send these segments
on to the outlet. The rotation of the two rotors is directly
proportional to the amount of the liquid and is measured Fig. 6.32 Schematic diagram of a
by a gear train housed outside the chamber. reciprocating piston type lowmeter
Fig. 6.33 Schematic diagram of a luted rotor lowmeter
6.6 ELECTRICAL TYPE FLOWMETERS
Turbomagnetic type, electromagnetic type, ultrasonic type and hotwire type flowmeters are classified as
electrical type flowmeters.
6.6.1 Turbomagnetic Flowmeter

The turbomagnetic flowmeter is a widely used volume or mass flowmeter. The schematic sketch of such
a meter is given in Fig. 6.34. When the fluid enters the meter, it causes a rotation of the turbine wheel
consisting of a pier-shaped rotor and inclined vanes. Rotor vanes/blades are magnetised and a reluctance
pick-up is mounted as shown. As the rotor rotates due to the flow of fluid, a pulse is picked up by the
reluctance pick-up for each vane coming close to the pick-up coil. The frequency of this picked-up pulse
would evidently be a measure of the flow rate. These pulses are generally amplified, shaped and are fed into
an electronic pulse rate meter or transmitted to suitable location for display.
Magnetic
pick-up
Vanes
Flow straightener
Rotor
Fig. 6.34 Sketch of turbomagnetic lowmeter
For static flow measurement by this meter, a dimensional analysis yields

q/(wd3) = f(wd2/v) (6.43)
where w = rotor angular velocity, v = kinematic viscosity, d = diameter of the meter bore and f is some
function. A plot of Eq. (6.43) in the log-log scale gives the indication that at low flow rates viscosity effect
is predominant and at high flow rates its effect is secondary. The curve is shown in Fig. 6.35. In practice for
a pulse frequency f = w/2p, the equation for volume flow rate q in terms of f is given by
q = f/k (6.44)
where k is the flow coefficient of the meter and is dependent on the kinematic viscosity and flow rate.
30
12
d3
q
6
log
1
0.1 1 10 100 1000
d2
log
v
Fig. 6.35 Curve showing the effect of viscosity on the quantity of low
More generally, if the angle between the rotor vanes and the direction of fluid flow is q, then for a fluid
velocity v, density r, and volume flow rate q, the force generated in the rotational direction of the rotor is
rqv tan q so that the rotor torque T for its angular velocity w is
T = k1rq (v tan q – w r)r (6.45)
where r is the mean radius of rotation, k1 is a constant. This torque would be balanced by bearing frictional
counter torque Tb and the counter torque due to fluid viscosity Tm, so that
k1rq (v tan q – wr)r = Tb + Tm (6.46a)
which on rearrangement gives

w/q = v tan q/(rq) – (Tb + Tm)/(k1rr2q2) (6.46b)
But q = av, where a is the effective cross-sectional area of the pipe; so that
w/q = tan q/(ra) – (Tb + Tm)/(k1rr2q2) (6.47)
Neglecting bearing friction and effect due to viscosity i.e., Tb = Tm = 0, one gets
q = w/{tan q/(ra)} (6.48)
However, for low flow rates both Tb and Tm are not negligible and the simple relation (6.48) is to be
accordingly modified.
Turbine flowmeters operating as a linear instrument are obtained for different ranges and different sizes.
Because of the frictional effects on the rotor bearings, error occurs in the flow rate measurement. Various
compensation techniques are applied. In one of these, e
an additional rotary moment, equal and opposite to
e
the moment of the frictional forces is applied. This t
t q
is provided through electrical means, but involves
Computer To meter
additional rotor mass thereby reducing the frequency
f -v
range of the instrument. Converter ed µ r
As the turbomagnetic flowmeter is a rotating device,
adequate dynamic balancing of the instrument is necessary Turbo flowmeter Density
particularly at high flow rates, when non-balanced
masses are more prone to create shockload on the Fig. 6.36 Flowmeter for mass low measurement
bearings ultimately resulting in damage of the bearings. using a turbomagnetic type lowmeter
Turbomagnetic flowmeters can also measure mass flow rates when a density pick-up is associated with
it. The single channel is branched with two information currents which are then suitably computed for the
desired measuring signal. The block schematic of the system is shown in Fig. 6.36.
6.6.2 Electromagnetic Flowmeter

Many flowing fluids present difficult handling problems in metering. If these liquids are conducting to a
certain extent, their flow rates can be metered by what is known as induction flowmeter or simply magnetic
flowmeter. The liquids in this category are corrosive acids, acid slurries, paper pulp, detergents, beer etc.
The measurement of flow in such a case involves the speed of the flowing fluid which is measured in
terms of the potential difference induced
Electrode 1
when the liquid moves in a tubing/ E
pipe with a transverse magnetic field N S
impressed, as illustrated in Fig. 6.37. e
When a liquid with a conductivity at B F
v v
least about 10–5 S/cm flows through an
insulating tube of diameter d placed in a
magnetic field of flux density B, then to a Electrode 2
pair of electrodes mounted perpendicular Fig. 6.37 Illustration of the principle of electromagnetic lowmeter
both to the magnetic field and fluid flow
as shown, a voltage e is induced which is dependent on the flux density, the tube diameter or the conductor
length and liquid flow velocity v, according to Faraday’s law. Thus
e = – B ◊ d ◊ v ¥ 10–8 V (6.49)
In fact, relation (6.49) can be obtained in a generalized way via Lorentz force which deflects the charge
carriers in the fluid as the conductor in a magnetic field. This force F is given as
F = c ◊ (v ¥ B) (6.50a)
where c is the charge. However, in an electrical field E
F=c◊E (6.50b)
giving
E=v¥B (6.50c)
The induced voltage e between the two electrodes, thus, becomes
e = d ◊ (v ¥ B) (6.51a)
With v, B and d perpendicular to each other, one gets
e=k◊d◊v◊B (6.51b)
where k is a constant that depends on many things and will be discussed later.
For a uniform flow velocity, the potential distribution in the liquid e
+
2
conductor is as shown in Fig. 6.38. As the velocity profile is such that
the average velocity is different from the central velocity, the effective
conductor length is different from the pipe diameter, and, only an
average velocity is considered. B
An insulator pipe is generally chosen for avoiding short-circuiting
and a non-magnetic pipe is selected for allowing the magnetic field
to penetrate into the liquid. A plastic tube or a metal tube lined inside
with neoprene is well suited. Other commonly used materials for this – e
2
lining are teflon (PTFE), polyurethane, polysulphate, ceramic (99.5% Fig. 6.38 Potential distribution
Al2O3) base. These are chosen also on the basis of process fluids their across the cross-section of the
corrosivity, temperature etc. The electrodes are usually of stainless steel liquid conductor
mounted flush with the inside face of the tube. Titanium, Tantalum,
Hastelloy have also been used.
In terms of the volume flow rate q, voltage e is given as
e = – 4qB/(pd) ¥ 10 – 8 (6.52)
Thus, as long as flux density remains constant, the volume flow rate is directly proportional to the
induced emf. In fact, in deriving Eq. (6.52) it has been assumed that the field is uniform and boundary
effect is negligible. As the speed of the liquid varies from point to point along the cross-section, this cannot
be true. However, a symmetric distribution of flow velocities about the axis maintains a good correlation
between the practical and theoretical results with the practical value of e less by 7.4% than the theoretical
value. Axial assymetry of flow velocities introduce serious changes, primarily in the form of sensitivity
variations. A velocity gradient from one electrode to the other gives twice the sensitivity while with a
reciprocal velocity profile, sensitivity is half.
The plane of the measuring electrodes is generally chosen to be vertical such that formation of air
bubbles or deposition of non-conducting solids do not break the electrical circuit.
As the measured quantity is in volts and its magnitude is small, parasitic effects are to be carefully
considered. Suitable amplifiers are necessary to amplify the signal. The input impedance of the amplifiers
are to be properly selected since the liquid resistance between the electrodes for small conductivity liquids
is quite large. For tap water with s = 200 mS/cm with electrode diameter de = 1.25 cm, it is approximately
given by field theory as Ri = 1/(des), i.e., about 4 k-ohm. Galvanic action is likely to give parasitic voltages
shadowing the true output. A constant or dc magnetic field is generally not preferred as this is likely to
initiate polarization at the electrodes. With alternating field, this is avoided. Also with comparatively high
frequency excitation, amplification poses less problem. But capacitive pick-ups and assymetric induction
pick-ups in the leads introduce small parasitic voltages. As the leads form a loop in the magnetic field,
transformer action is likely to induce an emf in this loop. In fact with sinusoidal excitation of frequency w,
the induced output signal is given by e = Bdv sin wt + K wB cos wt, where K is a constant. The second term
is in phase quadrature, is independent of flow and is the transformer voltage mentioned. The signal leads to
the measuring circuit form the loop which is cut by the alternating flux to induce this voltage. If the plane of
this loop is parallel to the lines of force, this effect is negligible. Voltages at adequate phase and magnitude
may be added to neutralize the stray effects.
The equivalent circuit of the system with a dc field is shown in e Zi
Fig. 6.39 where e is the equivalent generator voltage with internal Ri ep
+ – – +
resistance Ri; C, the capacitor due to the parallel plate electrodes;
cp
Cp, the polarization capacitance; and Zm the meter impedance. Due
c
to electrolysis, ions of opposite characters are evolved near the
electrodes and an opposing emf is developed. With time, this emf
grows exponentially and in effect appears to charge a large capacitor Zm
Cp. The current through the meter, therefore, decays exponentially eo
and is given by Fig. 6.39 Equivalent circuit with a
i = (e – ep)/(Zm + Zi) (6.53) DC ield
For an alternating field, with Cp >> C, as is usual Zi = Ri + 1/(sCp). Normally the electrodes are coated
with a material non-reactive to the liquid. If the dielectric constant of this material is em and is much larger
than that of the process liquid,
Cp = ema/(2t) (6.54)
where a = electrode area and t = thickness of the coating.
Thus, when the internal impedance is known with the supply frequency, a proper choice of a meter and
measuring device can be easily made. When the liquid conductivity becomes less, increasing the internal
resistance, noise generation and stray effects are emphasized. Normally it is prescribed that the normalized
conductance number Ns should be less than 0.1, i.e.,
Ns = we/s < 0.1 (6.55)
where e = fluid capacity in F/cm and w = circular frequency.
The conventional design of the field coils over the pipe has several disadvantages—the principal among
them being the unwieldy size of the pipe length necessary to keep the field inside the flow tube undistorted
which occurs because of the effect due to magnetic pipe and flanges. In more recent designs the coils are
inside the flow tube which is now made of magnetic materials. Such a design actually helps to close the
magnetic circuit similar to the one by the laminated core material in the conventional designs. This design,
in effect, enables one to choose shorter metering flow tube. A further development towards miniaturing
is the compact electromagnetic flowmeter that uses a pulsed dc field. In fact, excitation can be of three
different types (i) dc, (ii) 50 Hz ac, and (iii) pulsed dc.
It has all the while been assumed that the flux density is constant. Normally B requires to be closely
regulated so that flowmeter sensitivity remains constant. The best possible method of doing this is to
employ a closed loop as shown in Fig. 6.40. In this system the output voltage is balanced against the field
current. Any fluctuation in the field current would similarly affect the output voltage for constant flow and
would, therefore be unable to affect the measurement. The angular rotation j of the potentiometer would
give a direct indication of the flow rate. If the potentiometer has a resistance Rp and the current in the
secondary of the current transformer CT is is such that BnB = is where nB is the conversion factor, then for
balance at an angle j of the servomotor
fRp BnB = e = 4qB/(pd) ¥ 10–8 (6.56a)
giving
q = pdRpnB f/4 ¥ 108 = kf (6.56b)
FC1 FC2
B
FM
ev Kev
e K
nB Servomotor
is
i sRp
CT
Fig. 6.40 Closed loop system for eliminating dependence on lux density (FC1, FC2 ield coils, FM
lowmeter, CT current transformer, K ampli ier gain, ev error voltage)
Equation (6.56b) is independent of B showing that the effect of change of B could be eliminated by this
means.
So far only a circular section has been considered for the pipeline. In fact, the shape of the channel has
an important bearing on the sensitivity as also on the hydraulic resistance offered. It has been claimed that
with narrow rectangular channels and electrodes entirely covering the width of the channel, the sensitivity
is independent of the velocity profile. The sensitivity S = e/q for a rectangular channel (Fig. 6.41) is
N N
b b
a d
b
S S
Fig. 6.41 Types and dimensions of channels pertaining to sensitivity analysis
SR = Bbv/q ¥ 10–8 (6.57a)

and with B = mm/(a + 2b) and v = q/(ab), where m is mmf produced by the magnet and m = magnetic
permeability of the liquid, this changes to
SR = mm/[a(a + 2b)] ¥ 10–8 (6.57b)
For a circular section, the sensitivity is given by
Sc = 4mm/(pd(d + 2b) ¥ 10–8 (6.58)
For a square cross-section, a = b, and if (pd2/4)1/2 = a = b, one has
SR/SC ª 1 for 2b << d

<< a (6.59)
But when a is reduced, sensitivity in rectangular channels may be made quite large compared to that in a
circular channel. Thus, a narrow channel gives quite large sensitivity due to increased magnetic induction.
For maintaining the area of cross section, b is to be increased which may increase internal resistance of the
liquid making the emf measurement difficult. 2.0
Hydraulic losses are specially important in unsteady flow. As the
velocity increases, sensitivity e/q generally increases but hydraulic
losses are greater. Hydraulic resistance is defined as the pressure loss,
Dp per unit length. For circular section, this is about 0.85 times that S
1.5
of the rectangular type. A relative sensitivity-to-pressure loss figure is Dp
obtained for varying b/a for rectangular sections and is shown in Fig.
6.42. It is seen that for b/a > 3.5 to 4, S/Dp remains fairly constant.
The readings of the flowmeter should not depend on the
temperature, density, viscosity, pressure, thermal conductivity, etc., 1.0
1 2 3 4 5
unless of course, these parameters affect the electrical conductivity b
of the liquid. Electrical conductivity changes influence the internal a
resistance of the probe thereby affecting the reading. A minimum of 1 Fig. 6.42 Variation of sensitivity
to 5 mS/cm is necessary for the instrument to be operative, however. to pressure loss igures with b/a in a
A relatively recent innovation in electromagnetic flowmeter rectangular section
excitation is the pulsed dc type which can be unipolar or bipolar
in nature. In the former the excitation is switched on and off while in the latter it has excitation current
alternately reversed. Also excitation may be constant current or constant voltage type. A constant voltage
excitation scheme is shown in Fig. 6.43 for the unipolar mode. In such a technique a bridge rectifier
provides dc power to the field coils (FC) which is energized for a few cycles of the power frequency by
the triac triggering and kept off for a few cycles. The rate of this pulse input is usually kept between 2
and 7 Hertz. During excitation of the FC’s the output across the signal terminals builds up exponentially
and gradually gets nearly saturated, at that instant the signal is sampled {dB/dt ª 0) and stored and the
bridge rectifier is switched off. The signal now decays exponentially to reach a situation {dB/dt ª
0) and a second sampling is made here and the rectifier is triggered on. If the two signals are v1 and v2
respectively, v1 would consist of the flow-related signal as also non-flow-related residual voltage due to
interference and noise etc., whereas v2 would contain only the non-flow-related voltage. The difference
of the two would provide the true flow-related output which can then be indicated by an appropriate
indicator. Also, as the measurements are done at dB/dt ª 0 condition, the transformer effect, as is present
in the conventional ac excitation, is eliminated here. Thus this excitation eliminates the necessity of
zero compensation and the transformer effect. Further, any deposition on the electrodes would not affect
measurement with this technique as the transducer impedance is of no consequence in the measurement
as long as the liquid conductivity remains within the specified limit. The pulsed nature of excitation
reduces power consumption and since the frequency of excitation is quite low, inductive effect is
negligible making the power factor nearly unity. But this contention of low frequency excitation limits the
speed of response, the measurement is only intermittent and not continuous. Obviously synchronization
would be necessary. The response characteristics for unipolar and bipolar square wave voltage excitation
and for constant current pulse excitation are shown in Figs 6.44(a), (b) and (c) respectively. T1 and T2
are sample times. For supply variation B changes and the flow signal must be compensated for this. It is
done by using a Vr (reference voltage) drawn across a small resistor in the output line of the rectifier. The
voltage Vr is directly proportional to the value of B. The range of such an instrument is up to 10 m/sec
fluid velocity and a minimum of 1 m/sec. Size of the flow tube and the output for maximum flow rate
are considered on the basis of the liquid and the liquid flow rate range; the design is accordingly made.
Fig. 6.43 A constant voltage excitation scheme
Fig. 6.44 Response characteristics for (a) unipolar, (b) bipolar square wave excitation, and
(c) constant current pulse excitation
With the introduction of pulsed dc excitation of field coils and modern digital processing techniques
available for signal processing, it has been made possible to obtain operational refinement of the magnetic
flowmeter. A typical functional diagram of a magnetic flowmeter with pulsed dc current input and both
frequency and analogue 4 to 20 mA output is shown in Fig. 6.45.
OI
S1 S2
SS
S1/S2 LPF SR IN
FM V-F
HAFA
M F-V
C Sc
4-20 mA OI
F-C OI Sc
Fig. 6.45 The functional diagram of a typical magnetic lowmeter
6.6.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Pressure waves released into a flowing fluid have their velocity and amplitude affected by the fluid velocity.
Ultrasonic flowmeters measure these changes of the pressure waves of frequency greater than 20 kHz using
specialized techniques. There are two types of ultrasonic flowmeters. One is based on the measurement of
phase shift between the waves directed down stream and upstream alternately. The other one is based on the
measurement of separation of frequency of oscillation directed downstream and upstream simultaneously.
The schematic diagram of the first method is shown in Fig. 6.46(a) The two piezo-crystals p1 and
p2 working both as transmitter and receiver of signals alternately are mounted conveniently, so that the
ultrasonic signals are transmitted between them as well as through the liquid. Switch sw is utilized to supply
p1 and p2 alternately from an oscillator simultaneously connecting the detector to p2 and p1 respectively.
T1
b
qq v
l l
p1 p2 T2 T3 f3
ZCD
sw f-COM LPF & DCA
MC1553
f2 SN74500 SN72301
ZCD
Oscillator Detector
80-100 V
100 kHz £ f £ 300 kHz
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.46 (a) Schematic diagram of a ultrasonic low measurement system by measuring phase difference,
(b) the scheme with commercially available chips
The detector is designed to measure the transit time from upstream to downstream and vice versa via phase
shift measurement. If C is the velocity of the ultrasonic wave and v is the fluid velocity, then for a distance
b between the crystals p1 and p2, the phase shifts between the two cases are f1 = wb/(C + v) and f2 =
wb/(C – v) respectively. The difference between the two phase shifts is proportional to the liquid flow rate
as given below:
f2 – f1 = 2wvb/{(C – v)(C + v)} = 2wvb/C2 = k1v (6.60)
2 v2.
as C >> The linearity is good with this instrument, being within 2%, and linear flow velocity up to
about 1 mm/sec on the lower side can be easily measured by this. The switching frequency limits the
dynamic response. Material of the flow channel should be chosen not to allow acoustic transmission. Plastic
is often chosen for the purpose.
The phase measurement technique has also been used with interdigital transducers. Acoustic wave
is transmitted and received across the flowline by two output transducers, one upstream and another
downstream equidistant from the transmitter. The transmitter has uniformly spaced metallic fingers for
radiating the sound wave into the liquid from a liquid-solid boundary without focusing in either direction.
Same transducers can act as receivers as well. The schematic arrangement with functional blocks of the
measuring circuits is shown in Fig. 6.46(b). For the wave velocity C in the liquid, angle q of the radiation
reception as shown is given by
q = sin–1{C/(fod)} (6.61)
where fo = frequency and d = interdigital periodicity.
The delay time difference between the two signals received at the transducers T2 and T3 is given by
Dt = l/(C – v sin q) – l/(C + v sin q) = 2lv sin q/C2 (6.62)
and the phase difference j is
f = (2pfo) (2l sin q/C2) v = (4p fol sin q/C2)v (6.63)
For the functional scheme of measurement as shown the output voltage is E, given by
E = 2Epfo ADt = (4EpfoAl sin q/C2)v = k2v (6.64)
where Ep is the magnitude of the voltage pulse at the comparator section and A is the gain. By suitable
choice k2 may be made about 0.1 V/cm/sec.
The second method is schematically shown in Fig. 6.47. In the figure, t/2 is the time over which the
signal is received by the receiver and is also the time over which the signal is not received by the receiver
when the trigger works. Two sets of piezocrystals, with a set consisting of a transmitter and a receiver, are
mounted as shown and wave trains are sent at an angle a with the liquid flow direction. The systems are,
in part, closed loop so that the receiver picks up the wave train, detects and sends it to the computing part
and amplifier. The amplified signal is used to retrigger the generator to send the second train of pulses. The
repetition frequency will depend on the transit time of the wave train across the length l. In the upstream
side this is
f1 = (C + v cos a)/(2l) (6.65a)
and in the downstream side this is
f2 = (C – v cos a)/(2l) (6.65b)
Hence, the difference computed in the computer is
f1 – f2 = v cos a/l = k3v (6.66)
when the density varies, a separate crystal fed from a separate source is located in the liquid and the
resonance produced in the crystal will depend on the signal strength which, in turn, will depend on the
liquid density. Ultrasonic flowmeters are very versatile. However, big suspensions and air bubbles are to be
avoided in the channel.
Fig. 6.47 Schematic diagram of a ultrasonic low measurement system by measuring frequency difference
Ultrasonic flowmetering has found wider scope in recent years and presently such flowmeters are
characterised by numerous configurations from which it is very difficult to choose the best one for a
particular use. However, more recent developments are the Doppler effect types and the transit time types—
the latter being a variation of the two types already described. Both these are available in a single board
and may be used as plug-in system with appropriate selection of the type depending on the measurement
required.
The Doppler type is described later in another chapter and the transit time type, as has already been
mentioned, is similar to the type of Fig. 6.47 except that from two sides unmodulated beams are injected
and received so that following Eqs (6.65) one derives for v2 cos2 a << C2 and a = 90° – q, q being the angle
of injection,
v = (DT/2) (C/sin q) (C/l) (6.67)
where DT is the difference between the downstream and upstream transit-time. Use of Snell’s law would
make the above equation as
v = k4DT/2To (6.68)
where To is the zero flow rate transit time and k4 = C/sin q. The principle of measurement is utilized in
wideband clamp-on ultrasonic flowmeter (WBCOUF) where the transducers inject pulsed sonic beams that
travel axially down the pipe wall and not diagonally across as is shown in Fig. 6.47. For a very wide beam
it would cross the pipe at an angle q and the receiver mounted on the other side would not then be missed
as might have been for a narrow beam. It is good to remember that angle q is a function of the acoustic
velocity in the liquid via Snell’s law. The wideband system also has the advantage that the sonic beam
passes through the entire flow pipe. The transducers are clamp-on non-wetted ones and the method is free
from mount-induced flow profile aberration and also ‘echo-chamber’ sonic beam interference common with
the insertion and wetted probe types.
It would be interesting to note that the technique used in the type of Fig. 6.47 is easily extendable to a
system where the up and downstream propagation times can be integrated for determining the flow rate. A
microprocessor-based system would work well with such an arrangement which is briefly described below.
A train of pulses of a suitable frequency fe derived from a stable frequency (nfe) clock is sent
simultaneously to the two transducers Ta and Tb as shown in Fig. 6.48(a). During transmission of the signal
through the fluid, the receiving system is kept blocked and is automatically turned on, on receiving the
signal. This part is not shown in the figure. The delay between the two received signals is a measure of the
fluid velocity. Assuming t1 = delay in time of the received train e1 relative to eo, t2 = delay in time of the
received train e2 relative to eo, and t1 – t2 = Dt one gets
Dt(t1 ◊ t2) = 2v sin q/l (6.69a)
yielding
v = k5Dt(t1 ◊ t2) (6.69b)
A combination of analogue and digital techniques can measure the times more conveniently than
analogue means alone. In this technique, the major part of Dt is measured by counting via a clock and the
fractional part is by analogue integration. When the flow rate is low, Dt, is small, and a programmable delay
is introduced between the transmissions. The timing diagram of the transmitted and received pulses as also
the difference time Dt is shown in Fig. 6.48(b). Times t1 and t2 are measured by counting the pulses from a
start clock whereas Dt is measured partly by clock-pulse counting and partly by integration as mentioned.
Figure 6.48(c) shows the time diagram with clock pulses. The clock operating on Dt is arranged to give a
square wave signal of duration t1 (say) between the rising edge of Dt and the following first clock pulse.
Similarly a square wave signal of duration t2 is given between the falling edge of Dt and the following first
clock pulse. A signal of duration T between the falling edges of t1 and t2 is also obtained which, however,
is clock-pulse-countable. The intervals t1 and t2 are measured by analogue integration and converted into
digital form.
e2
eo Ta Comp.
v q c
fe l Received
Tb train
e1
(a)
Dt
to t
eo t
t
t1
e1 t
t2 t
e2 t t1 T
Dt
t t
t2
(b) (c)
INTRODUCE PARAMETERS
AND
INITIAL COMPUTATION
NO SYNCHRONIZATION
START PULSE TRAIN
YES
DIFFERENTIAL DELAY &

INTEGRATORS' GAINS SET
ACQUISITION OF MEASURED
DATA FOR CALIBRATION
FLOW RATE
COMPUTATION
NO
AVERAGED ?
YES
DISPLAY
FLOW RATE
(d)
Fig. 6.48 (a) The ultrasonic lowmeter using a microprocessor: sending and receiving pulse trains,
(b) pulses e0, e1, e2 and the gated output, (c) the counting technique of Dt, (d) the system low chart
From Fig. 6.48(c), one easily gets

Dt = T + t1 – t2 (6.70)
A microprocessor with the necessary peripheral equipment would do all the above jobs, synchronise the
various phases of measurement and calculate the flow rate with appropriate correction and also display the
result in digital form. A system with 8 K ROM and 512 bytes RAM, 16 bit parallel input/output interface
and with the control of two interrupts would be sufficient for the purpose. The simple flow chart for the
scheme is shown in Fig. 6.48(d).
6.6.4 Hot Wire Anemometer

Recently hot wire anemometers have become popular for the measurement of unsteady flow of gases. It
can, however, be quite satisfactorily adopted for liquid flow measurement. The basic system consists of
an electrically heated wire suitably mounted in the flowing fluids. Due to the change in the velocity of
flowing fluid, the heat lost by the hot wire will also change. A relation between this loss of heat and the
fluid flow can be derived. This heat loss changes the temperature and as a consequence resistance of the
hot wire changes. This generally changes the current through the hot wire for a constant voltage supply.
Measuring the change in the resistance or in the current the flow can be found out. Evidently, there are two
basic techniques of measurement of flow, (i) by measuring resistance keeping the current constant, or (ii) by
measuring the current keeping the temperature, i.e., resistance constant.
The thermoelement is generally made of platinum wire having a diameter of 0.0005 to 0.03 cm and a
length of 0.1 to 1 cm depending on the flow channel diameter. A small diameter gives a larger resistance
per unit length and less inertia but is also less capable of sustaining large fluid pressures. The capability of
withstanding large forces and shocks is decided after actual test and a recommendation in terms of length-
to-diameter ratio for a specified channel diameter is mentioned. The mechanical strength of thermoelements
is much increased in modern types having fine metallic deposits on a vitreous or a ceramic base.
Generally, the wire length is half the pipe diameter and is centrally
placed with a fork-type support as shown in Fig. 6.49, so that the axis
of the hot wire is perpendicular to the direction of fluid flow.
When the wire is mounted in the flow channel, the convective loss
of heat from its surface must be balanced against the heat generated
in the wire at equilibrium. The loss due to radiation and conduction
through the leads of the wire are neglected. For a larger temperature Fig. 6.49 The set up of the hot
difference between the hot wire and the fluid, temperature sensitivity wire with support
becomes larger. But the higher limit on temperature is fixed by
the material characteristic at high temperatures. The normal higher limit is about 400-500°C because of
increased radiation losses at still higher temperatures. The large l/d ratio ensures that the wire is an endless
cylindrical body. The heat transfer from such a wire to the fluid is then obtained as
I2Rw = K(tw – tg)ha (6.71)
where K is the conversion factor: tw, the wire temperature; tg the fluid temperature; I, the current through
the wire; h, the film coefficient of heat transfer; and a, the heat transfer area. The term h is a function of the
flow velocity v, density r, thermal conductivity l, and specific heat Cv of the fluid. In fact,
h=l+ z v (6.72)
where z = (2prCv)1/2
The bridge circuit with appropriate supply and detector is used for R1
R2
measurement purpose. In the constant current type the circuit is as shown
in Fig. 6.50 where Ri is a large resistance, greater than 2 K ohm and R1,
R2 and R3 are of the same order as that of Rw, about 1 to 2 ohm. For the
constant temperature, i.e., constant Rw type, a closed loop system as shown Rw
R3 Ri
in Fig. 6.51 is more suitable. For the desired temperature R1 is made I
equal to R2 and R3 is adjusted to be equal to Rw at that temperature. For
a change in flow rate Rw changes and the output of the unbalanced bridge
is amplified and used as the supply to the bridge. The bridge current Fig. 6.50 Circuit scheme for
required for balancing gives the change in the flow velocity. The current the constant current type hot
wire anemometer
is measured by measuring the voltage across the standard

resistance Rs as shown in the figure or by converting the
output voltage into current by a V/I converter. This circuit
is used for fluctuating flow. For constant flow, however, R1 R2
DC
the circuit of Fig. 6.50 with an ammeter in series with A
Rw may be used. By adjusting Ri, Rw is maintained
constant and the current through the ammeter gives a Rs eo
measure of velocity v. The variation of I as a function Rw R3
of v is shown in Fig. 6.52, the curve is actually drawn as
I2 versus v1/2 plot. This may be termed as the calibration
curve and is obtained initially with known v’s. The Fig. 6.51 Circuit scheme for the constant
relation is deduced from the Eqs (6.71) and (6.72) as temperature type hot wire anemometer
I2 = {Ka(tw – tg)/Rw} (l + z v ) = a + b v (6.73)

The measurement is sensitive to fluid pressure and
temperature and compensation for such variations need I2
be made. The compensation for the fluid temperature
variation is effected by adopting a circuit as shown in Fig.
6.53, where R1 and R2 are thermoelements of identical a
wire diameter but R2 is double the length of R1. The
v
components R3 and R4 are two large resistances so that
for the balanced bridge the currents in R1 and R2 will be Fig. 6.52 Variation of I as a function of v
determined by R3 and R4 respectively. The voltage across
the detector is
ED = E[R1/(R1 + R3) – R2/(R2 + R4)]
R1
= E(RlR4 – R2R3)/[(Rl + R3)(R2 + R4)] (6.74a) R3
and the current through the detector is
RD
ID = E(R1R4 – R2R3)/[R3R4(R1 + R2 + RD)] (6.74b)
since R3 + R4 >> R1 + R2.
R2
Now, R1 or R2 can be replaced by Rw and Eqn (6.71) R4
can be modified to
I 2w Rw = k(tw – tg) (6.75) Fig. 6.53 Circuit accounting for luid
where Iw is the wire current, and k, a constant dependent temperature variation
on q and r. If b is the temperature coefficient of the wire
material such that tw = (Rw – Rwo)/(bRwo) with Rwo as the wire resistance at zero temperature, then Eq. (6.75)
is modified to
Rw = kRwo (1 + btg)/(k – bI 2w Rwo) (6.76)
For the constant current operation Iw is constant, so that differentiating with respect to tg, one can derive
dRw/dtg = kRwob/(k – I 2w Rwob) = bRw/(1 + btg) (6.77)
Now differentiating Eq. (6.74b) and using Eq. (6.77) by replacing Rw by R1 and R2 and simplifying, one
gets
dID/dtg = bERD(R1R4 – R2R3)/[R3R4(R1 + R2 + RD)2 (1 + btg)] (6.78)

Thus when R1R4 = R2R3, complete temperature compensation is obtained in the hot wire. Although
at other flow conditions this is not truly compensated, the error due to this is minimized with two wires
as suggested. The error reduces to about 0.4% when compensated, from an error of about 4% in the
uncompensated condition, per degree change in temperature for a constant flow rate.
Another important factor is the thermoelement time constant as the measurement is dynamic in nature.
A platinum wire of 0.0005 cm diameter and 0.4 cm length has a time constant of 1 to 2 msec at about 20
m/sec fluid flow velocity.
As is known, for a variable flow rate, a radial variation of temperature occurs in the thermoelement.
The thermal transfer, consequently, is unsteady and a non-uniform evolution of heat occurs over the cross-
section. This is because with a variation in temperature the specific resistance of individual layers of the
wire changes. When thermal equilibrium is restored throughout the entire thickness of the wire the dynamic
measurement becomes independent of the thermoelement. If an electric circuit can be so designed that the
wire temperature is always constant so that the resistance is also constant, the above effect on dynamic
measurement can be neutralized. The circuit of Fig. 6.51 is one such design. The output signal e0 is directly
proportional to the strength of the current making the adjustment possible.
In the constant current types, compensation networks are often required for dynamic measurements.
Figure 6.54 shows the basic arrangement for constant current measurement. As R1 >> Rw, a constant current
is easily obtained through the wire. Let the nominal value of flow velocity be Vo corresponding to which
a voltage Eo = IRwo is developed across the hot wire. With fluctuating velocity component v, the voltage
developed is E = Eo + Irw. Thus for a short interval dt, the energy balance equation is given by
I2(Rwo + rw)dt – Ka(tw – tg) (l + z Vo + z f v)dt = mCs dtw (6.79)
V, E
I e t
Rw @ 1W
Vo
RI @ 2k
(Eo = IRwo) Scope
Fig. 6.54 Basic arrangement for the constant current type measurement
where m = mass of the wire and Cs = specific heat of the wire material. In Eq. (6.79) for small velocity
fluctuation l + z v has been linearized as l + z Vo + ∂(l + z v ) /∂v|v = vo ¥ (v - Vo ) = l + z Vo + z f v.
Also since tw = f(Rwo + rw), where f is a factor dependent on the temperature coefficient of resistance, and,
considering that there was an initial equilibrium so that
I2Rwo – Ka(fRwo – tg) (l + z Vo ) = 0, one gets
–I2e + Kafe (l + z Vo ) + mCsfse = –Ka(fRwo – tg)zf Iv (6.80)

where the fluctuating voltage is e = Irw and the term containing the products of rw and v are neglected as
both rw and v are small. Rearranging Eq. (6.80) one derives
2
e( s ) [- K a (f Rwo - t g )z f I ] /[ K af (l + z Vo ) - I ]
= (6.81)
c( s ) {(mCsf ) /[k af (l + z Vo ) - I 2 ]}s + 1
Thus the voltage follows the velocity with a first order lag with a time constant
t = mCsf /{K af (l + z Vo ) - I 2 } (6.82)
which cannot be reduced very much so that the flat frequency response is good to within a short band.
In practice t ≥ 0.001 sec and the highest frequency for flat response is about 160 to 200 Hz. Fluctuation
rate is high as 50 to 100 kHz is required to be studied for turbulent flow conditions, and, therefore, lead
compensation networks as shown below in Fig. 6.55 are used for increasing the flat response frequency.
The compensation network of Fig. 6.55 has a transfer function
eo(s)/ei(s) = (Rp/(Rs + Rp))(1 + sCRs)/(1 + sC(RsRp/Rs + Rp)) (6.83)
Rs
c
ei eo
Rp
Fig. 6.55 Lead compensating network for high luctuation in low rate
This when cascaded to the hot wire instrument with an isolating amplifier to compensate for the
attenuation will have an overall transfer function.
T(s) = Ko(1/(1 + st))(1 + sCRs)/(1 + sC(RsRp/Rs + Rp)) (6.84)
where Ko = overall gain. If CRs = t, (CRsRp/(Rs + Rp)) < t, the time constant of the overall system is
reduced. By cascading a number of compensators, wide frequency range compensation is possible at the
cost of output which needs be boosted up by amplifiers.
Only platinum has been mentioned as the element of the hot wire, tungsten and nichrome have also
been, however, tried with success. The latter two elements are more prone to contamination and have lower
temperature ranges.
The constant current type design of system has the disadvantages that (i) the current has to be kept
large and with sudden drop in fluid velocity, it might lead to burn out of the wire as the convection loss is
reduced considerably, (ii) separate compensating networks for dynamic measurement involves parameter
adjustments of the compensators and also for large velocity fluctuations, compensation is not perfect.
On the other hand, in the constant temperature type, any change in fluid velocity is taken care of by the
feedback provided the amplifier gain is sufficiently high to do so. The disadvantages with this system are
that (i) instability and drift problems are more here, and (ii) for very small velocity fluctuations, unless the
noise is taken care of separately, the measurements are obscured by it.
By heating a cold biased or unbiased semiconductor material, low gas flow rate has also been measured
with success. The method can be suitably adopted for extension for measurement of various rapidly
fluctuating variables such as vacuum, temperature, etc., as has been discussed earlier.
6.6.5 Vortex Flowmeters

Although vortex generation does not fall in electrical type manifestation, often the measurement technique
associated with this type of meters is of electrical type. When a columnar object known as a vortex shedder
is inserted in a flow channel perpendicular to fluid flow, downstream on either side of the object, vortices
rotating in opposite directions are produced alternately. This phenomenon is known as Karman vortex street
and the vortex frequency is proportional to the fluid flow velocity as long as Reynold’s number is within a
given value. Figure 6.56(a) shows the production of vortices.
V
W D
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.56 (a) Sketch of the vortex generation phenomenon, (b) types of shedders
The vortex frequency f is given by

f = NsV/w (6.85)
where Ns is a constant called the Strouhal number, V is the fluid velocity and w is the width of the shedder
facing the flow. The shapes of the shedder may have varying looks but their surfaces facing the flow have
sharp edges for producing well-defined vortices at specified locations and constant Ns which, however,
varies in magnitude for varying shapes of the shedder. For a trapezoidal shape as shown in Fig. 6.56(a), Ns
is around 0.2 for Reynold’s number Re varying from 2 ¥ 104 to 7 ¥ 106 which also determines the range of
the flowmeter as Re = Vw/n, n being the kinetic viscosity. Other few common types of shapes of shedders
are illustrated in Fig. 6.56(b). For a pipe diameter D and flow rate q, flow velocity in the constricted part,
considered as orifice, is given by
V = q/(pD2/4 – wD) (6.86)
so that frequency in terms of flow rate q is given as
ƒ = Nsq/{(pD2/4 – wD)w} = kq (6.87)
Vortex frequency detectors are of various types and are often used in combination with the shedder
themselves. The measuring devices are broadly classified as (i) the detectors that detect the change in
the flow velocity because of vibrations produced in the fluid as a result of vortex shedding, and (ii) the
detectors that detect the resulting change in pressure. Table 6.4 gives a list of the class, sensors and system
of detection for such flowmeters.
Table 6.4 Classi ication of vortex low detection
Class of detection Sensor Method of detection
Velocity change (1) Hot wire/thermistor Cooling the heating element
(2) Ultrasonic type Change in acoustic velocity
Pressure change (3) Diaphragm with piezoelement/ Differential pressure change
capacitor/inductor
Pressure change (4) Strain gauge/piezoelectric element Distortion/stress in shedder itself
(5) Flag and strain gauge/ball and Detection of change in movement
inductance
A typical scheme using a piezoelectric sensor that measures the alternate stress produced in the shedder
due to vortex produced is shown in Fig. 6.57. The frequency of this alternation in stress is dependent on the
velocity of flow. If fluid flows perpendicular to the trapezoidal shedder (VS), i.e., perpendicular to the page,
because of vortices produced, an alternate lift occurs to the shedder at a frequency of shedding of vortices.
This lift produces a change in stress inside the shedder which is detected by the piezoelectric element (PE)
mounted, as shown, in the shedder structure. The frequency of the change in this stress gives the measure of
the fluid flow rate. The peak value of the lift dp is given by
dp = ± (k1/2)rV2wD (6.88)
where k1 is a non-dimensional constant and the charge in the piezoelement PE
is
e = dok2 dpa = ± k1k2doarV2wD/2 (6.89)
where do is piezoelectric charge constant, a is the area of piezoelement
and k2 is another constant. It is, however, the alternation frequency of the
charge developed that is measured by electronic circuits that gives the Lift
flow rate. The frequency output is independent of temperature, pressure VS
and type of fluid. Some more details of such a flowmeter is given later in
Pipe
a chapter.
6.7 FLOW MARKER AND OTHER Fig. 6.57 Vortex low

measurement using a
MISCELLANEOUS METHODS piezoelectric sensor
Flow marker is a method that depends on the flow velocity and gives out digital signals. The marker is an
integral part of the system and hence the measuring elements are not required to be separately introduced
into the system. Special devices incorporated into the system produce what are known as ‘flow-markers’
in the flow channel. The time the marker takes in moving from one position in the channel to another
specified position gives a measure of the flow velocity. The flow markers may be ionic, radioactive, optical
or thermal. In the following a ionic system is described.
Supposing that the fluid flowing is water and has an average velocity of v (Fig. 6.58), at a certain position
as shown in figure, a shot of salt solution is injected into the flow channel causing an increased conductivity
in the section of the channel. Downstream of this section two pairs of electrodes ‘a-a’ and ‘b-b’ spaced by
a length l along the channel are mounted and connected to a supply through two ammeters as shown. When
the cloud of the electrolyte reaches the section consisting of the electrode pair ‘a-a’, a current i1 flows
through the ammeter A1, as shown in Fig. 6.58(b). Similarly when the cloud crosses the section ‘b-b’, a
current i2 flows through A2 as shown in Fig. 6.58(b). The difference in time td between the indications by A1
and A2 gives the flow rate according to the equation
q = pd2l/(4td) (6.90)
where d is the pipe diameter and l/td = v.
A1
a a i i1
A2 a
b b td
b i2
t
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.58 Principle of low marker method (a) sketch of set up, (b) the outputs observed
If, however, the instant of salt injection is known, one pair of electrodes is sufficient for finding the flow
rate. The error in measurement is primarily due to the uncertainty in the time measurement as the current
in the ammeters do not produce instantaneous kicks and the current-time curves have a large area. This
is caused due to (i) the difference in velocity distribution of the cloud particles, and (ii) the conductivity
concentration gradient over the cross-section. Surprisingly, this error is greater in laminar flow than in
turbulent flow. Experiments have shown that the actual flow rate is 1.5% to 6% more than the measured
flow. Different electrode structures at different positions in the cross-sections have been proposed, but with
no substantial improvements. This method is also known as the electrolytic tracer method. The salt solution
is, generally, injected at regular intervals and the change in flow rate can be found. The whole system may
be made automatic, if a single pair of electrodes is used and the current pulse is used, in turn, to operate the
injector. From the frequency of the current pulse, flow rate is easily known. The pulse may be shaped for
proper operation of the system.
Low flow velocities of the order of 2 cm/sec or less can be measured by measuring the deflection of a
quartz fibre suspended in the flow channel. The deflection can be measured by an optical method using a
travelling microscope as shown in Fig. 6.59(a). When flow is laminar, an analytical study for finding the
relation between the free-end deflection of the fibre, d, and the flow rate, q, was made and the experimental
observations of the apparatus established the validity of the relation satisfactorily. The instrument scale is
not entirely linear but the optical bench can be directly calibrated in flow rate or velocity. The sensitivity
of the instrument increases with decreasing fibre diameters but a lower limit of 0.002 cm is specified in
the dimension for quartz. Large sensitivity, low head loss and easy installation facilities are some of the
advantageous features of the instrument.
The fibre may be replaced by a cantilever with strain gauges mounted on it. The cantilever effectively
becomes a target as shown in Fig. 6.59(b). Flow rate produces deflection of the beam and the strain gauges
measure the deflection by measuring the strain produced in the beam. The deflection increases with flow
rate. Usual technique is used for temperature compensation. The strain gauge leads must be brought out;
also, the target presents obstruction to the flow.
Large area obstruction is partly eliminated by what is known as spin type flow rate transducer. This
actually is a velocity sensor. It consists of a paddle wheel with the paddles consisting of magnets embedded
at their ends. The sensor consists of a Hall effect transistor. With a blade passing close to the transistor
during its spinning the transistor saturates producing a pulse at its output. A simple schematic view is shown
in Fig. 6.59(c). The pulse frequency becomes a direct measure of the velocity of the fluid and hence of the
flow rate. Such a sensor is made available in integral unit and can be screwed in, fitting a hole in the flow
line.
Paddle wheel
Optical
measuring Beam with
head Spin
strain gauges
Transparent pipe d
Magnet
Dp Flow
Hall
Fibre transistor
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.59 (a) Quartz ibre de lection method, (b) beam with a strain gauge, (c) paddle-wheel-hall sensor method
6.8 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW MEASUREMENT
Open channel flow measurement is important in hydel stations, municipal water works, sewage disposal,
river research studies, irrigation and in varieties of flow of fluids and semifluids. Weirs, nozzles and flumes
are used for such measurements. These are different kinds of head flow meters. In large streams or rivers,
current meters or pitot tubes are also used.
Weirs are used where sufficient fall or head can be obtained. When this is not available, flumes are
prescribed and nozzles are used for sludge, industrial wastes etc. Three types of weir are shown in Fig. 6.60(a),
(b), (c). In terms of the indicated dimensions, the flow rates in the three cases are given respectively by
qR = Cr(2/3)b(2gh3)1/2 (6.91a)
qV = Cv(8/15)tanq/2(2gh5)1/2 (6.91b)
and
qT = Ct(2/3)b (2gh3)1/2 (6.91c)
where Cr for rectangular notch, Cv for V-notch and Ct for trapezoidal notch are all less than 1. The term C
is called the flow coefficient. For trapezoidal notch the angle q/2 is so made that tan q/2 = 1/4. This latter
choice compensates for the side contraction. Side contraction occurs because the effective weir width is less
than the channel width.
q
q q
2 2
h h h
b
b
(a) Rectangular (b) V-notch (c) Trapezoidal
Fig. 6.60 Types of weir in use (a) rectangular, (b) V-notch, (c) trapezoidal
V-notch weirs are used for small flow rate measurements whereas rectangular notch weirs are used
generally for large flow rate measurements. For actual flow coefficients standard calibrations are necessary.
However, reference tables are available from manufacturers.
If the velocity distribution in the upstream of a weir is not uniform, inaccuracy would result in
measurement. The edge finish should be done on free breaking consideration of the stream. This requires a
square edged type on the upstream side and a bevelled-edge type on the downstream side. There are many
other factors to be considered for accurate flow measurement by weirs.
6.9 SOLID FLOW MEASUREMENT
The general approach in the measurement of flow of solid materials is to weigh them directly by weighing
machine or measure the volume as in the case of bucket conveyor system. The direct weighing system
incorporates a weighing section in the conveyor system. The principle is explained briefly in Fig. 6.61(a).
It should be checked that the conveyor section that forms the weighing part should remain flush with the
main flow line. A servo drive balance would then be more appropriate than a dial indication type. The latter
method gives an electrical signal directly related to the load on the section often via strain gauge bridge
output. Figure 6.61(b) shows the technique schematically. The pneumatic method is shown in Fig. 6.61(c).
This method incorporates almost the same principle but pneumatic balancing is done with the flapper nozzle
system.
Poise F
Link
+ +
Load
Pivot
(a)
Flow
+ + + + +
Motor
Drive Control
(b)
+ + + + +
Relay
(c)
Fig. 6.61 (a) Weighing technique of solid low measurement, (b) weighing with servo drive,
(c) weighing by pneumatic balance
Solid flowmeter using a curved plate in an incline, preceded by a prefeed arrangement making the
delivery system from a storage bin, is quite often used in cement industries, power plant pulverized coal
feeding, fly ash removal systems etc. The scheme is shown in Fig. 6.62 where it is complete with the
control. The storage bin is provided with the weighing system (SBWS). The stress on the support bearings
actually provides the signal via strain measuring system. This signal is necessary for appropriate flow
because the height requirement is there for a steady flow rate. The speed of the prefeed screw (PFS) ensure
the flow rate required. The curved measuring plate (CMP) is provided with bonded strain gauges to generate
the signal proportional to flow rate. The controller C provides the drive control (DC) for the prefeeder.
SBWS
PFS M DC
CMP
C
Demand
Fig. 6.62 Specially designed solid low rate measurement with a curved
plate and prefeed arrangement
When the solid bulk material mass flow is to be measured on a conveyer belt as is required in many large
scale industries, nuclear weighing system can be chosen to measure this flow rate quite conveniently. Some
of the industries where this scale has been successfully used are: (i) chemical and fertilizer industries, (ii)
paper industries for wood chips, saw dust and fines, (iii) mining and associated industries for coal, copper,
iron ores and concentrates, (iv) building material industries for sand, rock, cement, lime etc., and (v) food
processing units for food grains, fruits, vegetables etc. The system is schematically shown in Fig. 6.63.
The speed sensor (SS) gives the belt conveyer speed per unit of time and the radiation detector (D) gives
the average mass, at an instant, carried by the belt on a specified length of the belt, so that the multiplier
(M) gives the output mass/time and a totalizer indicator (T.I.) may be used to show the total mass over a
period of time. The detector actually is a g-ray detector, being basically a scintillation crystal. A common
such material is Thallium activated sodium iodide crystal which has high gamma to scintillation conversion
efficiency. The g-source used is usually 137Cs.
g-ray source
Frame
Rollers
SS
M A TI
Fig. 6.63 Nuclear method of solid low rate measurement
When g-radiation passes through the conveyed material a part of it is absorbed by it which has a radiation
absorption coefficient m, and if the conveyor is loaded on an average of a mass per unit length and the belt
width is w, then the intensity of radiation received and detected by the detector is
I = Io exp (–ma/w) (6.92)

where Io = radiation intensity detected with a blank belt. A measurable change in radiation is essential for
the system to work and hence there is a minimum amount of loading in kg/m2. A 5% change in radiation
intensity is considered to be the lowest as far as measurement is concerned. Usually a loading of 70 to 100
per cent of full load gives good error-free precision results. Conveyor loading l in kg/m2 is determined by
an equation
l = kM/(Sw) (6.93)
where M is the maximum mass flowrate in tonnes per hour (say) on the belt of width w and maximum speed
S in m/s; k is the conversion constant. If w is in metres and with the other quantities as mentioned already,
k, has a value 0.274.
Another important factor is the variation of what is known as product profile. The particle size of a
product varies and along with, the profile varies because the bulk density changes. Particle size variation is
accommodated by correcting the basic repeatability factor of ±0.5% by adding the term Rp given as
Rp = l – rmin/rmax (6.94)
where rmin is the minimum bulk density and rmax is the maximum bulk density. Correction for moisture is
also suitably made.137Cs has a half life of 33 years and radiation energy of 0.66 MeV. Another source that
may be used is a mixture of 60Co and 241Am.
The speed sensor usually is a tachometer or a tachogenerator. The radiation detector produces light waves
proportional to radiation intensity received, which is then multiplied by photomultiplier in the appropriate
frequency range and converted to electrical signal. Other than NaI, bismuth germanate Bi4Ge3O12 is also
usable in g-ray detection. It is less hygroscopic than NaI and can be easily packaged.
The range of nuclear solid flowmeter is from 0 to 100 tonnes/hr and the accuracy ranges from ±0.50 to
±0.75% of FS.
Another very interesting and simple method of solid flow measurement is developed by Dr Beck of
Bradford University for insulator types of materials. The principle of leakage field electrode is utilized for
the purpose. Assuming flow through a pipe, a section of the pipe wall is insulated to form the electrode.
A leakage field is produced as shown in Fig. 6.64. The electrode is used as a capacitance detector. When
materials flow, the leakage field changes and the capacitance increases. The increase in capacitance is
detected at intervals dependent on the flow rate. The output signal, thus, can be frequency dependent for
discrete flow or direct capacitance dependent. The signal in the form of pulses may be integrated, amplified
and displayed. Depending on the flow channel, different types and sizes of electrodes are used. It has been
found that the method is suitable for granular materials like flour, cement, pulverized coal, dried vegetables
and other food products. The method can be adapted for controlling the flow rate by incorporating variable
feed through a controller fed from the integrator. The sections can be chosen at a distance as two electrodes
and the time of flow from one to the other is measured by the usual correlation technique and hence the
flow velocity is evaluated.
Leakage field Pipe
Electrode
Fig. 6.64 Leakage low technique of solid low measurement
Impulse type flowmeter for solids utilizes the principle that when a stream of solids or a block mass
strikes the surface of a plate or a cylinder at an angle the impact force produces on it two components of
which the horizontal component is directly proportional to the mass rate of flow of the solid stream or the
block. The principle is demonstrated in Fig. 6.65(a) while an adaptation in the cylindrical type is depicted
in Fig. 6.65(b).
Mass
Plate
Load Cell
Mass flow
Fh
Fh
Ft Total force
Fv Vertical
Ft Fv component
Fh Horizontal
component
(a) Priciple (b) Adaptation in cylindrical form
Fig. 6.65
6.10 FLOW SWITCHES
Flow switches are used to actuate a pnuemetic or electric circuit when the flowrate in a system crosses
the predetermined limit upward or downward. The predetermined value is the set point. When the flowrate
becomes normal actuator circuit puts off in the process, however a difference between the set point and the
point when the actuation stops a difference in flowrate is observed which is called differential.
If there is requirement of an indication/recording/control flowmeter itself does the job of flow switch as
well. At places where such functions are not needed a less costly flow switch is incorporated. It is not easy
to transmit the gas/liquid/solid flowrate change to translate into another parameter to be useful for actuation
outside the pipeline. Commonly know designs are (a) paddle or vane type (b) thermal type, (c) variable area
type, and (d) ultrasonic and/or microwave type.
A swinging vane type is shown in Fig. 6.66(a). The swinging
vane changes its position with flowrate changes which can be Flowrate Swinging Vane
used to close or open a pump circuit as indicated. The target type
flowmeter of Fig. 6.15 can be adopted for switching purpose.
The electrocaloric system of flow measurement can be adopted
as a flowswitch. The bridge circuit output can be amplified and }
used for pump operation. For set point adjustable facility, on the To
upstream side another heater is put in whose heating is adjustable. Circuit
Capacitance type switches are used for liquid flowrate. A Fig. 6.66(a) Vane type switch
capacitor of parallel plate type design is mounted in a flanged
attachment, when liquid flows the intervening space is filled with the liquid changing the capacitor of the
setup. It is connected to a oscillator circuit to change the circuit current flow/circuit frequency which is
then ultilized for the necessary operation. It is more suitable for no flow and flow differentiation. A design
of a flow switch using movement of a piston housing a permanent magnet to operate a magnetic switch is
shown in Fig. 6.66(b). With the vane oriented properly, a differential pressure is developed which pushes
the piston—depending on its position the magnetic switch closes or opens. The piston is retained by a
spring. The whole mechanism is in a bypass path. It can be used for very low flowrate.
Magnetic Switch
Piston
Spring
Magnetic field
Permament
magnet Flow
Vane adjusted
for diff. Pressure
Fig. 6.66(b) Magnetic type switch
Microwave or ultrasonic waves can be used in the Doppler mode in liquids with suspension or solids for
producing reflections. A 24 GHz microwave has been used. These can detect difference of 10-15 cm/min
flowrate.
Review Questions
1. In a luid low line it is known that there occurs d = 2.85 cm for low rate 0.189 cubic m/min
a pressure drop in the ori ice which again is d = 4.025 cm for low rate 0.378 cubic m/min
recovered downstream—how then is the low d = 4.937 cm for low rate 0.567 cubic m/min
maintained from a low pressure to a high p1 – p2 = 0.9447 g/cm2
pressure section? Corrected value 0.9371 g/cm2 for 0.189 cubic m/min
How is ori ice used as a low rate measuring Corrected value 1.3253 g/cm2 for 0.378 cubic m/min
instrument? Corrected value 1.6232 g/cm2 for 0.567 cubic m/min
2. What are the different tapping positions for luid [Calculate Reynold number R = 4pq/pmd or assume
low line in ori ice lowmeters? What is vena- this to be approximately 105]
contracta position? Can a tapping be made at 6. What is Reynold’s number? How does it come in for
that position with varying low rate? low calculations? How laminar and nonlaminar
Would you recommend a rectangular ori ice lows are related to Reynold’s number?
in any thermal low line? Give reasons for your 7. Show analytically how a rotameter scale is
answer. linearized. Is it permissible to mount a rotameter
3. When is venturi preferred to ori ice? What are horizontally?
the different types of venturi meters’? If the rotameter taper angle is 2°, loat volume
4. Calculate the lowrate in kg/hr of saturated and density are 20 cc and 5 gm/cc respectively,
steam lowing in a 20 cm line at a pressure of luid density is 0.9 gm/cc, inlet diameter is 3.57
34 kg/cm2 and producing a head of 20 cm of cm and a low rate of 60 cc/sec is obtained with
mercury across a venturi neck with b = 0.5 and an indication of 3 cm in height. What is the value
across an ori ice with b = 0.5. of the drag coef icient?
[For venturi, low rate = 1309.62 kg/hr [1.1427]
For ori ice, low rate = 838.49 kg/hr] 8. Sketch a transmitting type rotameter and
5. Design the ori ices for lowrate of 0.189, 0.378 explain its operation. Where do you use a piston
and 0.567 cubic meters per min in a 25 cm line to type variable area meter? How does it work?
produce a head of 25 cm of mercury. The lowing 9. Calculate the taper of a rotameter tube designed
liquid is water at normal temperature. Find the for 300 cc/min of water low with a loat volume
pressure differentials for b = 0.5 for the above of 8 cc and diameter 2 cm. The tube length is 25
low rates. If the water temperature is 65°C. cm with an inlet diameter of 2 cm. The loat is
correct the data for normal conditions, i.e., 30°C compensated for luid density.
and 1 kg/cm2. [for Cd = 1, a = 0.0516°]
10. Where are Coriolis lowmeters and gyroscopic 14. What are the different types of ultrasonic
lowmeters used? Describe the operating lowmeters? How is an ulttasonic lowmeter
principle of a Coriolis lowmeter and show that adapted to microprocessor-based system and
the low rate it measures is a mass lowrate. with what bene its?
11. Describe the mass lowmeter that uses the 15. What sensors are usually used in vortex
principle of conservation of angular momentum. lowmeters? Explain the operation of a typical
How is its range affected and how can that be vortex lowmeter and discuss its ranges and
counteracted? limitations.
What else is affected by this counteracting 16. When do you recommend hot wire anemometer
arrangement? to be used for low measurement? How its speed
12. How is the indication of tubomagnetic lowmeter
of response is increased? Can you suggest any
dependent on viscosity? if the angle between
method of bidirectional low measurement using
the direction of luid low and rotor vanes is 60°
rotational radius of vanes is 4 cm and effective this technique?
cross-sectional area of the lowing pipe line is 17. What are the commonly used methods of solid
55 sq.cm, the rotor angular velocity is 10 r/s, low measurement? Discuss, speci ically, a method
calculate the volume low rate neglecting the of pulverized coal low measurement usually
effects of viscosity and friction. used in boilers. Append necessary sketches.
[2540.34 cc/s] 18. What are the different variations in a target low
13. Why dc excitation is not permitted in meter? Sketch one or two types and explain their
electromagnetic lowmeter? What are the operations.
disadvantages, if any, of using ac supply. 19. Illustrate the principle and adaptation of the
How does the recent trend of using pulsed dc impulse type lowmeter.
excitation account for such disadvantages?
Level Measurement
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Measurement of liquid level is quite important in a variety of

industrial processes. The liquid level may be expressed in terms
of the pressure the column exerts over a datum level or in terms of
the length of the liquid column. In either case, the main object is to
ascertain the quantity of the liquid held by the container.
Liquid level may be measured by direct methods such as point
contact method, gauge glass or sight glass techniques or by indirect
Chapter 7 methods such as by measuring the hydrostatic pressure of the

liquid column. Thermal and electrical methods including sonic/
ultrasonic and other radiation methods are also indirect in the sense
that secondary means are adopted for level measuring purposes.
Table 7.1 shows a method of classification of the liquid level measuring techniques with possible ranges
and accuracies.
Table 7.1 Classi ication of methods
Types Range Accuracy
1. Mechanical (a) Point contact type For open vessels, Not very common
(b) Gauge/sight glass £ 5 m usually ± 0.5 cm
(c) Float type 10 cm to 20 m ± 0.1% FS
(d) Displacer type 0.5 times the displacer ± 0.1% FS
length, £ 6 m
(e) Hydrostatic type No practical limit ± 0.5% FS or 5 to 10 mm
2. Thermal effect type Often used for control ± 0.5% Level value or 10 mm
at a specific level
3. Electrical types A. (a) Resistance variation 5 to 8 m Resolution is more important
here
(b) Inductance variation Usually a fixed level ± 0.2% scale value
or a short level ª 0.2 m
(c) Capacitance variation 8 to 10 m, with cage 5 to 10 mm, ± 0.5 scale
type design extended
further
B. Ultrasonic type No limit as such ª ± 1 mm
C. g-radiation type 10 mm to 6 m or even ± 1% scale
more
Level Measurement 275
For clean and coloured liquids, the simplest types of the sight glass or gauge glass techniques are used.
It usually gives a local indication. The sight glass tube is a side glass tube to the tank whose diameter
should neither be large enough to reduce the tank liquid level by appreciable percentage nor small enough
to initiate capillary action in the tube. Capillary action raises the water level in the sight tube by about 0.11/
d cm, where d is the inner diameter of the tube in cm. The basic consideration in the choice of the gauge
glass, viz., enough strength for withstanding the vessel pressure, should not be overlooked. Simple glass
or plastic materials have been used up to 30 kg/cm2 pressure and 200°C temperature. It can be extended to
36 kg/cm2 and 550°C with a reflex type design where the tube is metal casting with a thick glass member,
specially treated to withstand high pressure and temperature, closing a vertical slot in the tube. The inside
face of this glass is designed to have the shape of a 90° prism. This permits total internal reflection of light
falling on the prism face for air to glass interface but not when liquid is present because of higher critical
angle, i.e., greater than 45°. For glass-to-water this angle is 62°. Thus, in absence of liquid the gauge glass
appears as white, while, with liquid there is a sharp contrast, usually black as the tube is painted black.
Gauge glass technique can be coupled with photoelectric readout system where both analogue and digital
displays (RO) may be made available as shown in Fig. 7.1. For varying level the entire optoelectronic unit
or the optical unit must have the provision to be slid up or down.
GG
Supply
RO
Fig. 7.1 Gauge glass technique coupled with photoelectric readout system
7.2 FLOAT TYPES

There are a number of float type designs for level measurement and control. A widely used method is the
float-and-tape method as shown in Fig. 7.2 schematically. This is used for measurement of liquid levels
in tanks usually open. The design of the float itself is important. As the liquid might contain suspensions
which are likely to settle on top of the float and change the weight of the float, it has its sides sloping
from the top. The float is generally made of copper with nickel plating for avoiding rusting etc. A thin
flexible wire or tape passing over a drum type pulley holds the float on one side and a counterweight on the
other. The tape may be directly connected to the pulley so that no slippage might occur. It can be designed
to have range varying from 15 cm to 20 m. The float-and-shaft type method is generally employed in
pressure vessels although they can be adapted to open vessels as well. A schematic of such a system is
shown in Fig. 7.3.
This method is suitable for a wide range of liquids. The float, usually a hollow ball, is attached to a rod
of length (l – D/2), where D is the diameter of the float. The rod is rigidly attached to a rotary shaft passing
through the vessel wall through a suitable bearing. At the other end is connected a pointer which can travel
over a circular scale when the float moves up or down. For a spherical float, sensitivity is largest when the
float is half immersed. Then largest power will be available to the shaft for overcoming friction, mainly,
in the bearing and inertia. The float is usually designed for a specific liquid to keep it half submerged. For
different liquids, an adjustable counterweight system in the pointer side may be incorporated.
Pulley
Coir or tape
Poise
Stilling tube
Float
Fig. 7.2 Float type level indicator
Scale
b
l Stuffing
D box
Fig. 7.3 Design of the loat and shaft mechanism for level indication
When the liquid level rises or falls, a buoyant force equal to the weight of the displaced liquid is
available which pushes the float up or down. This force is given by
F = (kp/4)D2bs = k¢ D2bs (7.1)
where, b = level change, s = liquid specific gravity and k = a constant. The torque available at the shaft is
F ◊ l, and, at the measuring arm the force is given by
T = F ◊ l/d = k¢ D2bsl/d (7.2)
This is important in pressure vessels as also for operating any other cascaded system. The value of k
for a spherical float has to be experimentally found out as it also depends on the nature of the liquid. The
maximum angular rotation of the shaft is about 60° for adequate power developed. Hence, bm = 60°. If H is
the total change in liquid height the float can measure, then
H /2 = k≤l sin (bm/2) (7.3)

For symmetry, k ≤ = 1/ 2, so that
H = l/ 2 (7.4)
Thus the liquid level such a mechanism can measure is limited by the length of the attachment of the
float to the shaft.
The float type systems discussed above are sufficiently accurate when properly calibrated after
installation. Adjustment facilities for such purposes are provided. In pressure vessels, the stuffing boxes,
bearings and shafts are required to be inspected, for proper operation, at regular intervals.
The magnetic float device is another such mechanism used for level metering. It does not depend on
the liquid pressure or the vessel pressure. It is shown schematically in Fig. 7.4(a). A dip tube inserted in
the tank is surrounded by a doughnut shaped float which has a magnet embedded in it as shown separately
in Fig. 7.4(b). Inside the tube a magnet with poles opposing the float is suspended and attached to a lever-
pointer as shown. When the doughnut float rises or falls along with the liquid level the inner magnet will be
pulled up and down along with the float due to strong attraction. The movement of the inner magnet will be
transmitted to the pointer-scale system by the lever mechanism. The dip tube is constructed to withstand the
tank pressure. Figure 7.4(c) shows a short range level monitoring method via magnetic coupling between a
guide float and a follower.
A modified form of this system consists of an unattached strong inner magnetic float which may be used
to operate a series of bicolour weak magnetic wafers arranged in a cascaded manner in a vertical indicating
scale fastened to the dip tube. A side tube system may be incorporated for the purpose instead of the dip
tube. As the actuating float rises or falls, the wafers closeby undergo a 180° rotation revealing the other side
colour. The scheme is shown in Fig. 7.4(d). A magnetic steering device along with the colour scale is also
necessary for better operation.
Magnet Colour 1
Actuating Magnetic
magnet wafers
Dip
tube
S
S
N
N
Colour 2
Magnet
Float
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 7.4 Magnetic loat type level gauging (a) general set up with dip tube, (b) details of loat,
(c) double magnet type, (d) magnet-operated coloured wafers showing the indication
For transmission of the liquid level at a distance with float type mechanism, a hydraulic transmission
system is available. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.5. There are four bellows elements, two in the transmitter
side and two in the receiver side. All of them are fixed at the outer ends as shown.
B A Stroke
lever
Fall 0 Rise
Fulcrum
pipe
C
D Push rod
Pivot link
Float arm
Float pivot
Fig. 7.5 Differential bellows element type level transmitter
The bellows elements A and B are linked in the

transmitter and C and D are linked through the indicator in
the receiver. All these bellows elements are hydraulically
connected and are full with an oil. When the float moves up
or down, its position is transmitted by the float lever arm,
push rod and the stroke lever to the bellows assembly A-
B. When the level rises, B is compressed and this expands
C and the pointer moves upscale. The transmission can
be effected by a single bellows element transmitter as
shown in Fig. 7.6 and a single bellows element receiver Fig. 7.6 Single bellows element level
but the paired system is required to have identical bellows transmitter
elements for compensation of temperature fluctuations.
The range of this transmission is about 80 m and the vessel pressure is normally within 1.5 kg/cm2.
The float mechanism can be used for level control as well. Figure 7.7(a) shows a system for a boiler feed
water control. This type is used for liquid level control at two limits. A magnetic piston or sleeve carried
by the float moves in a non-magnetic tube as the liquid level changes. When the level is high enough, the
sleeve moves into the field of a permanent magnet attached to the crank lever pivoted as shown and also
carrying a mercury switch. The lever is spring loaded. The magnet will then be attracted towards the sleeve
and will rest against the enclosure tube. When the level falls, the sleeve also moves down and after a certain
stage goes outside the field of the magnet and the magnet is swung away by the tension spring. The mercury
switch is used to start and stop a pump motor for refilling the tank. Two other schemes using magnetic reed
switch contact are shown in Figs 7.7(b) and (c).
In still another system the float may be used to operate a control valve for refilling the tank after its
level has gone down to a specific value. The schematic arrangement of such a system is in Fig. 7.8. For an
ebullient liquid surface, the float is generally mounted in a side chamber or a cage. As shown in the figure,
as the level falls the float also goes down and the weight suspended over the float arm gives sufficient
power to lift the valve stem about the fulcrum and the tank is refilled. If sufficient power is not available, a
pilot relay may be incorporated. The cage, if choked with process liquid sediments or suspension, may be
purged after the valves are closed.
3
Mercury 1 2
1 2
3 switch Magnet
Switch
Non-magnetic Magnet Magnet

Float
enclosure
Magnetic Float
piston
Float
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.7 (a) Magnetic loat type level control, (b) and (c) level control schemes using two different
types of magnetic loat-operated switches
Fulc Lever
CV
W1
Packed rotary
Float stuffing box
Fig. 7.8 Scheme of a weighted loat level control
7.3 DISPLACER TYPES
A displacer type element is very much similar to a float type element but its amount of immersion may
vary unlike the float. It is designed to be slightly heavier than the liquid and is used with a spring which
suspends the displacer. When the displacer rises losing weight because of increased immersion with level
rise, the spring becomes contracted and actual movement of the displacer, in effect, is very small. Actually,
the change in the tension in the spring is a measure of the change in the liquid level. Figure 7.9(a) shows a
schematic of the system. The range is between 1 mm and 6 m.
Often the spring element chosen is a torque-tube unit which helps to transmit the movement of the
displacer outside the closed tank. The sketch of such a system is shown in Fig. 7.9(b). It consists of a
displacer D with a support rod R, the bearing assembly B and the torque tube T, consisting of an inner
rotary shaft RS welded to the female socket FS inside the tube. The rotary shaft extends beyond the tube
through the flange TF which is suitably bolted to the cage or tank housing. Before sealing or bolting by TF
to the housing an initial twist is given to the tube which is balanced by the weight of the displacer at zero
setting. As the liquid level rises the displacer loses its weight and the spring action of the torque tube works
giving a rotation to RS. The amount of rotation is directly related to the liquid level change.
FS
Displacer R
T
Spring
TF
RS
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.9 Scheme of the displacer type level indicator (a) the basic scheme, (b) the torque tube assembly
As the rotation is normally very small, between 2° and 7°, it is sometimes used to actuate the flapper of
a pneumatic amplifier. The output of the amplifier is used for indication or control of the liquid level. The
schematic sketch of the system is shown in Fig. 7.10. The amount of rotation of the rotating shaft can be
found out in terms of the torque tube parameters. If l = length of the support rod, L = length of the torque
tube, D = outside diameter of the torque tube and d = its inside diameter, C = modulus of rigidity, w =
weight of the volume of the liquid displaced by the displacer and f = maximum twist obtainable, then,
f = TL/(CIp) = (32wl/(pC))(L/(D4 – d 4)) (7.5)
Pivot Air supply
Restriction
RS
D Output
T Flapper
nozzle
Fig. 7.10 Method of operation of torque tube and lapper nozzle assembly
Displacer float type transmitters are often employed for level measurement of tanks like condensers,
HP/LP heaters etc. The displacement produced by liquid level change is mechanically transmitted by
a lever assembly to a strain gauge mounted inside a special housing. Thus a voltage proportional to the
displacement, i.e., proportional to the tank level change may be derived and from which a 4 to 20 mA signal
may be obtained by conversion.
The displacement converted into a mechanical rotation, as shown in Fig. 7.9 can be utilized to cause
a variation in the angular position of the core of a rotary variable differential transformer changing the
flux linkage with the secondaries and a corresponding change in their outputs. In still another variation,
magnets are attached to the lever assembly and a proximity position sensor in the form of a Hall device is
installed which converts the magnetic linkage into an electrical signal. This signal is amplified and sent to
an indicator or transmitted further. The scheme is shown in Fig. 7.11.
TB
MA
AE IT
HD
F/D
Fig. 7.11 Displacer and Hall proximity sensor level Indication system (TB tank body, F/D loat/displacer,
MA magnet assembly, HD Hall device, AE ampli ier etc., IT indicator/transmitter)
7.4 HYDROSTATIC TYPES
This method consists in measuring the hydrostatic head that a liquid level develops in a vessel. It may be
done in one of the following ways: (a) Pressure gauge system, (b) Purge or bubbler system, (c) Diaphragm
box type, and (d) Force balance type.
(a) A simple pressure gauge attached to the bottom of the tank gives a pressure proportional to the liquid
level h. If P is the indicated pressure, r is the density of the liquid, then the relation between P and h
is
h = P/r (7.6)
One of the major disadvantages of this method is the sedimentation at the bottom of the tank which
may clogg the pressure gauge and/or gives erratic reading of the liquid level. If the liquid is corrosive
a direct attachment of the pressure gauge is also not permitted. Normally the gauge is installed at a
reference height from the bottom of the tank to avoid effects of sedimentation.
(b) Air purge type is one of the most popular hydrostatic types and is suitable for any liquid. This
method also requires a pressure gauge. Its basic principles of operation are illustrated in Fig. 7.12(a).
When the liquid level in the tank is below the bottom end of the dip tube, the gauge reads zero. But
when the liquid level is above the bottom end of the dip tube, the gauge would indicate a pressure
which will vary from zero to a maximum value depending on the level of the liquid. The relation
(7.6) still holds in this case. The industrial purge type level meter is a little more complicated and
is shown in Fig. 7.12(b). It consists of a bubbler in the supply line for low level and a positive
displacement meter/rotameter for high level, a regulator and a gauge. The indicator is replaced by
a recorder. The bubbler serves simply as a visual check to the flow of the supply gas. The main
limitation of the method is clogging of the dip tube due to presence of semi solids. The bottom of the
dip tube is kept above the sediment line of the tank. Normally a 12 mm to 25 mm diameter is chosen
and for the maximum liquid level one bubble per minute is adjusted in the sight-feed bubbler by the
regulator. This can be checked by the recorder as well. When the bubble appears at the bottom end
of the pipe just before release, the pen in the recorder shows a slight upscale movement and as soon
as the bubble is released, momentarily there is a pressure drop in the dip tube/pipe and the pen jumps
downscale.
Restriction
Air supply
1/2" Pipe
Dip tube
(a)
Recorder
Cleanout
Tee &
Plug
R
Air supply
Regulator
Bubbler
(b)
Fig. 7.12 (a) Basic schematic of air-purge method of level measurement,
(b) the complete scheme in industrial condition
Immediately liquid replaces the space of the bubble and the pen moves back. The ‘pipping’ on the
pen recorder chart is a surer test for a working purge type level gauge.
Obviously, the supply pressure must be higher than the static pressure of the liquid column at
its maximum height. In general, it is higher by about 12 to 30 kPa. The supply pressure before the
regulator is roughly 1 12 to 2 times the pressure. This is maintained to avoid variation due to change
in hydrostatic pressure. When filling a tank, the purging gas is turned on before starting to fill in;
and while the tank is drained out, the purge-gas is turned off only after draining is complete. This is
adopted as a precautionary measure. The mounting of the indicating or the recording system can be
done above or below the vessel. The range of the purge type level gauges is limited to 100 m starting
from about 15 cm.
The common purging fluid is air, but if it is known a priori that air might react with the tank
fluid or be absorbed, different gases are chosen depending on the liquid properties. Nitrogen is very
often chosen for such cases because of its inert characteristics. As would be evident, in place of a
pressure gauge and a recorder, a transmitter is often used for transmitting pressure to control stations
or interfacing systems.
(c) This type consists of a diaphragm box which has got trapped air in it. One side of the diaphragm
is open to the liquid level to be activated upon freely by its pressure as shown in Fig. 7.13. The
box is connected to an appropriate gauge through a suitable capillary. The diaphragm made nor-
mally of neophrene or rubber is acted on the underside by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid
and in consequence compresses the trapped air. If chemical properties of the liquid do not allow
the liquid to be in contact with the diaphragm, a liquid seal as shown in Fig. 7.14 is used. The main
disadvantage is that the head developed is not sufficient to meet up the line losses as well as for a
satisfactory indication. Hence ranges are quite limited and choice of the pressure line is very critical
as also the bulb size. The curves in Fig. 7.15 give a comparative study of the range versus tube
length for different tube diameters and bulb size. Although reduction in the tubing size and increase
in bulb size increase the transmission distance, these seriously affect the response time because of
increased resistance to flow. A reduction from 3 to 1.5 mm increases response time by a factor of six.
The range is normally kept within 80 to 85 m and the maximum transmission distance is kept within
150 m.
Suspension
Diaphragm
Sediment
level
Fig. 7.13 Sketch of the diaphragm box type level gauging

Gauge
5 3/4"
4 1/2"
Oil seal
Vent
Slope 1" /1'
Fig. 7.14 Sketch of the diaphragm box type gauge with liquid seal
10" B 6" B 10" B

Relative range
1/8" I.D 1/16" 1/16"

I.D I.D
6" B 1/8" I.D

B Bulb
Tubing length
Fig. 7.15 Range versus tube length curves for different values of tube diameters and bulb sizes
A diaphragm box force balance system improves the performance both with respect to range and
transmission. This method is suitable for level measurement in open vessels. The schematic set up
of the method is shown in Fig. 7.16. The diaphragm and a vent pipe form a flapper-orifice system
is shown. The system is supplied with a pressure which balances against the hydrostatic pressure.
When liquid level rises, the bleed orifice becomes smaller and less air leaks out through the vent and
a large pressure develops in the bellows chamber till a balance between the hydrostatic and supply
pressure is obtained when adequate venting occurs. The line pressure is directly measured as shown.
Vent
Restriction
h
Air supply
Bleed orifice
Diaphragm
Fig. 7.16 Sketch of the nozzle-ori ice type diaphragm box

(d) A pneumatic force-balance gauge is shown in Fig. 7.17. When the hydrostatic pressure acts on the
bottom side of the diaphragm, the valve port closes sufficiently to develop a back pressure on the
upper side of the diaphragm which would be indicated by the gauge. For static hydrostatic pressure
due to fixed level in the tank, the diaphragm will come in equilibrium when pressures on both sides
are equal. For any change, the valve port will either close more or open more and a new balance will
be obtained.
Level guage
Restriction
Air supply
Port
Valve ball
Diaphragm
Datum
R
S
Pressure regulator &
seal
Fig. 7.17 Sketch of ball-valve actuated diaphragm type level gauge
The force-balance method is well adopted for liquid level control. A scheme of a self-operated level
control system in a continuous filling tank is shown in Fig. 7.18. The hydrostatic head acts against the
bottom surface of the diaphragm which is opposed by an adjustable tension spring. As the head increases,
a larger pressure at the bottom moves the diaphragm up against the spring, thereby opening the valve for
flow-out of the liquid and a constant head can be maintained by adjusting the tension of the spring.
Control
line Diaphragm
Fig. 7.18 Scheme of level control by spring-operated diaphragm
The spring can be replaced by seal pot containing a liquid of higher density than that of the tank liquid.
The relevant parts only of the scheme of the system are shown in Fig. 7.19. If h is the head of the liquid in
the tank above the level of the diaphragm and hs is the height of the seal pot liquid column, then
h = hsrs/r (7.7)
hs
Fig. 7.19 Scheme of level control by liquid-head operated diaphragm
The controllable level in the tank is obviously (h – hs). This amount of level change should completely
open and close the valve. If the stem travel from closing to opening is tm and the effective diaphragm area is
ad then the liquid volume displacement over the diaphragm is
vs = tmad (7.8)
The effective head change in the seal pot is
H = (h – hs)r/rs (7.9)
The sealing pot must contain at least an amount of liquid, vs. Hence the minimum diameter of the seal
pot is
D = 4vs / (p H ) = (4 rs ) / (pr )(tma d / (h - hs )) (7.10)
As has already been mentioned, in many situations hydrostatic method is used with a transmitter for
level measurement. In boiler or closed vessels such a technique is quite popular. While transmitters have
already been discussed, a typical piping arrangement of a level measuring installation is shown in Fig. 7.20
which is recommended for vessels with condensable vapour above the liquid as in still or boiler. Seal pots
are often recommended for liquids which are to be sealed from the meter body. Such a system has been
discussed in the previous chapter. In refinery services this is universally practised and a heavier sealing
liquid such as 50-50 glycerline-water of specific gravity of 1.25 at 15°C is usually chosen.
7.5 THERMAL EFFECT TYPES
There are many variations in the thermal effect type level sensors. Two specific types are considered here.
One of these depends on the principle that the heat transfer from a hot metallic wire to a liquid is larger
than that to a gas. A fine resistance wire stretched vertically in a tank and heated electrically will show
varying resistance if the liquid level inside the tank changes. The system is shown in Fig. 7.21. The part of
the wire immersed in the liquid will be cooler and will have a lower resistance per unit length than that in
the vapour. Thus, if resistance per unit length of the wire in liquid is r1 and that in the vapour is r2, then one
easily derives the total resistance of the wire as
R = V/i = r1 [al + x (1 – a)] (7.11)

where
r2
a= >1
r1
AV AV
V1 Vessel
V1
V2
Lo Hi
V3
V2
T
BDV BDV
Fig. 7.20 A typical piping installation (AV air vents/plugs for venting and illing, V1 tank shut off valve,
BDV blow down valves, V2 shut off valves, V3 equalizing valve, T transmitter)
Wire
l V
Fig. 7.21 Scheme of resistance wire type level gauge

Thus the level-resistance relation is linear and a measure of the resistance gives a direct indication of the
level. Unfortunately, there is a current change in the wire which also changes the resistances of the parts
of the wire both in the liquid and in the vapour. In the liquid, this change is negligibly small although it
depends on the type of the liquid. But in vapour, the resistance increases with increasing slope for increasing
current. This is shown in Fig. 7.22. For finer diameter wire, the measurement sensitivity is more. Materials
used are normally platinum in the form of wire typically of 10m diameter, or ribbon. Tungsten alloys also
are used. Equation (7.11) is approximately true if the liquid and vapour phases are at the same temperature.
This method can distinguish a level change of about 2 to 3 mm and has been successfully used for level
measurement of liquid gases.
r2
r1
Fig. 7.22 Variation of resistance r with current I, in the liquid (r1) and in vapour (r2) of the wire
The same principle can be used in another type to control level at a specific height in a tank. The scheme
is shown in Fig. 7.23(a). As the liquid level falls below h, the thermistor gets hotter and more current flows
through the relay as the thermistor has negative temperature coefficient of resistance. In consequence, the
circuit is closed to start a pump for filling in the tank. The meter may be provided with a red mark for
checking the rise and fall of the level from the expected value. Besides thermistors, other thermal sensors
like thermocouple or a resistance thermometer may also be used here with slight modifications in the
circuitry. The thermal methods are inherently slow and a sharp control of level is, therefore, not always
possible.
7.5.1 Non-thermal Level Control at a Given Height

Non-thermal single-point level control sensors are also of interest. One such is a piezoelectric crystal (PC)
as shown in Fig. 7.23(b). This is a part of an oscillator mounted outside the tank. When the crystal becomes
immersed in the liquid, its oscillation frequency becomes less because of the additional loading it receives
and as it has a greater damping. There is thus a loss in amplitude that can be detected or the frequency-shift
can be detected or, in case of marginal oscillators that are sometimes used, loss of oscillation can also be
detected.
Another sensor system is an optical prism OP arranged with light source like LED and a photodiode
detector PD as shown in Fig. 7.23(c). The prism is designed to have an angle of 45° so that when it is not
immersed in the liquid light from LED will have total internal reflection and reach the PD. With the liquid,
however, this condition is not satisfied and the photodiode does not receive light so that the circuit of
Fig. 7.23(d) may be used to operate actuators.
Tank wall
Thermistor To actuator
PC
Terminals
Relay
(a ) (b)
PD
OP
Output
LED
(c) (d)
Fig. 7.23 (a) Set up for thermal type level control, (b) level control using piezoelectric crystal (PC), (c) level
control by optical method, (d) the circuit for the method of Fig. 7.23(c)
7.6 ELECTRICAL METHODS
Electrical methods consist in converting liquid levels into electrical signals and measure by electrical or
electronic means. Acoustic and radioactive techniques also require the involvement of electronic circuits
analogue or digital for successful measurement of the signals available. The simplest of the electrical types
is the resistive method, a scheme of which is shown in Fig. 7.24. This is also known as the contact point
type. A mercury column is operated by the liquid column so that the resistance R measured, decreases with
increasing level. A number of resistances of suitable values have their one end inserted in the column as
shown. Resistances r1 r2, …, rn may be chosen so that 1/R is a linear function of the level. But the level
variation gives a stepwise resistance variation. A modification of this method for making R proportional to
the level can also be made. But the former type is more convenient as it can be used for direct indication
of level easily. This is shown in Fig. 7.25. The solenoid coils 1 and 2 have a single armature. The current
through coil 1 is kept constant and its precise value is adjusted for meter setting. As the level changes, the
current through coil 2 changes and the armature is moved in such a way as to indicate this change in level
directly by the pointer through the electromagnetic action.
r1
r2
r3
rn-2
To liquid
column
rn-1
Mercury
rn
I µ Level
Fig. 7.24 Scheme of resistance switching type level gauging
1
2
Fig. 7.25 Complete schematic arrangement of a resistance switching type level gauging
This method is used if the resistivity of the liquid whose level is to be measured is very high and the
contact sets cannot be directly mounted in the tank. For a fairly large conductive liquid the rungs of contact
with resistances may be directly mounted in the tank similar to that shown in Fig. 4.17(d) in Chapter 4
where effectively a multiple probe system has been developed. With increasing level more number
of probes are shorted by the liquid giving a lower value of resistance. Such types are used in mineral
processing units to distinguish the layers of pulp, froth, air etc. Also because city supply water, sewage or
sea water have high conductivity this method can effectively be used in these cases.
For such systems level control is also easier by what is known as the conductance probe method. Two
electrodes or probes are mounted so that they are at the set level and the lowest permissible height. The
schematic arrangement is shown in Fig. 7.26(a). Figure 7.26(b) shows a typical analogue control circuit
with relay system for starting or stopping a pump motor. The bridge is balanced with the tank level below
‘g’; any unbalance due to mismatch or spurious effects is taken care of by R1 – R2 combination. In such a
situation the relay coil is in deenergized state and the pump is on. With the level at ‘g’ the bridge unbalance
occurs and the differential output of the bridge is amplified by an instrumentation amplifier and a power
stage (PS) to drive the relay for the pump to be put off. Keeping probe 2 fixed in position, probe 1 may
alter its position for varying liquid level control. The level of liquids having conductivity up to a value
10-6 mho-cm in the lower side can be measured by the electronic probe method. Limitations also include
inflammability of the liquid.
To actuator
1
g
2
g'
(a)
R2
R3
R R
R1
PS
R R
(b)
Fig. 7.26 (a) Scheme of conductance probe method: two position level control
(b) the circuit used in the control scheme
Inductive level gauging is suitable for liquid metals which are good electrical conductors. The container
of the liquid must be nonmagnetic or at least feebly magnetic. It may be a side tube to the actual container
as shown in Fig. 7.27 with two coils wound on it and a measuring scheme. The position of the coils may be
altered, if required, by sliding. When the liquid moves up, inductance of one of the coils changes and the
unbalance in the bridge which is directly related to the required height is measured.
Vo
Fig. 7.27 Set up for inductive level gauging
Capacitive methods are the most extensive ones for liquid level measurement in recent years. They are
most suitable for non-conducting liquids like oils, gasoline or liquid gases, for corrosive acids and high
pressure process liquids. The liquid acts as the dielectric material of the capacitor.
The electrodes are arranged in the form of a pair of concentric cylinders in the tank. With the level rising,
the capacitance of the capacitor between the electrode pair increases as the gas phase has less dielectric
constant than the liquid. The basic scheme of the system is shown in Fig. 7.28. At the bottom, a hole is
provided for the liquid to enter into the electrode assembly. If the dielectric constant of the vapour phase, ev,
is very small compared to that of the liquid phase, el, and the dimensions are as shown, then the capacitance
C is given by the relation
C = ell1/(2 ln r1/r2) (7.12)
ev C
2r2 l2
r1
r3
l1
el Insulator
Fig. 7.28 Scheme of the capacitance type level gauging
Taking into account the dielectric constant of the vapour and a vapour phase of length l2 equal to l – l1,
the approximate value of the capacitance is
C = (ell1 + ev l2)/(2 ln (1 + r3/r2)) (7.13)
which can be quite large if l1 >> r2, l2 >> r2, and r3 << r2. The outer cylinder is generally grounded to avoid
stray capacitance effects. This means that for measurement of the liquid level in a tank of cylindrical form,
a separate outer cylindrical electrode is unnecessary. The tank serves this purpose. A central electrode rod
is used to form a concentric pair. It is further assumed that the liquid is not an ideal dielectric, but has a
leakage resistance of a large value. The central electrode may be inserted bare for good dielectric liquid.
For a worse case, it is generally enclosed in a dielectric cylinder and a probe is formed. Both the methods
are shown in Figs 7.29(a) and (b) with their equivalent circuits. As the liquid level changes, capacitances
C2 to C5 change. Capacitance C1 is fixed and can be found out from relation (7.12). From Fig. 7.29(a), the
equivalent capacitance C is the parallel combination of C1, C2 and C3. Thus
C = C1 + C2 + C3 = C1 + el l1/(2 ln D/d) + evl2/(2 ln D/d)
= C1 + evl/(2 ln D/d) + (el – ev)l1/(2 ln D/d)
= m + nll (7.14)
Z
ev
l2
C1
l
C2
el C3
l1
R
(a)
C1 Z
l2
C1
l C3 C2
C3 C2
C5 C4
l1
C5 C4
R
R
(b)
Fig. 7.29 Capacitive level gauging: (a) set up for non-conducting liquids with equivalent circuit,
(b) set up for conducting liquids with equivalent circuit
Thus the capacitance becomes a linear function of the liquid column. Value of R has been neglected
because, generally, the measuring circuit uses a high frequency source such that the capacitive impedance
is quite small compared with the resistance of a bad conducting liquid, effectively making a resistive open
circuit. As the tank forms a capacitance cell, in the measurement a cell factor F is defined as F = DC/Del
which determines the range of the instrument.
The basic circuit for measuring the capacitance C is shown in Fig. 7.30. Potentiometer R1 is for
calibration adjustment and R2 is for zero adjustment, C ¢ for zero setting of the measurement scale and C ≤
is for top scale adjustment. The bridge circuit is fed from an oscillator through mutual coupling of circuit
inductances L1 and L2.
Fig. 7.30 Basic circuit for measurement of capacitance of probe
Errors due to temperature variation are likely to Z

affect the measurement. This changes the dielectric
constant of the liquid and the vapour. Correction is
necessary. Any entrapped gas will also change the C1
dielectric constant of the liquid. This may also be a
source of error.
Another error in the measurement due to what C2 C3
is known as the bridging effect in the cell occurs
frequently for relatively large conducting liquids. C4 r
The liquid once risen to a height, the cell continues
to show a large capacitance even after the liquid level
C5 r
has fallen sufficiently. The equivalent circuit shown l3
in Fig. 7.31 explains this phenomenon. Suppose the
liquid once rose to l3 and then fell to l4. The liquid C6 C7
l4
will stick to the probe in the length (l3 – l4) even
after it has fallen down. For a conducting liquid this R
incremental shorting will give an equivalent circuit
as shown, where r is the resistance per unit length Fig. 7.31 Equivalent circuit with bridging effect
and effectively negligible so that the capacitance
shown by the measuring circuit will be the same as for a liquid height l3. The bridging effect is predominant
in conducting liquids.
Another method suitable for the measurement of level for liquids of very large dielectric constant or very
large conductivity is described in Fig. 7.32. Plates p1 and p2 are kept parallel to each other and horizontal
over the liquid and a supply is connected as shown. As the liquid level changes the capacitor C2 changes
and the output voltage is obtained as
Eo = EbC1/(C1 + C2) (7.15)
p1
C1
p2
Eb
C2
750 V
Eo 50
Fig. 7.32 Capacitance type level measurement without electrode immersion

Since C2 is a measure of the liquid level, with l increasing C2 increases and Eo becomes less but
is a linear function of the level l. A servosystem may be incorporated to keep Eo fixed so that the servo-
movement directly gives the level. The error has been found to be within ± 2%.
While the basic circuit of the detection system is shown in Fig. 7.30, there are wide variations in its
design depending on the requirement of the states such as local or remote mounting, on-off or continuous
monitoring, etc. Also in recent years variations in dielectric property as also conductivity of the liquids
are compensated using a microprocessor based system. This latter one has the largest number of options
including facilities for data transmission to master control computer and alarm system.
7.6.1 Ultrasonic Methods

Ultrasonic level detectors use the principle of reflection of an acoustic wave from a liquid to vapour plane or
vice versa. The schematic arrangement is shown in Figs 7.33(a) and (b) for liquid phase as well as vapour phase
measurements. The ultrasonic wave sent by the transmitter T is reflected at the interface and received back by the
receiver crystal R. As level changes from l1 to l2, the transit time also changes. Measurement can be made on the
basis of the time required by the echo to reach the receiver or on the basis of change of phase of the wave during
this time. For phase measurement a phase-sensitive detector is required. The method of time measurement is
quite common and such a meter is known as the fathometer and has an accuracy of about 0.1 per cent full scale
or about 0.075 cm/m. The liquid phase method is used in storage tanks of oils and chemicals and for aircraft or
marine equipment tanks. The vapour phase method is used in mines, oil-wells, shafts, etc.
Piezoelectric crystals such as quartz or barium titanate are used with a frequency range from 30 to 300
kHz. A single crystal may be used, as shown later, both as a transmitter or as a receiver and an electronic
switch is used for changing the mode. A tuned LC resonance circuit as shown in Fig. 7.33(c) is generally
employed for avoiding spurious crystal oscillations. The received signal reduces in amplitude by a factor of
103 to 106, and, ordinary amplification, in most cases, proves futile. Pulse transmission and reception with
appropriate gating improve the performance. A typical scheme of an IC level design of such a system is shown
in Fig. 7.33(d) where the pulse generator (PG) operates the pulsed oscillator (PO) to excite the crystal through
switch S. The receiver amplifier A is provided with a comparator C for detecting the signal after echo or reflection
and resetting the flip-flop FF set by the start pulse. The FF output time gives the echo time straightaway.
Liquid
levels
l1
l2
T R
Detector &
Carrier Oscillator Amplifier
Output
indicator
(a)
T R
Liquid
levels l1
l2
(b)
Bias
+
RF
L
C
(c)
PG PO
S
A C FF
R
(d)
Fig. 7.33 Schematic arrangement for ultrasonic level gauging, (a) for liquid phase,
(b) for vapour phase, (c) LC resonance circuit with crystal for trans-receiver,
(d) pulse transmission and reception with the gating circuit scheme
A similar scheme with modular ultrasonic range detectors for level sensing which can be used from the
top in liquid-filled tanks is shown below. These schemes provide quite accurate results, are easy to use
and inexpensive. A complete scheme that uses a counter to count the time in terms of pulses is shown in
Fig. 7.34(a). However, as already mentioned the module may be fitted at the bottom as well. A pulse is
required to initiate the measurement. Starting from this moment till the echo is received in terms of a pulse,
the period is counted giving the level. For a count down type counter is preloaded at a count value, say,
n(= n1 + n2) of which n1 is for full tank and n2 is for the gap between the full level and mounting position of
the module. Obviously these distances should be in a n1 : n2 ratio. After initiation an ultrasonic wave starts
emitting which provides a pulse in the transmitting line to open the gate and the counter begins to count
the clock-pulses with a decrement once in every 1/fc sec where fc is the clock frequency. If the tank is full,
after n2 counts or n2/fc sec the receiver sends a pulse to close the gate to stop the count. Similarly for any ni
counts.
In place of pressure or ultrasonic waves electromagnetic waves such as microwaves are used in a
system known as the radar level gauging system. This is particularly suitable in larger tanks with a
range up to 200 m. The technique can discriminate a level down to about 1 to 3 mm. The principle of
operation is shown in Fig. 7.34(b) where schemes both with a parabolic dish antenna and with a horn
antenna are shown. As the radar beam cannot penetrate the metal wall the antenna is mounted inside
the tank. This is the usual situation and gives the strongest signal amplitude. But, where the process
fluids are toxic, hazardous, corrosive or chilling so that antenna face may get frosted, isolated antenna-
mounting procedure is followed. Here the transmitter, receiver, antenna are isolated from the fluid by
making a process sealing with dielectric materials such as plastic, fibre glass, glasses and ceramics
through which the radar beam can pass. Figure 7.34(c) shows such a scheme of mounting of a horn
antenna in what is known as a tank nozzle. Special seal materials are now made that can easily drain
out the condensate on the seal so that signal transmission and reception is least affected. These are
mostly polymer-based materials such as polyetherimide, polyphenylene sulphide, teflon, polypropylene,
polycarbonate etc. As shown in Fig. 7.34(b), a microwave beam is sent out which is a linear
frequency sweep at a fixed bandwidth and sweep time; this signal is reflected back from the surface
of the liquid and received by the detector via the antenna as is the case with pulsed radar system. The
detector is also exposed with the ‘send radar sweep’ simultaneously so that the detector output becomes a
frequency signal which is the difference between the frequencies of the above two signals. The frequency
difference is proportional to the time the signal takes to go out and return or what is known as the
time of flight. The output is thus a frequency modulated signal. Figure 7.34(d) shows the time of
flight (t2 – t1) and the frequency difference Df for two specific level heights in the tank. X-band microwave
covering 8 to 12.5, i.e. around 10 GHz is usually used. A low power generator with a sweep of less
than 1 kHz can be used. A power level of 15 mW/cm2 is good enough for a 30 m range. In fact the
range is calculable from certain radar system data such as: P = transmitted peak pulsed power, Ap = the
maximum power gain which is the product of the maximum directive gain and antenna efficiency,
the directive gain is the ratio of the power density radiated in a direction by the antenna to the power
density that it would have radiated if the radiation emission is equal in all directions, l = wavelength
(m), SR = radar cross-section which is the effective area of the target and is dependent on the frequency,
polarization of the radiation, the target surface roughness, Pn = minimum receivable power by the receiver.
The maximum range rx is then given by
rx = [PA2p l2SR/((4p)3Pn)]1/4
Trans/Receiver
Horn antenna
Parabolic
dish antenna
Liq. level
Tank
(b)
Frequency
Return
Radar sweep Df signals
f2
Trans/Receiver
Antenna
f1
Fixing Df
nut-bolts
Seal
Tank
nozzle t1 t1¢ t2¢ t2 time
(c) (d)
Fig. 7.34 (a) A module type circuit scheme for ultrasonic level gauging system, (b) Scheme of radar level gauging
system, (c) Mounting of horn antenna outside the tank, (d) The frequency difference Df and time of light (t2 – t1) shown
Of the various types of microwave generation and detection devices semiconductor devices are used in
this case because of low power requirement and comparatively high frequency range. Besides, such devices
require simpler power supplies, have lower noise and greater reliability.
Microwave has a major advantage as compared with ultrasonics in that its velocity is least affected
with intervening media as long as these have negligible dielectric constant. In fact, in industrial situations,
different gases at various pressures have dielectric constants which are marginally different from that of air
or total vacuum. However, for a dielectric constant kd of a medium the velocity changes to c/(kd)1/2, where c
is the velocity of light. It is necessary to have a good signal strength and a fine non-divergent or convergent
beam that would be reflected with sufficient strength back to the same antenna without divergence for
proper reception. Often a larger diameter antenna serves to improve both although the size has to be kept
limited by the size of the tank. The signal strength increases as the fourth power of the antenna diameter
and the beam divergence angle decreases as first power of the diameter.
Standard electronic methods are used to provide 4–20 mA output for which f–V and V–I converters are
adapted at the output stage. The digital output is also easily available and the radar processor spectrum can
be viewed on a monitor.
Normally, the technique is not used in a solid level detection system primarily due to weak reflected
signal but exceptions are there.
Microwave level switches have also been developed not only for level of liquids but also that of solids.
The principle is different in the latter and uses the absorption property of the solid over a specified length
spread. The designs use either X-band or K-band which is around 24 GHz. In the liquid, usually with a
higher dielectric constant the signal is reflected almost intact whereas in air or vapour phase, because of
lower dielectric constant no signal is reflected. Utilizing this principle a design is made that consists of
process window at the desired level position through which microwave beam is allowed to pass. The return
signal is compared with a reference whose value is dependent on the process material. The comparator
output is used to operate a switch. Discrimination value is about 3 mm in liquid level switch that uses
the above reflection method. In solids, a beam breaker method is used which discriminates up to about 6
mm. In this method, a microwave transmitter transmits the signal through a microwave window and the
beam is partially absorbed by the heaped up material and the beam of reduced strength passes out through
another window on the opposite side and is received and detected. On both sides two antenna are required
which usually are small, about 25° for K-band and 50° for X-band. A measurement zone is necessary to be
specified where the heaped-up condition is available and partial absorption occurs. It is good to remember
that signal amplitude falls off as the square of the distance unlike ultrasonics or nuclear radiation and hence
adequate precaution must be taken.
Optical fibres are now being used in liquid level sensing. An example of a typical ‘binary’ or switching
mode sensing is described which uses the simple S S
technique that when an unclad fibre is placed in a tank D D
without being submerged in the liquid the light escaping
the fibre is negligible as shown in Fig. 7.35(a). With
the level rising and submerging the fibre, the increased
refractive index at the interface allows light to escape
from the fibre as shown in Fig. 7.35(b). A suitably
arranged detector would indicate the change in the light
flux and indicate just when the fibre is in contact with
the liquid or the ‘present liquid level’. Earlier methods
used infrared source and an optical ‘dipstick’ in the form (a) (b)
of a prism. The dipstick is now replaced with the fibre Fig. 7.35 Optical ibre method of level
which can be of any arbitrary length. The transreceiver measurement (a) light totally re lected for
electronic system can be placed at any distance from the no liquid, (b) light least re lected for liquid
fibre probe now. in the tank up to a level
7.6.2 Nuclear Radiation Methods

Radioisotopes are also used in level measurement. This uses the principle that g-rays or b-rays are absorbed
differently by varying thickness of an intermediate medium. The detector would, therefore, produce a signal
proportional to the thickness. In a tank, the liquid height forms the intermediate medium for a pair of source
and detector. The scheme is shown in Fig. 7.36. Sources used are 60Co, 137Cs and sometimes 226Ra and the
detectors are Geiger Muller counters or Scintillation counters.
Fig. 7.36 Scheme for the radioactive method of level measurement
The detector will produce a signal which will be given by the relation
I = I0 exp (–ad) (7.16)
where I0 is the radiation intensity at the detector when liquid is absent, a is the absorption coefficient of the
liquid being the product of the mass absorption coefficient m and mass density r of the liquid, and d is the
thickness of the liquid, i.e., the liquid level or a function of it as shown in the diagram. The g-ray absorption
is negligible in vapour and air and is constant in the tank material and hence the relation (7.16) can be
considered valid.
Obviously the detector signal is a nonlinear
function of d and can be considered to be linear only
for a small increment in it. This nonlinearity is avoided
by strip sources and strip detectors. A schematic set-
up is shown in Fig. 7.37. Each measuring cell contains
two electrodes of dissimilar materials and is separated
by a gas filling it. Up to a level l1 the cells receive Source Measuring
l1 stack
weak radiations and develop small voltages across stack
them whereas above l1 the radiation received from the
source stack is almost full and voltage is also large.
The total voltage across the stack is then dependent on
the liquid level. The compensating cell is a reversed Fig. 7.37 Set up for stack-source and stack
measuring cell used for zero suppression, if and when detection radioactive method
required.
Radioactive method is also used in batch processes for filling bottles up to a specific height. A source
and a detector mounted either horizontally or vertically as shown in Figs 7.38(a) and (b) respectively, check
the height of the liquid in the container. For a higher level, the absorption is more. The detector is coupled
to the control circuit for stopping the filling nozzle after the requisite height has been achieved. This method
is used for solid powder filling as well.
D
S D
S
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.38 Technique for level control in batch illing of bottles: (a) horizontal mounting,
(b) vertical mounting of source S and detector D
It may be observed that Fig. 7.38(a) also provides a scheme for using optical source and detector for
batch filling of bottles. This is especially suitable where the liquid or solid filling the bottle is opaque or
translucent.
In step index multimode fibres both core and cladding propagation modes exist. If the cladding is in or
surrounded by or jacketed with a material having refractive index lower than that of the cladding material,
propagation through the cladding is unaffected. However, if this surrounding material has a higher refractive
index, propagation in the cladding is affected and the propagation mode is said to be stripped off, and the
light power leaks through this interface resulting in a loss that can be detected by holding a photodetector at
the end of the fibre. This phenomenon may be utilized in liquid level measurement.
As shown in Fig. 7.39(a), a jacketed fibre has some of its portion peeled off to expose the fibre cladding.
When the liquid is below level h in the tank, the exposed portion is open to air or vapour which has lower
refractive index and hence the cladding propagation mode is not affected and there is no loss of light. But if
the liquid rises up to level h, the cladding mode is stripped off and a loss of light intensity in the detector is
indicated as shown in the response curve of Fig. 7.39(b).
Light Photo-
source detector
Exposed
Intensity detected
h
Height
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.39 Level detection by exposing ibre to the liquid: (a) the method (b) the response curve
This technique is extendable for multiple discrete level measurement as shown in Fig. 7.40(a). The
step index multimode fibre has its rising portion exposed and also made to form a zig-zag contour making
bends of small radii at regular intervals of height. With liquid level rising, the cladding modes are stripped
off and the detected light intensity falls. Additionally as the fibre bends with a small radius at heights h1
h2, …, hn new cladding modes are generated at these bends and with the liquid around or above this bend
this cladding mode generated is stripped off as well. With rising level, therefore, stepped loss in light occurs
and a response curve as shown in Fig. 7.40(b) is obtained. The principle can be adopted as such or with
modification for liquid level measurement in environments hazardous for electrical signals.
Light Photo-
source detector
Intensity detected
Exposed
h1 h2 h3 hn–1 hn
Height
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.40 Multilevel detection by ibre exposition: (a) the scheme, (b) the response diagram
7.7 BOILER DRUM LEVEL
Level measurement in boiler drums is very critical—specially for modern biolers which are designed
to provide clean dry steam. If indication is low for actual high level, wet steam is likely to be produced
which results in turbine blade erosion, while high indication when level is low—the boiler tubes can get
overheated leading to the possibility of explosion. The boiler drum water level gauges basing on differential
pressure technique are being replaced by more reliable and safer hydrastep electronic gauging system. It
uses the principle of difference in resistivities of water and steam at different temperatures upto a certain
value (370°C).
For this system to be incorporated a water level column requires to be attached to the boiler and a
vertical row of electrodes is installed in this column in such a way that approximately half the electrodes
are below and half of them above the normal water level as shown in Fig. 7.41(a). Isolation valves are used
to connect the water column to the boiler.
The electrode is shown in Fig. 7.41(b). Two wires are used in each electrode with a common earth
connection for all electrodes, the column serving for that purpose. The electrode uses the fact that steam
is less conducting than water, the conductances in both steam and water varying with temperature as stated
earlier. Therefore, if a low frequency square wave supplies the electrode in the steam zone, its output
becomes large while if it is in water zone it is small. In the earlier case (steam) the signal does not find a
conducting path to ground while in the latter case (water) it does. If the output is abnormally low there is a
shorting to ground—it is a fault. It is designed such that the output square wave amplitude is proportional to
the resistance.
Steam from
boiler
Drive terminal
Receive terminal
Water level
column
Electrodes
} Wireleads
Earth
Feed water
from boiler
Fig. 7.41(a) Installed electrodes Fig. 7.41(b) The electrode
In installation, there is a separate electronic panel where the supply boards and reception boards are
mounted. The digital display board is mounted both locally and at the control room. The system can be
wired for alarm annunciation and consequent trip circuits. With temperature the boiler water resistance
increases. From 30°C to 300°C rise, resistance increases 10 times. For pure water the nature is somewhat
reversed.
All the drive terminal wires and receive/sense terminal wires are bunched (with proper insulation) and
taken to electronic unit as shown in Fig. 7.41(c).
Alarm/trip
4-20 mA
output
Remote
display
Local LCD
Display
Fig. 7.41(c) Connecting the electrodes
7.8 SOLID LEVEL MEASUREMENT

Solid levels often referred to as bulk solids in containers like bins, tanks and such other kinds are gaining
importance because of material handling and other applications in process industries. Thus, not only
measurement but control of such solid levels are increasingly in demand and techniques have, therefore,
been and are still being developed for different types of applications such as (i) continuous sensing and
control with the displayed output directly proportional to level and (ii) point control with indication of
presence or absence of material at a pre-set level.
Many of the sensors used in liquid level measurement are usable here as well. Some typical types include
the principles of capacitance, reluctance and strain gauge transducers, ultrasonics, photoelectrics, r.f. and
microwave absorption, nuclear techniques, field effects, mechanical tilting etc.
Solids in the form of fine or coarse particles are known to form arches. This arching is dependent on
what is known as angle of repose tangent of which is the static friction coefficient. This angle would also
depend on material density, moisture content, physical characteristics including temperature, pressure and
consistency etc.
Of the many techniques of sensing, ultrasonic type follows the same basic approach as is done in liquid
levels. Arching, however, involves an averaging procedure.
Capacitance types are becoming very popular in measurement and control of solid levels. With one
electrode in the bin and the other being the container wall itself, the dielectric properties of the solid can
produce a capacitance that varies with the level in the container. Arching affects the measurement to a
certain extent and averaging may again be done or a table may be referred to for correction. The table gives
the angle of repose for material densities of the important industrial solids. The details of measurement are,
otherwise, similar to the capacitance type liquid level measurement.
Radiation sources and detectors may be used as have been done in case of liquids.
Some of the older techniques of solid level measurement are still retained in many cases. A very
common such technique is the diaphragm type system which is quite suitable for point control. A scheme is
shown in Fig. 7.42. Diaphragm D is fixed to the bin wall BW with a switch S in the chamber shown. With
a specific level in the bin, the switch would be closed or opened and with appropriate electrical circuitry an
indication, alarm or control may be initiated with it. Strain gauges can also be mounted on the diaphragm
and an electrical output can be tapped for continuous level monitoring purpose.
BW
To
instruments
etc.
D
Fig. 7.42 Diaphragm type solid level detection system
Vibration sensors, often used in high or low level point control systems utilize tuning forks driven by
piezoelectric crystals. With materials contacting the probe, loading changes the electrical nature because
of additional burden. This change is detected and utilized for control application such as closure of intake
channels or opening of the outlet channels.
Review Questions
1. Distinguish between the loat type and the height in a tank? Draw the necessary diagrams
displacer type liquid level gauges. How is and explain their operations.
the change in the density of the liquid taken 5. Can the capacitive method of level gauging be
into account in these gauges? How is the used in conducting type liquids as well? If yes,
measurement range limited in the loat type show, how this is done?
system? A capacitive type level gauge is used to
In a displacer type liquid level measurement measure the level of an insulating oil which has
system a torque tube assembly is associated for speci ic inductive capacitance 30 times as large as
transmitting the movement of the displacer that of air, the circular tank has a diameter of 1
outside the tank where a lapper-nozzle meter and an electrode concentrically placed has
mechanism generates a pressure of appropriate a diameter of 5 cm. What would be the change in
range. If in this assembly the support rod length capacitance value for a level change of 1 meter?
is 30 cm and torque tube length is 25 cm, outer [556.34 mF]
and inner tube diameters are 5 and 2 cms 6. Describe an ultrasonic type level gauging system
respectively, displacer has a diameter of 8 cm that uses modular type ultrasonic type range
and length 50 cm, half of which is displaced for detectors. Show how the digital outputs are
maximum level range, what would be the twist directly related to the level measured.
for the maximum level change at the end of the 7. How is a liquid level in a boiler drum measured?
support rod or at the output? Given that the How far would this value be correct? What
torsional rigidity of the assembly material is 106 are the dif iculties associated with such
gm/cm2. measurement?
[0.9036°] 8. Describe a technique of measurement of liquid
2. Why is air-purge method so popular in industrial level or solid level using radioactive sources and
liquid level measurement system? Draw the detectors. How can this method be adopted in
schematic of such a system and explain its batch illing processes?
operation, and discuss the precautions to be 9. How optical ibre technology can be adopted for
taken in its operations including starting and liquid level gauging? Describe a method with
stopping of the level process. suitable diagrams.
3. What are the precautions and/or additional 10. Discuss the hydrastep technique of boiler drum
accessories necessary when (a) a liquid contains level measurement appending requisite sketches
suspensions, (b) the liquid is corrosive, and (c) and/or diagrams.
the liquid is explosive in nature, in the normal 11. Elaborate on some important aspects of solid
liquid level measurement techniques? level measurement techniques. Is there any
4. How piezoelectrical crystal or an optical method suitable method for continuous sensing and
can be adopted for level control at a speci ied control? Discuss.
Instruments for Analysis
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In some processes it is just not sufficient to know about the

physical conditions like temperature, pressure, etc., and on many
occasions it is helpful to know the composition of a substance in
the process or the amount of a certain constituent in it. Very often
this composition analysis helps to achieve the desired end result.
Obviously, depending on the types of information required, various
types of analysis are performed. The conventional chemical analysis
Chapter 8 is safer as far as accuracy is concerned but the time and efficiency
involved is really a deterrent to such a practice. Also, the analysis
is to be carried out reliably and quickly and simultaneous follow-
up action is to be initiated. Instrumental methods of analysis have
solved these difficulties and have also helped in improving the efficiency of the conventional methods of
chemical analysis.
Analysis may be qualitative and/or quantitative. In the former type, the results yield some clues from
which the molecular/atomic species, structural features or functional groups in a sample can be obtained
by deduction. In the latter, numerical values of constituents in percent, ppm, moles/lit. etc., are obtained.
In either case, the information obtained is by measuring a physical property related to the constituent
concerned.
Methods of analysis may be classified according to the properties that are utilized in the analysis. For
example, thermal conductivity is a thermal property and different gases, having different distinguishable
thermal conductivities, can be measured by using this property alone or in combination with varying
percentages. Table 8.1 gives the list of various methods classified under the heads of properties.
Often a more important way of classification is based on the sample state such as gas, liquid or solid.
Some techniques are there which may be used both for a gas and a liquid as the chromatography or for a
liquid and a solid as in X-ray methods. However, a general listing can be made as given in Table 8.2 of the
important techniques used in industry.
It would be noted that although humidity is considered separately, it could very well be considered
alongwith moisture because of similarity in action. The special types at the last column form a separate
sophisticated group.
A third but very important way of classifying the analytical methods is on the basis of the signals and
on their measurement aspects. The type of sample is first prepared as convenient to be used into the system.
The contents of Table 8.3 are arranged on this basis.
Instruments for Analysis 307
Table 8.1 Classi ication according to the properties

Mechanical Thermal Electrical Radiant energy Specialized others
1. Viscosity & Thermal Dielectric constant Absorption Chromatography
consistency conductivity Spectrometry
2. Density & Transition Electromotive Refraction, Mass spectrometry
specific gravity temperature force Diffraction,
Scattering
3. Velocity of Heats of reaction Magnetic Emission
sound Susceptibility spectrometry
4. Absorption of Conductivity Ionization
sound radiation
5. Electrolysis Electron
paramagnetic
resonance
6. Electrolytic Nuclear magnetic
conductivity resonance
7. Voltametry
8. Electrochemical
Reaction
9. Polarography
Table 8.2 Classi ication based on sample-state

Gas analysers Liquid analysers Solid analysers Special types
1. Absorption type Oxidation-reduction X-ray methods NMR
potential type (ORP)
2. Thermal conductivity Conductivity & salinity ESR
type
3. Paramagnetic type Turbidity Chromatography
4. Zirconia probe type Dissolved oxygen Electron microscopy
5. IR, visible and UV Density, viscosity Mass spectrometry
analysers and consistency
6. Particulate emission Moisture
opacity meters
7. Humidity
Table 8.3 Signals and methods

Signal Methods based on measurement of the signal
1. Mass Gravimetric methods
2. Volume Volumteric methods
3. Thermal properties Thermal conductivity, heat of reaction etc., methods
4. Electric resistance Conductometry
5. Electric potential Potentiometry
(Contd)
Table 8.3 (Contd)
6. Electrical current Polarography, amperometry, coulometry

7. Rate of reaction Kinetic methods
8. Emission of radiation (a) Emission spectroscopy: visible, UV, X-ray, electron
(b) Fluorescence and phosphoresence spectroscopy: visible, UV, X-ray
9. Absorption of radiation Spectrophotometry: IR, visible, UV, X-ray; NMR, ESR, spectroscopy
10. Scattering Turbidimetry, nephelometry, Raman spectrometry etc.
11. Refraction Refractometry, interferometry
12. Diffraction X-ray and electron diffraction methods
13. Rotation of radiation Polarimetry, optical rotary dispersion
14. Mass-to-charge ratio Mass spectrometry
While considering analysis, a very important aspect is the sample preparation be it gaseous or liquid or
even solid. This should also be considered in proper perspective and adequate attention be given. Specific
parameter analysis has a specific preparation procedure. However, a common code may still be discussed.
8.2 GAS ANALYSERS
All the listed methods of gas analysis are not of enough significance in present-day industrial practice. For
example, the absorption types, although was very useful at one time is gradually becoming obsolete in its
early form because of its adaptation difficulty in industry. It consists of a known amount by volume of
a gas-absorbant liquid that can absorb gas only selectively. A gas mixture when passed through it would
increase its volume depending on the amount of that particular gas which is absorbed in it. The increase in
volume is measured and the instrument is calibrated with due consideration of state, temperature, pressure
etc. A typical case is that of oxygen analyser that consists of caustic potash as the absorbant liquid. Flue gas
passed through it would show increase in volume depending on the amount of unused oxygen that is passed
out into the flue. The liquid requires to be deactivated for such use by heating, or by some other treatment.
Obviously, the technique is quite elaborate and accuracy is not as high as the complexity in its set-up.
8.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Type

This method is quite frequently used in gas analysis as an individual analyser or as a part of another larger
analysis set-up. Gases have thermal conductivities which are different for different gases. The thermal
conductivity lm of a gas mixture is a function of the individual conductivities and gas concentrations and is
approximately given by
n
lm = k1l1 + k2l2 + … + knln = Â k jl j (8.1)
j =1
n
where lj is the thermal conductivity of the jth gas whose concentration is kj so that Â k j = 1 . Again, lj is
j =1
given by the relation
lj = a j mCv (8.2)
where m is the coefficient of viscosity of the gas and Cv is its specific heat at constant volume, aj is a
numerical coefficient whose value depends on atomicity. The term lj is expressed in the usual units of
cal/sec/cm/°C temperature gradient in the conventional systems. In the units accepted today it is given as
J/sec/m/K.
Thermal conductivity of a gas lj is also obtained via kinetic theory to be given by the relation
Ê 1ˆ
l j = Á ˜ r vlm Cv (8.3a)
Ë 2¯
where r is the gas density, v is the mean molecular velocity and lm is the mean free path. The product vlm is
actually the diffusion coefficient D of the gas so that Eq. (8.3a) is rewritten as
Ê 1ˆ
l j = Á ˜ r DCv (8.3b)
Ë 2¯
Thermal conductivity is dependent on the mass, temperature and molecular size of the gas, and over a
specified wide range it is independent of gas pressure but at very low pressure this is not so, as has been
discussed in Chapter 3. The thermal conductivity of a pure gas varies with temperature following the
relation
ljT = lj0[b + 273/(b + T)](T/273)3/2 (8.4)
where b is a constant and lj0 is the thermal conductivity at 0°C.
The thermal conductivities of a few industrially important gases are given in Table 8.4
Table 8.4 Gas thermal conductivities (O°C)

Gas lj (J/s/m/k) Gas lj (J/s/m/k)
Hydrogen 279360 Ethylene 28814
Helium 244221 Argon 27760
Neon 78010 Nitrous oxide 25300
Methane 51655 Carbon dioxide 24070
Oxygen 40937 Methanol 23591
Nitrogen 40059 Methyl alcohol 23192
Air 39189 Ethyl alcohol 19502
Carbon monoxide 37775 Acetone 14422
Nitric oxide 36545 Sulphur dioxide 13493
Ammonia 35130 Chlorine 12615
Ethane 31625 Methyl Acetate 11009
Acetylene 30976 Chloroform 10804
The figures in the table are all at 0°C. Thermal conductivity increases with temperature as has already
been mentioned. The increase is different for different gases. For air, for example, the increase per degree
rise in temperature is about 0.3%, for hydrogen this increase is about 0.26%.
Measurement of thermal conductivity involves the measurement of thermal loss due to heat conduction.
This is accomplished in hot-wire cells sometimes referred to as katharometer cells. The cell consists of a
heating element in the form of a straight wire or an elongated helix mounted in a chamber. The element is
heated electrically and maintained at a temperature higher than the cell-wall temperature. Equilibrium is
reached when heat input equals thermal losses. Thermal losses, however, can be via conduction convection
and radiation given respectively by
ql = – ljA dT/dx (8.5a)
qc = hA(Ts – Ta) (8.5b)

and
qR = sesA(T4s – T4o) (8.5c)
where, A is the area of the heating surface; h, the heat transfer coefficient due to convection; es, the
surface emissivity; Ts, the wire surface temperature; Ta, the ambient temperature; To, the surrounding gas
temperature and dT/dx is the radial temperature gradient. Notationally the equation for the temperature
difference between the hot wire and the wall, q, is given by
q = f(Ph, ql, qcqR) (8.6)
where f is an appropriate function and Ph is the power input. But with adequate choice of q and power cell
geometry, qc and qR are made negligibly small. It is also essential that the cell-wall temperature should not
vary during measurement and this often is accomplished by locating the chamber in a massive block of
metal like brass or stainless steel. For special application, the brass chamber is coated inside with gold.
The hot filament serves to supply heat input by electrical energy conversion and simultaneously
measures temperature by change of current or resistance. The heating wire is usually made of platinum
which has good chemical stability and an adequately large temperature coefficient of resistance. Other
important materials are tungsten, kovar which is an alloy of Co, Ni and Fe, and nickel. Stability in the
latter materials is increased by giving a coating of gold. The sensing part is very often a thermistor which
is recommended for large sensitivity particularly when change in temperature is expected to be small. At
temperatures above about 300°C its reproducibility is, to a certain extent, suspect.
A typical dual hot-wire cell is shown in Fig. 8.1. It consists of two identical cells one fed from a standard
sample gas reservoir, the other from the process column. The feeding of the gas to the cell can be done in a
number of ways and the choice of a particular method is governed by the rapidity of response and accuracy.
The design should be such that the measurement becomes independent of flow rate change and the response
should be sufficiently fast. Three different techniques of sample-feeding are shown in Figs 8.2(a), (b) and
(c). In Fig. 8.2(a), a convective exchange type cell is shown and it must be mounted such that the flow is
vertical. In this case the measurement is usually independent of flow rate fluctuations. Figure 8.2(b) shows
a diffusion exchange type cell-system. The sensing and heating elements are separated from the main line
by porous plugging and exchange takes place by diffusion through this plugging. This also is independent of
flow rate fluctuation but the response time is considerably larger than that of Fig. 8.2(a). Figure 8.2(c) shows
the direct online type. Here the response is rapid but the measurement is dependent on the main line flow rate.
The response equation of a hot wire cell is approximated by the relation
i2R = alm (Ts – Ta) (8.7)
Process fluid
Ref. cell Meas. cell
Flowmeter
Ref. column
To
bridge
Fig. 8.1 Sketch of dual hot-wire thermal conductivity cell
Hot wire
Porous
plug
Hot wire
(b)
(a) Hot wire

(c)
Fig. 8.2 Different techniques of feeding gas cell: (a) convective exchange type, (b) diffusion exchange type,
(c) direct on-line type
were i is the current through the wire of resistance R and a is the cell constant. If (Ts – Ta) is maintained
constant, lm is dependent on the gas composition only. To evaluate the cell sensitivity, let us assume that
lm changes to lm + Dlm changing the wire surface temperature by DTs for a constant input power. Then one
can write
lm(Ts – Ta) = (lm + Dlm)(Ts + DTs – Ta) (8.8)
which, on neglecting second or higher order terms, yields
DTs/Dlm = – (Ts – Ta)/lm (8.9)
which is the temperature-to-thermal conductivity sensitivity Stl. The resistance change due to change in
temperature Ts is obtained as
DR = bRoDTs = – bRo(Dlm/lm)(Ts – Ta) (8.10)
where b is the temperature coefficient of resistance and Ro is the initial value of the resistance R. As DR is
the output change that is very often measured, sensitivity is also defined as
SRl = DR/Dlm = – bRo(Ts – Ta)/lm (8.11)
which can be increased by having large b and Ro and also by maintaining a large temperature difference
(Ts – Ta). All these are, however, limited by the design considerations and material choice.
The measuring circuit is a Wheatstone bridge with either a series or a parallel type cell arrangement in
the circuit. Two cells, one reference and another measuring, are connected to the supply either in series
for identical currents to pass through them or across the supply for obtaining better compensation due
to temperature unbalance. In the former case, difference of temperature gives bridge unbalance and an
indication proportional to the change in the thermal conductivity. The two types are shown in Figs 8.3(a)
and (b). For increasing the measurement sensitivity, 4 cells are also incorporated in the bridge with two test
cells and two references. Electrical stability requires that the supply should be from a stable source and for
thermal stability the cells are jacketed with a thermostatic bath whose temperature is maintained at a desired
value.
lm, R3
ls, R4
lm, R3
Rb R1 Rb
D
E E R2 D
R2
R1
ls, R4
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.3 Circuits for measuring resistance change of the detector:

(a) series type connection, (b) parallel type connection
As indicated earlier, the sample should be conditioned before it is circulated through the measuring cell.
This conditioning is with respect to certain variable components. If the gas contains water vapour, drying
agents are employed to drive off the same completely or the gas may be saturated with water vapour. If
the gas mixture is corrosive, the cell should be designed suitably for the purpose. For correct composition
analysis, tapping at appropriate points should be carefully made avoiding condensation. Ceramic filters
like alundum are used to sieve off any solid suspension and spray-washers or/and steam injectors are used
to drive off smoke and other particles. In the analyzer cell, secondary filters with cellulose, glass, quartz
and asbestos are also used. For quick analysis, all contaminants are not possible to be eliminated and yet
the results are quite accurate. The gases have low specific heat and so a high temperature sample easily
loses its heat to attain the cell temperature if a watercooled sampler probe is used. The sampler probe is
also provided with pressure normalizing modules to take account of the high pressure-fluctuation rate. If
ambient temperature is likely to initiate condensation, the cell-wall temperature is maintained at a higher
value. The sampling line should also be designed to maintain a higher temperature. Sample conditioning is
an important aspect and it is proposed to be discussed in a little more detail later.
Thermal conductivity method is quite conveniently used for the analysis of binary gas mixtures. In
industry it is sometimes seen that a gas mixture contains more than two constituents all of which are varying
in proportion quite independently. However, often the variation in the concentrations is interdependent
and the problem then is equivalent to that of a binary sample. As has already been mentioned, analysis by
thermal conductivity method requires a reference gas. Air is usually chosen for the purpose and instead of
actual conductivity values, relative values are indicated with air having a thermal conductivity reference
value of unity. Analysis may be of single pass type where the binary mixture is passed through the sample
only once and for successful analysis the thermal conductivity of the mixture must vary widely with the
change in the composition and the thermal conductivities of the two constituent gases must be different. A
relation for lm that is usually followed for this case is given by
lm = l1{1 + a(x2/(1 – x2))} + l2/{1 + b((1 – x2)/x2)} (8.12)
where a and b are constants known as Wasiljewa constants and x2 is the molar fraction of the second
constituent. A few typical response characteristic curves are shown in Fig. 8.4. Table 8.5 shows a few
important binary mixtures and the reference comparison gases.
100
N N
2O
in 2 in
50 H H
2 2
in air
% Response
NH 3
0
25 50 75 100
CO
2 in a
ir
–50 SO
2 in a
ir
–100
% Gas 1 in Gas 2 (Ref. air)
Fig. 8.4 Response characteristics for binary mixtures
Table 8.5 Binary samples and comparison gases

Gas mixture Comparison gas
1. H2 in air H2or air
2. H2 in N2 H2, air or N2
3. H2 in CO2 H2 or CO2
4. H2 in Cl H2 or Cl
5. H2 in methane H2, methane or a mixture of the two in
appropriate proportion
6. He in air. O2 or N2 Any one of the constituent gases or H2
7. Ne in air, Cl in air, acetone in air, Air
NH3 in air, O2 in air
8. SO2 in N2 or air N2 or air
9. CO2 in flue gas, N2 or air Air
10. Water vapour in air, O2 or N2 Air, O2 or N2
Double-pass instrument measures thermal conductivities of three-component sample. After the gas is
passed once through the cell, a treatment is done to the sample to convert the ternary sample to binary
one. Treatment generally consists in absorbing a constituent or converting one of them into another of the
constituents. Table 8.6 gives a few cases of such gas mixtures and the treatment made after a single pass.
Analysis of multicomponent mixture becomes simpler if only one component changes proportion while the
rest vary in the same ratio.
There are many other gas combinations, only a few are quoted as example.
Table 8.6 Sample and treatment for double-pass Instrument
Gas mixture Treatment after pass 1
CO in flue gas/air CO converted to CO2
NH3 in N2 and H2 Ammonia is absorbed
Water vapour in changing gas mixture Water vapour is absorbed
O2 in N2 or in Flue gas, or in H2 and CO Oxygen in converted into water
The method requires empirical calibration. A practical example of application is to determine SO2
percentage at different points in the chain process of manufacture of sulphuric acid by contact process.
The two specific points are then (i) SO2 and air leave burner with 9%, SO2 and (ii) SO3 + SO2 and air leave
catalyst chamber with 2% SO2. Reference is dry air.
8.2.2 Heat of Reaction Method

This is another thermal method which is described here in brief for oxygen analysis. It is based on the heat
of reaction or rather heat of combustion. The method is applicable, in general, for the determination of
percentage of combustible gases in mixture. The system schematic is shown in Fig. 8.5. The sample at a
specified pressure and flow rate is allowed to enter in a scooped-out chamber of brass block that is heated
}M
}N
Heater & Thermostat
Brass
block
A
Sample C
P
Exhaust
Flow control
capillary
Fig. 8.5 Set-up for analysis by heat of reaction method (A adjustable ori ice, C combustion chamber,
P pressure regulator, M measuring ilament, N compensator ilament, H hydrogen)
by a heater and controlled by a thermostat unit to a constant temperature of about 750°C. The
combus tion chamber consists of two compartments—one fully exposed to the gas mixture, while the
other has only a small hole to allow only a small amount to enter into it. Two noble metal filaments
of identical design are inserted in the chamber for catalyzing the process of combustion. The sample
gas is mixed with adequate amount of hydrogen or air for analysis of oxygen or other combustibles.
Compensation filament takes account of the thermal conductivity effect, specific heat effect etc.
Sample flow rate is quite high compared to the amount combusted which, in fact, is only 1%. This
ensures low response lag. Hydrogen is supplied at about 1.5 to 2 kg/cm2 and consumption is 75
to 120 cc per min. After the combustion the exhaust takes place through the exhaust pipe made
of stainless steel. When combustion takes place, the heat of combustion heats up the measuring
wire and its resistance increases. The bridge circuit incorporates the filaments in adja cent arms. The
rise in temperature causes unbalance of the bridge which can directly give the oxygen percentage
with empirical calibration. Another combustion chamber can be housed in the heated brass block
for determination of other combustibles simultaneously. It can measure with an accuracy of about
0.05%. Figure 8.6 shows a measuring scheme with a servo-actuated system. Potentiometer P is
directly calibrated in percentage of oxygen.
M
R1 R3
R2 R4
N
e1
e –
+
e2
+ Servo
Fig. 8.6 Scheme of measurement of heat of reaction with a servo-balance circuit

(M measuring ilament, N compensating ilament)
8.2.3 Paramagnetic Method

This method is also known as the magnetic susceptibility method and is used primarily for the analysis of
oxygen. There are few industrially important gases that are paramagnetic. Of this oxygen is one. Table 8.7
shows the relative values of paramagnetism of some important gases with oxygen as the reference.
Table 8.7 Relative volume magnetic susceptibilities of gases (20°C)
zero reference: nitrogen and 100 reference: O2
Gas Relative value of susceptibility
Oxygen 100.00
Nitric oxide 43.00
Air 23.50
Hydrogen 0.24
Carbon monoxide 0.01
Nitrogen 0.00
Nitrous oxide –0.20
Methane –0.20
Argon –0.22
Acetylene –0.24
Ammonia –0.26
Ethylene –0.26
Carbon dioxide –0.27
Hydrogen chloride –0.30
Ethane –0.46
Chlorine –0.77
Propane –0.86
Isobutane –1.30
As NO and NO2 are not very important industrially and hydrogen rarely occurs alongwith oxygen in a
gas mixture, this method can be exclusively used for determination of percentage of oxygen in a mixture.
Its importance is in the determination of combustion efficiency of a fuel and also in petroleum cracking,
where a controlled supply of oxygen will regenerate the catalyst while its excess will destroy the catalyst
and its deficiency will stop regeneration. For safety reasons also, oxygen content needs often be analysed.
The magnetic behaviour of any substance is characterised by permeability m and thence by susceptibility
c. Substances with m slightly larger than 1 are called paramagnetic and those with m slightly less than unity
are called diamagnetic. Oxygen has m = 1.000002. Permeability is a formal nomenclature. Susceptibility is
often defined as the magnetomotive force produced in unit volume of the substance by unit energizing flux
density. Thus
c = (Bm – Bo)/H = (mBo – Bo)/H = m – 1 (8.13)
where, in vacuum Bo = H. Susceptibility of a paramagnetic substance is, therefore, greater than zero. This is
because the energizing magnetic fluxes are reinforced by the internal magnetic moment of the substance. In
the diamagnetic material, the superposition is antiparallel.
The principle of the instrument for measurement of gas concentration is dependent on the force by which
a paramagnetic substance is attracted towards a field of higher magnetic intensity. Another instrument
utilizes another effect called Curie’s law according to which the magnetic susceptibility decreases with
increasing temperature. The relevant Curie-Weiss law is
cmass = k/(T – q) (8.14)
where k and q are some constants. Diamagnetic substances have their magnetic property independent of
temperature.
A type of a paramagnetic gas analyser, often known as the magnetodynamic type, consists of a
glass or quartz dumbbell suspended in a non-uniform magnetic field by a taut quartz fibre. The system
is schematically shown in Fig. 8.7. The dumbbell is often filled with a diamagnetic gas like nitrogen.
Pole pieces
Q
Dumbbell M
(glass)
Light beam
Q Quartz fibre
M Mirror
Scale
Fig. 8.7 Scheme of displacement type paramagnetic gas analyzer
The system is enclosed in a chamber through which the process gas is flushed at a specified slow
rate. If the gas is not paramagnetic the force in the dumbbell is balanced. However, in presence of
paramagnetic gases like oxygen which will be attracted towards the pole pieces, the dumbbell will be
displaced and a deflection of the suspended body occurs. The deflection of the body will be proportional
to the percentage of the paramagnetic substance in the sample and this deflection is observed with a
lamp-and-scale arrangement. The field intensity is shown in Fig. 8.8 for a properly shaped pole-piece.
12
x 103
9
moH
(gauss) 6
X
0
0 1 2 3
X (mm)
Fig. 8.8 The ield-intensity curve
The method can be adopted to obtain electrical output and also for control purposes, and a typical such
scheme is shown in Fig. 8.9(a). Here the restoring force is produced electrostatically by the electrodes
adjacent to the dumbbell. The split optical beam produces unbalanced illumination of the pair of photocells
and the comparator-amplifier output produces this differential field. In the servomax type magnetodynamic
analyser the suspension is made of platinum instead of quartz and the restoring force is produced by passing
electric current from the amplifier through a single turn of platinum wire that goes via the suspension as
shown in Fig. 8.9(b).
The force with which the dumbbell is repulsed, assuming that the dumbbell is weightless in view of the
fact this is made of hollow glass sphere, is given by
P = mdH/dx (8.15)
where m is the moment of the paramagnetic substance. Truly speaking unit volume of the paramagnetic
gas will be drawn in by this force which in turn repels the dumbbell. If cv = volume susceptibility, then the
moment is
m = cvmoH = cvBo (8.16)
so that, the force is
P = cv BodH/dx (8.17)
The instrument is designed to have a linear H-x relationship as shown in Fig. 8.8, so that
P = kocv (8.18)
With larger percentage of oxygen in the gas, cv increases, so also the force. As cv is susceptible
to temperature, the temperature is to be strictly regulated by thermostatic control. The instrument is
standardized beforehand and empirical calibration is performed. For a flowing gas it is almost independent
of the flow rate as long as flow rate is kept between 50 and 250 cc/min. Response time is quite small.
Within a minute it shows 95% of the value. The second type of oxygen analyser also uses the Curie’s law
P Prism P
E
Q
D M
E D
SF Z
(a)
Pt suspension
Pole pieces
Lamp
Mirror
Photocell
Prism
Amplifier
To recorder
(b)
Fig. 8.9 (a) Dumbell method used to obtain electrical output,

(b) servomax type magnetodynamic method
and the instrument is known as the thermomagnetic type or the magnetic wind type. The sensing part of the
instrument is shown in Fig. 8.10. A bifilar heater wire is mounted in the non-uniform field of a magnet as
shown. The system is enclosed in a chamber and gas supplied from the top. The hot air has a temperature
T2 and the paramagnetic gas is attracted towards the pole piece and in consequence attains this temperature
only to lose its paramagnetic property and then moves to a cooler region when it again acquires the lost
property and is again attracted towards the pole-piece. Consequently a thermomagnetic wind circulates in
the chamber as shown. Due to this circulation the heater wire will lose temperature and resistance which
is measured. If the percentage of the paramagnetic gas is Gas

large, circulation will be intense and cooling more. The
inhomogeneous field of the magnet can be made proper Chamber
by proper shape of the pole-piece. Again a constant T1 P1
dH/dx characteristic can be obtained as shown earlier.
A quantitative relation between the force of circulation
and the volume susceptibility can be obtained following P2
T2
the line of the earlier method. The relation between the Bifilar hot wire
magnetic moment and volume susceptibility is shown by
Eq. (8.16). Actually, the number of atoms of a substance N S
in unit volume increases with pressure p and decreases
with temperature T, so that
Magnet
m = cvmoHp/T (8.19)
Also as the temperature increases, according to Curie’s Fig. 8.10 Sketch of a hot wire oxygen analyzer
law, it loses its paramagnetic property. Hence, neglecting
q in Eq. (8.14) for the generalized situation, one gets,
m = cvmoHp/T 2 (8.20)
Combining Eqs (8.15) and (8.20)
P = cvmoH (dH/dx) p/T 2 (8.21)
It is shown in Fig. 8.10 that a cold gas volume at temperature T1 is attracted with a larger force than the
hot volume at temperature T2. The resulting magnetothermal force is
P1 – P2 = Po = cv moH(dH/dx)p(1/T 21 – 1/T 22) (8.22)
= k2cv (1/T 21 – 1/T 22) (8.23)

For the hot wire, pure platinum is generally chosen and a wire diameter of about 40 m. It is kept fixed
in position by insulation rolls and platinum-iridium spring. The bifilar winding gives better zero stability
cancelling drift forces. Four identical devices are made, two with real magnets and two dummies.
They are then arranged to form a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 8.11. The same gas passes
through all the cells and this increases the sensitivity and accuracy. The bridge supply is stabilized.
The range of the instrument can be arbitrarily fixed for the smallest up to 1% to the largest up to 100%.
mV
Gas
N
S
Gas
Fig. 8.11 Practical circuit scheme of the hot wire system

In industrial flue gas analysis, a range of 0.5% is sufficient. The 160

0G
scale of the instrument is linear for low field operation, achieved 125
by putting the hot wire more away from the pole pieces. But 120
then the sensitivity is also low. For increased sensitivity 0G
Output (mV)
the entire range is no longer linear. Figure 8.12 shows the 100
80
characteristic curves for three different field strengths. For
the maximum field intensity the calibration is linear only up
to about 20% of oxygen. The linearity is obtained if the heat 40 300 G
transfer from the wire to the gas is at constant rate; at high
field intensity this is not true. When wide range measurement 0
is necessary low field intensity is used to get linearity of scale 25 50 75 100
over the entire range. % O2
An important consideration is the composition of the gas. If the
gas is likely to contain more than 2% hydrogen, the platinum acts Fig. 8.12 Response curves of the analyzer
as a catalyser to initiate reaction between oxygen and hydrogen for different ield strengths
at high temperatures. The remedy is to coat platinum with glass.
Larger thermal conductivity of hydrogen affects the measurement in another way—it takes more heat away, this
is sometimes compensated by increasing the heating current.
The measurement is generally affected by ambient temperature change, pressure, viscosity and thermal
conductivity of the constituent gases and variation of supply voltage—these effects change the temperature
of the hot wire adversely and tend to introduce error. Identical construction of four cells, with the same
gas passing through the four cells, minimizes these effects considerably. The construction of the hot wires
is also critical. The wires must have identical temperature resistance characteristics or at least parallel
characteristics as shown in Fig. 8.13.
1234
40
Wire resistance (W)
30
26
0 150 300 450
Temperature of wire (°C)

Fig. 8.13 Desired temperature-resistance characteristics for the four cells
The errors of the instruments due to these factors are portrayed in graphs available in literature. For supply
voltage or, in effect, supply current variation by a small percentage, a large change in heating wire temperature
may occur, but a 4-arm construction of resistance wires with parallel characteristics has shown only small (about
0.10 to 0.15%) unbalance, as shown in Fig. 8.14. Pressure change of the gas changes the magnetic moment and
this changes the indication only slightly—about 1/4 per cent at 10 per cent oxygen for a change in about 20 mm
of mercury, which is the usual rate of variation of pressure. The effect of temperature change is cumulative since
temperature change affects density and number of active molecules, and also introduces a change in the thermal
disorder. The effect is as expected, inversely proportional to the square of the absolute temperature.
3 Zero deviation
% O2
0
– 10 –5 0 +5 + 10
% Change in sup. current
– 80 – 40 0 + 40 + 80
Temp. variation (°C)
Fig. 8.14 Error curve for supply and temperature variation
Quite a number of methods of paramagnetic gas analysers have been developed by different people at
different times. The basic method of such variations is due to Quincke. When a paramagnetic gas is brought
close to a magnetic field, it experiences a force due to the fact that it is driven from the non-uniform part
of the field to the uniform part. The force causes a differential pressure which may be measured in various
ways. Two methods are shown in Figs 8.15(a) and (b). In the first one gas sample is allowed to enter into
two measuring capillary tubes m1 and m2 both kept in a magnetic field. The magnetic pole piece, however,
is designed to have two halves, one half to produce a strong field using a soft iron piece shown by hatched
lines and the other made weak with nonmagnetic material so that the paramagnetic component of the gas in
the two tubes experience different forces. This differential pressure between the two parts in the two tubes is
measured by a capacitive pressure sensor. The pole piece is often rotated by a motor to obtain a modulated
output. In the second type a reference gas, usually nitrogen, is allowed to enter continuously in the cell but
is divided into two streams as shown. These two streams combine again at a place where the sample gas is
allowed to enter and a strong magnet is put in one branch as shown. With paramagnetic gas component, it
will experience a force in one branch to produce a differential pressure resulting in a change in reference
gas flow in the arms where filaments are mounted to form a Wheatstone bridge circuit. This out-of-balance
emf in the bridge is now measured which is proportional to the concentration of the paramagnetic gas
such as oxygen. The sample gas does not come under the heated element so that the majority of the errors
described earlier are not present here.
8.2.4 Zirconia Oxygen Analyser

This is an electrochemical method and potential derived from a pair of electrodes across a zirconia cell
gives a measure of oxygen when two sides of the cell are flushed with measuring gas and a reference
gas respectively. The scheme is shown in Fig. 8.16(a) while in the probe form it is shown in Fig.
8.16(b). The electrolyte is a solid zirconium oxide ceramic material which is sandwiched between
two porous platinum electrodes. At high temperatures, oxygen ions make zirconia conducting. Thus
when the cell is at a high temperature and the two sides of it are exposed to a reference gas containing
standard measure of oxygen, usually air, and sample gas containing unknown measure of oxygen,
an oxygen concentration cell is formed. At the negative electrode oxygen reaction takes place as
Gas out
Gas in m1
m2
Cap. sensor
(a)
P.M.
S
Sample
gas
+ –
Flow
adjust
Measuring
Ref. gas
bridge
(b)
Fig. 8.15 (a) Paramegnetic method without using a hot wire, (b) the method that uses a
hot wire but as a measuring element, not close to the magnet poles
Ref. O2
Zirconia
E Al
tube
Sample +
gas Inner
Ref. gas
electrode
Zirconia
Sample O2
Porous pt
electrode Outer elecctrode
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.16 (a) The zirconia cell-basic form, (b) the probe type design
O2 + 4e Æ 2O2– (8.24a)
while at positive electrode oxygen ion reaction takes place as
2O2– Æ O2 + 4e (8.24b)
and in consequence, between the two electrodes an emf is generated following Nernst equation. Thus at
750°C, this emf is
E = – RT/(nF) log (pm /pr) (8.25)
in volts, or,
E = – 50.74 log (pm/pr) (8.26)
in mV. In above equations, pm is the partial pressure of oxygen in the measuring gas and pr is the partial
pressure of oxygen in reference gas, R is the gas constant, T is absolute temperature in K, F is the Faraday’s
constant in Coul/mol and n = 4. Gas constant R is in volt-coul/(K.mol). For dry air pr is 20.95 vol% at
1 atmosphere. Thus by measuring E, pm is obtained by calculation and hence the vol% of oxygen in the
measuring gas.
The zirconia oxygen analyser does not require sampler, has fast response, accurate for low concentrations
down to 1 to 100 ppm. A brief comparison between the thermomagnetic method and the zirconia method is
given in Table 8.8.
Table 8.8 Comparison of thermomagnetic and zirconia method
Count Thermomagnetic method Zirconia method

1. Range 0– 1% to 1 – 100% 0– 1% to 0–100%
2. 90% response time 5 to 30 sec. 1 to 5 sec
3. Warm-up time 1 to 2 hrs. 1

less than hr
2
4. Operating temperature range 0 to 50°C 1 to 1400°C
5. Scale Almost linear Logarithmic
6. Sampling requirement Yes No
7. Operation affected due to CO2 for higher thermal H2, CH4. CO – which are
presence of gases like: conductivity. combustible.
8.2.5 Electrochemical Reaction Method

Although zirconia method is an electrochemical method, it has been classified separately, because of its
importance in industry that has increased tremendously in recent times. The method that is considered now
is designed to form a galvanic cell with a metal anode and a hollow carbon cathode with the major part
of it being insulated as shown in Fig. 8.17. The pair of electrodes is then immersed in an electrolyte with
high hydrogen ion concentration. When current is drawn from the cell, hydrogen ions flow to the cathode
and polarize it. In the absence of a depolarizer like oxygen current flow stops in no time. If a gas sample
containing oxygen is sent through the hollow of the carbon cathode, the gas will diffuse through it and
oxygen reacts directly or through peroxide Sample Exhaust

stage with hydrogen for depolarization. Carbon cathode
Maintaining the flow and the pressure constant,
the depolarization and in consequence the X
X
current flow can be made directly proportional High X X
X
X
X
X
X
to the percentage of oxygen. The current H+conc. X
X X
X X X X
drawn also becomes proportional to the cell X
X
X
X X
temperature and this is maintained constant by X X
a controlled bath. The sample is also allowed

to acquire this temperature before it passes
through the bore of the cathode. Flow is
Anode Temp. controlled bath
generally maintained at 75 cc/min. Accuracy is
less, but within ± 5%. For different electrolytes Fig. 8.17 Electrochemical reaction type analyzer
separate calibration is necessary. Presence of
impurities in carbon electrode produces zero Gas
shift. Another version of the galvanic cell Membrane
or fuel cell, as it is often known, is shown in
Fig. 8.18. It uses a lead electrode of shape and
form which maximises the metal available
for reaction. The cathode is plated with gold
and covered with a polytetrafluorethylene Gold coated
(PTFE)) membrane. There are perforations in cathode
the cathode. Both electrodes are immersed in
aqueous KOH electrolyte. Diffusion of oxygen
Pb anode
through the membrane allows the reactions at
anode and cathode respectively as
Pb + 2OH – Æ PbO + H2O + 2e (8.27)
Fig. 8.18 Another version of the galvanic cell
4e + O2 + 2H2O2 Æ 4OH– (8.28) type design
and the cell reaction is simply put as
2Pb + O2 Æ PbO (8.29)
The cell has an electrical output related to the partial pressure of oxygen on the gas side of the
membrane. If oxygen is absent, output is zero. Calibration is done with air, as usual. Rate of diffusion
determines the response time and at low oxygen concentration, this time is very large. An exposed cathode
increases the speed.
Hersch cell is another galvanic cell where a third electrode is added and anodic protection is provided
with a potential applied to it. The procedure extends the life of the cadmium anode by limiting the current
value. The output is nonlinear and hence signal processing becomes necessary.
Oxygen analysis by using amperometric or polarographic technique is also common for flue gas analysis
where continuous oxygen analysis is possible. A scheme of the cell is shown in Fig. 8.19(a). A gold cathode
and a silver anode are protected by a teflon or PTFE membrane which also holds the KCl solution as
electrolyte. Oxygen diffusing through the PTFE membrane reacts with the cathode as
4e + O2 + H2O 4OH– (8.30a)
and the anode reaction is
Ag + Cl– Æ AgCl + e (8.30b)
Thermistor
Body
Electrolyte gel
O-ring
Membrane
Gold cathode Silver anode
Fig. 8.19(a) Cell for continuous oxygen analysis
A small external potential of about 0.7V is applied between the anode and the cathode which is required
for the reaction to be sustained and for oxygen to reduce at the cathode. Current is proportional to partial
pressure of oxygen in the gas. Electrolyte requires to be changed quarterly or half-yearly. The membrane is
also replaceable. The cell works at pressure up to about 3.5 bar and at a predetermined temperature value.
The accuracy is about ± 1%.
Another amperometric technique which is a slight varition from that in Fig. 8.19(a) is the Clark oxygen
analyzing cell. It also has a membrane-electrolyte-electrode assembly shown schematically in Fig. 8.19(b).
In this oxygen reduction takes place. Figure 8.19(c) shows the formation of the reaction cell.
Pt (Cathode)
Ag-AgCl (Ref)
Glass
Glass
Cathode
Electrolyte
Membrane
Membrane
Electrolyte
(teflon)
pO2 15m thick pO2
Fig 8.19(b) Clark Cell Fig. 8.19(c) The Reaction Cell
Partial pressure of oxygen at the membrane is the equilibrium partial pressure, say peo, at cathode this is
zero. Oxygen reduction is again given by Eq. (8.30a). If,
bm is the solubility of oxygen in the membrane
Dm is the diffusion constant
a is the electrode area
F is Faraday’s constant
Xm is the membrane thickness,
then a steady state electrode current is given by
4 F b m Dm peo
I= (8.30c)
Xm
Obviously the sensitivity of the system is given by
4 F b m Dm
S = I/peo = (8.30d)
Xm
Oxygen to ppm level is detected by electron capture method which is based on the principle that oxygen
absorbs low-energy b-radiation but nitrogen or argon does not do so. The number of O2 molecules present
would reduce the radiation from a source. Tritium as low-energy b-source is used for the purpose which
is placed in a channel through which gas is passed. There is a stainless steel electrode and a stainless steel
detector body between which a voltage is applied so that there is a standing current. If a gas like nitrogen
is passed through, electrons are formed by ionization and no loss of them occurs. However, with oxygen
present in the gas some of the electrons are captured and the standing current decreases. The amount of
decrease is proportional to the concentration of the capturing oxygen. Figure 8.20 shows the basic scheme.
Gas out
Body
b-Source
Leads
Gas in
Electrode
Locking
screw
Fig. 8.20 The electron capture method
8.2.6 Spectroscopic Analysis: Infrared (IR) Radiation Absorption Type

Gas Samples Spectroscopic analysis technique is a very specialized one and with time its application is
becoming increasingly important because of greater accuracy and resolution etc. This is mainly because of
the improvement in the design of the components including sources and detectors. The range of wavelength
chosen would depend on the sample to be analysed. Spectroscopic analysis techniques are applicable for
gaseous, liquid or solid samples. The methods may be classified into absorption, reflection, emission in
the general category or in the atomic techniques. Then there is the atomic fluorescence type. The general
schemes of the three types are shown by block diagrams in Figs 8.21(a), (b) and (c).
Figure 8.21(b) shows that in emission spectroscopy no external radiation source is necessary as
the sample itself is the emitter through arc, spark or flame and characteristic radiation comes from this
excitation process. In contrast absorption, fluorescence, phosphorescence, scattering require an external
source of radiation. In absorption, a beam from the source passes through the sample on to a wavelength
selector while in Fig. 8.21(c) the source irradiates the sample in a container and induces to emit
characteristic fluorescence etc. which is then measured at an angle.
It would be noted from above that for gas analysis absorption spectroscopy is the most suitable. Also
infrared radiation is found to be more useful because the majority of the gases of industrial importance as
well as pollution study, have their absorption bands in this range. Its range is usually from 780 nm to 1000
mm. The range is often subdivided into 780 to 2500 mm, 2500 nm to 50 mm and 50 to 1000 mm. The most
widely used range is 2500 nm to 25 mm. IR absorption spectroscopy is basically a quantitative analysis
technique. For absorption of IR radiation which is in association with an electric field, it is necessary that
there occurs a net change in its dipole moment as a consequence of its rotational and vibrational motion.
With a matching between the electric field of the incident radiation and that of the molecules, an interaction
between them is possible and a change in amplitude of one of its motion or in rate of rotation occurs which
is manifested as absorption of radiation.
Fig. 8.21 (a) Absorption, (b) emission, and (c) luorescence type of spectroscopic analysis (S1 source, lamp, heated
solid; S¢1 source: arc, spark etc.; S≤1 source: lamp, laser; S2 sample, W/M wavelength selector/monochromator; PD
photoelectric detector; PRS processor and readout system)
Primary monatomic and homonuclear diatomic molecules such as He, Ne, Cl2, N2, O2 etc., do not show
change in dipole moment during vibration or rotation and hence they do not absorb IR radiation. Rotational
and vibrational levels are quantized in nature which makes the absorption to be characteristically well-
defined discrete lines. In liquids and gases these lines tend to broaden because of intermolecular collisions
and interactions in a continuum. While rotational and vibrational energy states exist for gases; for solids
and liquids only vibrational or molecular vibrational states are important.
Spectroscopic instruments are designed to provide bands of radiations of known wavelengths as also
to provide information about the intensity of these bands. The design is classified into three groups: (a)
Temporal, (b) Spatial, and (c) Multiplexing. Each one has subgroups of non-dispersive and dispersive
types. Non-dispersive types use narrow frequency bands while the dispersive types put no restriction on the
frequencies used.
Temporal design uses a single detector and is a single channel instrument and successive radiation
bands are examined in a time sequence. Spatial instruments use multiple detectors and, in consequence,
channels, and different parts of the spectrum are simultaneously examined. Multiplex design is a single
channel instrument but all the parts of the spectrum are observed simultaneously which is possible only by
modulating the signal from the analyte in such a way that subsequent demodulation or decoding yields the
desired components. Multiplex instruments use Fourier or Hadamard transform for this decoding. Of these,
Fourier transform is very common and such instruments are also called FT instruments. Fourier transforms
are used in NMR, microwave and mass spectroscopy as well.
Non-dispersive absorption type IR technique can measure the quantities of many gases like CO, CO2,
SO2, Nitrous Oxide, CH4, water vapour, many hydrocarbons and vapours of benzene, ethyl alcohol acetone
etc. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.22.
Absorption
Filter
MC chambers
cell
Bridged
A1
amplifier
Optical filter
Source Indicator
A2 Capacitive
D detector
RC
Chopper
Fig. 8.22 Scheme of a nondispersive dual channel absorption type IR spectrometer
Equal intensity chopped infrared beams are passed through a measuring cell (MC) and a reference cell
(RC) simultaneously. The reference cell is filled with a standard non-absorbing gas while the measuring
cell contains the process gas, i.e., the gas to be analysed. Other gases that might absorb wavelengths in
the given range are first filtered out, or, such gases are included in filter cells in the measuring line or both
lines so that the radiation beams do not contain wavelengths the interfering gases are likely to absorb in
the measuring cell. The beams from the MC and RC pass on to the detector D, which, as shown here, is
Luft pattern type that consists of two sealed absorption chambers A1 and A2 filled with the measuring gas
and separated by a thin metal diaphragm which forms a parallel plate capacitor with an adjacent perforated
fixed metal plate as shown. These gas chambers will, therefore, selectively absorb radiation. Chamber A1
receives radiation which has already been absorbed in parts in the MC and the gas in A1will not further
absorb the same energy as would the gas in A2 so that the chamber gases would be unequally heated to
cause a movement of the metal diaphragm to produce a change in the capacitance which is measured by a
bridge and amplifier-detector.
The length of the measuring tube is important as also the amount of the absorbing gas in the sample. If
c is the concentration, a is the absorption constant and l is the cell length, then for an incident radiation
energy e, the energy absorbed by the gas in the measuring cell is given by
E1 = aecl (8.31a)
and
Eh = e(l – exp (–acl)) (8.31b)
for low and high concentrations respectively. Usually, if (e – E) > 0.75 the first relation is followed,
otherwise the latter. In the latter case the length of the cell is generally kept small.
A null method of measurement may be adopted with the same detector, the output from which
is amplified and rectified by a p.s.d., and a servosystem is driven by it to operate the shutter so that the
balance in the measuring bridge is restored. The gas concentration is obtained from .the servoposition. The
instrument is initially calibrated by using sample gases of known constituent concentrations.
A method that accounts for the limitations with regard to temperature, supply variation etc., has been
to use two wavelengths one at the absorption band and the other at a band close to the absorption band.
The band selection is done by a rotating filter as shown in Fig. 8.23. The technique reduces greatly
the uncertainties with respect to the variation of the source intensity as also detector sensitivity. The
measurement is done corresponding to the absorption wavelength lm and comparison is with another
wavelength lc close to lm. The wavelength is selected by the rotating filter-couple while the other
arrangement in the set-up does not change. IR radiation from a source is collimated by a CaF2 lens and
chopped by a chopper, which is then allowed to be incident on to the absorption cell flushed with the
process gas. The output radiation from this cell is then focussed by another CaF2 lens on to an indium-
antimonide thermistor bolometer after being passed through the filter couple which is rotated at a frequency
of about 1/100th of the radiation chopper frequency so that an effective carrier modulation occurs at
the detector and when it is detected after due amplification two unequal peaks are produced in a cycle
having amplitude a1 corresponding to the absorption wavelength lm and amplitude a2 corresponding to a
comparison or reference wavelength lc so that a2 > a1. The filter-couple is driven by a specially made
torsion oscillation drive in a typical commercial unit. The current output from the detector Im and Ic in the
two halves can be electronically so processed that Im + Ic is constant, done usually be an AGC circuit, and
the actual system output is obtained as (Ic – Im)/(Ic + Im) which would become a function of concentration
of the measuring gas. By changing only the filter couple, the instrument can be adapted to measurement of
concentration of any gas from the possible industrial range given in Table 8.9.
Cell temp.
cont.
Det.
cool. cont.
CaF2 CaF2
IR
Current
A PSD
output
Source
Tor. Osc.
Drive
Chopper FC
motor
Output Output
a1
t
a2
lm a1
le a2
a 2 > a1
Fig. 8.23 The single channel techique
Table 8.9 Gases of industrial importance
I
Gases I CO2, CO, SO2, NH3, N2O, NO, NO2, CH4, C2H4, C2H2, COCl2, H2O
I
I
It is important to note that it is not a single wavelength always that is absorbed. For example CO has two
prominent lm’s at 4651 and 4879 nm and absorption occurs in a band around these peak-values, for N2O,
there are quite a few absorption bands the prominent one being at around 4445 nm; similarly for CO2 three
bands are clear, the prominent one is around 4265 nm; for ammonia besides a sharp band at around 2998
nm there are quite a few low absorbing bands around this. For CH4 about a sharp band at around 3584 nm a
number of absorption wavelengths of low absorption do exist, and such is the case for others as well.
The range of the above instrument is 0-300 ppm for scale length of 0 to 100 per cent. Accuracy is about
±1%. Incidentally the same set-up can be used for liquid samples also.
Sources Other than the optics and detector system, the source and the sample cell are also important to
be considered. For IR radiation the common source is an inert solid heated to a temperature between 1500
and 2000 K when continuous radiation approximating to that of a black body is omitted from it. Heating
is usually done electrically and the materials are (a) Globar, which is bonded silicon carbide, (b) Nernst
glower, which is a mixture of rare earth oxides, and (c) coil of nichrome wire.
(a) Globar is made in the form of a rod about 5 to 7 mm in diameter and about 50 mm long. It is
electrically heated at a temperature between 1300 and 1500 K. Globar has positive temperature
coefficient of resistance. For preventing arc formation it often is centrally watercooled. It covers a
radiation range of 600 to 2600 nm.
(b) For Nernst glower, usually zirconium, thorium and yttrium oxides are sintered in the form of a
hollow rod of 1 to 2 mm outer diameter (OD), and of length varying from 20 to 50 mm. Platinum
leads are sealed into the rod for electrical heater supply. Temperature is raised up to 2000 K from
about 1200 K. It has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance and hence current limiters are
required to be used. The range is almost the same as that of globar.
(c) Nichrome wire gives longer life and for IR radiation it is heated to about 1100 K. It has a range
covering almost the entire IR range. A rhodium wire sealed in a ceramic cylinder shows similar
characteristics as that of a nichrome wire insofar as IR source is concerned. Another material is
tungsten filament which at a temperature of about 3000 K provides IR radiation from 750 to 2500
nm. Figure 8.24 shows a comparison of the different sources graphically.
103
Relative Energy
Nichome (1100 K)
102
Tungsten (3000 K)
Glober (1000 K)
10 Nernst glower
(2000 K)
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
l(nm)
Fig. 8.24 Comparison of the IR radiation sources in enery versus l
Detectors In the above, mention has been made of a ‘solid state’ detector. Except for the shorter
wavelengths in the IR radiation, thermal detectors are almost exclusively used. It is of interest to note
that the radiant power level is very low, of the order of 0.1 mW to 1 mW, so that the heat capacity of the
absorbing elements (thermal detectors) must be very small for producing a detectable temperature change.
Correspondingly, the size and thickness of the detector is to be reduced and the absorption is confined on the
surface. The noise from the surrounding is a very important factor and this requires the device to be housed
in a vacuum and shielded from other radiation sources. Also the radiation is chopped at a considerably high
frequency, above 500 Hz for example, so that the effect of the extraneous heat sources as noise does not
affect the measurement.
The thermal detectors used are (a) thermocouples/thermopiles, (b) bolometers, (c) pyroelectric detectors,
and (d) Golay detectors. Thermocouple detectors can have a resolution of about 10–6 °C corresponding to
an output of about to 6 to 8 mV/mW. It is preamplified using a FET input preamplifier. Bolometers made
usually of strips of platinum or nickel or even ‘slices’ of semiconductor materials such as thermistors,
exhibit large change in resistance with temperature—the element is usually blackened for absorbing the
heat well. It is less common compared to other devices. Pyroelectric detectors are formed as temperature
sensitive capacitors usually by placing certain crystals like barium titanate, lithium tantalate, triglycerine
sulphate etc., between two plates. The infrared radiation power is measured by this variation. The principle
of operation of Golay detector is shown in Fig. 8.25. It is a gas thermometer that consists of cylindrical
chamber filled with xenon and provided with a Blackened
blackened membrane. One end of the cylinder membrane Xenon
has an IR window and the other a flexible
diaphragm silvered on the outside. In the
Lamp
condition without IR radiation, a beam of light
is allowed to reflect from the silvered surface
and to fall on the cathode of a phototube. With
IR radiation entering the cell, the blackened IR Window Flexible
membrane gets heated which is conducted silvered Photocell
diaphragm
into xenon gas increasing its pressure so that
the silvered diaphragm gets distorted and Fig. 8.25 The Golay detector
consequently the fraction of light reaching the
phototube cathode changes, changing, in turn, the phototube current. This change can be related to the
infrared beam strength. This detector is costly but is superior in performance in the range l > 50 mm.
The sample cells have varying designs. A
Sample in
typical gas cell is shown in Fig. 8.26. The design
is to lengthen the beam path inside the sample Sample out
cell by reflections on a number of mirrors before
it is allowed to come out to be received by the IR Beam in
detector. By adjusting the mirrors the path IR Beam out
lengths can be adjusted. For low concentration of
Fig. 8.26 A typical sample gas cell for extending the
gas in a sample such a design is recommended. path length
The sample cell material of the pass-through
type is usually crystalline sodium chloride for IR radiation range covering 200 to 10,000 nm. Lithium
fluoride, potassium bromide cesium iodide and a combination of tellurium bromide and tellurium iodide are
some other materials for such cells.
The dispersive type infrared spectrometers are usually double-beam recording types and as usual the
double beam types are less demanding with regard to the performance of the sources and detectors. The
dispersion type has an additional optical component, the monochromator which may be of two types—the
prism and the grating. The latter type gives a better resolution than the former. A typical dispersive type
spectrometer is shown in Fig. 8.27(a) schematically using a grating nonochromator. A part of the scheme is
shown in Fig. 8.27(b) where a prism is used as a monochromator.
Syn. motor
m1
m2
Rec. +
R A
M1 M5
S1
Grating
S M4
S Ch
S2 Det.
M2 M3
FA SR A1
(a)
Prism
Det.
Ch
(b)
Fig. 8.27 (a) A dispersive type spectrometer using a grating monochromator,

(b) part showing use of a prism monochromator
The IR radiation from source S is split into reference and test beams by mirrors M1 and M2. Reference
(R) and sample (S) cells are mounted in between the source and the monochromator. In the reference line an
wedge type attenuator (A) is mounted and the beam after being reflected by mirror M5 reaches the chopper
(Ch). The sample beam also is reflected by mirrors M3 and M4 and reaches the chopper. The chopper is
a driven disc which reflects the reference beam and transmits the sample beam or vice versa alternately
on to the monochromator. The chopper is a low rpm one, only of about 5 to 15. After dispersion by the
monochromator the chopped or alternating beam passes onto the detector where it is converted into an
electrical signal which is then amplified by A1 and passed on to a synchronous rectifier (SR) which also is
coupled to the chopper. For identical beam strength, there is no change in the output from the synchronous
rectifier so that a dc output is derived here. If, however, this is not so, a fluctuation occurs and an ac current
is produced, the phase of which is determined by the more intense beam. This ac current is then filtered,
amplified by FA and is used to drive the motor m1 in one direction or the other, which adjusts the attenuator
for beam strength equalization, as also moves the pen of the chart recorder (Rec) whose chart is driven by
the synchronous motor m2 which also moves the grating for varying the wavelength simultaneously. Slits S1
and S2 are also linked with the drive to keep the radiant power input to the detector approximately constant.
Spectrometric analysers have a lot of online adjustment facilities—that of slits, mirrors etc., in the above
case. In recent years microprocessors are being introduced in increasing proportion for partial automation of
the measurement process. The processor takes care of (i) slit programming, (ii) scan time, (iii) calibration,
(iv) gain control, (v) display of selected parameters etc.
The prism monochromators must be of specified materials. Quartz is used for near IR, between 0.75 and
3 mm in which LiF is also usable; between 5 and 15 mm crystalline sodium chloride is a good choice—it
can be used down to 2.5 mm quite satisfactorily. Above 15 mm, up to about 40 mm crystalline potassium
bromide is used. These materials, except quartz, are water soluble and need be protected against humidity
and moisture.
Gratings are. however, more commonly used monochromators. Infrared gratings are constructed from
glass or plastic coated with aluminium. Grating has better resolution, nearly linear dispersion and is
resistant to moisture but it also has greater amount of scattered radiation and other spectral orders are likely
to appear as disturbances. Filters are used to minimize these problems.
Liquid Samples While gas analysis can be performed by IR dispersive type absorption spectrometer,
it is also used for liquid sample analysis, particularly organic samples many of whom have a number of
absorption wavelengths so that a complete picture of the compound can be obtained by this analysis, i.e.,
it can be used for identification of the substance, for determination of the molecular structure, for reaction
kinetics and for studies of hydrogen bonding.
Molecular vibration is an important factor in IR radiation absorption in liquids and solids. Vibrations are
of two basic types (a) stretching, and (b) bending. As the names indicate, stretching appears as a continuous
change in the interatomic distance along the axis of the bond between two atoms. It is, again, of two types
(i) symmetric and (ii) asymmetric as shown in Figs 8.28(a) and (b) respectively.
In bending vibration there occurs a change in the angle between two bond axes. There are four types
in it; (i) scissoring, (ii) rocking, (iii) twisting and (iv) wagging, shown schematically in Figs 8.28(c), (d),
(e) and (f) respectively. It is, however, easy to follow scissoring and rocking from the diagrams as they are
basic in-plane phenomena. Twisting and wagging are out-of-plane ones, often, perpendicular to the plane
represented.
For simple diatomic and triatomic molecules number and nature of vibrations are easily defined and
these are also easily related to the absorption energies. Molecules made up of several atoms have more
number of vibrating centres and there are interactions among several such centres and analysis turns out
to be quite complicated. As mentioned earlier, the vibrational frequency when matches with IR radiation
frequency absorption takes place. The evaluation of vibrational frequency is often carried out by assuming
simple mechanical mode of the system and simple vibrational mode. In fact natural frequency of oscillation
of a ‘mechanical’ oscillator is given by the relation
fm = (1/(2p))(k/m)1/2 (8.32)
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Fig. 8.28 Molecular vibration types indicated: (a) stretching, (b) bending,
(c) scissoring, (d) rocking, (e) twisting, and (f) wagging
where k is the force constant and m is the mass of the system. The system consisting of two masses m1 and
m2 would have its reduced mass m given by
m = (m1 ◊ m2)/(m1 + m2) (8.33)
The quantized nature of molecular vibrational energies can be taken account of by making a model of
the system with harmonic oscillator and the solution for potential energy is then given as
Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ
E = Á nv + ˜ (h/ (2p ))(k/m)1/ 2 = Á nv + ˜ hf m (8.34)
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯
where nv is the vibrational quantum number and h is the Planck’s constant. Number. nv can take only
positive integer values including zero. Thus change in state can be brought by absorption of energy. Thus
from ground state, nv = 0 to the first excited state, nv = 1, energy absorbed would be
E = (3/2 – 1/2)hfm = hfm = (h/(2p))(k/m)1/2 (8.35)
Frequency of incident raditation would be the same as the vibrational frequency fm of the bond. Hence
the wavelength of the peak absorbed radiation is
l = c/fm = 2pc(m/k)1/2 (8.36)
Knowing the reduced mass and the peak absorption wavelength, the force constant k may be obtained
by absorption analysis. In fact, for single bonds this value lies between 3 ¥ 105 and 8 ¥ 105 dynes/cm.
For higher number of bonds this figure is multiplied by the number of bonds. For double bond system an
average value of 5 ¥ 105 ¥ 2 = 106 dynes/cm is an approximate value accepted for design.
Example 8.1 For carbonyl group C = 0 with double bond, obtain the peak absorption wavelength.
Solution Mass of carbon atom is mc = 12 g/mol/(6 ¥ 1023 atoms/mol) = 2 ¥ 10–23 g and mass of oxygen,
mo = 16/(6 ¥ 1023) = 2.7 ¥ 10–23 g, so that
m = mcmo/(mc + mo) = 1.1 ¥ 10–23 g
Taking k = 106 dynes/cm, l = 2pc (m/k)1/2 = 0.19 ¥ 1012 ¥ (1.1 ¥ 10–23/106)1/2 = 0.63 ¥ 10–3 cm = 6.3 mm
Spatial spectroscopy is common in emission type analysis used in steel and nonferrous alloy industries.
Source also is not IR radiation. Before passing on to that the multiplexing type is discussed with IR source.
This instrument depends upon the Fourier Transform for signal and is often referred to as FT instrument.
It can be used in any system besides optical, but the complexity involved has to have its worth which is
justified in the energy-starved infrared spectral range. FT instrument can be of two types: (a) that based on
Michelson interferometer principle where a moving mirror is used, and (b) that based on a moving wedge.
The former type is discussed here in a little detail. The system schematic is shown in Fig. 8.29. Radiation
from IR source S1, is split by the beam splitter BS1 half of which is reflected to the mirror M1 to be reflected
back to BS1 the rest half passes through BS1 and falls on the moving mirror MM1.MM1 is moved forward
and backward by a linear motor LM over a certain distance, about 20 to 200 mm, and it also reflects back
to BS1. A portion of radiation reflected from M1 combines with another portion reflected from MM1 at BS1
and passes through the sample on to a detector. Because of the movement of MM1 if the distances travelled
by the two split beams differ by one wavelength, they are in phase. For MM1 moving by a distance l/4
from such a situation, the difference is l/2 and a phase opposition in the beam occurs so that destructive
interference would be produced. Thus with MM1 changing its position continuously, alternate constructive
and destructive interference pattern will be produced which will change at the rate of change of the mirror
position on as also on the change of frequency or wavelength of radiation. Hence by controlling the rate
of change of mirror position, a series of simultaneous signals oscillating at frequencies proportional to
the frequencies of the incoming radiation will arrive at the detector after passing through the sample. The
detector measures all the frequencies simultaneously and passes the measured value to the computer for
decoding using FT. This converts the time domain spectrum into frequency domain one which is then
appropriately displayed. The purpose of the second laser interferometric system S2M2MM2T2 and the third
white light interferometric system S3M3MM3T3 will be taken up later.
M1 M2 M3
MM3
T3
BS3
T2
BS2 MM2
IR
LM
S1
MM1
BS1
S3
WLS
S2
LS
To sample
Fig. 8.29 The FT IR spectrometer based on Michelson interferometer principle
Now assuming MM1 moving at a constant linear velocity V cm/sec, the interferogram frequency f is
V/(l/2). The interferogram is the plot of the output intensity versus the difference in the two path lengths d,
usually called retardation. Hence,
f = 2Vfr/c = 2Vs (8.37)
where fr is the radiation frequency. A typical interferogram is shown in Fig. 8.30(a) where P(d) is the
amplitude of the power of interferogram signal and is in time domain and P(s) is the power of the IR beam
incident on the interferometer and is in frequency domain. As half of the radiation passes on to reach the
sample. From Fig. 8.30(a) the cosine wave is related to P(s) as
P(d)
– 2l –l 0 l 2l
d Cm
(a)
P(s)
s(Cm -1)
(b)
Fig. 8.30 (a) P(d) – d, and (b) P(s) – s plots
1
P(d) =
P(s) cos 2pft = Q(s) cos 2pds (8.38)
2
where 12 P(s) is written as Q(s) and since f = 2Vs and V = d/(2t), 2 pft is written as 2pds. With two
wavelengths in IR radiation s1 = 1/l1, s2 = 1/l2,
P(d) = Q1(s) cos 2pds1 + Q2(s) cos 2pds2 (8.39)
Figures 8.30(a) and (b) show the P(d) – d and P(s) – s plots.
If the source is continuous, P(d) is given by the relation
n =+•
P(d ) = Ú Q(s ) cos 2psd n d s (8.40)
n =-•
with its FT
n =+•
P(s ) = Ú Q(d ) cos 2psd n d s (8.41)
n =-•
However, the mirror cannot consider the infinte number of wavelengths and the services of a computer
are required which does digitization, sampling and storage of the detector output. Finite size sampling
interval can be considered as also summing over a finite d. This limits the frequency range of the FT
instruments.
A1 A2
P(d)
d
Od
– +
(a)
s1 s2
P(s)
s
(b)
Fig. 8.31 The interferogrammes (a) P(d) versus d, (b) P(s) versus s for analysis of resolution
If two lines l1 and l2, i.e., s1 and s2 require that the interferogram forms the maximum at A1 of zero
d, also at A2 in the inphase condition (Figs 8.31(a), (b)) then, the difference between ds1 and ds2 (see Eq.
(8.39)) must be 1, so that
ds2 – ds1 = 1
i.e. s2 – s1 = Ds = 1/d
which is the instrument’s resolution.
Two more interferometers, laser and white light, are incorporated in the system for accomplishing
precise signal sampling and averaging. A helium neon laser source S2 forms an interferometer to produce
output at the transducer T2—a sinusoidal laser fringe wave, which is electronically converted into a square
waveform, so that sampling can begin and terminate at each successive zero crossing. This gives precise
and regularly spaced sampling interval, also the mirror drive is controlled by this signal at a constant rate.
A tungsten source S3 is used for the third and white light interferometer and transducer T3 is used so that it
is sensitive to visible radiation. It is designed to give zero retardation and so is displaced from the analytical
signal. Figures 8.32(a) and (b) show the white light and IR signals with zero retardation. Because tungsten
light is polychromatic, at zero retardation its power output is very large and this maximum is conveniently
utilized in triggering the sampling.
General analysis of liquid samples consists of two types of basic study—qualitative and quantitative, as
has already been mentioned earlier.
Qualitative analysis is performed by obtaining an infrared absorption spectrum and comparing the same
with a standard one available in the library of spectra of compounds, and mixture obtained by the same
instrument under same conditions. In absence of such file and/or reference spectra, correlation charts may
be consulted. A correlation chart provides spectral ranges of peaks for typical functional groups, often the
absorption strengths are also indicated as s for strong, m for medium and w for weak as shown in Table 8.10.
Zero retardation
WL
(a)
Zero retardation
IR
(b)
Fig. 8.32 (a) The white light and (b) IR signals with zero retardation
Table 8.10 Functional group with absorption bands

Functional group Wavelength band (mm)
Acetylene 3.03 to 3.07 (m, s)
Alcohol (pure) 2.98 to 3.07 (s)
Amine 2.89 to 3.05 (m)
Aromatic 3.22 to 3.33 (m)
Nitrile 4.40 to 4.50 (m)
Pyridyl 6.17 to 6.33, …, 6.29 to 6.41, …, 11.90 to 13.88
Thiocyanate 4.59 to 4.63
In quantitative study Beer’s law can be directly applied. For IR absorption analysis in liquids, generally,
a single beam with and without the cell is ‘compared’. This is because in such techniques cells have short
path lengths and are difficult to duplicate exactly, also the cell windows are easily contaminated in the
atmosphere and by the solvent. Even, as such, correction for scattering and absorption by cell material itself
and the solvent is necessary. There are two different methods in this technique: (a) cell in / cell out method,
and (b) the base line method. In the first method, the spectra of the solvent and sample are obtained with
respect to the unabsorbed beam using the same cell for both the measurements. If Po, Pc and Pr are the IR
radiation power for blank cell, measurement cell and the reference beam alone, then the transmittance ratio
with blank cell and full cell measurement transmittances To and Tc respectively, is given by
T = Tc/To = (Pc/Pr) ¥ (Pr/Po) = Pc/Po (8.42)
In the second method solvent transmittance is assumed constant or at least to vary linearly between the
shoulders of the absorption peak. A typical absorption curve is shown in Fig. 8.33. The absorbance is then
given by
A = log To/Tc = log Po/Pc (8.43)
The measurement is done at specified wavelengths. The peaks are narrow and hence special care in
measurement must be taken.
100
Linear
%T To
Tc
0
l
Fig. 8.33 A typical absorption curve
In spectroscopy there are other analysis techniques such as visible-UV spectroscopic methods in which
molecular and atomic are two categories. Atomic spectroscopy includes absorption, emission, fluorescence
etc. But these methods are more important in the study of liquid and solid samples and are deferred for the
present to consider later in an appropriate section.
8.2.7 Particulate Measurement: Opacity Meters

Opacity to light rays is caused by suspended particles or dust concentration in a gaseous medium,
specifically, the flue gas from the boiler may be considered as an example. When light falls on these
particles, a phenomenon similar to scattering may be observed. In most of the situations, the particles
are opaque and obstruct the path of light. Thus, when in a duct or stack, light beam over a certain area
and length is incident, a part of the full intensity is only received by an appropriate detector on the other
side. By using reflectors, the light beam may be made to pass through the stack more than once, thereby
increasing attenuation for better measurement. Depending on the dust size and content, light signal strength
as also wavelength change. Standard set-ups, specifically for power plant industries, are available commer-
cially. When the particles are small enough, but larger than the wavelength of incident radiation, scattering
predominates as in the case of smog or fog where Tyndall scattering occurs. In Tyndall scattering reflection
occurs from the surfaces of the particles, internal reflection in the particles, diffraction and refraction.
Which means that opacity or transparency of the particles are also important. While very large opaque
particulate suspension can produce surface reflection or absorption and thereby attenuate the light intensity
in proportion to the suspension density. Gaseous samples like smog or fog can be studied quantitatively
using the principles of turbidimetry or/and nephelometry used in liquid sample study. Its discussion is thus
postponed at this stage to the next section. However, particulate measurement in flue type gases has been
considered briefly in the chapter where instruments for power plant are considered later.
Gas analysis has acquired importance with sharp industrial growth and consequent pervasion of
pollution. Some important gases are measured with special sensors using specific principles. Table 8.11
gives these principles for certain gases.
Many of the above techniques have already been discussed. Chemilumenescence is an optical technique
of measurement of gas concentration. As is known, for lumenescence to occur one or more electrons in
an atom/molecule in the ground state must be excited to higher energy state and if this excitation is due
to chemical reaction the lumenescence is chemilumenescence. Chemilumenescence is now extensively
used for air pollutants. Ozone, sulphur compounds and nitrogen compounds are the ones which are very
conveniently measured by this technique. Earlier, reaction of ozone with rhodamine B was used, but the
actual method required a standard source of ozone for calibration. The method was due to Regener. Two
other presently used reactions are: (i) that of ozone with ethane in a 1:1 molar ratio which emits a broad
band of chemilumenescence centred around 435 nm, and (ii) that of ozone with NO in a 1:1 molar ratio
emitting a band around 600 nm which is more on the IR side. The latter reaction can be used for NO
analysis as well.
Table 8.11 Measurement principles of some gases
Serial Gas Measurement principles
no.
1 Carbon monxide Infrared spectrometry. Electrochemical method.
2 Carbon dioxide Infrared spectroscopy.
3 Flammable gases Catalytic detectors, Semiconductor detectors.
4 Hydrocarbons Flame ionization detectors.
Infrared spectroscopy. Catalytic detectors.
5 Hydrogen sulphide Electrochemical sensors, Flame photometry, Semiconductor detectors.
6 Nitrogen oxides Infrared spectroscopy, Chemilumenescence.
7 Oxygen Paramagnetism, Fuel cell, Electrochemcial sensors.
8 Ozone Chemilumenescence, Electrochemical sensors.
9 Sulphur dioxide Flame photometry, Infrared spectroscopy.
Sulphur compounds like SO2 , H2SO4, H2S etc., can be detected by this technique as it is known that
atomic sulphur produces chemilumenescence in air-hydrogen flame. For identification of compounds,
however, chromatographic elution technique is necessary. For NO2 to be analysed by this technique, it is
first converted into NO by the reaction NO2 Æ NO + l/2O2, and subsequently chemilumenescence centred
around 600 nm is produced by the reaction with ozone as
NO + O3 Æ NO2 + O2 + hn (8.44)
A sensitivity of the order of 0.002 to 100 ppm can be obtained in the method. A typical
chemilumenescence apparatus is shown in Fig. 8.34.
Sample Filter
PM
Amplifier
Reflector and
Display
Fig. 8.34 A typical chemilumenescence set-up for observation

For gas sensing, thick film, thin film metal oxide semiconductors are now finding increasing use. Thick
film tin oxide-based gas sensors can be used for detection of H2, CO, NH3 in air. Palladium is mixed
with SnO2 to increase gas sensing property. MgO is mixed with it for resistivity range adjustment. The
selectivity in the sensitivity of the above three gases is enhanced by adding certain percentages of rhodium
(Rh), thorium oxide (ThO2) and zirconia (ZrO2) respectively. The host material in SnO2 gas sensors is often
porcelain steel or enamelled steel which is basically a low carbon steel coated with low alkali content glass
material fired at a specified temperature of about 850°C and the product given a smooth finish. Thick film
gas sensors can also be made to sense methane, oxygen, isobutane. The principle of sensing is that the
electrical conductivity of the sensors change or a potential difference develops across the strip with the gas
coming in contact with it. For methane Pd in SnO2 is a good material, for oxygen, Ba or Sr with CaTiO3 is
used where semiconductivity is the functional property and the conductivity change is given by the relation
–1/n)
s = soexp (–E/KT)(po2 4<n<6 (8.45)
where, E is the activation energy, K is Boltzmann constant and po2 is the partial pressure of oxygen.
Thin film technology has developed considerably over the recent years and deposition techniques in this
category vary widely from thermal evaporation, sputtering, chemical method and finally the Langmuir-
Blodgett (LB) technique. One specialized technique is the metallo-organic deposition (MOD) technique
through which yttrium-stabilized zirconia and titania gas sensors have been developed. Their functionings
have been discussed earlier. LB technique of deposition is basically to deposit a monolayer on the substrate.
Gas sensors developed based on this technique can be divided into two groups: (a) chemiresistors, and (b)
SAW devices. The former group consists of semiconducting LB materials which arc oxidised or doped by
the gas to be sensed. The material conductivity is then directly related to the concentration of the gas in
contact with the sensor. Some important materials are porphyrins, phthalocyanines etc. In SAW devices
materials like phthalocyanines are deposited on piezoelectric material, when gas is absorbed by the
material there is a change in vibrational frequency of the piezoelectric delay line which is related to the gas
concentration.
A sodium solid electrolyte material given the name NASICON with the chemical composition
Na1 + x Zr2 Six P5 – xO12 is a particularly good gas sensor and sensing here is done by ionic conduction. Best
result is obtained with 1.8 £ x £ 2.4. It is thus a solid state electrolyte.
8.2.8 Humidity and Moisture

Another important aspect of gas analysis is humidity and moisture measurement. While humidity basically
is the moisture content in air, moisture can be present in any gas, liquid or solid and it is as important
to measure moisture in a gas as it is in liquids and solids. Density and viscosity of gases are also very
important and need consideration. However, consideration of these items once for gaseous samples and
once for liquids and solids is likely to incur repeated presentation of techniques and methods, and would
therefore, be taken up at a time later in the chapter. In this subsection humidity and moisture measurements
are considered.
Humidity Generally speaking, humidity is the quantity of water vapour retained by a gas. However there
arc specific definitions of it.
(1) Absolute humidity (H) This is the weight of water vapour (wv) in unit weight of the dry gas (wg), i.e.,
H = wv / wg (8.46)
(2) Specific humidity (Hs) This is the weight of the vapour in unit of the mixture.
(3) Relative humidity (HR) This is the ratio of moisture content of the gas to the maximum moisture the
gas can contain at that temperature. This is more precisely defined as the ratio of the partial pressure
of the vapour in the gas to its saturated partial pressure. For an ideal gas, this is the ratio of the
density of the vapour (rH) to that at saturation (rs),
Hg = rH / rs (8.47)
In many texts and literature relative humidity is also designated by the symbol RH.
(4) Dew point This is the saturation temperature of the mixture at the corresponding vapour pressure.
Typical humidity units are: Vppm i.e. parts per million by volume which is actually volume
concentration; the weight concentration is in g/kg. Relative humidity is often expressed simply in
percentage and dew point is expressed in °C.
The humidity measurement methods mostly measure relative humidity. The classical method is the
dry and wet bulb system also known as psychrometer. The instrument basically consists of two bulb
thermometers. One thermometer bulb is kept dry and is allowed to read the room temperature. The other
bulb is kept wet by a water soaked wick and this thermometer measures temperature of adiabatic saturation,
i.e., the temperature when thermodynamic equilibrium is reached between cooling by evaporation and
heating by convection. The wet thermometer is given a large draft of air for this purpose so that the flowing
air will not tend to cling to the moist surface. The calculation of HR from the difference of temperatures is
quite complicated and is approximately obtained from the equation
Pv = Psat – kPT (td – tw) (8.48)
where Pv is the partial vapour pressure; Psat, is the saturation partial pressure and PT, the total pressure, all
expressed in mercury heights; the term td and tw dry and wet bulb temperatures respectively in °F; and k is a
constant. Unfortunately k is also dependent on tw. In fact k is of the form
k = A[1 + B(tw – 32)] (8.49)
where A and B are two empirical constants. Values of Psat and PT are generally found from psychrometric
table and then using Eqs (8.48) and (8.49), Pv is found out, and finally
%HR = (Pv /Psat) ¥ 100 (8.50)
is obtained. However, psychrometric charts are also available which give directly the approximate
HR-values for the readings of td and tw.
The common variety of the psychrometer is the sling psychrometer. It consists of a pair of glass bulb
thermometers, the bulb of one of them is covered with a knitted wick. The thermometers are fastened to
a light base which is suitably stringed to a handle such that about this handle the base can be whirled for
generating the required draft of air.
A commercial psychrometer is different in Recorder
construction, one variety of which is shown in
Fig. 8.35. The filled system thermometer bulbs
are placed adjacent to each other and an air draft
is given through a blower, or they are placed
where there is a strong draft, about 300 m/min.
One of the bulbs is coated with a knitted or woven
cotton wick and is suspended into water reservoir
Dry
whose level is controlled such that the requisite Porcelain Capillary
conditions mentioned earlier are satisfied. The sleeve
temperatures are recorded by a suitable recorder. Wet Armoured
The wicks accumulate dirt or/and other Water
dissolved materials easily and get stiffened to lose level
water absorption capacity. The stiffened wicks can
be reconditioned by boiling in hot water. Instead Water in out
of wick, the bulb can be soaked by enclosing it
in a porcelain sleeve and water is pumped into Fig. 8.35 Sketch of a commercial dry and wet bulb
the annular space at a constant rate. This type of psychrometer
psychrometer is used in air-conditioning systems for maintaining humidity at a specific value. For directly
reading continuously varying humidity, such instruments are not very suitable because of the intermediate
calculations necessary to arrive at the final value of humidity. They are more accurate than other types of
direct reading meters also known as hygrometers. Variation in recording or indicating type is obtained by
having resistance thermometers and thermocouples replacing the dry and wet bulb thermometers.
The above principle has been exploited in a version that uses thermistors in probe and the unit is made
portable. It is shown in Fig. 8.36. A temperature ratio rt has been defined as
rt = (tw – c)/(td – c) (8.51)
Blower
Wick Water bath
Fig. 8.36 A portable psychrometer using a thermistor-set
where c is a constant in degree Celsius. The thermistors used are electronically linearized for obtaining
a linear voltage to temperature output over the operating range. With its relation given by Eq. (5.33), an
output voltage Vt can be obtained from the circuit of Fig. 8.37, where Vt is
Ê Ê Ê 1 1 ˆˆˆ
(k1 + 1) Á k1 + k2 + exp Á b Á - ˜ ˜ ˜
Ë Ë Ë T To ¯ ¯ ¯
Vt = Vo (8.52)
Ê Ê Ê 1 1 ˆˆˆ
(k1 + k2 + 1) Á k1 + exp Á b Á - ˜ ˜ ˜
Ë Ë Ë T To ¯ ¯ ¯
Vo
k1 R o
Rt R3
R1
+ Vt
R2 k2 R o
Fig. 8.37 The thermistor linearing scheme
where Vo is the voltage with T = To. For the output to be linear one must make Eq. (8.52) of the form
Vt = Vo [1 + m(T – To)] (8.53)

This can be done by choosing appropriate k1 and k2. Making
d(Vt /Vo)|dt|T = To = m and d n(Vt /Vo)/dtn|T = To = 0, n ≥ 2
this linearization is obtained. However, with n = 2, k1 and k2 are found as k1 = (b – 2To)/(b + 2To) and k2 =
4 bmTo2/{(b + 2To)(b + 2To – 2mTo2)}, and then Eq. (8.52) behaves linearly around To, the deviation being
calculated as
d(T ) = Vt /Vo – {(1 + m(T – To)} (8.54)
The overall electronics for the system is shown in Fig. 8.38 where L stands for the linearizer scheme of
Fig. 8.37, D is an IC divider which in collusion with the difference amplifiers A1 and A2 produces the ratio
rt; constant c being controlled by Rc’s, DL is diode linearizer which produces an output proportional to rt.
Finally the digital display is provided by the ADC and the counter. This psychrometer claims to measure HR
from 20 to 100 per cent with temperature varying from 0 to 50°C with an error less than 2% and response
time less than a minute.
–Vc
Rtw
Vtw
L –
+
A1
Rc D
ADC &
DL
Counter
–Vc
L –
Vtd
+
A2
Rtd Rc
Fig. 8.38 The complete measuring circuit
The hygrometer is also used for measurement of humidity. It consists of a mechanical device measuring
the dimensional change of a humidity sensitive material. Many materials like wood, animal hair, animal
membrane, paper etc., are sensitive to humidity. As humidity changes, their dimensions also change.
A hair hygrometer is shown in Fig. 8.39. It was invented by De Saussure in 1783 and is still being used
in different forms. Absorption of moisture by hair increases its length. The amount of moisture it can
absorb is dependent on the temperature and partial water vapour pressure of the atmosphere and hence the
extension of the hair is a function of the relative humidity. A bunch of hair is used to increase mechanical
strength of the instrument. The element is maintained at a slight tension by a spring. Excess of stress on
the hair element may lead to a permanent-set in it. This hygrometer is recommended for a range of 25
to 95% relative humidity and in a temperature range of 0° to 70°C, and is calibrated before use against a
psychrometer. It is slow in response and aging affects its calibration and produces considerable drift. The
major advantage is that it can be very cheap.
Compared to hair, animal membrane has a larger

elongation for the same relative humidity but the
calibration drift is also large. Apple wood has also Spring
a good extension property particularly if it is cut at
right angles to grain orientation. But these devices
are generally used for controlling humidity at specific
values, as their accuracy over a large range is quite
poor.
Electrical type humidity transducers are more Hair
suitable for continuous recording and control of
humidity. A resistance element type consists of
two wires spaced out in a suitable backing and a
hygroscopic coating is given to it. Materials like
lithium chloride, phosphoric acid, calcium chloride,
Fig. 8.39 Sketch of a hair hygrometer
zinc chloride, tin tetrachloride, etc., are chosen for
the coating. The resistance wires act as two
electrodes. The hygroscopic material absorbs Light hygroscopic coat
moisture and starts dissociating. The dissociation
will depend on the absorption of moisture and will
be measured by the change in the resistance between
the two wires. A form of this transducer is shown in
Fig. 8.40.
The change in resistance normally is from 10
Mohm to 10 Kohm—a ten per cent variation.
The measuring current should be small to avoid
undue heating. The transducer is sensitive to
temperature variation and the specific hygroscopic Insulating backing
material must be chosen to be relatively free from
this environmental effect. Dynamic response Fig. 8.40 Sketch of the wire electrode type
depends on the coating thickness but a thin layer hygrometer
easily reaches saturation and damages the sensing
element. The wires are made from noble metals
to avoid contamination and consequent damage. 25°C
A hygroscopic coating of materials like polyvinyl 107
alcohol or acetate with dilute lithium chloride gives
adequate protection but the useful range for single 106
unit transducer becomes limited because of the R 5°C
calibration characteristics as shown in Fig. 8.41. (W)
105
Hence a number of such transducers with changed
electrolytic concentrations are used to cover the
104 60°C
entire range of relative humidity. The measurement
current is chosen ac to avoid polarization. The
accuracy is ± 1.5% and the nonlinear scale is fixed by 103
previous calibration. An earlier form of this method 0 25 50 75 100 % HR
is a hygrsocopic material spread out between two
Fig. 8.41 Plot of resistance versus relative
electrodes. Its stability was poor although the range humidity at different temperatures
covered was full.
An absolute humidity transducer based Lithium chloride

on a thermal system is very similar to the Glass cloth
above design but with a different operating
principle. A thin metal tube is covered with
glass fibres or cloth and is impregnated with
lithium chloride as the hygroscopic material.
Thermometer
A double winding of silver wires is made
helically over it and is supplied from ac Metal tube
source as shown in Fig. 8.42.
Lithium chloride absorbs moisture and
becomes conductive. Depending on the
amount of moisture absorbed, the resistance
between the two wires changes and current
flowing between them also changes and Fig. 8.42 Internal structure of a dewcell
heats up the lithium chloride to drive off
moisture. An equilibrium in the system will reach when the electrolyte acquires a temperature at which
the partial pressure of water over the saturated lithium chloride solution equals the water vapour pressure
of the atmosphere. This temperature is measured by a suitable resistance thermometer or a thermocouple.
The interesting feature of the method is that the temperature measured can directly give the dew point and
the balancing of vapour pressure makes the device suitable for vapour pressure measurement. The saturated
vapour pressures for lithium chloride solution at different temperatures are obtained from tables. For an
absolute humidity scale, the temperature scale is empirically calibrated. The device measures humidity from
15 to 100 per cent and dew point from—30 to 70°C. The lower limit of the temperature scale is, however,
the ambient one. Accuracy is quite good and the response time is within 3 to 5 min. The instrument is also
known as dewcell. It requires reconditioning with fresh lithium chloride every three to four months.
An electrolyte type humidity meter is designed with zirconia and such a meter is often used in industry
to measure the humidity of high temperature gases up to about 600°C. The basic theory of a zirconia
cell has been discussed already. The output across a pair of electrodes sandwitching a zirconia ceramic
that receives on its two sides a process sample gas containing oxygen and moisture and a reference gas
containing oxygen respectively is givcn.by
E = –k log (ps/pr) (8.55)
where ps is the partial pressure of the oxygen in the sample gas and pr is a specific partial pressure of
the reference gas, both expressed in vol %. For air and steam mixture as a sample, if humidity of the gas
mixture is x (vol %). then ps = (100 – x) ¥ 21/100 so that
E = –k log (1 – 0.01x) mV (8.56)
Measuring E, x can be easily computed. The cell schematic is shown already.
Other semiconductor thick film sensors for humidity are based on (i) change in resistance that use
RuO2 or special glass, (ii) change in capacitance that use glass ceramic, Al2O3. In the thin film processing
technique Ta2O5 has been found to be a good humidity sensor where it is formed as a dielectric material
that changes capacitance with humidity. In fact the electrical sensors widely used these days also include
polymers, SiO2, chromium oxide, LiCl mixed with plastic. Such sensors can be straightaway placed in the
gas to be measured even at high pressure and over a temperature range of about –50 to 50°C. They have,
however, the disadvantage of drift and problems regarding stability and frequent calibration checks are to
be made.
The electrolysis system consists of two platinum wires wound in double helix inside an insulating tube
like teflon or neophrene of internal diameter of about 0.5 mm. The interspace of winding is coated with a
dessicant like phosphorous pentoxide. A gas with a moisture content is then passed at about 100 cc/min rate
through the analyser cell which is connected to a dc supply and an ammeter to the double helix as shown
in Fig. 8.43. A voltage larger than the polarizer emf of about 2 V is applied to decompose the moisture
absorbed by P2O5 by electrolysis. If the gas rate of flow is constant, the system will reach equilibrium when
humidity absorption rate by phophorous pentoxide equals the rate of electrolytic decomposition. The elec-
trolysis current i is proportional to the absorption rate
i = am/t (8.57)
P2O5
1/2 mm
i
Gas
(100 cc/min)
Fig. 8.43 Sketch of an electrolysis type hygrometer
where m is the mass of water. If in a gas mixture vw = volume of moisture, and vg = volume of the gas, and
vw is small compared to vg, then
m Êv ˆ M
=bÁ w˜ (8.58)
t Ë vg ¯ t
where M is the mass of the mixture of the gas and b is constant in terms of the ratio of gram molecular
weight of water to gas. But M/t is the mas flow rate w of the gas. Hence
i = K(vw/vg)w (8.59)
Thus this method measures the moisture content as parts by volume. But the data can be easily converted
to weight parts and to humidity. The current flow is about 13 to 15 mA/ppm by vol. It measures humidity
within a range 1 to 1000 ppm. Accuracy is about ± 3% FS. The response time is 0.5 to 1 min. Temperature
changes the reading. Normally, flow, pressure and temperature should be maintained constant.
A method of dew point measurement is explained in Fig. 8.44. It measures the temperature of a polished
surface when traces of condensation appears on its surface. The method is automated by a feedback system.
It consists of a polished mirror in a chamber which receives the gas whose dew point is to be measured.
The gas is continuously supplied. There is provision for cooling or heating the mirror. Light falling on the
mirror from a standard sources is reflected on to a photocell. Another photocell receives light straight from
the source. If the mirror is foggy due to condensation a difference signal is sent to the actuating unit to start
the heater. If condensation has not started the freezer is on. A suitable temperature measuring device records
the temperature all the time. The system is automatic and always maintains the dew point very closely. The
automation may be handled by microprocessor based controller. It measures dew point in the range –40 to
25°C with an accuracy of ±1°C.
Gas
T/C
Source
H
Mirror
Gas
Amplifier
Detector Comparator
Oscillator &
Switch
Fig. 8.44 Set up of a commercial type dew point meter
A quartz crystal coated with hygroscopic material changes its frequency when exposed to a gas sample
because it absorbs moisture and gains in weight. A quartz crystal oscillator using such a coated crystal can
thus be used for humidity measurement. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.45. A 9 MHz dry crystal is
chosen whose frequency drops when exposed to the sample. The difference frequency Df is converted into
a voltage, amplified, detected and then displayed. The two crystals shown are usually exposed to two gases
alternately for equal intervals of time of about 30 sec, so that their contamination becomes identical and
stability in frequency output is thus ensured. It can measure a humidity of about 1 to 300 V ppm. A pro-
grammable microprocessor is used for providing the up-to-date display. It is used to measure low amount
of moisture content in gases like hydrogen, ethylene, refrigerants and natural gas. It is, however, a costly
instrument.
G.O.
f1
Cr Osc1
Df = f1 – f2
S.G. G.O. Mixer f/V A/D/Dis
Cr Osc2
f2
R.G.
Fig. 8.45 Hygrometer based on quartz crystal oscillator (f/V frequency to voltage converter, A/D/Dis
ampli ier, detector and displays, Cr crystal, G.O. gas out, S.G. sample gas, R.G. reference gas)
Moisture: Moisture is often loosely defined as the amount of water adsorbed or absorbed by a solid or
a liquid. The standard method of moisture determination is by weighing. It is sometimes known as the
gravimetric method and is used for calibrating other types of instruments. The sample is weighed when wet
and subsequently when dry by driving off the moisture by dessication. Per cent moisture content is then
calculated from
Mp = [(wwet – wdry)/wwet] ¥ 100% (8.60)
The weighing should be done in standard conditions. A hygroscopic sample is not easily weighed and
weighing in the dessicator involves a separate condition.
Electrical quantities like conductivity or capacitance i.e., dielectric constant of a material changes
with change in moisture content. Moisture determination by measuring these parameters is based on
empirical calibration. These parameters vary from material to material and also for different percentages
of impurities. In industrial practice, however, these methods are widely used for determination of moisture
content in materials like tobacco, grain, flour, coffee, wood, paper, pulp, textiles and other fibres, food and
food products, soap, salt, sand, coal, oils and many other mineral and organic samples. For measurement
of conductance or resistance, the sample must be in physical contact with a pair of electrodes while for
dielectric measurement this is not necessary because the mixing rule can be used in this case.
Depending on the sample and process two different methods are there for conductance measurement.
These are (i) grab sample testing used for samples like tobacco, cereals, oil, wood etc., and (ii) continuous
online measurement used for textiles and papers during manufacture. The moisture content in such cases
should be optimum for proper manufacturing conditions and hence control of moisture is simultaneously
involved.
Resistivity or conductivity methods are dc methods. Large voltages are used for negligible polarization
effects. Contact between the specimen and the electrode pair sometimes is not complete because of sample
structures. An optimum pressure is necessary to establish good contact. Electrode structures are different for
different materials. For granular materials a construction is shown in Fig. 8.46. It consists of a cup-shaped
electrode assembly. Material in measured volume is poured into the cup consisting of the electrodes as
shown. A spring loaded piston closes the cup and maintains optimum pressure in the material.
Piston
Sample
Insulator
To bridge
Electrodes circuit
Fig. 8.46 Moisture measuring cell for granular materials
For wood and wood products, the electrodes consist of two to six sharp spear-headed conductors each
embedded in a suitable insulation handle as shown in Fig. 8.47. The spacings of the spearheads in an
electrode assembly is more than 20 mm and the penetrating length is larger than 8 mm. The spearheads
are introduced into the sample and the conductivity measured. For continuous measurement of moisture in
textile webs or paper sheets, the electrodes consist of a live and dead roller. The dead roller is the grounded
one. The schematic set-up is shown in Fig. 8.48.
To bridge circuit
5/16"
3/4" Spear heads
Fig. 8.47 Moisture measuring probe for solid penetrable materials like wood
To bridge
Live roller
Web
Fig. 8.48 Moisture probe for web type materials
The commonly used measuring circuit is shown in Fig. Z +

8.49 schematically. The circuit basically is a Wheatstone a
bridge with a high input impedance FET/instrument T
amplifier coupled detector circuit. Switching to z-position Cell
and adjusting P3, zero reading in the meter is obtained.
In the test T position P1 is adjusted to establish zero
reading. Potentiometers may be calibrated empirically for c
moisture indication. Generally tables are available with
the manufacturers which give the relation between the dial
reading and the per cent moisture of the specified sample. P1
Moisture decreases the resistance of the material and d
this decrease is exponential in nature. A curve of a per cent Z
moisture versus resistance for a wood specimen is given in
Fig. 8.50(a). But, for different woods these curves are also P3
T
different with the nature remaining the same. Specimen
preparation also influences measurement. A wood sample
in which the ‘measuring’ current flows perpendicular to the b
grain has 10 times larger resistance than the one with the
current flowing along the grain. With increasing moisture, Fig. 8.49 Circuit for conductance type
moisture measurement
the fibres normally get saturated. This happens, for wood, at about 30% moisture content or less. Two
sets of curves showing the variation of log (1/R) with moisture contents are plotted in Fig. 8.50(b). One
shows saturation at 15%, and the other at 30%. The point at which saturation occurs is known as the fibre
saturation point.
1012 12
1010 10
– log R –1
8 8
R 10
(W)
106 6
104 4
0 5 10 15 20 0 15 30 45
%M %M
(a) (a)
Fig. 8.50 Variation of moisture M as a function of resistance R: (a) R versus M curve,

(b) log (1/R) versus % M curves for two samples of wood
Measurement of capacitance and loss component of the sample also yields per cent moisture. The
method is advantageous in so far as reliability in contact pressure between electrode pair and sample is
not necessary. Figure 8.51 shows the arrangement and the equivalent circuit of the capacitor. The fixed
capacitor Ck is between the electrode and the sample
and its presence does not influence the result. Knowing Ck
the dielectric constant of the dry material and that of
water a relation between the measured capacitance and
moisture can be established. A radio frequency source Ct
Cs
is generally used at low power. The frequency range R s
is from 500 kHz to 20 MHz. A bridge circuit is more

suitable as it allows for the loss factor measurement
directly. Figure 8.52 shows the scheme of the bridge
circuit method. Depending on the material this Fig. 8.51 Sketch of the capacitance probe and its
equivalent circuit
technique can measure moisture from 0.1 to 60%.
Resonance method and zero beat production Cst
technique are also used for the purpose. The resonance
method has a large sensitivity. It will be of interest to
study the variation of conductivity (ss) or dielectric
constant (Kd) of a material with frequency. The curves
in Figs 8.53(a) and (b) give some idea about it. It is, Z
Cal
therefore, important to select the appropriate frequency
for measurement. With change in temperature, the
stepping location changes and for higher temperatures, Ct
it moves to the higher frequency side.
The general effect of temperature on moisture Fig. 8.52 Circuit for the capacitance type moisture
measurement is to change the capacity of the sample measurement (Cal. calibration potentiometer, Z zero
to withhold moisture, thereby changing the resistance adjustment resistance, Cst standard capacitor)
value. Within the saturation region, each 10°C rise in temperature increases the moisture holding capacity
by about 1/4% to 1% depending on the sample. Dielectric constant also decreases with temperature and,
therefore, the instrument shows less moisture at higher temperatures.
100
Water
10000 75
General Kd
ss 100 50
1 General
1 Water 25
(W) cm
0.01 0
10 102 103 104 10 102 103 104 105
f f
(kHz) (kHz)
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.53 Curves of (a) ss versus f, and (b) Kd versus f for general type of material and water
A very important consideration in moisture measurement is the difference in hygroscopy from sample to
sample. There are certain samples which have surface hygroscopy, others show that the moisture goes deep
into material through structural microcapillaries. In the former case, a true measurement of the moisture
content is sometimes impossible.
Microwave frequencies such as 2.45 GHz, from 8.9 to 10.68 GHz and from 20.50 to 22.50 GHz
covering S, X and K bands have also been used for moisture measurement. While in the S and X bands the
water molecules attenuate the microwave radiation, in K band they produce molecular resonance which
is a unique feature for free water and is quite conveniently used in paper industry for measuring moisture
content in paper products.
A microwave absorption type moisture measuring IPH OPH
instrument is schematically shown in Fig. 8.54. mW
The absorption is measured by loss or/and phase shift Osc
method. It can be used for 1 to 70 per cent moisture
content but requires a large sample size for practical P.S.
operation. Sample
Trace moisture measurement using nuclear magnetic
resonance method is becoming popular. This actually Mod
is a quantitative determination of water and is used
for organic samples. Amount of energy required to A/D/Dis Attn.
produce the resonance curve or the absorption line is
proportional to the proton nuclei in the substance, i.e., Fig. 8.54 Schematic diagram of a microwave
water. The absorbed energy is measured by electrical absorption type moisture measuring instrument
means. Actually the resonance curve is obtained on (IPH input horn, OPH output horn)
a strip chart and from its height and slope, the nuclei
numbers are ascertained, and comparing with the graph for a dry sample structure the difference is found
out for calculating the moisture content. The method consists in placing the sample in a container which is
then placed in a homogeneous magnetic field. The sample holder is surrounded by a coil as shown in Fig.
8.55, through which a radio frequency current is sent. Either the field is varied keeping the rf constant or the
opposite procedure is followed and the absorption line is obtained.
Another method suitable for materials dried in Sample

batch operations is shown in Fig. 8.56. The counter
weight is adjusted on the pneumatic scale so that
when the sample gets dried to the required degree
the nozzle will be closed to the required amount to
show the desired pressure in the gauge.
Aluminium oxide sensors are now being used
for humidity measurement; they are appropriately
designed to measure moisture concentration rf coil
in liquid process streams. In fact they are now
available in probe form. An aluminium oxide
strip is anodised to provide a porous oxide layer
Fig. 8.55 Set up of NMR probe for moisture detection
on which thin coating of gold is evaporated. Gold
and aluminium thus form two electrodes. The Poise
structure is encapsulated in a sheath with 100 m
Sample
porosity protective end cap, while on the other side
of the sheath head and cable connector facility is
provided. The probe impedance changes from 50
K-ohm to 2 M-ohm with moisture. The low size
porosity does not allow entry of organic or other Restriction
process stream molecules except water. These
water molecules form a state of water vapour
atmosphere inside the probe sheath that makes
the measurement possible. The measured vapour
Regulator
pressure provides the concentration of water in a Air supply
sample as per the law suggested by Henry which
states that the concentration of water in an organic Fig. 8.56 Online measurement of moisture in kilns
liquid in appropriate unit of mg/lit. or ppm by
weight is proportional to the partial pressure of water vapour at a constant temperature. The relation is thus
cw = Kpw (8.61)
where K is a constant. The probe cannot be used in all process streams. Hydrocarbon streams or streams of
hydrocarbon with carbon or hydrogen are best suited and samples or compounds which may hydrolize or
decompose are to be avoided.
Moisture measurement apparatus with infrared heating and weighing technique has been marketed for
sometime now. It consists of a balance which weighs the sample before it is heated and dried up by infrared
radiation incident on the sample. The balance indication can be directly graduated in per cent moisture. The
method, however, may change the constitution of the sample by drying it up.
In recent years, a very reliable, accurate and sensitive moisture measurement technique, particularly that
of paper sheets, has been developed using infrared transmission measurement. The principle depends on
the fact that the water molecules have binding energy which corresponds to certain specific wavelengths
in the IR spectrum. Any IR radiation falling over water will show absorption lines corresponding to these
lines. Three such lines are 1.94, 2.95 and 6.20 mm. Shorter wavelengths are more useful for measurement
because of their higher penetration through the substance whose moisture content is to be measured. The
diagrammatic sketch of the technique of measurement is shown in Fig. 8.57. One of the techniques uses the
ratio principle where two wavelengths are chosen by a rotating filter such that one of them is a absorbed
by the base material whereas one is absorbed by water. When transmitted through the sample one becomes
the reference line while the other becomes the test or absorbed line. If the signal strengths measured by the
detector in the two cases are given respectively by SR and ST, then moisture content M is given by
M = ST/SR (8.62)
Filters Detector
Source
Material
Fig. 8.57 Sketch of set-up for moisture measurement from absorption of IR spectral lines
The ratio measurement technique is quite accurate as the measurement in the two cases will be equally
affected, if any. The method is same as described in Fig. 8.23. The other technique is known as combination
measurement and involves signal detection at dry and wet conditions of the sample and a little more
computation. But this also gives moisture and base material weight simultaneously.
The law of absorption of radiation in a non-homogeneous material is given by
È ÏÔ Ê n ˆ ¸Ô ˘
I l = I ol Í exp Ì - Á Â a l j w j + s ˜ ˝ x ˙ (8.63)
Í ÓÔ Ë j =1 ¯ ˛Ô ˙˚
Î
where Iol is the intensity of radiation for wavelength l before absorption; Il, that after absorption; alj, the
absorption coefficient for component j of material at l; wj, the concentration of the component by weight;
s, the scattering coefficient and x, the sample thickness. It is required, in the ratio measurement, to make
Iol1 = Iol2 such that a transmittance ratio
100 M = X%
TR = Il1/Il2 (8.64)
can be evaluated as
TR = exp (–Mal1x) (8.65) %TR M = 10X%
where M = moisture concentration by weight. Hence M is 50 1 £ x £ 1.5
evaluated as
M = (–logeTR)/(xal1) (8.66)
The TR–l curves for paper at two different moisture
contents are shown in Fig. 8.58. 0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
The technique can be utilized for both liquid and gas
l(m)
samples as well following the procedure followed in
Fig. 8.23. Fig. 8.58 Variation ot transmission ratio (TR)
with wavelength for two samples having different
8.3 LIQUID ANALYSERS moisture contents
There are several techniques, as already pointed out, for analysis of liquid samples, all of which will not
be possible to be covered here. The more important ones including the electrical properties of a solution,
absorption, emission etc., will be covered here with certain amount of details. Special attention would be
given to the most common methods used in industry in recent years for quantitative analysis.
8.3.1 Potentiometry, ORP, Redox

There is a group of very simple quantitative analytical methods based upon the electrical properties of a
solution of the analyte that goes to form what is known as an electrochemical cell. Some of them have
already been described earlier. A generalized but a brief theory of these cells is appended here because of its
importance in instrumental methods of analysis.
An electrochemical cell consists of two electrodes immersed in a suitable solution called electrolyte
and with an external connection between the two, a current would flow with the electrolyte permitting
movement of ions between the electrodes. Two classes of cells are known: (a) Galvanic, which produce
electric current or energy as mentioned, and (b) Electrolytic, which consume electricity from external
sources. The experimental condition would determine which mode to be used in practice. While flow
of electrons and ions constitute the transfer of charges causing current to be sent or absorbed, at two
electrode surfaces either an oxidation or reduction reaction occurs to provide the necessary ions in
the electrolyte as also initiate their conduction for the cycle to be complete. Cathode is defined to be an
electrode where reduction occurs and at anode oxidation occurs. The combined half-cell reactions can be
represented as
M a Æ̈ M an + + ne - (8.67a)
at the anode and, at the cathode
M cn + + ne - Æ̈ M c (8.67b)
with the net reaction
M c + M a+ Æ̈ M c+ + M a (8.68)
These show that at cathode, electrons are received from the external circuit and at anode, electrons are
produced for a conduction to continue.
Instead of driving current in a galvanic cell, the oxidation-reduction occuring at electrodes can be picked
up as a potential or emf between the electrodes. In a solution, if the concentration of a specific species
changes, the emf measured also changes in a specific manner. The electrode at which this change of emf
is indicated as a function of the concentration is called the indicator or measuring electrode. There is also
a reference electrode with a constant emf which is used in conjunction with the indicator electrode. The
reference electrode usually consists of an inert metal wire like platinum dipped into a solution of an oxident
and a reductant of a redox couple at fixed concentration. Even the measuring electrode for potentiometric
studies consists of an inert metal wire.
While some galvanic cells have been discussed in connection with oxygen measurement,
the potentiometric measurement has also been examined there without going into the details. The
electrode-based potentiometry is often direct where the concentration of a solution constituent is
determinable from a single emf measurement in the sample solution. In such cases ion-selective electrodes
are usually used. The others include end-point locations or potentiometric titration, redox, acid-base
titratioin etc.
The oxidation-reduction half reaction can, more generally, be written as
p1Ox + ne– = p2Red (8.69)
where Ox means oxidized form of the constituent, Red means reduced form of it, p1 and p2 are coefficients
of Ox and Red, and n, the number of electrons involved in the half-reaction. The half-reaction of reduction
is always associated with an oxidation as well. But on the basis of this half-reaction, thermodynamic
adaptation has shown that the potential of the half reaction is in fact given by
E = Eo – (RT/(nF) ln (ared/aox) (8.70)
where Eo is the standard potential for the particular reaction, F is Faraday’s constant of a value 96487 Coul/
mol, R is the gas constant of a value 8.314 V Coul/K mol, T is absolute temperature, ared is the activity of
the Red and aox is the activity of the Ox. The equation is a form of Nernst equation. If one component of the
half reaction is a gas and considered ideal, the activity is replaced by partial pressure. Using the constants
and replacing ln by 2.303 log, Eqn (8.70) is simplified to
E = Eo – (0.05917/n) log (ared/aox) (8.71)
The above equation is valid for reversible reactions only.
Now activity a is related to concentration by the relation
a = kdc (8.72)
where kd is called activity coefficient and is dimensionless. If the solutions are of low ionic strength, i.e.,
solution is dilute enough, kd is approximately equal to 1 so that concentrations expressed in molarity of the
reduced and oxidised constituents and repsented as (m)red and (m)ox would change Eq. (8.70) to
E = Eo – (RT/nF) ln [(m)red/(m)ox] (8.73)
The instrument for potentiometric methods would, thus, have a reference electrode, an indicator
electrode, a potential measuring device. The electrochemical cells, however, would be provided with a salt
bridge which separates the electrolytes in the anode and cathode cells or compartments. Its form varies from
design to design. As is known, half cell potential is not measurable, instead, a relative half cell potential
is measured against a common reference electrode whose potential is constant. The combination gives a
real cell potential and the combination is useful for calculating the equilibrium constants of oxidation and
reduction processes.
Reference electrodes are, therefore, very significant and should be defined and designed so that it
is acceptable to all systems. Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is such a half-cell. A typical such a half
cell or electrode is shown in Fig. 8.59. Hydrogen at
p atmosphere pressure is introduced into a solution
that has hydrogen ion concentration proportional to
molarity M and given by xM. Thus for gaseous part H2 Salt bridge
it is the partial pressure of the gas and for the solution (at p atm.)
part it is the ion concentration that account for the
emf collected by the inert conductor platinum with a
reaction
2H + + 2e - Æ̈ H 2 (g ) (8.74)
Depending on the other half it can be a anode or
a cathode. By convention, the assigned potential
value of this electrode is zero volt at all temperatures.
Pt / Pt-black
Hydrogen electrode can be a reference as well as a [H+] = xM
measuring electrode.
A reference cell or electrode must have its
potential constant and insensitive to the composition Fig. 8.59 Sketch of a standard hydrogen electrode
(SHE)—a half cell
of the solution under test. Also it should obey Nernst equation ideally, should return to its constant potential
value even after small current is drawn and should show little or no hysteresis with temperature cycle. The
commonly used reference electrodes are Silver-Silver chloride electrode, Calomal electrode, Thallium-
Thallous chloride electrode. Each one of these has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Indicator electrodes can be basically of two types: (i) metallic, and (ii) membrane. Metal electrodes are
of different types again. The common types are Cu, Fe, Ni, W, Cr etc. Then there are mercury electrodes
which work in a little different way. Inert metal electrodes like platinum, gold, palladium etc. can also be
used for oxidation-reduction systems.
Membrane electrodes are of two different types: (i) ion-selective, and (ii) molecular selective. The chart
below shows the subclasses in this.
Membrane electrodes function in an altogether different
principles from metal electrodes. A typical scheme is
shown in Fig. 8.60. As the arrangement shows there are two RE1
reference electrodes RE1 and RE2. RE2 is held in an internal
container sealed with the membrane M. This glass/plastic
container contains an internal standard solution of activity
a2 and this container as well as RE1 are placed in the test RE2
solution of activity a1 in an outer container. The internal side
of the membrane is soaked by the internal standard solution, Internal
RE2 obviously contains ionic contents as that of the internal standard
solution
standard solution. The conductivity in this cell occurs by
ion transfer as the membrane is chosen to have this nature,
Membrane
may be, by virtue of a species contained in the membrane. Test solution
A silicon glass membrane, for example, behaves as an ion Fig. 8.60 A cell with a typical membrane
exchanger which is three dimensional network of oxygen electrode
atoms held together by Si-Oxygen bonds. The open regions
are occupied by cations which neutralize the negative charge of the network. If these cations are single-
charge ions of Na+, Li+, H+, etc., they show mobility and by this the charge transfer takes place: from the
glass to the solution on one side of the membrane and from solution to the glass on the other side.
Membrane electrode
Ion selective Molecular selective
Crystalline Non-crystalline Gas sens- Enzyme substrate types

membrane membrane ing probes (for biological work)
Single Polycrysta-
crystal lline
Glass Liquid Liquid in rigid

ion-exchange polymer
Liquid membranes, at one time, were made from immiscible liquid ion exchangers held in solid porous
supports. In recent years liquid ion exchangers are ‘immobilized’ in polyvinyl chloride membranes. The
ion exchanger and polyvinyl chloride are dissolved in an organic solvent such as tetrahydrafuran and then
evaporated to produce a flexible membrane which can be cut to size and cemented to glass or plastic tube.
A very important liquid membrane electrode is the calcium membrane electrode which has cation exchange
properties and is used extensively in physiological studies because cation itself plays an important role in
many physiological phenomena like cardiac conduction and spasm, renal function, bone formation etc.
Such an electrode can detect concentration from 1 to 5 ¥ l0–7 M.
Gas sensing electrodes are actually gas sensing probes which are used to determine dissolved gases very
selectively. There are two types of membrane materials known as (i) microporous and (ii) homogeneous.
Microporous materials are usually manufactured from water repelling or hydrophobic polymers with about
70% porosity and pore size of less than 1 mm. Polytetrafluorethylene, polypropylene are common examples
of such membranes. Water molecules or electrolyte ions are not allowed through these while gas molecules
move through them by effusion. These membranes are usually 0.1 mm thick.
Homogeneous films/membranes are made from solid polymer substances through which gas can pass by
dissolving in the membrane, diffusing and then disolvating into an internal solution. Silicone rubber is the
common material used in such system. The membrane is 0.01 to 0.03 mm in thickness.
Enzyme electrodes are made by immobilization of enzymes by entrapping them in polymer gel, by
absorbing them in porous inorganic support or by copolymerizing the enzyme with a suitable monomer.
These electrodes are used for determination of compounds of biological and biochemical interest.
A typical electrochemical sensor probe is a membrane
electrode which is used for measuring oxygen dissolved
in water. Both galvanic and polarographic probes are
available. In conformity with the sequel of the text, a
typical galvanic type is discussed here in brief. It has
an inner cylindrical anode often made of lead and outer
perforated cathode usually of silver—the combination Anode
being immersed in an aqueous solution of KHCO3
which is held in position by a silicone rubber membrane Cathode
properly arranged as shown in Fig. 8.61. This membrane
Membrane
is permeable to oxygen but not to water or other ions
likely to be present. Diffused oxygen is reduced at the
cathode as per the equation: O2 + H2O + 4e– Æ 4OH– and
a current proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen
is obtained. With change in temperature, however, this
current changes at a rate 6%/°C and a compensation Fig. 8.61 A dissolved oxygen analysis cell
circuit is, therefore, necessary which requires that the
temperature is continuously measured/monitored by a thermistor/RTD as shown. The probe has a wide
range of measurement starting from about 5 to 10 mg/litre to the saturation value. The anode gets eroded on
continuous use, the rate of erosion being dependent on the amount of oxygen measured and the initial size
and shape of the electrode. It, therefore, is required to be replaced after specified periods of time.
8.3.2 Measurement of pH
It is very often necessary to know in a process, the conditions of the process material, at least, whether it has
turned basic, acidic or neutral during reaction. A close control of a particular condition is also sometimes
necessary. For example, to control the reaction rate in a particular process chamber, in ore reduction by
floatation process for example, or, in corrosion prevention of condensate chambers, a knowledge of the
degree of acidity or alkalinity of a fluid is necessary. This degree is expressed by what is known as pH scale
and pH is measurable by a membrane cell of the types described earlier. The scale value was defined by
Sorcnsen as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration, or,
pH = –log10[H+] (8.75)
In a solution both H+ and (OH)– are present. If H+ ions are more, the solution shows acidic characteristics
and for more hydroxyl ions basicity increases. In pure water they are equal in number, for example at 25°C,
they are 10–7 g/litre each. The dissociation constant is defined as the product of the number of H+ ions
(OH)– ions and this is 10–14 always. If we consider milk with an hydrogen ion concentration of 10–6 g/litre,
it must have 10–8 g/litre of hydroxyl ions. Its pH value would thus be given by 6. When pH is 7, the solution
is neutral; for lower pH, it is acidic; and for higher pH, it is basic or alkaline. For a changes of pH by 1, a
hydrogen ion concentration change by a ratio of 10 as indicated.
The value of pH of a solution, in general however, will depend on (a) the chemical nature of the acid
expressed by the degree of dissociation, (b) the relative concentrations of the acid and its conjugate base,
and (c) the temperature which affects dissociation.
The principle of pH measurement is based on the property of H+ ions which react with a special glass
membrane/electrode and produce a potential difference between the solution and the electrode. This
potential difference is measured by a suitable measuring circuit. The method of obtaining the potential has
already been briefly covered earlier and involves the fact that when a piece of metal is placed in its own
ionic solution, a potential difference is developed between the metal and the solution which is proportional
to the concentration of the ions c and follows from Eqs (8.71) to (8.73) to be given by
E = Eo – (0.059/n) log c (8.76)
where c is the metal ion concentration, n is the number of valency of the ion. If c = 1 gm-ion/Iitre, i.e.,
c = 1, E = Eo = normal electrode potential. Unfortunately, for measuring the ion concentration when an
electrode is introduced into the solution, the original condition is disturbed and this should also be taken
into consideration during measurement. Figure 8.60 shows a scheme where this change is taken into
consideration. The figure in Fig. 8.62 shows the detailed compensation scheme. In presence of H2 gas, the
metal electrode made of platinum produces a potential difference between it and the ionic solution of either
known or unknown pH. For measurement a linking of the two cells is done by the ‘salt bridge’ that has a
conductivity but does not alter the emf conditions in the two cells. If E and Es are the emfs in the unknown
and the standard cells respectively with pH and pHs as the corresponding pH values, then the conventional
operational definition follows from the measuring equation
Eo = E – Es = CT(pH – pHs) (8.77)
H2 H2
Salt bridge
E Es
Unknown pH Pt electrodes Known pH
Fig. 8.62 Principle of pH measurement

Here C is a constant equal to 198 ¥ 10–6 V/°K. Thus, pH vs Eo relation is quite sensitive to temperature
which is graphically shown in Fig. 8.63. For all practical purposes the above equation is taken as
100°C
–0.4 25°C
0°C
–0.2
Eo (Volts)
+0.2
+0.4
0 4 8 12 16
pH
Fig. 8.63 Temperature sensitivity of pH
Et = Ef – 2.3(RT/F)(pH) (8.78)
where Et is the total potential measured in the cell and Ef is the fixed part of the total emf which depends
on the reference electrode and the glass electrode. As discussed above the term 2.3RT/F is the Nernst factor
and has a value of about 59.2 mV at 25°C.
A commercial instrument, however, cannot use a system as shown in Fig. 8.62. But Eq. (8.77) indicates
that determination of pH essentially means the determination of a difference of potential in two cells
containing a reference buffer for known pH and the test solution. This, therefore, helps to devise more
practical electrodes. Reference electrode is designed to simulate the performance of left hand cell of Fig.
8.62, including the salt bridge, while the measuring electrode is a glass electrode as already mentioned. The
electrodes are put in a solution whose pH value is required.
Before describing the cells we add a note on buffer solution here. It may be defined as a solution that has
nearly constant pH value and usually contains a mixture of weak acid or base and its salt such as acetic acid
and sodium acetate. The resistance of a solution to changes in pH on the addition of acid or alkali is known
as buffer action and a solution of known pH which possesses some reserve power of neutralizing small
additions of acid or alkali in order to maintain its pH at a steady value is known as a buffer solution. The
buffer value is defined as
b = DB/DpH (8.79)
where b is incremental dissociation of base or acid in g/litre per unit pH change. b is important in
judging the resistance of the buffer to a change in pH. Between 1.0 and 10.0 pH, phthalic acid, potassium
dihydrogen phosphate and boric acid with degrees of dissociation Dd = 2.9 (5.41), 8.13 and 9.24
respectively are mixed in suitable proportions with HCl and NaOH. Tables of standard buffers are available
from National Laboratories.
Different reference electrodes are commercially available for different pH ranges. Industrially the
calomel electrode is more often used. Sketch of a calomel electrode is shown in Fig. 8.64(a). It consists
of an inner tube containing calomel i.e.. Hg and HgCl in which a Pt wire is immersed. The inner tube also
consists of glass wool placed at the bottom where a small hole is made for bridging. The inner tube is
placed in an outer glass envelope containing saturated solution of KCl. The outer tube is provided with a
filling neck and a bridging hole for contact with the measured solution. The hole is covered with a ground
glass sleeve and bridging occurs through the liquid film in the glass joint. There is very gradual escape of
KCl in to the measured liquid through this bridging hole. The strength of KCl varies from 3.5 M to 0.l M.
Electrode lead (Pt)
Cap
Filling neck
Shield
Hg
xx
KCI solution (sat.)
xx
xx
Hg + HgCl xx
xx
Glass envelope
(Calomel) xx
xx
xx
xx Inner glass tube
xx
xx
xx Special
Glass wool Hole glass bulb
Conductor
wire
Salt bridge
Sleeve Buffer solution
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.64 Sketches of electrodes: (a) reference cell, (b) measuring cell
The measuring electrode is the glass electrode shown in Fig. 8.64(b). A special glass wall separates
a buffer solution contained in the bulb from the measuring solution. The electrode wire is dipped in the
buffer. Between this buffer whose pH is known and constant and the unknown solution, an emf develops
across the glass wall depending on the H+ ion concentration of the measured solution. The value ranges
from –43 mV at 10 pH to –65 mV at 2 pH. A sodalime glass has been found to be very suitable because
of its low melting point, high hygroscopicity and relatively low electrical resistivity. It contains 72.2%
SiO2, 6.4% CaO and 21.4% Na2O. Per cent actually is mole per cent. It has been observed that the glass
membrane should be properly ‘wetted’ for proper functioning and hygroscopicity obviously helps this
operation. Lower resistivity will permit to construct a membrane of larger thickness for avoiding breaking
of the glass bulb very often. The glass electrode when used from dry condition, given an unsteady potential
and is, therefore, recommended to be kept soaking in water when not in use. This also permits its use in
non-aqueous solution for a short duration. The errors for glass electrodes have been found to be due to high
alkali metal ion concentration at high pH, smaller aqueous activation and high temperature. It is believed
that since glass electrode is made from alkali metals cations of the similar type may take part in exchange of
ions between the glass and the solution as has been described in an earlier section. This occurs particularly
when pH is greater than 10 and error due to this is too large to be neglected. If K is replaced for Na in the
glass, the error is seen to decrease considerably. Manufacturers sometimes provide correction curves for
Na+ ion on the strength basis. Such curves are shown in Fig. 8.65(a).
Actually glasses have been manufactured which can give quite low errors both in acid and alkali
solutions. Lithium-based all purpose glasses (LAP) have practically zero error over the entire pH range.
Figure 8.65(b) shows error in pH for two types of glasses. The temperature effect in the lithium based glass
is also less. Higher temperature gives higher output because the resistance of the glass decreases. This
decrease with increasing temperature is compared in Fig. 8.65(c) for the two glasses.
14 1.0 104
13 0.5 SG 103
pH Error (25°C)
0.1N Na+
LAP R SG
pH 12 0 LAP 102
N Na+ (MW)
SG LAP
11 –0.5 10
10 –1.0
0.02 0.04 0.06 0 4 8 12 16 0 25 50 75
Correction to be added pH Temp. (°C)
(pH)
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.65 Correction curves for glass electrodes: (a) pH correction curve,
(b) pH error curves for SG and LAP cells, (c) plots of glass resistance versus temperature
In recent years combination glass and reference electrodes are available as shown in Fig. 8.66. Total
diameter of the electrode assembly is about 1.5 cm and length including cap is about 14 cm.
Inner Ref. element
Ref. solution
Outer RE Plastic body
Salt bridge
Plastic Glass bulb

protector skirt
Fig. 8.66 Combined glass and reference electrode

In pH measurement the circuitry is as important as the rest of it. This is because the glass membrane
resistance may be of the order of 109 ohms or even more. Naturally the input impedance of the emf
measuring device must be substantially larger than this. The current drawn from the measuring cell should
be negligible, perhaps less than 10–12 A, so that the voltage drop across the large source resistance must be
negligible compared to the minimum voltage required to be measured by the system. The minimum voltage
is as low as 1 mV corresponding to a pH value of less than 0.02.
The early pH meters used electrometer tubes in the input stage of the measuring circuit. With the advent
of semiconductor devices having high input resistances such as FET, MOSFET, IGMOSFET etc., these low
voltage devices are being used in the input stage.
GE
+
RE –
Span A
TC
DM
+12 V
Cal
St
AP
–12 V
(a)
GE
RE
(b)
Fig. 8.67 (a) pH measuring circuit with compensation for different error producing parameters,
(b) a simple pH measuring circuit (GE glass electrode, RE reference electrode, DM digital meter St standardize, TC
temperature compensation, AP assymetry potential, Cal calibrate)
A typical analogue circuit that can provide digital display with a simple adaptation is shown in Fig.
8.67(a) which consists of an operational amplifier A that has in its input stage a differential FET circuit.
Assymetry potential arises in the glass electrode because of constructional assymetry which is compensated
as shown by ‘AP’ potentiometer. Temperature compensation is done, as indicated by TC, manually, or
automatically by using a temperature resistance converter in the negative feedback circuit. The span control
is also provided in this part.
Standardization (St) is done by using stabilised supply of ±12 V and a potentiometer which also
is connected for meter calibration both for analogue and digital display (DM). The measuring circuit is
arranged to operate at a slope corresponding to the isopotential point of the glass electrode which is a point
at which the electrode potential is independent of temperature. This is unique for a particular electrode
system and compensation becomes best at this point as far as variation due to temperature is concerned.
A similar but simpler circuit that uses a simple BJT based OA chip preceded by a FET input stage is
shown in Fig. 8.67(b). The other arrangements are the same.
Industrial pH electrode systems are of two types: (i) the continuous flow type, and (ii) the dip type
assembly also known as immersion type. The continuous type has a flow chamber of rigid PVC for
temperatures below 60°C or of special stainless steel for higher temperatures, say around 100°C. The
electrode assembly is kept immersed in this chamber through which a flow is continuously maintained at
a pressure up to about 0.3 MPa. The glass electrode is made of toughened glass. Sedimentation on the
electrodes is a problem although the circulating flow minimizes this considerably. The immersion type has
similar construction but without the chamber or flow cell as it is often called. Instead a ‘guard’ is provided
which allows solution to come in contact with the electrodes and since the measurement is not in flowing
fluid, provision is kept for immersion up to depths of 3 m or so. The electrodes are cleaned of sediments
or other deposits automatically at regular intervals by rubber membrane wipers or polypropylene brushes
driven pneumatically.
8.3.3 Conductivity
When salts, acids or bases are fused or dissolved in water, ionic particles carrying positive or negative
electric charges move in opposite direction in the liquid constituting what is known as current. Such a liquid
is an electrolyte, as is well known. The flow of current in the electrolyte also follows Ohm’s law in general
and because the electrolyte can conduct or carry current it is said to have conductance. Its conductivity c,
however, is defined by its specific current carrying ability and is denoted as conductance per metre or S/m.
Concentration of electrolytes changes the conductivity, as with larger dilution (i) proportion of electrolyte is
dissolved which increases ions in the solution, simultaneously (ii) there is a tendency to reduce the number
of these ions in the electrolyte solution per unit volume. These effects on conductivity are taken care of by
defining molar conductivity cmo as
cmo = c/c (8.80)
3 2 2
where c is the molar concentration expressed in mol/m . Thus cmo is in (Sm /mol). But m being a very
large area, it is often replaced by cm2 in expressing cmo.
As the dilution goes on increasing and reaches a very large value, often referred to as infinite dilution, the
ions of an electrolyte are very widely separated by the solvent molecules and then the molar conductivity
is the sum of the ionic conductivities of the cations and anions. If q is the charge on an ion, n is the number
of these ions produced by dissociation of one molecule of the salt and li is the ionic conductivity defined as
that for unit charge, then one obtains
cmo• = q+n+li+ + q–n–li– (8.81)
For a fully dissociated single salt of concentration c less than 10–4 mol/litre, one gets
c(S/cm) = qn(li++ li–)c ¥ 10–3 (8.82)
c being expressed in mol/litre. This is true as (q+ n+) is generally equal to (q– n–) since q is determined by
valency and n by the number of units of the elements. Thus for CaCl2 solution
c(CaCl2) = (2 ¥ 1 ¥ li+ + 1 ¥ 2 ¥ li–)c (8.83)
Ionic conductivity is temperature sensitive and this sensitivity is attributed to the change in the viscosity
of the solution, particularly that of water, which changes the mobility as well as hydration of the ions. With
temperature, ionic conductivity increases.
Since conductivity has a relation with concentration, for measuring concentration of solute, conductivity
measurement may be utilized. It is, however, non-specific in nature, i.e., independent of the specific solids
dissolved as it measures the ionic content only. A very extensive use of conductivity measurement is in the
determination of purity of water for industrial uses—specifically in power plant boilers etc.
The conductivity of pure water is calculated at any temperature by knowing the values of li(OH), li(H), its
dissociation constant Kw and its density r at that temperature by the relation
c(S/cm) = (li(H) + li(OH))r K w ¥ 10-3 (8.84)
As impurity, such as NaCl, increases, c increases. In fact file data are preserved for c versus salt content
in mg/litre to know what is the amount of salt present so that the water needs to be purified before use or
not. Temperature, obviously, becomes a dominant factor. Pure water ionizes to a slight extent in OH– and
H+ ions
H O Æ̈ H+ + OH–
2
such that at a given temperature
[H + ][OH - ] a H + ∑ a OH -
=K (8.85)
[ H 2 O] a H 2O
where [X ] is the molar concentration of ions of specimen X, aX represents activity coefficient of the species
X and K is a constant. For pure water, ionization is quite small and activity is also small such that the
activity coefficients for ions as well as water are regarded as unity, giving
[H+][OH–]/[H2O] = K (8.86)
Also since in pure water, dissociation is quite small, concentration of the dissociated water is roughly
constant, i.e., [H2O] is constant and we get
[H+] [OH–] = K[H2O] = Kw = ionic product of water = 10–14 (8.87)
For measurement of conductivity, conductivity cells are commercially available which are designed to
conduct small alternating current through a known precise volume of the liquid under measurement. The
cell consists of a pair of suitably shaped electrodes spaced at a constant distance apart and the measurement
of conductance or resistance is done by an external circuit. Conductivity is then given by the relation
c = as = a/R (8.88)
where ‘a’ is the cell constant and is provided by the manufacturer, or, is initially determined by experiment.
For c expressed in S/cm, ‘a’ is in cm–1.
The conductivity of aqueous solution varies from about 5 mS/m to l000S/m for pure water to highly
concentrated electrolytes. Also for easier design of measuring circuit the cell resistance needs be kept
between 10 ohm to 100 Kohm requiring, therefore, that the cell constant varies approximately between 0.01
and 100 cm–1. In fact cells with constants 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 50 cm–1 are available for ranges of 0.05 to 20, 10
to 200, 10 to 2000, and 100 to 200,000 mS/cm respectively.
Cell constant is initially measured by (a) measuring the resistance when the cell is completely dipped in
a solution whose conductivity is accurately known or comparing the resistance measured with that obtained
in a cell of known cell constant by dipping both cells in the same solution at the same temperature.
Analytical grade (reagent) KCl dissolved in deionized water, i.e., water of conductivity less than 2
mS/cm, in measured quantities produces standard solutions for cell calibration. Often the procedure is
simplified by weighing KCl but water taken in volume measure. The standard tables are formed which are
referred to during calibration. Table 8.12 shows such standards.
Table 8.12 Standard solution for cell calibration

Solution made by dissolving in a litre of water KCl (grams) at 25°C (S/m)
(a) 7.4365 at 20°C 1.2856
(b) 0.7436 at 20°C 0.1400
With temperature, c of KCl changes by more than 2% per degree Kelvin.

It is well known that when DC supply is used there is polarization. Even if AC is used, depending on
cell structure, material and supply frequency, some polarization occurs. Bright metal electrodes give better
performance in this respect, also supply frequency should be higher. However, increase of frequency can
introduce capacitive impedance affecting resistance measurement. A compromise is, therefore, to be made
and 1 kHz appears to be good choice for the purpose. Effect of frequency is to increase the cell constant
particularly at higher conductivities as shown in the curves of Fig. 8.68. However, higher frequency extends
the range to a certain extent.
1.5
50 Hz
1.4
Cell const. (cm–1)
500 Hz
1.3
1.2 3500 Hz
1.1
1.0 Ideal
10 102 103 104 105 106
c (mS/cm)
Fig. 8.68 Effect of frequency on cell constant range
Cell Design Since the cell is dipped in the solution, it must use materials which are unaffected by the
electrolyte. The cell body is made of glass, epoxy, resins, plastics, reinforced PVC, perspex etc., to suit the
conditions in which it is used. Electrodes are parallel flat plates or rings made of metal or graphite directly
cast in the tube forming the body. They may also be made as one central rod and another concentric tubular
body. Figure 8.69(a) shows the shape of the cell.
Electrodes require cleaning at regular intervals as otherwise contaminants deteriorate the operational
performance, cell constant value and electrode area in particular. The cleaning operation depends on cell
design and electrode material. When platinized electrode is used mechanical brushing should be avoided
and a cleaning solution of a mixture of 1 part by volume of isopropyl alcohol, 1 part by volume of ethyl
ether and 1 part 50 per cent dilute HCl is used. Also, dipping the electrode assembly in 10–15% solution
of HCl or HNO3 is recommended as an alternate measure. In both the cases thorough rinsing with water
is necessary before use. Graphite electrodes of annular design can be cleaned with bottle brush using a 50
per cent solution of detergent in water. Before use again, it must be thoroughly rinsed in distilled water.
Stainless steel or monel metal electrodes are also washable with the same solution.
A typical flush or flow through cell consisting of annular graphite electrolyte is shown in Fig. 8.69(b).
Flush-fitting
electrodes
Threaded
Body Internal
connections
Electrodes
Terminals
Perforations Threaded
Moulded body
Fig. 8.69 (a)A particular cell design with electrode pairs of ring shape,
(b) the type of cell that allows low of luid through it
Circuits Simple Wheatstone bridge circuits are still the best measuring circuits when supplied by an
appropriate frequency and constant amplitude oscillator, as shown in Fig. 8.70. Automatic temperature
compensation is provided by the thermistor Th. The thermistor probe and the cell are both dipped in the
solution. Potentiometer R is directly calibrated in conductivity. In recent years, however, digital read-out
systems are incorporated where the unbalance voltage is amplified and converted for the purpose.
Th
R3 R1
Osc
R
D
R2
Cell
Fig. 8.70 The measuring circuit
As the conductance is very much dependent on the temperature and each solution has its own
temperature characteristic curve, care must be taken for adequate temperature compensation scheme
as the conductance measured is an indication of the composition of the solution. Figure 8.71 shows the
temperature characteristic curves for a few samples. Curves show pure water has scale cramping at lower
temperature and that for 5% H2SO4 cramping is at high temperature, making compensation scheme different
in the two cases.
Pure H2O
3
Distilled H2O
ct
2
c25 5% NaOH
5% H2SO4
1
25 50 75 100
T(°C)
Fig. 8.71 Concentration-temperature characteristics for different samples
Conductivity can be measured with cells without electrodes as well. The technique utilises the fact
that a closed loop of solution couples two transformer coils and in the process conductance of the closed
loop solution is measured. The liquid requires to be enclosed in a non-conducting pipe or a pipe with non-
conducting material. Three typical forms of measuring units are shown in Figs 8.72(a), (b) and (c). The
one shown in Fig. 8.72(a) along with the measuring circuit scheme is usually used for low diameter pipes
where the two toroidal coils act as the primary and secondary windings of the transformer. That shown in
Fig. 8.72(b) is usually used for larger diameter long pipelines where a bypass arrangement is provided. The
last one (shown in Fig. 8.72(c) is usually recommended where suspended solids or fibres are present and the
bore is wide. The non-conducting pipe used, is also fitted with metallic end-pieces, which in turn are joined
by a metal wire for compensation in the circuit.
1 2
1 2
1 2
Toroids Metal wire

(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.72 The electrodeless conductivity cells: (a) seen with measurement circuit scheme,
(b) used in large diameter pipe line, (c) recommended for liquid with suspensions
An oscillator operating at a frequency of 3 kHz to 180 kHz is connected to toroid 1, the primary. The
solution acts as the secondary in which an induced current is generated. The solution also acts as the
primary for the second toroid. Thus, the solution concentration is responsible for the coupling strength and
the output to be obtained at the second toroid terminal, which is then amplified and detected. A null balance
technique can be used for avoiding oscillator voltage variation and shift in amplifier characteristics. This
requires that each toroid be provided with additional windings and the scheme is shown in Fig. 8.73. Where
the solution is corrosive and is likely to erode or abrade the electrodes such technique is very suitable.
Oleum, hot and concentrated NaOH, slurries are some such liquids. In concentrated electrolytes also where
polarization becomes a problem in conventional cell design this is conveniently used.
Solution
Toroid 2
Osc Servo-
motor
Toroid 1
Fig. 8.73 A null-balance technique used with electrode less cells
Salinity is sometimes separately mentioned as a measuring parameter from which concentration is to be

identified. If the analyte is sodium chloride the conductivity measured is related to this parameter, salinity.
However, in recent years for all types of salts producing conductivity, this term is being used.
8.3.4 Polarography
When electrolysis occurs in a solution, one electrode may show a constant potential while at the other
electrode concentration polarization occurs. The voltage-current characteristic graph of such a system,
known as polarograph, is peculiar and different for solutions of different constitutions and concentrations.
The voltage necessary to overcome the polarization effect can be a measure of the concentration and
constitution. This is because of the fact that the molecules near the polarized electrode are subjected to
oxidation and reduction with varying rates for different materials and for different composition on
the application of this potential. Ions flow from the bulk of the solution towards the microelectrodes by
diffusion and the diffusion process is low. This gives a different ion concentration Ce at the electrode
surface than that at the bulk of the solution. The rate of diffusion of a particular ionic species is given by
Fick’s law
∂d/∂t = aD∂C/∂x (8.89)
where ∂d/∂t is the diffusion rate; ∂C/∂x, the concentration gradient; D, the diffusion coefficient of the ion;
and a the exposed area of the electrode surface.
When equilibrium is reached near the micro-electrode surface, ion diffusion rate should be equal to the
ion discharge rate. For N number of electrons taking part in the discharge process involving q quantity of
electricity, the relation is more simply given by
i/(Nq) = (aD/t)(C – Ce) (8.90)
where C is the concentration in the bulk and t, a hypothetical diffusion layer around the micro-electrode.
The current i when plotted against the applied emf will look like as shown in Fig. 8.74. When emf is
quite low, the current remains nearly constant at a low value, A-B, till the decomposition potential reaches
when a sudden rise in current occurs, B-C. A further rise in potential produces a saturation in the current,
C-D. This occurs when C >> Ce. The limiting current is a function of the concentration of the bulk, the
composition and the experimental condition.
C D
A B
Fig. 8.74 Plot of the i versus emf relation in polarography
The important considerations in the polarographic measurement are maintaining the conditions assumed
in theory. More important is the design of the electrodes and cell. A dropping mercury electrode (DME)
cell is quite common. This is shown in Fig. 8.75. Anode is made large, a pool of mercury, so that current
density across it is small and the potential is appreciably constant. Also the cathode using a small droplet
has a large current density around it and gets easily polarized and serves to become the indicator electrode.
The capillary bore is about 50 m. The mercury reservoir maintains the driver pressure constant. Instead of
a pool type reference electrode, a half-cell saturated calomel electrode (SCE) may also be considered as
shown in Fig. 8.76. This electrode is liquid-bridged to the indicator electrode. Sealed platinum wire serves
to complete the circuit.
Mercury-reserve
Capillary
Slide wire
Mercury-pool Pt.
anode
Mercury-droplet
electrode
Fig. 8.75 Scheme of a polarograph with dropping mercury electrode (DME)

DME
SCE
Pt
Fig. 8.76 Sketch of the saturated calomel electrode (SCE) and the dropping mercury electrode
It has been assumed that current i is entirely due to diffusion. The other interacting currents are
transference current, adsorption current, a small residual current and a kinetic current. These currents must
either be eliminated or accurately estimated and subtracted to obtain the diffusion current correctly.
Because of the potential field across the electrodes, an ion migration current other than the diffusion
current may set in and this is more important than the others stated above. The effect of this current is to
increase or decrease the diffusion current depending on the types of electrolytes. The effect is eliminated by
adding a large quantity of an inert electrolyte to that under test. The preferred ratio of the test and supporting
electrolytes is about 1: 100. The effect of the supporting electrolyte, such as acids, alaklis, citrates, tartrates,
acetate buffers, is to establish a large electro-solution resistance to the reactant and stop migration of ion
due to this.
When dropping mercury indicator electrode is used, the original equation (Eq. 8.90) for current i is
modified, given by Ilkovic as
2 / 3 1/ 6
iD = 607QN C D QM T (8.91)
where QN is electricity units per unit mole of electrode reaction; C, concentration in millimoles/litre; QM,
the flowrate of mercury in mg/sec; T, drop time in seconds, then iD is the average microamperes during T.
A typical polarogram is shown in Fig. 8.77 for a reducible material. The limiting current giving the step
is due to the diffusion rate of the reactant to the indicator electrode – Oxidation
interface. The step is sometimes called a wave. The potential at + Reduction
the half-wave point, as shown, is the characteristic of the reactive
ion or molecule.
Automatic plotters may be used for plotting the polarogram. 1/2 Wave
The two circuits one voltage null potentiometric and another mA
current null type are shown in Figs 8.78(a) and (b). As the voltage Residual
ID characteristic
or the applied potential is increased, synchronization must be I(+) E1/2 for supporting
provided between this and the chart drive rate. This is shown by ID electrolyte
the voltage sweep coupled to the chart drive potentiometer. The 2
current change is from 0.001 mA to 100 mA and voltage range is Ir
between ±2 and ±3 V.
I(–) E(–) Volts
When polarogram is obtained, presence of oxygen gives a step
that interferes with the actual polarogram. Oxygen can be removed
Fig. 8.77 A typical polarogram
from the cell by passing a stream of nitrogen through it.
Converter & Amplifier
Pen motor
M
M
Balance to
keep drop
across
R=0
Cell R
Voltage
sweep
(Chart Voltage
drive) Range sweep
Std
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.78 Circuits of polarogram plotter: (a) voltage null type, (b) current null type
The polarograms are commonly used for routine analysis of non-ferrous alloys for determining
constituents like copper, cadmium, zinc etc., or for routine determination of lead, copper, nickel and
manganese in ferrous alloys. Polarography is also used for control of plating baths particularly for precious
metals, for determination of metals in food products,
rubber compounds, petroleum products, body fluids,
etc.
25-50 mV
The identification of a polarogram can be made
from the values of shape, ID–values, E 1 – values. Volts
2 2.5 mV/sec
Thus, the curve shown in Fig. 8.77 is roughly that 1 drop
of Cd (5 ¥ 10–4 M), ID gives the amount of material
present and E 1 the material.
2
Differential pulse polarography is a newer
important technique in this line. Here a 25 to 50 Fig. 8.79 Curve related to pulse polarography
mV amplitude pulse is superimposed at fixed time
intervals on the normal linear ramp voltage of 2 to
5 mV/sec. Mercury drop is mechanically dislodged
and pulse is arranged so that it occurs once in the
Differential current
lifetime of the drop as indicated in Fig. 8.79. Current

is measured over a period of 20 msec just before
the pulse is applied and during 20 msec towards the
end of the drop life. The difference between the two
measurements is recorded as a function of the applied
dc potential. In practice a 3 electrode potentiostatic
arrangement is used. The polarogram obtained
is of the form shown in Fig. 8.80. Resolution is
increased between two species undergoing reduction Potential sweep
and a large increase in sensitivity occurs. The peak
Fig. 8.80 Differential polarographic method
height and the concentration are linearly related and
explained
sensitivity is increased by pulse height although at
the cost of resolution between the two components. It is finding increasing use in pollution measurement for
analysing sludges and sewages. Traces of toxic elements are identified by this method in animal foodstuff,
soils and pharmaceutical products including drugs like phenobarbitone, ephidrine. Other products like
saccharine, plastics and polymers are also amenable to be analyzed by this technique.
8.3.5 Spectroscopic Techniques of Liquid Sample Analysis: Absorption in Visible

and Ultra-violet Ranges
The spectrometers for absorption-analysis in visible and UV region consist as usual of (i) sources—one or
more with selection mode, (ii) wavelength selectors/monochromators, (iii) sample cells/containers, and (iv)
radiation detectors and read-out devices. Sometimes signal processors are also used.
Monochromators are the same grating or prism types with construction materials differing from those of
IR radiation type; sample cells are also to be treated similarly. For UV and visible region, a grating usually
with 300 to 2000 grooves per mm is required which for IR type is between 10 and 200 per mm only. Grating
etched on concave surfaces provides dispersion as well as focusing and reduces cost, increases throughput
energy. With laser technology ready at hand, this type of adaptation has become more common and is
known as holographic grating. By generating interference patterns on sensitized photoresistive material
coated on glass surface using two beams from identical lasers, the grooved structure can be generated. For
reflecting type, aluminium or other reflecting materials can be used. This process can produce 6000 lines
per mm or more.
For prism monochromator the materials like calcium fluoride, fused silica, quartz or flint glass may be
used for different wavelength ranges. Table 8.13 gives the characteristic property of these materials.
Table 8.13 Material characteristics of prism monochromators

Material with refractive index Wavelength range mm Angular dispersion m radian/mm
Calcium fluoride, 1.43 5 to 9.5 33
Fused silica, 1.46 0.18 to 2.5 52
Quartz, 1.54 0.20 to 2.7 63
Flint glass, 1.66 0.35 to 2.0 170
Above materials are good in chemical and mechanical properties as well. Prisms are either 60 or 30 degree
types. Corner or Littrow prisms are, thus, taken. Littrow type is a 30° prism with a minor back or double
refraction. The reversal in radiation path tends to cancel polarization. A comparative study of grating and
prism monochromators are given in Table 8.14.
Wavelength selectors also include filters other than monochromators. In both cases it is not a single
wavelength that is obtained but a Gaussian distribution type of curve in wavelength and percent
transmittance is obtained. The situation is shown in Fig. 8.81 for filters. Two types of filters are used in
practice. Absorption types are less expensive and is common in visible range. Coloured glasses, glass plates
with dye suspended in between in gelatin base are of common design. Combination of different filters may
produce better cut-off, i.e., narrower bandwidth. Absorption types have less transmittance. For routine
visible range analysis, they are commonly used.
Interference filters provide narrower bandwidth and higher transmittance peaks. There are two different
types of design—the destructive interference type and the constructive interference type. Filters are
specified by (i) lm, the wavelength of the transmittance peak, (ii) Tl, per cent radiation transmitted at peak
wavelength and (iii) Dl, the effective bandwidth. Usually Dl = 0.015 lm.
Table 8.14 Comparative study of monochromators

No Grating Prism
1. Wavelength-independent dispersion provides simple Not so in prism type.
design formula.
2. Constant bandwidth with sitting of slit fixed. For constant bandwidth slit width requires to be
adjusted, for shorter wavelength narrower slit is
required.
3. Reflection gratings can be used in UV-visible-IR Not possible because of absorption.
range.
4. Stray radiation and higher order spectra affect Stray radiations etc., affect less.
performance. Effect minimized with holographic
gratings.
5. More costly compared to prism types although other Less costly as such.
advantageous features have prompted for their use
extensively.
100
Interference
%T
Bandwidth Absorption
50
1/2 ph
1/2 ph
0
400 500 600 700
l (nm)
Fig. 8.81 Absorption and interference ilters
Sample-holders known as cells or cuvettes must be made of materials that pass the desired spectral
radiation through it. For UV region the material is quartz or fused silica which can be used over a range
of 170 to 3000 nm whereas for visible region silicate glass covering a range of 350 to 2000 nm is often
chosen. Common cell lengths are 1 cm although lengths from 0.1 to 10 cm are also available. Transparent
spacers for shortening lengths are also used.
Some IR radiation detectors have been discussed earlier. Practical radiation detectors are of two types:
(a) The photon detectors which respond to photons, (b) The heat detectors that respond to heat flux. IR
radiation detectors are generally the second type. Photon detectors are spectrally selective and consist of an
active surface that absorbs radiation in turn to cause emission of electrons for generating a photoemission
current as in photoemissive cells or to promote electrons to conduction bands enhancing conductivity of the
device as in photoconductive cells. UV and visible and also near IR radiation have enough energy to initiate
this process. The commercial photon detectors are: (i) photovoltaic cells also called barrier layer cells, (ii)
phototubes and photomultiplier tubes, (iii) photoconductivity detectors and light detecting resistors (LDR),
and (iv) silicon diode detectors. A comparative study of the detectors is given in Table 8.15.
Table 8.15 Comparison of photon radiation detectors

Barrier layer cell Phototube Photomultiplier tube Photoconductive type Silicon diode
Linear 10–100 mA Current proportional Current increased by Fall in resistance Current is
output current with to incident radiation, giving more dynodes from dark to full proportional to
RL < 400 W. poor, 1 to 10 mA, but glow by 1/10 radiation power in
amplifiable mA to mA range.
Selective in Selective Selective but best Selective Selective
wavelength suited for UV and
visible
Does not require Requires separate External voltage of Supply for V or I Supply required for
external supply supply, 90 V is high value (kV order) output fruitful output
common value may be needed
Fatigued with Dark current is small Dark current is the Has small hysteresis Has a little hysteresis
continued exposure major error source,
reduced by cooling
Materials: Se/SeO Materials: Bialkali, Special materials 250 Pbs (600–2000 nm), SiO2 is common
(200–700 nm) GaAs K, Cs, Sb, 300–450 to 700 nm Cds, (200–500 nm) (400–1100 nm)
(300–650 nm) nm, Ag/O/Cs CdSe (400–650 nm),
400–500 nm, GaAs Sulphides, Selenides
300–850 nm of In, Pb, Cd, Ga,
etc. as also their
antimonides used
The source should produce wavelengths in the range 150 to 700 nm for an UV-visible spectrophotometer
and its power should remain constant. The common sources with wavelengths are given in Table 8.16.
Table 8.16 Sources and l-ranges (nm)

Sources l-ranges (nm)
1. Deuterium and hydrogen lamp 150 to 375
2. Xenon arc lamp 250 to 600
3. Tungsten filament lamp 350 to 2500
Hydrogen or D2 at low pressure excitation produces an excited molecular species H2* or D2* which is then
dissociated to give two atomic species H¢ and H≤ or D¢ and D≤ and an ultraviolet photon of energy hn. Thus
D2 + Ee Æ D2* Æ D¢ + D≤ + hn (8.92)
where Ee is the electrical energy absorbed by the molecule. An arc with low regulated voltage supply, about
40 V, is formed between metal electrode and a heated excited coated filament which provides the electrons
to maintain a direct current so that the output is maintained at constant intensity.
Xenon arc lamp produces an intense radiation in a specified l-range when a current passes through
xenon atmosphere. Its peak energy is at a l of about 500 nm. Arc forms at about 6000 K.
In the visible and near UV, tungsten filament lamp is extensively used. Its characteristic has already
been examined and discussed. For an operating voltage V, the lamp energy output in the visible range is
proportional to V4. Spectroscopic source uses tungsten halogen lamp containing iodine which has a quartz
enclosure. It works at 3500 K. Tungten erodes to form tungsten vapour which reacts with iodine to form
WI2. This then strikes tungsten wire and by decomposition, deposits W on the wire. The life of the wire, in
consequence, increases. Iodine also extends the UV range.
Signal processing and conditioning involves mainly electronic circuits to perform amplification,
conversion—V to A, A to V, DC to AC etc., change of phase, differentiation, integration, linearization, log
conversion, squaring, square-rooting etc. A major processing is filtering to remove noise and unwanted
components. Read-out devices are strip chart recorders, digital display units, printers etc.
Before describing the instrumentation systems, it is considered pertinent to say a few words about the
mechanism of absorption and producing signals for measurement in qualitative and quantitative UV-visible
analysis. It has already been mentioned that various vibrational and rotational levels can be occupied in
different molecules and the incident radiation contains large number of photons so that these levels associated
with higher electron state can be simultaneously populated in different molecules. In molecules three types
of orbitals may be defined, (a) bonding molecular or low energy, (b) antibonding molecular or high energy,
and (c) nonbonding molecular. If separate atoms go to form a molecular orbital with increased stability of the
molecule than the forming atoms, it is said to be of the first kind and of less energy. If, however, the stability
is less it is the second kind and the third kind is obtained when no change in stability is observed and is
designated as n-orbital. In these molecular orbitals several types are possible, such as s-orbital, p-orbital and
corresponding s*-orbital and p*-orbital. In fact asterisk is used to designate antibonding molecular orbital.
The s-orbitaI is the one that has cylindrical symmetrical electron density around the intermolecular axis and
generally corresponds to single bonds between atoms and to one of the bonds in double or triple form. The
p-orbital is usually formed when there is a cloud of electrons above and below the internuclear axis but not
completely around it as in s-orbital. For absorption of radiation to occur, the radiation energy must correspond
to the energy difference between the electron levels in the molecule and the dipole moment of the molecule
must change. For absorption of UV and visible radiation transitions in molecules should be of the kinds n
to p*, p to p* n to s* and s to s*. The largest energy is required in the last one and generally occurs in
hard ultraviolet or vacuum UV range below 150 nm. In UV-visible spectrophotometer the wavelength range is
generally above 200 nm up to about 750 nm and hence for routine analysis this transition is of no consequence.
The portion of a molecule that absorbs radiation is called a chromophore. Next in energy requirement line is
n to s* and this occurs in the long UV region with l, 150 to 250 nm. Organic molecules with inorganic atoms
like S, I, F, Cl, Br, N etc., show this transition. Transitions p to p* and n to p* occur in near UV and visible
range with l values 200 to 700 nm and is most useful in such analysis. Largest absorption peaks occur for
p to p* transition making it most suitable for quantitative analysis. Typical application areas for the above
transitions are shown in Table 8.17. Figure 8.82 shows the diagrammatic representation.
Table 8.17 Transition in molecules with typical application cases
Transition l-range, nm Application area cases
1. s to s* below 150 C-H bond, C-C, C=C, C∫C bonds hexene
2. n to s* 150 to 250 CHO (aldehyde) bonds as in acetaldehyde
3. p to p* 200 to 700 C=N bonds, aromatic ring, benzene etc.
s* Antibonding
p* Antibonding
Energy
3 2 1
n Nonbonding
p Bonding
s Bonding
Fig. 8.82 Energy transition explained

Qualitative analysis in UV-visible spectroscopy is dependent on the fact that the absorption maximum
of a wavelength depends on the particular chromophore and the obtained spectrum from the instrument is
compared with the spectrum of sample kept as reference. In UV-visible region absorptive bands are quite
broad and many substances have such bands that overlap and this does not tend to make unique file samples
for comparison. Only when it is known that the test samples have absorptive maxima differing by at least
10 nm, the qualitative analysis is adoptable.
There are functional groups on an absorbing molecule or ion that changes or shifts the absorptive
maximum wavelength from UV to visible for example, such a group is called oxochrome. If the shift is
from shorter to longer wavelength it is called bathochrome or red shift and if it is from longer to shorter
wavelength, it is called hypochromic shift. This shift can be measured and the presence of chromophore
with auxochrome identified from file tables and charts.
The instrument for UV-visible absorption type analysis are of two different types. Colorimeters and
photometers are the types where filter is used as wavelength selector while spectrophotometers generally
use monochromators. Colorimeters are used in visible range because of their types of detector, mainly the
human eye. Both colorimeter and photometer are used for quantitative analysis with a fixed wavelength
whereas spectrophotometer is used in single wavelength for quantitative study or is scanned for qualitative
study.
A typical colorimetric set up is shown in Fig. 8.83. Visible radiation from the source S passes through a
wavelength selector (filter) F to fall on the sample cell SC. The amount of radiation that is not absorbed by
the sample passes through the cell and excites the photodetector PD, the output of which is then amplified
by amplifier A and is indicated on the indicator I. For a single wavelength radition the absorbance A is given
by the relation
A = abc (8.93)
S I
PD
F SC
Fig. 8.83 A typical colorimetric set up
where a is the absorptivity, b is the path length in the cell and c is the molar concentration of the absorbing
species. Absorbance and transmittance T are related as
A = – log T (8.94)
Often a is replaced by molar absorptivity e. A plot of A versus c should be a straight line passing through
the origin. For absorbance greater than the actual value a positive shift or deviation is said to occur or for
an absorbance less than the actual value a negative deviation occurs as shown in Fig. 8.84. The causes of
this deviation are either instrumental or chemical or both. The major cases are (i) instrumental such as (a)
supply variation, (b) stray radiation directly striking the detector, (c) polychromatism in the radiation, (d)
deviation of response characteristic of the detector at high and low intensities, particularly at low intensities,
i.e., at high sample concentrations—as absorbance is given by A log (Io/I)—a small error in I changes A by
a large value, (e) noise arising from source flickering, from the photodetector due to varying distribution of
emission called signal shot and is thermally induced or Johnson type; (ii) chemical reaction also changes
the curve: (a) reaction that alters concentration of absorbing species, (b) temperature shift that may shift
chemical equilibrium.
Spectrophotometers have wide variation in design, some of

which are specifically for visible region only and some are for both
+ve Actual
visible and UV region. There are two main types as specified earlier:
(a) the single beam type, and (b) the double beam type. The single
–ve
beam type uses either the sample or the reference cell at a time
and during change of these cells an occluder comes into operation A
which basically is a vane that automatically cuts off the light for
obtaining no transmittance. Also for 100% transmittance the optical
beam is controlled by a V-shaped control slot which is moved in
and out of the beam path. The range of such an instrument is 350
to 625 nm extendable up to 950 nm for which the photodetector c
needs be changed. The scheme is shown in Fig. 8.85. It is a cheaper
variety. By bringing in D2 lamp intermittently with tungsten lamp, Fig. 8.84 Positive and negative
as also different range photodetectors, the same instrument is usable deviations in absorptivity
in the 190 to 250 nm UV and the upper visible ranges. A type that
uses Littrow prism as the monochromator is shown in Fig. 8.86. While the instrument of Fig. 8.85 has an
accuracy of ± 2.5 nm with a bandwidth of 20 nm, that of Fig. 8.86 has an accuracy that varies from ± 0.5 to
± 2 nm with a bandwidth of 2.8 nm.
FL
EnS
Obj L
Grat
LCS
OCC
l-change S
F
ExS PD
Fig. 8.85 Absorption spectrometer for visible range
D2/H2 L
TL
TLM
D2/H2 LM
LP
PD1
SC
CL
ExS
CM
EM
ExS
PD2
Fig. 8.86 A typical UV/visible spectrophotometer using Littrow prism

Various double beam type instruments are now available commercially. A comparative low cost variety
is shown in Fig. 8.87 that uses the UV or visible photodetector PD. Double beam sophisticated types are
usable in the range 190 to 750 nm and employ often plane gratings. By choosing proper slits, bandwidths
down to 0.2 nm can be chosen.
D2/H2
CGr
M1
PD
RC
SM
GM
SC
Fig. 8.87 A low cost double beam spectrometer forUV/visible range
For improving resolution and avoiding scattered radiation many systems use two gratings serially.
However, a single grating arranged properly with requisite optics can serve the purpose as shown in
Fig. 8.88. First dispersion occurs by the grating after entrance slit 1 EnS1 and reflection at M3 and the
second after passing through exit slit ExS1 and after reflection from mirrors M5, M6 and passing through
entrance slit EnS2 and reflection at M3. The chopper splits the beam for reference line and sample or
measuring line. It can have a resolution of as low as 0.07 nm and stray light drops to about 10–5% of the
main power or intensity at 200 to 800 nm. Photodetectors are changed for range change as also the sources.
Multichannel or parallel access absorption spectrometers are comparatively newer in this area that use
silicon diode arrays and/or vidicons as detectors. A silicon diode detector is basically a reverse-biased p-n
junction formed on a silicon chip. The reverse bias brings down the junction conductance to nearly zero.
With radiation falling on it, holes and electrons are produced and a current proportional to radiant power is
obtained. These tiny diodes are arranged in the form of an array so that they can convert the optical pattern
into a charge pattern and a video image of the same can be recorded. The array is located in the focal
plane of a monochromator. With the varying intensity dispersed beam striking the detector array, a charge
pattern related to the intensity will be developed. Thus the entire spectrum is observed simultaneously
and not serially. Figure 8.89(a) shows a photodiode array detector chip, where Sj’s are the switches for the
diode storage-capacitor pair which is utilized by the shift register for scanning purposes and obtaining the
signal via the integrator. In fact the register sequentially closes the switches Sj momentarily to charge the
capacitor to a negative value. With the radiation falling on the diode, partial discharge of Cj occurs, the
resulting charging current is integrated to produce a voltage proportional to the radiant intensity. The diode
array detector given in Fig. 8.89(b) is generally used in association with a vidicon shown in Fig. 8.89(c).
The electron beam recharges the capacitors in this case, the part played by Sj and the shift register in Fig.
8.89(a). In both the cases, without moving the monochromator, the complete spectrum can be obtained. The
schematic of a parallel access, i.e., multichannel spectrometer is shown in Fig. 8.89(d). In this design the
measuring cell MC as also the reference cell RC are located between the source and the monochromator
allowing absorption of the lines so that they can be observed in the spectrum with dispersion later. Source
consists of both the visible and the UV radiation, for which a halogen or a tungsten lamp and a D2 lamp
are arranged appropriately. The composite beam is reflected by the source mirror SM on to the source
ellipsoidal mirror SE through a slit. The slit and the measuring cell are located on the two foci of this ellipse
for high optical energy concentration. A second ellipse, Sp.E, is also used in the system with the sample cell
and the entrance slit to the grating as two foci of it. This allows three more sample cells to be included
in the system and using director mirrors DM’s the samples can be successively analysed in a short time.
Director mirrors are controlled by a servo system with the upper mirror directing alternately to the reference
and sample cells and the lower mirror directs each beam on to Sp.E. The servo is controlled by a specially
arranged diode detector system which rotates the mirror to maintain the desired focusing all the time. The
monochromator is a pair of holographic gratings HG one of which is tilted by an angle with respect to the
other for directing the UV spectrum in one direction while the other takes care of the visible spectrum.
The commercial instrument available today is complete with data processing unit like a microprocessor-
based system. The signals from the photodetectors are pre-amplified, filtered, passed to ADC and on to a
16-bit microprocessor where real time processing in terms of absorbance and transmittance is done. The
final data are then suitably displayed and/or stored in 64 K memory for future use. The processor performs,
(a) computations for concentrations of individual components, (b) calculations for standard deviations, (c)
searches to find peak maxima, and (d) curve-fitting for calibrations with standards samples, besides setting
of units and initialization.
D2 M1
EnS1 M2
F
M3
EnS2
M6
RC
M4
M5
ExS1 BS
ExS2
PD
MC
Fig. 8.88 A double beam variety with greater resolution and accuracy
Clk
n-bit
Shift register
Start
Output
S1 S2 Sn
D1 D2 Dn
C2 Cn
C1 Reset
(a)
Depletion layer
Sweep
hn Radiation
Scanning
electron
beam
Face plate
Focus
p-type n-region
silicon
(b) (c)
UV Vis
SM M1
RC
SE CCM
UV to D. Array
Sp.E M2
DM MC
HG To D. Array
CCM
Vis
DM
(d)
Fig. 8.89 (a) Photodiode array detector chip, (b) the diode array detector, (c) a vidicon that uses the
diode array detector, (d) schematic of multichannel spectrophotometer
The operation of the instrument can also be controlled by the microprocessor, such as determination of
the dark current by suppressing the beam from the detector line, switching on of the beam to pass through
sample cell, operation of the shift register and integrator in the detector array, recycling of the operational
process, etc.
8.3.6 Atomic Spectroscopy

Emission, fluorescence or even absorption of electromagnetic radiation by atoms or ions are the basis
of atomic spectroscopy. The radiation range involved is from visible to UV, on to X-rays. Molecular
fluorescence and phosphorescence also occur, but occurrence of such spectra are explainable via simple
molecular orbital considerations.
Atomization process converts molecular constituents of a sample into atomic particles and during this
process UV and visible spectra of the atomised species are obtained by emission, absorption or fluorescence
which form the basis of this analysis technique. Atomic spectra, in general consist of a number of narrow
discrete lines which arise from electronic transitions of the outermost electrons. For metallic atoms/ions,
energies of these transitions can show UV, visible and near infrared radiations. Thus when an atom/ion
returns from the excited to the ground state, it is accompanied by the emission of photon radiation.
Also in the hot gaseous medium some atoms are capable of absorbing radiation of specific wavelengths
characteristic of electronic transitions from lower state to higher excited states.
A molecule or an atom having all its electrons paired is said to be in singlet state when the total electron
spin is zero as it has equal number of electrons of opposite spins. If there is a single unpaired electron as
in free radical, the molecule/atom is said to be in doublet state and if there are two unpaired electrons with
identical spin, it is said to be in triplet state. The ground singlet, excited singlet and excited triplet states are
of considerable importance in spectral studies. The states are symbolically represented in Figs 8.90(a),(b)
and (c) respectively, where horizontal lines represent the ground (G) and excited states (L) and the arrows
represent the electrons and their spin orientations. For a system to move from a singlet state to a triplet
state electron spin reversal has to take place and there is always a stiff opposition to this. This is true for
the reverse case as well. Such a crossing is called intersystem crossing. Luminescence can occur when an
excited electron level can return directly to the ground state before energy is lost otherwise. In this case, the
energy is equivalent to that exists between the two levels. Luminescence can be classified as fluorescence
or phosphorescence. When electron transition from excited singlet to the lower singlet state occurs, the case
is called fluorescence and if the wavelength of the emitted radiation is the same as the exciting radiation it
is called the resonant fluorescence. In normal fluorescence, the emitted radiation wavelength is longer than
the exciting radiation wavelength.
L L L
G G G
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 8.90 (a) The ground singlet, (b) excited singlet, and (c) excited triplet states
Phosphorescence can occur with a transition from the excited triplet state to the lower energy singlet
state and obviously involves an intersystem crossing. The singlet-singlet transition possibility is 105 to 106
times higher than triplet-singlet transition which makes quantum yield of fluorescence 105 to 106 higher
than that of phosphorescence.
Atoms in a hot atmosphere, such as flame, can be made to show fluorescence by irradiating them with an
intense band of radiation of wavelengths which are absorbed by the element.
Atomization procedure, to a certain extent, determines the category of the atomic spectroscopic methods.
When flame produces atomization or ionization, emission, absorption and fluorescence are possible.
Electrothermal atomization is used for fluorescence and absorption spectroscopy. Plasma sources are used
for emission and fluorescence methods. Other atomization methods like electric arc, and spark are used for
emission spectra only. Some of the methods have abbreviated names commercially referred to. Obviously,
all these methods are high temperature methods ranging from 1000 to about 40,000°C (instant). Table 8.18
shows the types of spectroscopy, their names, the methods of atomization and the temperature in °C.
Table 8.18 Atomic spectral methods
Types, names with abbreviations Atomization methods Temperature °C
Absorption (1) Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) Flame 1700 – 3100
(2) Electrothermal atomic absoiption Electrothermal method 1200 – 3000
spectroscopy (EAAS)
Emission (1) Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) Flame 1700 – 3100
(2) Inductively-coupled plasma Inductively coupled argon 6000 – 8000
spectroscopy (ICPS) plasma
(3) Direct current argon plasma DC argon plasma 6000 – 10000
spectroscopy (DCPS)
(4) Arc source emission spectroscopy Electric arc 4000 – 5000
(5) Spark source emission spectroscopy Spark source 40,000
Fluorescence (1) Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy Flame 1700 – 3100
(AFS)
(2) Electrothermal atomic fluorescence Electrothermal method 1200 – 3000
spectroscopy (EAFS)
(3) Inductively-coupled plasma fluorescence Inductively-coupled argon 6000 – 8000
spectroscopy (ICPFS) plasma
Since the atomic spectroscopy would depend on the atomization process, a brief outline of the techniques
of atomization would be discussed first.
(1) Flame Atomizer A nebulizer and burner are used to make up this atomizer. The nebulizer converts the
liquid sample into a fine spray called aerosol which is fed into the flame of the burner. Burners are of two
types: (i) turbulent flow or total consumption burner, and (ii) laminar flow or premixed burner. In the former
the nebulizer and the burner constitute a single unit with the sample being drawn through a capillary which
is nebulized by the oxygen and fuel gases around the capillary tube where it is burnt, it being the burner tip
as well. It has a short flame path length and the tip is likely to clogg in use; besides, the burner is noisy. It is
being gradually discarded in practice. In contrast, in the laminar flow type, sample is first nebulized by the
oxidant at the capillary tip, the resulting aerosol is then mixed with fuel and allowed to flow past a series
of baffles. In the process only the finest droplets are retained which are then burnt in a slotted burner to
provide a flame path length of 5 to 10 cm. Because of baffle traps, the technique can introduce sample at a
lower rate. The mixing chamber provides opportunities for selective evaporation of mixed solvents causing
uncertainties in analysis. The longer path, however, gives better sensitivity and reproducibility. In laminar
flow type burners a large part of the sample is drained out while in turbulent flow type, the sample is not
often completely atomized making both to be poor in sampling efficiency.
(2) Electrothermal Atomizer There are variations in its design. In one type, the sample is held in
a graphite cup which, in turn, is held between two electrodes also of graphite. The cup is kept in
an atmosphere of inert gas during burning, the Sample cup

gas being flown in suitably. The system is kept
Optical path
watercooled. The graphite surfaces are coated with
a layer of pyrolitic carbon for preventing analyte
to be diffused into it. Figure 8.91 shows the basic
elements of the system.
(3) Plasma Plasma basically is a conducting gaseous
mixture that contains large proportion of cations and
electrons with their net charge being nearly zero.
Argon plasma, used in the proposed analysis, will
contain these ions and electrons where sample cations Electrodes for
will also be present in small proportion because of the heating
design. Depending on the power sources employed
Fig. 8.91 The basic elements of an electrothermal
for sustaining the plasma, different names have been atomiser
given such as (i) RF or inductively-coupled plasma,
(ii) microwave frequency plasma, and (iii) dc plasma. The first two have better sensitivity and freedom
from interference while the last one is simple in design and less costly. Figure 8.92 shows the schematic
of an ICP source. Concentric quartz cylinders are there for support argon flow and sample argon flow. A
watercooled induction coil is used through which a RF supply at about 30 MHz at a power of 2 kW flows to
maintain the plasma which is initiated by a spark from a Tesla coil.
Plasma
RF Induction coil
Source
Quartz cylinders
Air supply
(Plasma support)
Argon & sample

Aerosol from premixer
Fig. 8.92 The schematic diagram of an inductively coupled plasma source
The sample is nebulized in an apparatus similar to the one used in flame atomizer and taken to the top
of the plasma source by argon flowing in total at a rate of about 1 litre/min. Supporting argon flows at
a rate of about 10 to 15 litre per min. Instead of a nebulizer as mentioned above, ultrasonic nebulizer or
electric heating sample vapourizers are also used. Plasma has a tapered nontransparent core of intense white
brilliance ending at the top in an extended tail. The spectral observation is to be made at about 1 to 2 cm
above the induction coil where argon lines are absent and the analytic lines are only prevalent.
The dc plasma source consists of three electrodes arranged in an inverted Y(l) configuration with
graphite anodes at the base legs and a tungsten cathode at the top. Argon is allowed to flow in through the
anode block towards cathode. By bringing the cathode close to the anodes initiation of the plasma is done
and after separation, it is sustained by argon ionization and the consequent current. Both in the RF and DC
type, temperature rises to 5000 to 10000°C. Sample with argon is aspirated into the junction of the base legs
of inverted Y where it is atomized and this also is the viewing point.
Arc source is usually formed with a pair of graphite/metal (Cu) electrodes kept separated by a distance
of 1 to 20 mm. The arc can be started (i) by bringing the electrodes together so that enough heat can be
provided for the ionization and then arc would continue even if the separation is made, or (ii) by igniting
the arc by a low current spark which forms ionization in the gap and then thermal ionization maintains the
arc. The arc current varies from 1 to 30 A with a dc supply of 200 V whereas ac arc source voltage may be
as high as 2.2 to 4.4 kV. Arc is actually motion of electrons and ions formed by thermal ionization, the high
temperature in the arc is a result of the resistance to the above motion specifically of the cations in the gap.
This temperature is not constant and is a function of (a) the rate of formation of atomic particles from the
sample and electrodes, and (b) the sample composition. This rate of formation by volatilization varies from
sample to sample in so much as some spectra form early, then disappear, some attain peak late, and so on.
The temperature, however, of the plasma is 4000 to 8000° K.
Arc source is more sensitive to traces of element than in a spark source and has less chemical
interference than flame ionization. Graphite electrodes on arcing produce bands due to CN molecules in the
region 350 to 420 nm which is avoided by arcing in an atmosphere of CO2, He or Ar. Complete elimination
is, however, possible by arcing in vacuo.
The sample solution is usually coated on the sample electrode surface and dried before arcing.
The spark source is obtained by high voltage sparks between a pair of electrodes involving the sample.
The scheme of a spark generation technique is shown in Fig. 8.93. The step up transformer raises the
potential across the capacitor to 10 to 50 kV and the LC circuit is utilized for forming the arc usually at a
rate of 100 to 150 times a second. In fact, a series of oscillating discharges follows and the voltage drops
enough to maintain the current in the gap. The spark is active for about 10 to 100 msec. An auxiliary spark
gap is often used in series as shown, which is controlled by a synchronous motor so that sparking occurs
El.
C Sp. gap
X’er Aux.
Sp. gap
Fig. 8.93 The scheme of a spark generation technique
only when the potential across the capacitor is at its peak. The motor is thus in synchronization with the ac
line frequency. The average current in the spark is much less than arc, although initially during discharge it
may rise to a very high value, to even 1000 A. The discharge occurs over a very narrow channel of the spark
space and in it a temperature as high as 40,000° K may occur. This ensures more pronounced ionic spectra
as compared to arc source and the precision here is also more. The lowest concentration of liquid that can
be measured is about 1 mg/1 mlitre and for solid sample 0.01%. Solid sample forms one electrode with the
other a pointed graphite or silicon tip. Liquid is often brought into the spark using a porous cup electrode.
Laser excitation is showing promise because Mirror
of high energy which can be utilized to cause
atomization and excitation of emission lines Laser
over a small area on the surface of the sample.
The commercial available source, the laser Microprobe
microprobe, employs a laser—a pulsed ruby
laser—to vaporize the sample in a gap between
two graphite electrodes which, in turn, acts as Electrodes
spark excitation source as shown in Fig. 8.94. Sample
The probe can be used for exciting even non-
conducting materials for a surface of around 50 Fig. 8.94 The laser microprobe
mm diameter.
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) A typical AAS system is shown in Fig. 8.95. Atomic absorption
lines are remarkably narrow to within 0.002 to 0.005 nm with associated electronic transition energies
unique for each element. These limited line widths create certain problems such as (i) source bandwidth
must be narrower with respect to the absorption bandwidth, and (ii) the source intensity must be greater
than the absorption peak. A separate special source is thus necessary that would satisfy the spectroscopic
requirement, i.e., a source must be chosen so that Doppler broadening of the emitted lines must be less than
the broadening of the absorption peak in the flame. Unfortunately a simple lamp source cannot produce
such lines for different elements.
Amplifier & Display
Grating
PD
Source Flame Monochromator

lamp automiser
Fig. 8.95 A typical scheme of an atomic absorption spectroscope
The commonly used sources for this purpose are (a) hollow cathode lamp, (b) electrodeless discharge
lamp, and (c) temperature gradient lamp.
Of these the hollow cathode lamp is the most common which consists of a cylidrical cathode and a
tungsten anode sealed in a glass tube filled with argon or neon at a pressure of 1 to 5 Torr. The cathode
material is chosen for the desired spectrum. The scheme is shown in Fig. 8.96. With appropriately large
potential applied between the electrodes the cations in the ionized gas inside the tube acquire enough
energy to dislodge some atoms from the cathode and an atomic cloud is formed by what is known as the
‘sputtering’ process. Some of these atoms are in the excited states and emit characteristic radiation while
returning to the ground state—when the atoms are redeposited on the cathode surface.
Electrodeless discharge lamp has a quartz tube filled Anode

with an inert gas, mostly, argon and a small quantity
of a metal or its salt chosen such that its characteristic
radiation spectrum is what would be obtained. The
tube is energized by an RF or a Microwave radiation,
say 2450 MHz, and the rest of the process is similar to
that of the hollow cathode tube lamp. These sources
produce radiation of higher intensity as compared to Cathode
Glass
hollow cathode lamp and is conveniently used in atomic
Fig. 8.96 The schematic diagram of a hollow
fluorescence spectroscopy. Commercially available
cathode lamp
electrodeless discharge lamps are for many materials such
as As, Bi, Cd, Cs, Cr, Hg, K, P, Pb, Se, Sn, Ti, Tl, Zn, etc.
Temperature gradient lamp is a recent addition which uses an electric heater to convert the element into
atomic vapour and the rest of the operation is the same as the above. It uses a glass bulb but is provided
with a silica window.
The spectrometer shown in Fig. 8.95 often uses a modulated power source for the hollow cathode lamp
or a chopper for easier electronic circuit design. The single beam instrument needs calibration with a ‘blank
flame’ but the flame itself is responsible for some radiant power due to absorption and scattering. A double-
beam type shown in Fig. 8.97 has a reference beam that does not pass through any flame. A chopper and
a half-silvered mirror M in collusion with a lock-in amplifier driver in synchronization with chopper allow
the comparison to be made in terms of the ratio between the reference and sample signal. The balance
technique can be adopted here as well when the amplified signal from the reference beam is attenuated with
the help of a potentiometer and matched with the sample signal.
Ref. beam
G
M
Lamp
Flame
Look in
Display
Amplifier
Fig. 8.97 A double beam type atomic absorption spectroscope
In atomic absorption spectrometry interferences are encountered which can be (i) chemical, (ii)
ionization, (iii) spectral, and (iv) background type. (i) Chemical interference arises because of chemical
reactions that may occur within the cell by which possibly the amount of element to be analysed is
decreased. In flames, the most common interference is known to be occurring due to the formation of
refractory oxides with the element due to the presence of oxygen. This can be avoided (a) by increasing
flame temperature, (b) by decreasing the available quantity of oxygen using nitrous oxide—acetylene
flame instead of air-acetylene flame, for example, (c) sometimes by adding what is termed a spectroscopic
buffer, also called a releasing agent which is a chemical substance used to react with one or more of the
components to form non-refractory compounds. (ii) Increasing ionization would reduce concentration of
the analyte atoms in the cell and since spectral lines for ions and atoms are different, ionization does affect
the absorption value. This interference occurs for specific elements which have low ionization energy, i.e.,
elements of Gr IA and Gr IIA, which are easily ionized at the cell temperature. Obviously it is reduced
by decreasing cell temperature or using low temperature flame such as propane-air flame, or, by adding
large amount of an element of low ionization energy which now gets ionized leaving the analyte free to
act. (iii) Spectral interference can occur if two constituents/elements absorb/emit radiations that are nearly
identical in wavelengths such as vanadium line 308.211 nm and the aluminium absorption line 308.215
nm. This would make the detector respond to the pair of lines equally and a positive error would result if
they are both absorbed and a negative error results if one line is emitted by one constituent and the close
line is absorbed by the other. The latter case can also be called a background interference. The method of
avoiding this interference is (a) to use different lines other than the interfering lines for analysis since most
elements have more than one absorption lines, or, (b) to separate these components before analysis. Some
examples of such paired lines are: Tb – 285.2 nm – Mg; Cr-290.0 nm–Os; etc. (iv) Background interference
is a nonspecific interference and occurs due to absorption by polyatomic species or scattering. For shorter
wavelengths scattering becomes more important but above about 450 nm this interference is negligible
in flame. Best way to eliminate this is to compensate for it by estimation or by actually measuring die
background absorbance.
Zeeman splitting can be utilized to correct for both spectral and background interference. In the former
case, the wavelength of the interfering line(s) is separated sufficiently from that of the analyte to avoid
absorption error. For this a separation of at least about 0.02 nm is needed. For background interference
correction, the radiation source wavelength is split into a p and two s bands. In the cell a part of p band
is absorbed by the analyte since it is in the same band as that of the analyte and by the background
interferences, while the s bands are absorbed by the background interferences only. Using a rotating
polarizer p and s bands are alternately detected and their difference would give the background corrected
signal.
Analysis with flame in atomic absorption spectroscopy requires that a solution containing an analyte be
aspirated into the flame, the components of the solution other than the analyte is called a matrix which must
be matching with analyte in relation to viscosity, otherwise aspiration becomes different in the standard and
sample, and, an error called matrix error results.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a very sensitive technique of measuring metals and metalloids
quantitatively. For nonmetallic elements, the absorption lines are on UV side and vacuum spectrometers are
necessary for their determination. Detection with flame atomization can be done within a range of 0.001 to
0.20 ppm for most of the metals while with electrothermal atomization the range is 10–6 to 10–5 ppm. The
error is within 2%.
Atomic Emission Spectroscopy Atomic emission spectroscopy can also use flame for atomization. Such
spectroscopy is often termed as flame emission spectroscopy or flame photometry and is widely used in
elemental analysis. Specifically, emission of UV-visible radiation from monoatomic ions and atoms occurs
when they lose energy from excited electron state to lower energy electron state.
In flame photometry, the flame atomizes the sample and also excites the atomized analyte. The difference
between the flame absorption and flame emission spectroscopies is thus the absence of a separate source in
the latter case. The routine work with flame photometers is usually carried out with filters particularly for
alkali and alkaline earth metals. For general purpose work a monochromator is necessary. For most analyses
premix burners are being extensively used in recent years. For analysis covering the bulk of elements air-
acetylene flame is used whereas for refractory compounds nitrous oxide-acetylene flames are preferred.
If atoms are at thermal equilibrium at temperature T, then the number of atoms in an excited energy level
is given by
Nj = No (Pj/Po) exp (–Ej/KT) (8.95)
where No is the number of atoms in ground state, Pj and Po are the statistical weight factors in the two
levels, Ej is the difference of energy between the excited and ground states, K is the Boltzmann constant.
Now, P actually is a measure of the relative number of possible electrons in each energy level and is
calculated by using the internal quantum number for the atom in an energy level J, as
P = 2J + 1 (8.96)
The intensity of an emission line is proportional to the number of atoms Nj the amount of energy hv
emitted for each photon and a factor FE called the Einstein transition probability for the electron transition.
Hence,
I = FENjhn (8.97a)
= FEhnNo(Pj/Po) exp (–Ej/KT) (8.97b)

This equation is used to calculate the most intense emissive line which is used for quantitative
analysis, the analysis being done via working curve method. The working curve is a file or library curve
prepared by plotting the absorbance of several standard solutions of the element/analyte as a function of
the concentration of the solutions. The qualitative analysis, however, is done by obtaining the intensity
wavelength curve and then comparing with the file curve obtained with the same instrument as some
standard reference. There are similar interferences in this method as well. Flame emission spectroscopy,
however, is more sensitive to flame fluctuation which is usually overcome by what is known as internal
standard method in which a second element of known concentration is added to each solution of the
analyte. Measurement of both the analyte lines and the known value of the internal standard substance can
help produce a relative intensity curve. As fluctuation and other environmental conditions equally affect
the two lines, the curve thus obtained can be used as a compensating working curve. Metallic elements
covering half the periodic table can be analysed by flame emission spectrometry. Also, this technique is
now extensively used in the analysis of biological fluids and tissues.
Plasma spectroscopy is used for elemental emission analysis with plasma excitation. Some
commercial spectrometers use wavelengths from 180 to 900 nm, others use up to 500 nm mainly
because the elemental emission lines rarely have wavelengths above this value. For analysis of
sulphur, phosphorus and carbon, the short wavelength range is preferred. Commercial plasma
emission spectroscopy are of two main types: (a) sequential, and (b) simultaneous multichannel. In
the former each line is brought to focus manually or automatically moving the grating monochromator-
mirror assembly. Obviously, the excitation has to be for a long period for all the lines covered
sequentially. A typical scheme of a commercial sequential AAS/AES using ICP emission is shown in
Fig. 8.98, where two mirrors M1 and M2 are
ExS
shown which are rotatable and movable as
indicated. PS is the plasma source like ICP
and EnS and ExS represent the entrance D
and exit slits. The monochromator has a HG
holographic grating (HG) which can be
controlled by a microprocessor-operated EnS
stepper motor. Each step of the motor is
M2
designed to correspond to a particular
measuring line with a wavelength change M1
as set, say 0.007 to 0.008 nm; D is the
PS
detector. Such an instrument can be used
for 20 elements easily with an operating
cycle of 5 minutes in total. Fig. 8.98 A commercial sequential AAS/AES using ICP emission
The multichannel type instrument covers 50 to 60 elements simultaneously using special optics with
concave grating monochromator. A typical such optics is the Rowland circle with its arc coinciding with the
focal curve of the grating. There will be as many exit slits and photodetectors as the number of elements.
A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.99. This is the type that can be used for spark and arc source emission
spectroscopy as well. Often exit slits are backed by mirrors which reflect the beams to photomultiplier tubes
as the location of the phototubes are, otherwise critical insofar as installation is concerned. Photomultiplier
outputs are integrated, digitized, converted by a microprocessor into concentration and displayed by
printing or/and LED/LCD visual display units and also stored.
ExS
PD
Electronic &
Display
processor units
Movable EnS
Mirror
Aper.
Source
Fig. 8.99 A multichannel type instrument using Rowland grating
Both dispersion and resolution are improved by using echelle grating which has larger diffraction
angle and used higher order of dispersion so that the reciprocal linear dispersion is nearly 1/10th and the
resolution nearly 12.5 times more than those in conventional concave grating. In echelle grating angle of
incidence and refraction are nearly same and is around 60° in contrast to about 10° in conventional types
where order is 1. In the echelle type order r is around 75 so that from the equation
2d sin q = nl (8.98)
the linear dispersion D in terms of angular dispersion q, is
D = Fdq/dl = nF/(2d cos q) (8.99)
where F is the focal length of the monochromator.
Example 8.2 If the order used in an echelle grating is 70 and a dispersion angle 60°, groove density 80/mm and
focal length 0.5 m, obtain the reciprocal linear dispersion and resolution.
Solution d = 1/80 mm, D–1 = 2d cos q/(nF) = [2 ¥ (1/80) ¥ l/2]/(70 ¥ 0.5) mm/m = 0.37 ¥ 10–3 mm/m
= 370 mm/mm
The high dispersion at high orders of refraction is so very great that to cover a broad spectral range it is
necessary to use a number of successive orders, which in turn, suggests that a cross dispersion system be
used to separate the orders. Otherwise overlapping vitiates the results. In this system the radiation from the
grating is passed through a prism with its axis 90 degree from the grating axis so that a two dimensional
spectrum is produced and the wavelengths are obtained in the form of a matrix. The schematic of the system
is shown in Fig. 8.100.
Collimating
S mirror
Focusing
mirror
Echelle
Prism
Fig. 8.100 A spectroscope using a cross dispersion type system
Arc and spark sources are normally unstable and hence multichannel type instruments are more suitable
with such sources where the output signal is integrated and averaged over a sufficiently long interval of
time, not less than 20 sec. The instrument used is shown in Fig. 8.99. Detection in classical mode is done
on a photographic film/plate located at the monochromator focal, plane. However, photomultiplier detectors
are common with digital storage and display as described earlier. Photographic detection makes the system
simpler and inexpensive compared to multichannel photo-multiplier detector assembly. In this case also,
for quantitative analysis, internal standards are used for compensation of the uncontrollable parameters
involved in the detection process. The internal standard should be guided by the following requirements:
(a) lines of the standard and the sample should be similar in intensity covering the same spectral range,
(b) the ionization energies of the standard and the element should be similar for similar distribution of
atoms to ions in the source,
(c) the concentration of standard should be same as that of the analyte,
(d) its emission line and that of the analyte should have nearly same excitation energy, and
(e) the physical and chemical properties in the two cases should be similar.
The above requirements are to a great extent idealized and often not met in practice.
Other than internal standards, standard samples are also required to be produced in arc/spark emission
spectroscopy for calibration and standardization. These samples for solid alloy analysis are prepared by
melting together pure elements in weighed amounts. For liquid/solution samples, synthesis from pure
chemicals is usually followed.
Atomic absorption is the most popular and accepted technique in the atomic emission method. Atomic
fluorescence technique, in comparison, is less popular although it provides a convenient means of
quantitative study of a large number of elements. It, however, does not offer any specific advantage in the
UV-visible range. A high intensity source initiates the process and the fluorescent radiation emitted by the
sample is examined at right angles by a detector. The relation between the fluorescent radiation IF and the
atomic concentration is given by
IF = 2.303 qeIoaalcp (8.100)
where, Io = intensity of the excitation radiation, qe = quantum efficiency which is a factor that accounts
for the loss of energy by process other than fluorescence, aa = atomic absorptivity of the irradiation
wavelength, l = path length of the flame, c = concentration of absorbing species, p = a factor that determines
the fraction of the total fluorescence observed by the detector.
For a particular set of instrument system Eq. (8.100) can be simplified to
IF = kqe Ioc (8.101)

Fluorescence instruments can also be dispersive and nondispersive, and the systems are similar to
the ones already described. It has been used in the analysis of metals in sea water, biological substances,
lubricating oil, agricultural samples, graphite etc. It can measure Ca with a trace of 10–6 ppm, As down to
0.1 ppm, Hg to 0.02 ppm, Pb to 0.01 ppm, Zn to 2 ¥ 10–5 ppm, and so on.
There are four types of atomic fluorescence: (a) Direct line—if the valence electron is excited to a level
above the first excited state, during its transition to a lower energy level but not to the ground state, this type
of fluorescence is produced when the wavelength becomes longer than the excitation radiation. Ex: thallium
fluorescence at 535 nm from thallium emission of 377.6 nm. (b) Resonance type—this is the most intense
type and also the widely used one. Here the excitation and fluorescence wavelengths are same and occurs
when a transition takes place from the first excited state to the ground state after excitation to that state
occurred from the ground state, (c) Sensitized fluorescence—occurs when an atom is excited by collision
with an excited atom of another species—it is a sort of resonance fluorescence. Thus thallium will fluoresce
at 377.6 nm or 535 nm when it collides with an excited Hg atom at 253.7 nm. (d) Stepwise fluorescence—
occurs when an excited atom is deactivated to the first state and then to the ground state. Na fluoresces at
589 nm with excitation at 330.3 nm.
8.3.7 Turbidimeter and Nephelometer

When solid particles are dispersed in a transparent medium specifically liquid medium, a part of radiation
incident in the medium in one direction would be scattered in all directions and the liquid appears to be
turbid. The attenuation of the beam of light in the direction of incidence due to scattering would give the
amount of turbidity and the principle is utilized in turbidimetry. If, however, the scattered radiation is
measured at right angles to the direction of incidence the technique is called nephelometry. Nephelometry
is more sensitive than turbidimetry because at low dispersion of solid particles, the concentration related
nephelometric parameter can be measured independently of the incident radiation power. This means for
large scattering turbidimetry is preferred, while for low scattering, the attenuation in the incident beam is
small and the nephelometric measurement is more appropriate.
The intensity of radiation in another direction after scattering, in general, depends on (i) the number
of suspended particles, (ii) sizes and shapes of the particles, (iii) their refractive indices and the refractive
index of the medium and (iv) radiation wavelength—usually a monochromatic radiation is preferred. A
complete theoretical analysis with all such parameters is unwieldy and is not often necessary in practice.
Instead an empirical exponential relation I = Io exp (–tl) is used, where I and Io are the intensity or power of
the beam after and before passing through the length l of the turbid medium of turbidity coefficient t which
is taken to be a linear function of the concentration c of the scattering particles so that the above equation is
written as
c = 2.303 log10 (Io/I)/(kl) (8.102)
where k is a constant. This relation is used for turbidimetric analysis with calibration performed taking
standard samples.
For nephelometric studies, the beam intensity at right angles to the direction of incidence is measured
with varying c and the curve so obtained is used as library reference. The curve is nearly linear for low
concentrations.
The instrument for turbidimetry is similar to the filter photometer used in intensity measurement whereas
that for nephelometry is similar to that used in fluorometry, a simple schematic of which is shown in
Fig. 8.101.
Fig. 8.101 The scheme used in nephelometry
8.3.8 Density and Speci ic Gravity

Specific gravity (SG) is a very important factor in many manufacturing industries. Accordingly, different
product manufacturers have proposed different specific gravity scales some of which are briefly mentional
here.
(a) API, American Pertroleum Institute selected this scale far back in 1921 which has since been
approved by the NBS (NIST). It is given as
141.5
Degrees hydrometer scale at 60°F = - 131.5
SG
(b) In brewing industry precentage of wort (malt infusion) is estimated by Balling scale. It is actually
percentage by weight at 60°F (17.5°C).
(c) Baume scale was proposed by Antoine Baume early in 1768 for measuring acids and syrups. There
are actually two scales—one for liquids heavier than water the other for liquids lighter than water.
In the initial years calibration was a problem. However, Baume prepared his own solution for the
purpose. Presently the NIST has fixed the standards as
140
(i) ∞Be = - 130 for light liquids
and SG
145
(ii) ∞Be = 145 - for heavy liquids
SG
both at 60°F.
(d) Brix is a scale used exclusively in sugar industries. It is percentage of sugar by weight in the solution
at 60°F and is called degree Brix.
(e) In alcohol industries percent by weight of ethyl alcohol is expressed in Sikes scale, Richter scale
and/or Tralles scale.
(f) For measuring the specific gravity of milk Quevenne scale is used expressing in degrees such as 40°
Qu, 50° Qu mean SG of 1.040, 1.050 and so on. In lactometer scale this is given as 1∞ Qu ~ - 3.45
lacto scale.
Measurement of density, viscosity and consistency is of considerable interest in scientific work. But as a
means of inference of composition or concentration of a particular constituent chemical in a solution or
even of solids suspended in liquids, the above quantities are of great significance.
Density or specific gravity can be measured by various methods. Mechanical method and the electrical
method are the two major classes that are used in practice. The former method depends on the fact that (i)
the pressure at the bottom of a tank of constant liquid column is proportional to density, and (ii) the weight
of a given volume of a fluid is proportional to density. The techniques of density measurement of liquids
based on these two principles are shown in Figs 8.102(a) and (b) respectively.
Method (i) compares the hydrostatic pressures due to the heights of liquids in two tanks. One is the
reference tank consisting of a liquid of constant height and density rr. The other tank maintains the height
constant by overflow, so that the manometer can be directly calibrated in terms of the density of the liquid
of the measuring tank, the relation being
r = K1 +K2h (8.103)
where K1 = (h1/h2) rr, and K2 = (1/h2) rm, rm being the density of the manometric fluid. The manometer is
connected through the bubbler system as shown in Fig. 8.102(a). The manometer reading is required to be
corrected for varying temperature.
The second principle is utilized in a system shown in Fig. 8.102(b). A chamber is continuously flushed
with a liquid at constant rate of about 10 ¥ 103 cc/min. A pneumatic servo balance measures the weight
of the displacer placed inside the chamber. The indicated pressure will obviously be proportional to the
density.
Displacer
Seal
Gas/air sup. Regulator
Gas/air sup.
Nozzle
h
h2 h1
G
Ref.
(a) (b) Air
Fig. 8.102 (a) Sketch of a pressure head type densitometer, (b) sketch of displacer type densitometer
Another method using the second principle of weight measurement for obtaining an electrical output is
shown in Fig. 8.103. A number of floats weighted differently are so positioned that when the density of the
liquid changes some of them will close or open an electrical circuit by buoyant action, the system can be
arranged so that visual indication is also possible.
Resistance
Insulator grids
Weighted floats
Fig. 8.103 Set up of loat type densitometer
A common hydrometer can be used for measuring density or specific gravity and send an electrical
signal as well. The level inside the hydrometer tube is maintained constant by an overflow tube. The
reluctance type transmitter is easily coupled to the stem of the hydrometer as shown in Fig. 8.104. The
buoyant action raises or lowers the hydrometer for different densities thereby sending an electrical signal
through the inductance coil.
Overflow tube
To
bridge
Iron piece
armature
Fig. 8.104 Sketch of buoyancy effect densitometer
The buoyancy effect can be utilized in the gas density measurement as well. One method utilizes two
spheres arranged in the shape of a dumbbell suspended by a quartz fibre in an enclosed chamber. Spheres
are designed to have unequal buoyancy characteristics. One of the spheres is sputtered with rhodium for
conduction and two electrodes are arranged around it to form an electrostatic field. A mirror is fixed to the
quartz fibre which receives light from a stable source and reflects to a dividing prism which, in turn, splits
the beam to let fall on to two photocells as shown in Fig. 8.9(a). The difference of the photocell output
is amplified and used to bring balance to the dumbbell. The unbalance potential is also a measure of the
density. The system is schematically shown in Fig. 8.9(a). The chamber indicated by the dashed line or
circle is continuously flushed with the process fluid and a continuous measurement is thus possible.
Another novel type gas density detector is the fluid bridge Gow-Mac density meter as shown
schematically in Fig. 8.105. It consists of four arms of pipe connections like a Wheatstone bridge. The
sample gas enters at the diagonal arm of the bridge at c. A reference gas enters at the inlet a, divides and
flushes the split flows of the sample towards d1
the outlet at b. Two thermal detector elements
like thermistors or resistance thermometers
are placed at d1 and d2 as shown. The bridge
is mounted in a vertical plane. For a balanced Gas in
flow, the detector elements are equally Ref. gas Gas mixture
in a c b out
cooled and when they are connected in the
two arms of a Wheatstone bridge, indicate
a null balance. This condition is initially
adjusted without the sample gas. When the
d2
process gas enters at c and if the sample gas
has a larger density than the reference gas, Fig. 8.105 Set up of hot wire gas bridge type densitometer
because of the critical arrangement of the
bridge more sample gas will try to split downwards obstructing the flow of the reference gas through the
lower branch and d2 consequently gets hotter. For a lighter gas, similarly, d1 will get hotter. The detector
bridge unbalance will, therefore, be a measure of the gas density.
Pipe vibration type density meters are now widely used alongwith the radiation absorption type discussed
later. The vibration type measures the change in the frequency of vibration with change in density of fluid
that passes through a pipe of appropriate design. This type has been discussed in a little detail in the chapter
covering digital transducers. The basic scheme is shown here in Fig. 8.106. An oscillator—amplifier, O/A, has
a driver coil to excite the vibration and a pick up coil to pick up the frequency of vibration of the pipe. The
change of frequency is found out by the demodulator which also receives the standard oscillator, S/O, frequency.
Liq. in Liq. out S/O
O/A DEM f/ V V/I ADU
Dig.
Vib. Dis.
T
pipe comp.
Piezo
pickup
Fig. 8.106 Scheme of a pipe vibration type densitometer (O/A oscillator-ampli ier, DEM demodulator, S/O
standard oscillator, f/V frequency-voltage converter, V/I voltage-current converter, ADU ampli ier, display unit)
It can have both digital and analogue display. For a vibration in the horizontal direction vibration
frequency is given by
f = k1(1 + k2r)–1 (8.104)
where r is the density and k1 and k2 are constants determined by internal and outer diameters of the pipe,
pipe material, modulus of elasticity and the length of the vibrating pipes.
The density meter utilizing the principle of absorption of g-ray energy is described schematically in
Fig. 8.107. This is used to measure density of materials which flow in a pipe fully such as slurries or
solution. A g-ray source emits radiation to pass through the flowing material.
Detector
Lead shield
To
measuring
D circuit
Source
Cs-137
Shutter
Fig. 8.107 Sketch of density meter with radioactive detection
If the detector measures the intensities of radiation before and after the material flow and given respectively
by Io and I, then density r is
r = (l/(mD) ln (Io/I) (8.105)
where D is the pipe diameter and m is the mass absorption coefficient of radiation of the flowing material.
This method can measure density and specific gravity to the accuracy of the fourth decimal place.
A method suitable for cryogenic applications is based on the relationship between molecular
polarizability, the dielectric constant and the density of the fluid. The design consists of a set of concentric
metal cylinders through which the fluid is allowed to flow. The cylinders are used as capacitor plates in the
measurement.
8.3.9 Viscosity and Consistency

Viscosity is a measure of the fluidity of the liquid or the gas. Many fluids undergo continuous deformation
with the application of shearing stress. Application of a shear force, therefore, produces a flow. If this
force-flow relation is linear, the fluid is Newtonian. For non-Newtonian fluids, the force flow relation is
not only nonlinear but changes from material to material. When continuous deformation occurs, the fluid
tries to oppose this with a frictional resistance. This resistance can be measured in terms of consistency.
Consistency of Newtonian fluids is called viscosity. Viscosity is typically different for different grades in
a single process depending on the composition and is, therefore, a convenient property to control product
gradation.
Viscosity is often formulated as the ratio of shear stress to
shear rate. In Fig. 8.108 a shear profile of a fluid is shown.
Thus dynamic or absolute viscosity is obtained as
m = S/(dv/dz) (8.105)
where S is the shear stress that produces the velocity Z v
gradient dv/dz. The term m in the cgs is dyne-sec/cm2 = gm/ dz
(cm-sec) = 0.1 kg/(m-sec) and is known as poise and in FPS dv
system it is 1 b-sec/ft2. In fact, 1 poise is 478.8 lbf - sec/ft2 =
14.9 lbmft-sec. In SI units, it is Pascal-sec, i.e., N-sec/m2 and
is equal to 10 poise.
In this context, other important terms associated with v
viscosity and very commonly used in practice are defined.
1. Fluidity is the reciprocal of viscosity and its unit is Fig. 8.108 Shear pro ile of a luid for de ining
rhe = 1/poise. viscosity
2. Kinematic viscosity (n) is the ratio of absolute viscosity to density of the fluid
n = m/r in cm2/sec, or Stokes (8.106)
3. Specific viscosity is the ratio of absolute viscosity of the fluid to the absolute viscosity of a standard
fluid at the same temperature.
ms = m/ust
4. Relative viscosity (mR) is the ratio of the absolute viscosity of the fluid at a given temperature to the
absolute viscosity of a standard fluid at 20°C.
5. Viscosity index (Iv) is an empirical number that indicates the effect of changes of temperature on
viscosity of a fluid, specifically petroleum. Large Iv means lower sensitivity to temperature.
Of the different methods of viscosity measurement for liquids the classical method due to Poiseuille is
still the standard and the viscometer based on this technique is known as the capillary viscometer. When the
liquid flows through a tube of small diameter 2R as shown in Fig. 8.109, then for an annular flow channel
of radial thickness dr at a distance r from the central line, the viscosity equation is given by
–pr2P/(2prl) = mdv/dr (8.107)
where v is the velocity and P, the pressure difference across the tube of length l. Integrating in the limits r =
r to r = R and corresponding v from v to 0,
v = P/(4ml)(R2 – r2) (8.108)
R
Hence volume flow rate of the liquid Q is Úov ¥ 2p r dr , so that
m = pPR4/(8Ql) (8.109)
Flow profile
dr v
r
Fig. 8.109 Sketch of the low of a viscous luid through a capillary
Thus measurement of Q and the differential pressure across two sections in a capillary gives viscosity.
Pressure P is not what is actually measured and a ‘kinetic energy’ correction is necessary. If measured
pressure is Pm, then P used in Eq. (8.109) is given by
P = Pm – 1.1 rQ2/(p2R4) (8.110)
where r is the density of the fluid.
For compressible fluids the mass flowrate w is obtained similarly as
w = [pR4/16mRgT] (P12 – P22) (8.111)
where P1 and P2 are pressures at two sections, T is temperature in K and Rg is the gas constant. An
alternative relation is
w = pR4pmMP/(8mRgTl) (8.112)
where pm is the mean pressure in the pipe, M, molecular weight of the gas.
The capillary method has been successfully used in refineries for measuring viscosities of petroleum
products. The schematic arrangement is shown Capillary
in Fig. 8.110. This is a continuous method. The
liquid is forced at a constant velocity through the
capillary also known as friction tube. The pressure
drop across the ends of the tube is measured by a
Constant flow pump D/P
pneumatic force balance type D/P transmitter. The (CFP)
indicator can be directly calibrated in viscosity. Air
This method can measure viscosity up to about
3000 poise from about 10–3 poise. It is usable at
Control signal
high static pressures and is suitable for remote
indication and control. It is, however, necessary Fig. 8.110 Set-up for friction tube viscosity
that the streamline flow is established and this can measurement and control
be checked from the following
4l/R < Re = 2rvR/m (8.113)
The Saybolt viscometer is another industrially important viscometer using the above principle.
But the method is used to measure kinematic viscosity. The schematic set up of the method is shown in
Fig. 8.111. A minor variation of this method is also called

the Ford cup method. The Saybolt viscometer consists of
a graduated tube or cylinder with a capillary at the bottom
2.975
as shown. The tube placed in a constant temperature bath Const. temp. bath
8.8
is filled with the liquid and a measured quantity of liquid is
drained through the capillary. For varying viscosity, the time
required should vary. The time t required to drain 60 cc of the
liquid indicates viscosity and is denoted by what is known 2.46
as Saybolt number or seconds. The guiding equation for this
measurement is derived from Eq. (8.109) as
1.225
v = m/r = [pgR4t/(8Q(l + l))](h – Kvm2/g] (8.114) 0.1765 2R
where t = discharge time, h = average head, vm = mean
velocity, g = gravity, l = tube length correction, l = length of
Fig. 8.111 Sketch of Saybolt’s viscometer
the capillary, and K = coefficient of kinetic energy correction.
This equation is not simple enough for use. An empirical law
n = At – B/t (8.115)
is often used. The second term in the last equation is introduced to compensate for inadequate flow
development, i.e., non-laminar flow in case of tubes of short length. The counterparts of Saybolt’s
viscometers in UK and continent are Redwood and Engler viscometers respectively. The meter constants A
and B are different for the three types as also the numbers. Table 8.19 gives the values of A and B for these
meters.
Table 8.19 A and B constants for viscometers
Meters A ¥ 10–3 B ¥ 10–3
Saybolt 0.0024 1.9
Redwood 0.0026 1.72
Engler 0.0147 3.74
The time of drain of liquid is in sec and n is expressed in ft2/sec. Another unit is also known in Europe, and,
is known as Engler degree. This is defined as the
ratio of time in secs of a specific volume of fluid to
drain out at a specified temperature to that of water
at 20°C. Orifice
Another continuous viscosity measuring system Flow rate index
is the rotameter method. Rotameter bobs may Viscosity bob
be designed to be viscosity sensitive. Therefore,
with a rotameter in the line of flow, viscosity can
Scale
be measured if flow rate is constant. Figure 8.112
+
shows a scheme of the method. A rotameter with
two bobs one sensitive and another immune to
CFP
viscosity is mounted in a bypass line through which or
the flow is regulated by a suitable regulator. By Flow regulator
adjusting the regulator, the flow rate index bob is
set at the index mark. The other bob will indicate Fig. 8.112 Sketch of rotameter type viscometer, CFP
the viscosity. If the range is required to be changed constant low pump
the flow rate can be changed and the scale readings can then be related
to the viscosity by empirical calibration. The calibration curves for three Q3
Q2
different flow rates is shown in Fig. 8.113. This method is commonly
Q1
used up to a viscosity of 300 cp, but the range is extendable. It measures
% Scale reading
viscosity and also checks consistency at high static pressure.
The other method of viscosity measurement is the measurement of
torque produced by a cylinder rotated at constant speed in the viscous
Q3> Q2> Q1>
fluid. The torque may be converted into an electrical signal by connecting
a motor-driven shaft with cylinder through a spiral spring. Due to
change in viscosity, the motor shaft and the cylinder maintain an angular m
relationship which is proportional to the torque on the spring.
For high viscosity fluids, the rotating cylinder method of Searle is used Fig. 8.113 Scale reading versus
where the torque is measured by a mechanical method. This method also viscosity curves for different low
is known as Couette concentric cylinder viscometer. The sketch of such rates
a method is shown in Fig. 8.114. The inner cylinder Viscous fluid
is fixed while the outer cylinder rotates at a constant
velocity wr2. Since the gap between the two cylinders
is constant, the velocity gradient is also assumed
uniform so that velocity gradient on the vertical and r1
horizontal sides are wr2/b and wr1/a respectively, 1
r2
for both b << r1 and a << r1. The shear-stress torque
relation on the two sides are given by S(2p r1 l) r1 = b
T1 and S(p r12) r1/2 = T2 respectively so that using Eq.
(8.105), the total torque is a
T = T1 +T2 = pmwr12[r12/(2a) + 2lr2/b (8.116)
w
from which
m = T/[pwr12(r12/(2a) + 2lr2 /b)] (8.117)
By measuring T, angular velocity w and apparatus Fig. 8.114 Schematic of Searle’s rotating cylinder
dimensions r1, r2, l, a and b, the dynamic viscosity is viscometer
easily evaluated. Brookfield viscometer is a variation
of this type where the inner cylinder rotates.
Electrical contrivances can be used for the measurement of torque, angular velocity and other such
physical parameters. The main source of error in the method stems from the eccentricity of the cylinder
pair. The centering error is, in fact, given by
Dm/m = e2/(2(r2 – r1) 2) (8.118)
where e is the eccentricity. For decreased radial variation in shear, (r2 – r1) should be made as small as
possible. In fact, this is never kept in excess of 1 mm. For a nonzero eccentricity, the centering error,
therefore, tends to increase with reducing (r2 – r1). The cylinder materials are chosen from the viewpoint
of reaction possibilities with the sample. For wide range of process fluids, glass-laden teflon has been
suggested.
Viscosity depends very much on temperature. The empirical relation between viscosity m and
temperature T for liquids and gases are, for all practical purposes, given by the relation
mliq = C1/(1 + bT)n (8.119a)
and
mgas = C2T1/2 (8.119b)
where C1, C2, b and n are constants.
As an example, it may be mentioned that viscosity of water at 80°C is one third of the viscosity of water
at 10°C.
An interesting outcome of viscosity determination is the determination of molecular weight. For this an
intrinsic viscosity is defined as either
mi = (ms/C)c Æ 0 or mi = (ln mR/C)c Æ 0
where C is the solution concentration. Values of ms/C and ln mR/C are plotted against C and are extrapolated
to meet on the zero concentration ordinate. This value is then used in the Mark-Honwink equation
mi = K Mn where K and n are constants dependent on the solution including solvent and M is the molecular
weight. This technique is very useful in the determination of the general shape of the polymer molecules in
solution. The requirement is that the solution should be Newtonian in nature.
The discussion of viscosity measurement is concluded with a method which can be considered as
a variation of the rotating cylinder method. This is popularly known as the cone-and-plate viscometer
used in both Newtonian fluids and non-Newtonian
ones for measurement of consistency. The
schematic is shown in Fig. 8.115. There is a flat FSP
plate, FSP, and a conic plate, RCP, and in between,
the fluid exists as shown. The angle q shown is very
q
small usually less than 4°. The conic plate is rotated
at a fixed angular velocity w and in consequence RCP
the flat plate would also rotate which may be
made stationary by applying a torque T given by w
the relation
Fig. 8.115 The scheme of a cone and plate viscometer
T = 2pR3wm/3q (8.120)
for Newtonian fluids, where, R is the cone radius. For non-Newtonian fluids the relation is similar but m is
replaced by mc, the consistency which is no longer constant as such as shown later.
This type can measure viscosity from 10–3 to 1010 poise while the rotating cylinder type has a range 10–3
to 107 poise. Both have an accuracy of about 1%.
Earlier it has been stated that consistency is the
2
general term for viscosity and is more often used in
connection with non-Newtonian fluids. Non-Newtonian
fluids are subclassified according to their properties as 5 1
(i) plastic: like chewing gum, tar; (ii) pseudoplastic:
like printers ink, paper pulp; (iii) thixotropic: like 3
paints, glue, fruit juice, etc. (iv) rheopectic: like Flow
4
gypsum in water, and (v) dilatant: like peanut butter.
Their properties are shown in the force-flow diagram in
Fig. 8.116.
Consistency measurement is not less important in
industry particularly in the manufacturing processes. In Force
paper or food processing industries, on line consistency
Fig. 8.116 Force- low diagrams showing
control is done by suspending an agitator wheel in
consistency of different liquids
the flow box and driving it by an electric motor. The (1 plastic, 2 pseudo-plastic, 3 thixotropic, 4
method is similar to the one described earlier. When rheopectic, 5 dilatant)
the consistency of the material changes there is a PT’S CT’S

change in the torque of the driving motor which Motor
can be measured by either pneumatic or electrical
methods. By measuring the power required to
drive the agitator motor consistency can also be
measured. The wattmeter is empirically calibrated.
The schematic circuit is shown in Fig. 8.117. Stock
Another method is the online oscillatory type
Wattmeter indicator
consistency meter. Its modern version eliminates
Fig. 8.117 Sketch of a rotating vane consistency
the bearing and shaft seals, thereby improving the
meter (PT potential transformer, CT current
performence particularly when suspended solids are transformer)
present in the fluids. The system is schematically
shown in Fig. 8.118. It consists of two concentric cylinders—the inner cylinder is given an axial sinusoidal
motion through a mechanical drive rod as shown. The fluid in the annular space gets a shearing force and
the motion to the inner cylinder will be transmitted to the outer cylinder because of the metal bellows—the
magnitude of this transmission will depend on the consistency of the fluid flowing through the instrument.
The magnitude of transducer outputs are compared for the consistency. This also requires empirical
calibration.
Metal bellows
Fluid Mechanical
drive rod
Inner cylinder
Fluid
Outer cylinder
Input
Output
Fig. 8.118 Set up of oscillating type consistency meter
8.4 X RAY METHODS
Absorption, emission, refraction and dispersion properties of X-rays can be utilized, similar to the UV-
visible-IR rays, for analysis purposes. The technique are, however, slightly different and application areas
are also varied.
X-ray methods of analysis can be put in four distinct classes as discussed below:
1. X-ray emission spectrography—when high energy electrons are used to bombard a specimen,
characteristic X-rays are produced. The wavelength and intensity of these spectra are utilized for
quantitative study of the specimen.
2. X-ray fluorescence spectrography—the principle of this technique depends on the fact that when
short wave X-rays are collimated to a specimen, the specimen emits its own X-ray bands of larger
wavelengths, these emitted waves are studied spectrographically as in method 1.
3. X-ray absorption methods—when a specimen is exposed to suitable band of X-rays, depending on

the constitution of the specimen, it is possible that at one or more wavelengths, absorption of X-rays
is very sharp, or in other words, transmission of X-rays through the specimen becomes a function of
wavelength. Knowing the absorption characteristics, the material may be quantitatively analyzed.
4. X-ray diffraction methods—when a suitable specimen is exposed to a beam of X-rays at a suitable
angle, X-rays appear to be ‘reflected’ and the phenomenon is actually diffraction. The angles of
diffraction and the intensities of the diffracted beams can become a measure of the composition of
the specimen or the lattice spacings of the crystal.
It appears that in the X-ray methods of analysis four basic functions are required to be performed by the
components of the instrument system such as (i) generation of suitable band X-rays, (ii) measurement of X-
ray wavelengths or frequencies, (iii) measurement of X-ray intensities, and (iv) measurement of spacing in
a sample, either crystal or powder.
Before actual instrument systems are described, some expositions regarding the generation of X-rays as
also their absorption and diffraction, i.e., its interaction with matter, are made.
8.4.1 Generation of X-ray and Their Characteristics

X-rays are generally produced by high energy electrons hitting a target usually of pure metals like
aluminium, silver, copper, platinum etc., in a vacuum space. Electrons are given high energy by setting an
electric field in the chamber. The electron lose their kinetic energy to initiate a complicated mechanism of
energy transfer, a part of which is converted into X-rays. When the potential is not sufficiently large, a form
of continuous band of soft X-rays is produced known as the white radiation. For the same field gradient,
this radiation has a larger total intensity if the target has a larger atomic number, i.e.,
IµZ (8.121)
Also the intensity-wavelength curve has a peak at a particular wavelength l. If the target material is kept
the same but the potential is increased, the energy distribution of the white radiation over the wavelength
range changes. This is shown in Fig. 8.119. The energy emission is limited due to the electron energy, this
is indicated by the lowest wavelength, i.e., the highest frequency for a particular potential impressed and
also by the electron charge parameter. Thus
E = hC/(eV) = 12400/V (8.122)
where h is Planck’s constant; C, velocity of radiation; e, electron charge and V, potential.
20
15
Intensity (arbitrary)
40
kV
10 30
kV
50
5 kV
20
kV
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
l(°A)
Fig. 8.119 Energy distribution in X-ray generation
It can be seen from the curves that the intensity of the continuum rises to a broad maximum and falls off
gradually. From the curves of Fig. 8.119 it can be seen, as can also be demonstrated theoretically, that the
total energy of X-radiation is also given as
I µ V2 (8.123)
The wavelength at which the peak occurs is roughly 1.5 times the shortest wavelength of the continuum.
When the voltage is increased further, the electron may acquire sufficient energy to be able to dislodge
an orbital electron from any of the shells. Immediately it will be followed by a jump of an electron in an
outer shell to fill this vacancy, in the process losing energy as X-ray photons. The intensity and wavelength
of this radiation will depend on the shell in which the vacancy has occurred as also the shell from which
jump down has occurred. For example, for a dislodge from the K-shell, K-series of spectral lines will
appear with the intensity depending on the jump level. The ‘characteristic’ radiation will be associated with
sharp peaks in the continuum of white X-ray radiation as shown by the dotted lines in Fig. 8.119. Moseley
found out that the wavelength, or frequency f, for each spectral line belonging to a series is related to the
atomic number, Z, of the material by the expression
f = C/l = a (Z – s)2 (8.124)
where s is a constant dependent on the series and a is a constant. Thus if f is measured, the value of Z is
known and thus the element in the target.
When an X-ray beam hits a target, interaction between the two may follow a number of courses.
Two important courses are as follows. The primary X-rays may produce secondary X-rays called X-ray
fluorescence and photo-electrons of lower energy content. Primary radiation may hit loose electrons to
dislodge them producing recoil electrons, the resultant low energy X-rays are scattered. This is known as
Compton scattering.
The loss of energy of the primary radiation interacting with matter is termed absorption. For a
homogeneous medium, the exponential law in terms of intensity is given as
Id = Io exp (–md) (8.125)
where Id is the intensity of the radiation after it has passed through the medium of thickness d. The term m
is known as the absorption coefficient. In terms of the mass absorption coefficient defined as
m = m/r; r = density (8.126)
Equation (8.125) is modified to
Id = Io exp (–mrd) (8.127)
When surface scattering or simply scattering occurs, not all energy that is apparently absorbed is really
absorbed by the medium. Consequently one writes
m = m f + ms (8.128)
where m is the true mass absorption coefficient and is related to the energy absorbed to produce fluorescence
and ms is the mass absorption coefficient related to the scattering effect. However, ms is generally very small
so that for all practical purposes
m ª mf (8.129)
The plot of m versus l is shown in Fig. 8.120 as a typical example. When primary radiation has a
sufficiently large energy to produce characteristic X-radiation by dislodging electrons from any of the shells
of the material, the energy will be absorbed by the material and absorption becomes discontinuously large
with increasing l depending on the decrease of energy content of the incident beam. These discontinuous
‘jumps’ in Fig. 8.120 are known as absorption edges. These are related to the dislocation capability of the
electrons from the shells by the incident radiation. The position of the edges on l-axis and the magnitude of
these on the log m axis depend on the material through, which the radiation passes.
LI
LII
LIII
log m K
Fig. 8.120 Plot of log m versus l
When there is a conglomeration of materials in the sample, the absorption edges can identify the
presence of these materials. Conversely, using absorption edge-characteristics X-ray monochromators may
be designed.
A still better monochromator is the crystal monochromator. If a polychromatic X-ray beam falls on a
crystal, diffraction or reflection occurs at the lattice planes by the process of coherent scattering. If d is
the spacing of the atomic lattice planes; q, the angle between the incident radiation and the crystal plane,
coherent scattering occurs following Bragg’s condition
ml = 2d sin q (8.130)
where m is the order of diffraction, an integer and l, the wavelength. This is explained in Fig. 8.121. In the
second plane, extra path covered is
LD + BD = 2AB sinq = 2d sinq (8.131)
For coherency, therefore, Eq. (8.130) must be satisfied. For scanning the complete spectrum, the crystal
may be rotated so that Bragg’s condition is satisfied for different wavelengths. For larger dispersion, crystal
spacing d is to be shorter as is shown by
dq/dl = m/(2d cosq) (8.132)
A
q
2q
d
L B
D
d Crystal planes
Fig. 8.121 X-ray diffraction at crystal planes according to Bragg’s law

8.4.2 Techniques of Analysis

The basic instrument scheme in all the methods is virtually general and is shown by blocks in Fig. 8.122(a).
A collimator has been shown between the generator and the specimen. If necessary, another may be put
in use between the specimen and the detector. Collimation is effected by passing the radiation through a
series of closely-spaced paralled metal plates or through a bundle of tubes of small diameters, about 0.5
mm or less, as shown in Fig. 8.122(b). X-ray beam from source S is passed through collimator C1 and is
incident on the crystal mounted on Table 2 which in turn is on Table 1 and the diffracted beam is allowed
to pass through the collimator C2 on to detector D. The location of sample varies from analysis to analysis.
In absorption type, the sample is usually between the source and C1, for fluorescence it is also between
the source and C1 but then at an angle as shown later. In diffraction type, the dispersion is caused by the
analyser crystal itself.
7 9 11
4
5 8
Sup 1 3
6 10 12
2
(a)
Table 2
C1 q
S q
Table 1
C2 2q
(b)
Fig. 8.122 (a) Scheme of X-ray spectrometer (1 high voltage unit with stabilizer, 2 current stabilizer,
3 X-ray tube, 4 slit, 5 collimator, 6 specimen, 7 detector, 8 ampli ier, 9 scaler, 10 ratemeter 11 printer
12 recorder) (b) the scheme of a goniometer (s source, CI & C2 collimators, D detector)
The detectors are to be chosen according to the requirement. Photographic film is used for general
diffraction studies. The GM counter and proportional counter which are gas ionization types, the
scintillation counters and the semiconductor detectors are being increasingly used for detection purposes.
The choice is to a large extent dependent on the X-ray energy to be detected. This is borne out clearly
enough in Fig. 8.123, where, however, the semiconductor type has not been included.
Detection actually means measurement of the radiation with its energy content and other related
properties. The detection system would, therefore, consist of a detector and a measuring circuit.
100
A B
%
C
Quantum
efficiency
50
0
0.1 0.2 1 2 3 10 20
l(°A)
Fig. 8.123 Quantum ef iciency versus l curves for different detectors (A scintillation counter,
B proportional counter (90 Ar), C Geiger Muller counter (Ar))
The interaction of radiation in different types of detectors is of different nature. There are, in fact, two
different methods of measurement. One is the counter type in which the detector output, in the form of a
series of pulses, is counted by a counter over a certain interval of time. Each pulse represents an interaction
of radiation with the detector element. The other is mean level detection, where the pulses that occur are so
high per unit of time that resolution to individual ones is not possible and an average effect, generally in the
form of current output, is measured. Ionization chambers including proportional and Geiger Muller counters
employ gas-filled chambers with varying applied voltages to the electrodes. Figure 8.124 shows the sche-
matic set-up of this type. A central electrode separated from the chamber by insulator is kept at a potential
E, with respect to the chamber wall and this is maintained through the shunt combination of reistsnace R
and capacitance C. The RC product is chosen to be much larger compared to the time required by any ion in
the chamber to be collected by appropriate electrode. For a charge q across C, the voltage output is
Eo = q/C (8.133)
Electrodes
Insulator
Eo
C R
Ei
Fig. 8.124 Set up of gas- illed detector chamber
When radiation falls on the chamber, let h-ion pairs be produced and let them drift towards the
oppositely charged electrodes. Then the pulse voltage magnitude, being the measure of the ions collected
by the electrode at various supply voltages, can be plotted as a function of voltage as shown in Fig. 8.125.
Curve 1 is for a stronger source than that for curve 2. The curve is divisible in several regions with respect
to voltage. In region I, many ion pairs are lost by recombination. With increase in voltage ion drift velocity
increases and recombination possibility is lessened. In region II recombination is negligibly small and the
collected charge is directly given by
q = he (8.134a)
where e is the ion charge, and hence,
E = he/C (8.134b)
1012
Na
Ions (N)
106 1
Nb
2
I II III IV V
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
E (Volts)
Fig. 8.125 Plot of the number of ions versus the applied voltage for the counter
C is actually the sum of the external and internal capacitances of the chamber. Region II is the ionisation
chamber region, also known as the saturation region. As the voltage increases further, electrons, because of
their large mobility are accelerated and acquire higher energy, in turn, producing secondary ionization. This
is the region III. This effect of secondary ionization is dependent on what is known as gas multiplication
which initially is constant and the output is seen to be proportional to the input. This part is the region of
proportional counter. In the latter part of region III, the gas multiplication factor decreases with increased
production of primary ion pairs and as the secondary ionization occurs close to the anode, formation of a
positive sheath around it further limits the amplification factor. This is a region of limited proportionality.
With a further increase in voltage, all the gas molecules close to anode are ionized and the output is fairly
constant.
The region IV has a plateau called the Geiger plateau and the voltage at which this starts to form is
called the Geiger threshold. This region is the Geiger Muller counter region. When acceleration of electrons
increases due to further increase of voltage, secondary ionization is associated with the release of photons
also, which in turn ionize the gas molecules. Finally, the entire sensitive gas volume is ionized and complete
discharge sets in the chamber. This is shown by region V.
When radiation ionizes the gas in the ionization chamber the produced charged particles behave most
normally but depending on the gas, the field and the chamber condition. The faster electrons have a drift
velocity that is a function of the gas pressure p and the electric field EF
n = f (EF/p) (8.135)
Function f is different for different gases, and is quite linear over the entire range. For an ion mobility m,
function f is given by
n = mEF/p (8.136)
For positive and negative ions the term m is designated as m+ and m– respectively.
The current due to ions present in a chamber with an electric field consists of two parts (i) the diffusion
current due to nonuniformity of charge distribution in space (Jd) and (ii) the drift current due to the imposed
field (Jf ). These currents due to positive and negative charges are given respectively as
Jd ± = ±eD± grad d± (8.137a)
and
Jf ± = ±ed± v± (8.137b)
The total current density is the sum of all the four parts given by the above equations.
A parallel plate ionization chamber is shown in Fig. 8.126 where the electrodes form a parallel plate
capacitor as housed in the chamber. The collector electrode is connected to the measuring circuit and has
a varying potential depending on the ionization current through the chamber. Proper insulator mounting
and guard rings are provided to avoid leakage and produce a uniform field throughout the section. The
sensitive or active volume of the chamber is shown enclosed by the broken lines. The ionization current is
then expressed as the integral of the ion pair numbers no produced per unit volume over the active volume
Vo multiplied by charge e.
Insulator (I)
I I
High voltage
electrode
Collector
Guard ring
Ei
I I
I
Eo
Fig. 8.126 Schematic diagram of a parallel plate loniztion chamber
Thus, is = e Ú no ( x, y, z ) dx dy dz (8.138)
Vo
As mentioned, is is also known as the saturation current. It has been assumed here that electron
attachment, diffusion and recombination are negligible, and the entire current is due to drift of charge pairs
produced whose production rate is also considered constant. Recombination for electrons is negligible
but for negative ions present, correction for recombination is necessary. Due to the drift of the oppositely
charged particles towards the electrodes, an ion concentration occurs in such a way that a diffusion is
caused in opposition to the drift due to field. This causes reduction of is. For larger is, this reduction is larger
because of the increased ion gradient. However, with losses due to diffusion etc. neglected, current is is
given by
is µ Slp (8.139)
where S is specific ionization defined as the number of ions per cm of length per atmosphere, and l is the
average path length of the ionizing particles and p is pressure in atmospheres. This proportionality ceases at
pressure higher than a certain value, presumably due to losses.
Proportional counters are generally used in pulse-type operation. This is a gas ionisation chamber
where gas multiplication is obtained by increasing the pulse size but making it independent of the primary
ionization. Amplification as high as 106 can be obtained here.
The pulse size in a cylindrical proportional counter is calculated from the consideration of construction
and dimension of the chamber, its capacitance and contained charge etc., and is given by
Ep(t) = (hoe/C)[{(–ln (ro/rn))/(ln (ro/rc))} + {(ln (ro/rp))/(ln (ro/rc))}]
= – (hoe/C) [ln rp/rn))/ln (ro/rc))] (8.140)
where rc is the radius of the central collecting electrode, ro is the radius of the outer cylindrical electrode,
rp and rn are the distances of the positive and the negative ions from the axis of the cylinder. But since
the current is mainly carried by the electrons, the movement of the positive ions can be neglected and Eq.
(8.140) is valid. If rp = ro and electrons are the only charge carriers so that rn = rc, the pulse height is
maximum. However, collection time of positive ions is also important because this time determines the
resolution. The velocity of the positive ions is
drp/dt = mEF/p = mEl/(prp ln (ro/rc)) (8.141)
where El is the voltage across the electrode pair. Integrating
rp2 = 2Elmt/(p ln ro/rc) + rc2 (8.142)
where rc2 onthe right hand side represents factors due to the initial conditions. If rp = ro as considered earlier,
then the total collection time T is
T = p (ro2 – rc2) ln (ro/rc)/(2Elm) (8.143)
Example 8.4 If the chamber has a diameter of 2.5 cm and is illed with nitrogen at a pressure of 100 mm of
mercury, the collector is 0.01 cm in diameter and a voltage of 500 V is applied across the electrodes, calculate the
dead time of the counter.
Solution From table, m is found out as 980 (cm2/volt-sec) mm mercury. Hence
T = dead time = 100 (1.252 – 0.0052) ln (250)/(2 ¥ 500 ¥ 980) sec = 0.88 msec.
The counting is further delayed if the input time constant is larger than this time constant. Fast counting
is achieved by differentiating the output. Appropriate chamber geometry ensures that the gas multiplication
factor is independent of the primary ionization and by filling the chamber with a mixture of polyatomic gas
like methane and an inert gas like argon it is made independent of the variation of the supply voltage to a
certain extent.
Of all the gas-filled counters the Geiger Muller counters (GM) is the most widely used because it can be
used to detect different types of radiations, its sensitivity is higher, it is available in the required shape and
size and it gives a large output. The commonly used shapes are shown in Figs 8.127(a), (b), (c) and (d).
GM tube consists of a metal or a metal coated glass tube or cylinder with a thin wire of tungsten
(usually) centrally disposed. The wire is insulated from the tube and is between 0.002 and 0.003 cm in
diameter. The radiation is received by the side walls in the glass of the cylindrical types or through the end
window made of thin mica sheet of about 1 mg/cm2 in the end window types. The wire electrode in the
end-window type is terminated with a glass bead so that spark-over at high supply voltage is avoided. The
needle type is used where measurement is to be done making an insertion in a narrow channel.
Electrodes
3-4 mm diam.
steel tube
Tungsten
Glass bead (1 mil diam.)
10 mm Glass bead
End window
(a) (b)
Gas Gas
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
Collector loop
End window
(c)
Electrode
(d)
Fig. 8.127 Common types ot Geiger Muller counter, (a) end-window type, (b) needle type,
(c) gas- low end-window type, (d) cylindrical type
The chamber is filled with a gas mixture at a low pressure of about 100 mm of mercury and the gas is, for
ordinary purposes, a mixture of 90% Ar or Ne or He and 10% ethyl alcohol or any other organic vapour. This
mixing reduces the electron attachment coefficient and helps the charge transfer to be due to electrons only.
The GM counter operates in the plateau region which has generally a slight slope upwards with
increased voltage. This is due to increased sensitive volume and increased pulses due to tertiary discharges.
Electrons after production in the chamber are easily drawn to the anode during which process ‘Townsend
discharge’ is produced by further ionization. As the bulk of electrons is collected by the anode, a positive
ion sheath is left close to it reducing the field and stopping the discharge and this sheath thus actually helps
in quenching the discharge. The next discharge can be initiated only when this sheath moves to the cathode
or to a distance within it. Quenching is often done by external circuital means as also with specified filling.
It is of interest to see how efficiently the GM counter operates for mean value detection. When the power
of the incident radiation increases, the average detection reaches a maximum and then falls. For rising
radiation, the counter operate intermittently with square pulses. When the square pulse is applied, discharge
will occur. In applying the quenching system this is satisfactorily effected. High voltage is kept applied,
with a discharge this level falls, and subsequently after a duration, it is again applied. The ratio of counting
rate for mean value operation to pulse operation is
R = 1/wf (8.144)
where f is the pulse frequency and w is the pulse width. Figure 8.128 shows the counter characteristics for
mean value and pulse operation.
2.0
lse
Pu
1.5
alue
1 (m.A)
1.0 Mean v
0.5
0
0.1 1 10 102 103 104
F (Milliroentgen / hr)
Fig. 8.128 Counter characteristics for mean value and pulse operations
(F intensity of radiation, I discharge current)
Scintillation Counters When radiation passes through certain crystals, very short duration light flashes
termed as scintillations are emitted from the crystals known as scintillators. If this light can be transmitted
to a photomultiplier tube, a current pulse proportional to the energy of the input radiation will be available
at the output of the multiplier. The scintillator and the photomultiplier together is known as the counter.
Actually the counting requires extra circuitry such as that shown by the block diagram in Figs 8.129(a)
or (b). The scintillation type spectrometers are differential pulse height analysers as shown in Fig. 8.129(b)
with blocks 7 and 10.
These counters count high frequency pulses more discriminatingly giving a higher output because of
possible multiplication. Different types of radiations are discriminable by these counters. Characteristic
properties of a few types of common scintillators are compiled in Table 8.20.
Table 8.20 Characteristic properties of some scintillators
Material Density g/cm3 Effective atomic l of max. Light output % Decay time (t)
no. emission µm anthracene msec
Anthracene 1.25 5.8 4450 100 0.025
NaI (Tl) 3.67 49 4200 80 0.25
CsI (Tl) 4.51 – 4200–5700 60–90 0.43–1.1
Stilbene 1.15 5.7 4100 75 0.008
ZnS 4.10 – 4500 – –
4 6 7+8 9
1
2
3
5
(a)
Upper
4 6 7 8 + 10 9
1
2
3 Lower
5
(b)
Fig. 8.129 Block diagram of two types of scintillation counters, (a) combined discriminator and pulse-shaper,
(b) special discriminator with anti-coincidence circuit (1 radiation, 2 light re lector, 3 scintillator, 4 photomultiplier,
5 high voltage supply, 6 preampli ier, 7 discriminator, 8 pulse shaper, 9 scaler, 10 anti-coincidence circuit)
Only a part of the incident radiation energy is absorbed by the crystal, a part thereof is converted into
light energy and a part still of that is transmitted to the photocathode and a fraction thereof becomes
effective because of spectral matching and dynode collection efficiency. All these fractions are dependent
on the material characteristics. Density or the atomic number determines the energy absorbed by the
scintillator. ZnS has a good quantum yield but it absorbs its own photoradiation to a large extent and is
often not usable as such. Inorgaic samples like NaI, KI or CsI and also scheelite (CaWO4) have much better
transparency and give better light output. Such samples are useful in high energy radiations as well, like γ-
rays, because of higher atomic numbers or densities. Table shows stilbene has very low resolving time and
is more suitable in coincidence type measurement, although output is comparatively low. After excitation
by radiation the crystal comes back to its normal condition emitting photoradiation. This decay time must
be short. It is usually given by the relation
Np = N• (1 – exp (–t/t)) (8.145)
where Np is the number of light photons emitted in time t after the radiation is incident and t is the decay
time.
In between the scintillator and the photomultiplier cathode, a light pipe is often used to prevent trapping
of the light by the scintillator itself and to spread the light beam over the desired width to cover the entire
photocathode. The commonly used materials used for the purpose are ploymethyl methacrylate, plexiglas,
polysterene, lucites, etc. The mounting is to be carefully made so that no loss of light occurs at the interfaces.
As the scintillator has its output proportional to the incident radiation energy, it can be used for obtaining
the energy spectrum of the radiation. The block diagram of a typical high energy spectrometer is shown in
Fig. 8.130. The amplifier should have the characteristics: (a) short rise time to follow fast signals, (b) good
linearity with the pulse height, and (c) non-overload characteristics. For low energy ‘pulses’ there should
be sufficiently large output whereas at high energy levels the output need not be exactly proportional to
the input so that a very large output is obtained. A pulse height analyser sorts out those pulses which are
required and rejects others. The discriminator is either integral or differential. In the former type a threshold
circuit is incorporated that accepts only pulse heights larger than a special level. Such circuits are used in
scalers and rate meters. The differential type consists of two integral types to form a window so that only a
pulse height lying within the window is accepted.
Power from binary scaler
Scintillation Non-overload Single channel Binary

head Amplifier analyser scaler
Pulse height
analyser
High voltage
Timer
unit
Fig. 8.130 Block diagram of γ-ray spectrometer
Semiconductor Detectors When radiation of sufficiently high energy content passes through a semi-
conductor material, electron hole pairs are produced in it. The pair produced is given by the ratio
Np = Et /Ep (8.146)
where Et is the total energy dissipated in the materials by the radiation and Ep is the average energy for
a single pair to be formed. Usually Ep lies between 5 eV and 10 eV. The radiation loses energy and gives
it to the electrons in the medium moving them to the conduction band which are then free to move under
the influence of an electric field. It is interesting to note that the value of Ep in a semiconductor detector
is constant for a particular medium, being independent of the incoming radiation energy. It must be
remembered that holes also move under an electrical field and hence the total released charges account for
the measurement as in the ionization chambers.
Trapping, recombination and even polarization affect the current or pulse height. Special care must,
therefore, be taken in the choice of size, material and supply to minimize the above effects. The materials
should have high resistivity to limit the leakage current. High mobility and long carrier life time are
expected of them; high mobility gives less transit time. High voltage required for better operation should
also be withstood by the materials.
Early crystal detectors such as halides had considerably low lifetimes and thus losses due to trapping in
crystal imperfection or space charge were large. Silicon and germanium devices have become more popular
these days. ‘Lithium drifted’ silicon or germanium semiconductor detectors are more in use in X-ray
analysis. The basic construction is shown in Fig. 8.131. The crystal has a p-type Si-layer that faces the X-
rays, a middle ‘Li-drifted’ Si zone and a third n-type Si-layer as output stage. On the input side a thin gold
coating provides the electrical contact and on the output side a thin aluminium film is formed. A potential
of the order of 0.3 to 1 kV is applied as shown across the crystal. The whole unit is maintained in a liquid
nitrogen cryostat to decrease electronic noise as otherwise the unit cannot provide useful signal output.
0.3 to 1 kV
Be window p-type Si
Al-film
X-ray
PA
n-type region
Au-film Si (Li)
Fig. 8.131 The block schematic of a solid-state X-ray detector
Lithium is initially deposited on the surface of a p-doped Si crystal and then heated to 400 to 500°C
as also a potential is applied across the crystal. Li-ions replace the holes lost by conduction in this region
which now possesses a high resistance as these ions are less mobile. Energy absorption in this region
results in photoelectrons which lose their kinetic energy by raising several thousand electrons in Si into the
conduction band. The circuit is designed with the applied potential in such a way that each photon absorbed
produces a current pulse, the size of which is proportional to the energy of the absorbed photon.
A comparison can now be made on counts of quantum efficiency, dead time, energy range etc., of the
commonly used detectors. Table 8.21 shows the comparison.
Table 8.21 Comparison ot main characteristics of detectors

Detector Quantum l-range µm Dead time m sec Remarks
efficiency (%)
G.M. 60–65 1.5–2.1 2.70 Gives rise to counting losses at
high intensities and sensitivity is
low for shorter l.
40 1.4–2.9 Rarely used for counts greater
than 500/sec.
Proportional -do- -do- 1.50 Response is nearly linear up to
high count rates, range can be
extended up to 12 mm with less
efficiency.
Scintillation High and uniform 0.3 to 2.5 or even up to 0.25 The most efficient one.
– 4.0
Semiconductor High 0.3 to 3.0 1.0 Requires cooling for noise
minimization.
8.4.3 Fluorescence Spectography

X-ray fluorescence is a widely used analytical method, specially for qualitative identification of elements of
Z ≥ 8. It can, however, be used for quantitative analysis as well.
The commonly used techniques in this group are (i) the wavelength dispersive type, (ii) the energy
dispersive type, and (iii) the non-dispersive type. The wavelength dispersive type is already discussed in
connection with Fig. 8.122(b). This may be of two types—sequential, i.e., single channel, and, multichannel
or simultaneous. Figure 8.122(b) shows the former type. In modern single channel type X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry, a pair of X-ray sources is used with Wo target for shorter wavelength and another with Cr
for longer wavelength. Crystals also are changed and a He-atmosphere or vacuum for longer wavelength is
maintained.
Multichannel types are large systems requiring as many crystals as the channel numbers and each
detector has its own amplifier, pulse height selector, scaler, counter integrator etc. The best way to tackle
the operation of such an instrument is to use a computer/microprocessor which also helps in its control, data
processing and display or results.
The energy dispersive type does not require collimators and crystal diffractors and hence no moving
components in the excitation and detection sides. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.132. Here source is a
polychromatic one and the detector is the semiconductor type described earlier.
He Sample He
Multichannel
PHA
Be window Semi-
conductor A
X-ray source
Fig. 8.132 The scheme of an energy dispersive type X-ray luorescence spectroscope
Detector is closely mounted and hence energy reaching the detector is very high. The instrument has low
resolution at longer wavelengths, longer than 1 µm. A typical fluorogram or spectrum obtained with energy-
dispersive type is shown in Fig. 8.133. Here the channel identifies the element and the peak count, the amount.
In its multichannel variety all the lines are measured simultaneously and the advantage of FT
spectrometry can be taken for improved signal to noise ratio. A typical fluorogram is shown in Fig. 8.134,
with the angle indicating the element and the peak the content of the element.
Log intensity
Log intensity
Channel No. 2qd
Fig. 8.133 Sketch of a typical luorogram Fig. 8.134 Another sketch of a luorogram
with improved S/N ratio
In the non-dispersive type a sample containing a certain element is irradiated with X-ray of suitable
wavelength which produces a fluorescent line of the element. This radiation is then passed through a pair of
filters with absorption edges just above and below the fluorescent wavelength. The difference in the detected
signals in the two cases is in proportion to the amount of element present in the sample. Commercial routine
instruments in this category have an accuracy of about 1%.
A schematic set-up for a fluorescent spectrometer for liquid samples is shown in Fig. 8.135. The samples
are kept in beakers on a rotating table, the samples are also rotated for uniform exposure. Radiation from
an X-ray generator strikes a specimen to produce characteristic fluorescent lines. The fluorescent radiation
is analysed by a rotating crystal in an X-ray goniometer. In the goniometer, the primary slit, the analyzing
crystal and the secondary slit are on the focal circle for satisfying the Bragg’s conditions.
Sample table
D
Collimator
X-ray beam q 2q
Analysis
crystal
Goniometer
Fig. 8.135 The schematic set-up of an X-ray luorescence spectrometer
This method can be used for analysis of solid, liquid and gas samples as well but is commonly used
for heavier elements and can measure down to a value of 1 ppm. Interference occurs due to absorption,
particularly if the fluorescent radiations of the detectants are absorbed by another constituent in the sample.
For example, Pb absorbs fluorescent Ka radiation of chlorine as also the main radiation.
8.4.4 Absorption Spectrography

Techniques employing the mass absorption coefficient or the critical absorption edges are used for
measurement and analysis. It has been known that the mass absorption coefficient, neglecting scattering, is
proportional to the 4th power of the atomic number Z, and cubic power of the wavelength, l. Thus
m @ mf = KZ 4l3 (8.147)
where K is a constant. Hence, if absorption can be measured it is only simple to trace out the constituent
by simple relations as in Eq. (8.147). The technique of measurement is shown in Fig. 8.136. The method
uses the comparison principle. White or monochromatic X-ray is allowed to pass through two channels
alternately, consisting of a reference and the test. The output falls on a fluorescent screen followed by a
light funnel and a photomultiplier or a scintillation detector. By driving in or out a variable thickness wedge
attenuator in the reference channel, the photomultiplier output is held constant so that the output of the
comparator or better the servo-output, is coupled to the wedge movement. The measurement may be made
continuously online and is most suitable for binary mixtures. A typical example is analysing lead in petrol,
i.e., a heavier element in lighter ones.
The critical edge technique uses the principle that the difference in absorption between a wavelength
just shorter than the critical edge and another just longer, is proportional to the concentration of the element
in the sample as already mentioned earlier. The method, therefore, consists in obtaining the graph of
Fig. 8.120 by the usual technique.
Chopper
motor Fluorescent screen
X-ray
source Light funnel
le cell Photomultiplier
Samp unit
Wedge (Al)
Ref. c
ell
Lead
chopper Comparator
Servo-
Servo-
drive
motor
Ref.
Indicator
Fig. 8.136 The scheme of an X-ray absorption spectrograph
8.4.5 Diffraction Spectrography

The diffraction spectrography or diffractometry uses Bragg’s law for identifying the crystal lattice structure
from which the specimen as a whole is identified. Availability of a single crystal and orientation of it in
the holder presents some of the problems in measurement. The method is used for powdered sample. This
is done best in Debye-Scherrer camera. The primary X-ray enters the camera through a collimator to fall
on the crystal sample in the holder and subsequently goes out through an exit. The diffracted beams are
recorded by the film mounted on the inner wall of the camera as shown in Fig. 8.137. The image obtained
forms circular patterns or rings on the film as a series of spots go to make them. The series of spots is
obtained as the powdered sample can be thought to be a conglomerate of innumerable small single crystal
specks. In the modern cameras a full 360° compass is available to take account of the effect of back
scattering as well.
Film in the
Entrance camera Exit
collimotor collimotor
2q
S
X-ray
(monochrome)
2q
Rings on
the film
Fig. 8.137 Method of diffraction explained in a Debye-Scherrer camera
If the substance is amorphous, broad and indistinct lines are found whereas for crystals the lines
are sharp and distinct. This forms one of the bases of checking whether the substance is crystalline or
amorphous. Lines are obtained up to a grain size of 2 ¥ 10–4 mm, below this no rings are obtained. The
intensity of the rings at different angles is measured to make quantitative studies. The method is most
suitable for number of constituents less than three.
The areas of cones that are produced on the film are spaced following Bragg’s condition. From Fig.
8.137, one finds that, if S be the diameter of the imaged cone, i.e., spacing between the two arcs of the same
cone and D is the diameter of the circular film in the camera, then one can write
S/D = 2qd/57.3 (8.148)
where 2qd is the diffraction angle in degrees. Therefore, for a camera diameter of 57.3 units or integral
multiples thereof, the image cone diameter becomes an integral multiple of the diffraction angle in degrees
and measurement of q involves measurement of S with a simple transformation. One can also choose D
according to the relation
1
D=(n + 1)q d /q r , n = 0, 1, 2, … , k (8.149)
2
for S to be integral multiple of qd. In Eq. (8.149) qd/qr ª 57.3. For better discrimination, n should be as large
as possible. A common value is 5 with D in mm.
Detectors other than photofilms can also be used in diffraction systems when a goniometer is used. The
detector is rotated with respect to the sample and the intensity of radiation recorded as a function of angle.
The spectrum so obtained is often termed as diffractorgram and a typical such diffractorgram is shown in
Fig. 8.138. Detectors are usually gas ionization or scintillation types. Multichannel detection is also possible
by this technique when multiple detectors are mounted at different angles but at the same distance from the
sample.
Intensity
10 20 30 40 50 60
2qd
Fig. 8.138 Sketch of a typical diffractogram
8.5 CHROMATOGRAPHY
Chromatography is a relatively simple physical process of separating, isolating, identifying and quantifying
components of complex mixtures. The method consists in passing the mixture through a stationary phase
via the flow of a mobile phase. Separation occurs because the migration rates of the components of the
mixture in this movement are different.
Chromatography may be classified in a number of ways. One typical way is by considering how the
above two phases are brought in contact. This approach gives the types: (i) column chromatography, and
(ii) planar chromatography. In the latter type, a flat plate or interstices of a paper support the stationary
phase and the mobile phase passes through the stationary phase by gravity or capillary action. In the former
case a narrow tube called the column holds the stationary phase and the mobile phase is forced through
the stationary phase under pressure. This is the most popular method now. According to the types of the
phases and the equilibria involved in the transfer of solute materials between them, a more comprehensive
classification has been suggested that has two groups: (i) the gas chromatography, and (ii) the liquid
chromatography. The terms ‘gas’ and ‘liquid’ here are qualifying terms for the mobile phase. The stationary
phase can be a solid or a liquid with solid ‘support’, which should be inert. During passage of the mobile
phase through the column holding the stationary phase adsorption, partitioning, ion exchange etc., occur for
equilibrium depending on the phase constituents. The different components of the mixture carried by the
mobile phase are, therefore, retained by the stationary phase by adsorption, chemical bonding, molecular
filtration, solubility, partitioning and other complex and interacting phenomena for different intervals of
time and then released or eluted so that at the outlet of the column they appear at different times with
varying durations. Detectors of suitable types located at the outlet point would measure the amount of the
components and the results recorded as what is known as chromatorgram, from which the constituents and
their percentages are evaluated. Table 8.22 shows the types of chromatography with some characteristics.
Table 8.22 Column chromatography types

General class Specific types Stationary phase Equilibrium type
A. Gas (GC) (a) GLC (a) Liquid adsorbed on a (a) Partitioning between
solid gas and liquid
(b) GSC (b) Solid (b) Adsorption
(c) GBC (c) Organic substances (c) Either partition or
bonded to a solid adsorption or both
B. Liquid (a) LLC (a) Liquid adsorbed on the (a) Partitioning
surface of a solid
(b) LSC (b) Solid (b) Adsorption
(c) LBC (c) Organic substances (c) Either partition or
bonded to a solid adsorption or both
(d) Ion exchange (d) Ion exchange resin (d) Ion exchange
chromatography (IEC)
(c) Gel permeation (e) Liquid in polymer (e) Sieving or partitioning
chromatography (GPC) interstices
G ≡ gas, L ≡ liquid, S≡ solid, B ≡ bonded phase, C ≡ chromatography.
As would be noted from above, equilibrium is obtained by partitioning in liquid-liquid or gas-liquid
types, by adsorption in liquid-solid or gas-solid types and by both in bonded phases. Equilibrium in
common type GLC or LLC is quantified by partition coefficient K defined as the ratio of the molar
analytical concentration of a solute in stationary phase to that at mobile phase, i.e.,
K = cs/cm (8.150)
However, actual curves between cs and cm do not show that K should be constant unless chromatographic
studies are over limited range of concentration of the solute. In adsorption type technique, although the
relation is approximately given by
cs = Kcmn (8.151)
for limited c-values, n approaches unity and then the chromatography is called linear.
There are three principal methods of operation in chromatography: (a) frontal, (b) displacement, and (c)
elution.
Elution technique is most common in chromatography and it is defined as a process where a solute is
washed through a column by solvents.
It is not always possible to build a mathematical theory of chromatograph but the results are interpreted
sufficiently accurately with empirical formulations. The distance in time of a peak in the chromatogram
obviously determines the arrival of a released component, the time from the reference point is called the
retention time and gives the identification of the particular constituent, the area under the curve giving the
concentration. The retention time is a function of the carrier flow rate and the column temperature, as well
as the constituent, the nature and weight of the column material, particularly for liquid phase packing.
The exact evaluation of the constituent percentage particularly for traces becomes easier if resolution is
increased which can be done by choosing a proper column, i.e., proper packing material, weight, length,
etc., as also with a sensitive detector. The resolution R from the chromatogram, shown in Fig. 8.139, can be
shown to be nearly complete, if
R = 4(t2 – t1)/Dt (8.152)
where t1 and t2 are the time distances of the peaks of the curves of the first and second gases respectively
from the reference point and ∆t is the elution bandwidth of the wider band graph. For specific gas mixtures,
prescribed columns and detectors are used and appropriate corrections are necessary for final acceptance of
data.
t2
t1
Elution heights
Dt
Ref. Time
Fig. 8.139 A typical chromatogram showing full resolution of two gases
The advantage of the elution technique is that the carrier gas flushes the system and the system-returns
to the base condition after every operation. The sample is normally injected in the carrier at intervals
determined by the requirements of analysis. A gas chromatographic system would now be discussed in brief
with its different parts and their functions.
8.5.1 The Chromatograph Schemes

There are, in general, six basic parts in elution type chromatograph. These are: (i) the carrier gas supply
regulator and indicator, (ii) the sample injection system, (iii) the separation or the chromatographic column,
(iv) the detector, (v) the thermal compartments housing the different parts, and (vi) the recorder to produce
the chromatogram. Figure 8.140 shows the schematic arrangement of a gas chromatograph.
Carrier gas from the cylinder passes through a pressure regulator and a direct indicating flowmeter to
enter the column on the one side before that a sample injector injects a sample into the stream and the
reference cell of the detector on another side. This bifurcation is accomplished by a pressure-T. Flow rate
depends on the sample to be analyzed but once the flow rate is selected it must be maintained constant.
The usual flow rate limits are from 0 to 250 cc/min at a line pressure varying from 0 to 4 kg/cm2. The flow
rate may be adjusted by controlling a needle value (not shown in the figure). Commonly used carrier gas
is nitrogen and the gas must be perfectly pure, sometimes called white nitrogen. The purity is required for
proper detection whereas efficiency of operation depends on constancy in carrier supply condition and the
volume of the injected sample. Other gases used as carriers are argon, helium, hydrogen etc. Choice of the
gas depends on types of the detector.
Main flow 6
4 Recorder
Time operated Detector circuit
5
Thermal
compartments
2
Sample
Injector &
linear valve
Detector Ref.
G
3 Column
1
G Pressure regulator and
flowmeter
Carrier
Fig. 8.140 Schematic arrangement of a gas chromatograph
Sample injection system is a more intricate device. It introduces same quantity of the sample in the
carrier stream in the vapour state as many times as is necessary. For liquid samples, a heater to vapourize
the sample when injected, is required. Such instanteneous vapourization sometimes may be associated
with decomposition. Care must be taken to avoid it. Gas sample injection is comparatively simply done by
injecting through a gas tight syringe or through a three-cock stream splitter. In the latter, a measured volume
is trapped in a loop between two stopcocks. On simultaneous rotation by 90° and 180° of these values by
a sliding mechanism, the trapped volume is flushed into the main carrier stream. This is explained in Fig.
8.141(a). The liquid sample is introduced by a microsyringe through a self-sealing silicone rubber septum,
as shown in Fig. 8.141(b). The portion of the line where the sample is injected is heated by electrical means.
The injection operation should be quick enough so that the presence of the sample in the carrier can be
considered a ‘pulse’. The sample is between 0.1 to 10 mcc depending on the carrier flow rate.
Screw on
Stopcock 1 metal cap Heated block
Carrier Column
m Syringe
Sample SC 2 SC 3 To column
To atmosphere
Septum
Loop
(Known volume)
Carrier gas
(a) (a)
Fig. 8.141 Sample injection systems, (a) gas sample (b) liquid sample
The chromatographic column is made from a tube made of copper, stainless steel, alloys of copper nickel
or even glass. It may be shaped in the form of a U or may be coiled to increase the length. The latter shape
is preferred for capillaries whereas the packed types generally are of U-shape. The length of a column varies
from 100 to 150 mm for the packed type with a diameter of the order of 0.5 to 1 mm. Golay or capillary
columns have lengths ranging from 30 to 300 m with a diameter between 0.02 and 0.05 cm. The packing
may be in the solid phase for adsorption or liquid phase for partitioning as has already been mentioned. The
packing material is chosen from a wide variety depending on the specific use. A few common materials
include silicagel, alumina, charcoal activated with proper chemicals and other silica products. Good
resolution characteristics with characteristic retentive property are necessary for the materials. The Golay
capillary columns or the open tubular columns (OTC) have their stationary phase—a liquid coated on the
inner wall of the columns. Pressure drop across it is quite small and the tube/capillary is made of glass or
fused silica to avoid any catalysing action within the column due to the presence of metal (column material)
at the operating temperatures.
Liquid packing materials should have a good differential partitioning property, low vapour pressure
and high thermal stability, i.e., should not vapourize or deteriorate in the operating temperature range. The
common materials are solid petroleum products dissolved in silicone oils or other organic solvents.
Capillary column has a higher efficiency and is useful in a greater number of components in a gas
mixture but is more expensive as well. For a temperature Tc in °K of the column, the normalized retention
figure FR is defined as
FR = vg/vR = 273/wTc (8.153)
where w is the weight of the liquid phase; vg, the specific retention volume; and vR, the total retention
volume corrected for pressure gradient in the tube. The efficiency of substances as column material is
judged by what is known as the relative retention ratio, r, given as
r = vgt /vgs (8.154)
where vgt is the specific retention volume of the test substance and vgs, that of the standard substance.
In LSC and LLC the stationary phases are solids and liquids. In the latter case liquid is often used with
solid support as already specified. The solids in the stationary phase may consist of Al2O3, MgO, charcoal,
silica gel, CaO, MgCO3, K2CO3, Na2CO3, CaCO3, Starch. Cellulose etc., and for LLC water on silica gel
or some other absorbant, benzene or carbon tetrachloride on rubber powder may be used. For mobile phase,
solvents used for both LLC and LSC are varied in nature such as petroleum ether, CCl4, cyclohexane,
benzene, toluene, chloroform, ethyl ether, dichloroethane, alcohols water and many others including organic
acids which are high polarity solvents and have relatively low retention time. High polarity increases
adsorption. Retention time can be controlled by polarity control, i.e., choice of stationary as well as mobile
phases.
High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is a type of liquid chromatography where the column
is specially packed to provide greater surface area. For a useful flow rate through this rightly packed
column, a greater pressure is to be maintained across the column which is usually done by using a pump. A
typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.142.
8.5.2 The Working Theory

It would be seen from a chromatographic operation that if the partition coefficient of a constituent is large,
it would lag during the process of migration through the column, and considering two components in
the mixture, with movement, the distance between the two bands of the two components increases and
simultaneously band-broadening also takes place, which decreases the column efficiency. The theory that
accounts for the relative rates at which the solutes migrate and also the bands broaden during migration, is
the rate theory also called the kinetic theory. This is the accepted working theory of chromatography.
Indicator
Detector
+
Sample Column
injection Eluate
Pump
collected
Solvent
storage
Fig. 8.142 Sketch of high performance liquid chromatographic system
The bands of the chromatograms show enough similarity to Gaussian curves and hence the interpretation
follows the line of randomness—on the part of a particle in the sample in its time of stay in the stationary
phase and the mobile phase. A particle undergoes many thousands of transfer between the two phases
during its migration along the column. Only when it is in the mobile phase, the particle is eluted. If now a
number of particles are considered, their time of stay in the two phases, number of times they change their
stay in each phase—all become quite random but because the number of transfer is very very large the
random individual processes generate velocities with a symmetric spread around a mean value which stand
for the most common or average particle. If more time is required for migration, bandspread increases, the
bandbreadth is thus directly proportional to residence time in the column and inversely proportional to the
velocity of the mobile phase. For giving a quantitative form, the plate theory, in line with the distillation
column, was first proposed by Martin and Synge, where it is assumed that the column consists of N number
of discrete but contiguous narrow horizontal layers called ‘theoretical plates’ of ‘height equivalent’ H, i.e.,
of thickness H so that the column length L is given by
L = NH (8.155)
It is argued that the efficiency of a column increases with increasing N or decrease of H. The term
‘theoretical column’ is used to indicate that in reality such a thing does not exist. As the breadth of a
Gaussian curve is related to variance s 2, efficiency of a column can be defined in terms of s2 as well. Thus
either H = s2/L or N = L2/s2 would mean efficiency, because as s decreases H decreases and N increases.
In fact N and H can be evaluated from the chromatogram of a component. A typical chromatogram peak is
shown in Fig. 8.143. s 2 is variance in cm2 corresponding to length, L, this in chromatogram notation would
be changed to t2 corresponding to retention time tR so that one can write
t/tR = s/L (8.156)
It can be shown that approximately 96 per cent of the area under the peak curve is the same as the area
of the triangle drawn with W as the base and with the analogy that approximately 96 per cent of the area
under the curve of Gaussian type is within ± 2s of the variate value at the peak, one can write
W = 4t (8.157)
so that
H = s 2/L = Lt2/tR2 = LW 2/(16tR2) (8.158a)
and
N = L2/s2 = l6 (tR/W)2 (8.158b)
One would note that H and N are performance parameters of the column chromatograph.
Also L/tR = us is the average linear velocity of the solute in

cm/sec. The peak at tm in the figure is for a constituent that is
tR
not retained by the column packing and hence L/tm = um is the
velocity of the mobile phase. Now us and um are related by the
equation
Det. output
us = um (No. of moles of the solute in the mobile phase/Total tm
No. of moles of the solute)
0
This is because a solute migrates only when it is in the w
mobile phase. If vs and vm are the total volumes of the stationary 0 t
and mobile phases, then Fig. 8.143 A typical chromatogram peak
us = um (cm vm)/(cmvm + csvs) = um/(1 + Kvs/vm) = um/(1 + Kc) (8.159)
where Kc is known as the capacity factor and is obviously a measure of the migration of the solute. Kc can
be found out from the chromatogram.
Substituting the values of us and um in the last equation
Kc = (tR – tm)/tm (8.160)
Both tR and tm are obtained from the chromatogram.
The ratio of the partition coefficients of two components A and B is called the selectivity factor Fs, thus,
FS = KB/KA (8.161)
Component B is considered to be more strongly retained here, so that tRB > tRA. In terms of Kc’s one can,
thus, write
Fs = KcB /KcA (8.162)
so that from the chromatogram
Fs = (tRB – tm)/(tRA – tm) (8.163)
Resolution of a column is another important factor to be considered. Considering a two-component
chromatogram as shown in Fig. 8.144, the resolution Rs is defined as
tRB
tRA Dp
Det. output
tm
t
WA
WB
2
2
Fig. 8.144 A two-component chromatogram
Rs = DP/(WA/2 + WB/2) = 2DP/(WA + WB) = 2(tRB – tRA)(WA + WB) (8.164)

If Rs is 1.5, there is about 0.3 per cent overlapping and for Rs = 1, about 4 per cent overlapping. By
increasing L, Rs can be increased. Resolution Rs can be expressed in terms of N, F, and Kc for a paired
components. In fact, using the equations above, it is possible to write
RS = (N1/2/4) (KcB – KcA)/(1 + KcB) = (N1/2/4{(FS – 1)/FS}KCB/(1 + KCB) (8.165)

and the elution time is obtained as
(tR)A = (16RS2H/um)(Fs/(Fs – 1))2(1 + KcA)3/KcA
2 (8.166)
Example 8.5 From a two component chromatogram following data are obtained: t = 19.92 m, t = 18.80 m,
RB RA
WB = 1.22 m, and WA = 1.02 m. The column length is 50 cm. Calculate the number of plates, plate height and
resolution.
Solution NB = 16(19.92/1.22)2 = 4265, and NA = 16(18.80/1.02)2 = 5435. Hence, the average N, Nav =
4850, and using the relation H = L/N, Hav is 50/4850 = 1.03 ¥ 10–2 cm.
Resolution RS = 2(19.92-18.80)/(1.22 – 1.02) = 1.0. To change resolution, length needs be changed.
Following relation (8.165), one obtains
1
Rs1/Rs 2 = ( N1/N 2 ) 2
and then new N can be calculated, from which the new L also.
8.5.3 The Detectors

Detectors are of a major consequence in chromatography. Most commonly used detector is the thermal con-
ductivity cell. Helium and H2 as a carrier gas is very useful in such a case. The high thermal conductivity of
the reference and relatively lower values of the components make good discrimination. Other detectors are
gas density cells, described in density measurement section; and cross section detectors for packed column.
For capillary columns flame ionization detectors are used frequently. Others include ionization, flame pho-
tometer, electron capture detectors, and rf gauges. Detectors used in LSC and HPLC may be UV absorbance
or fluorescence cells provided the samples show absorbance and/or fluorescence. Refractive index detectors
are also used, where change in refractive index of the mobile phase occurs with a sample component eluted
from the column; but such detectors have low sensitivity. Scattering, flame photometry are some other de-
tecting means in such chromatographs. Other techniques are FTIR spectrometry, NMR spectrometry etc. In
fact, depending on the sample, mobile phase, almost all types of optical, electrode type, ionization type etc.,
detectors can be used in chromatographic systems.
The choice of detectors will depend on factors like
Outlet
(a) sensitivity, (b) discrimination, (c) speed of response, Radiation source
(d) signal-to-noise ratio, and (e) linearity. Generally the
concentration of an individual component does not exceed
1 % vol./vol., and up to this, most of the commonly used
detectors are quite satisfactory. For higher concentration, the Electrode
major change is in linearity of range and speed of response.
The cross-section ionization type is perhaps the
only detector which can measure a hundred per cent
concentration with, however, low sensitivity, of the order of
10–7 g/sec. The detector is flushed with the column output.
A radiation source, often Sr-90, is placed in the chamber as
shown in Fig. 8.145; the chamber volume varies from 0.5 From column
to 5.0 cc. As the response is dependent on the atomic cross Fig. 8.145 Sketch of the cross section
section of the component atoms, the name ‘cross section ionization detector
ionization gauge’ has been given to it.
The radio frequency detector utilizes the principle of corona discharge excited at rf ’s. It consists of a
coaxial probe consisting of a cylinder and a wire. The rf signal at 40 to 50 MHz is fed to this wire through a
capacitor. The space is flushed with the effluent of the column when He or Ne acts as the carrier. Resistance
between the wire and the cylinder develops a dc voltage across it depending on the percentage of the
flushing gas in the carrier. This is believed to be due to coronal effect. The detector is very much dependent
on temperature change.
Among other very extensively used detectors is the flame ionization detector where the eluate is
combined with air and hydrogen to form a combustible mixture which then is ignited to form a flame. This
flame provides the energy to ionize the components in the eluted part from the column. The schematic
of such a detector is shown in Fig. 8.146. The cations are attracted towards the negative electrode kept
around the tip of the flame called the collector. The positive electrode is the metal burner or a metallic
ring as shown. This flow of ions cause a current to flow in the external circuit which may be amplified
and measured. The current is proportional to the number of ions collected by the negative electrode,
which is proportional to the concentration of eluted component that is ionized. Thus it responds to organic
samples where the number of C atoms are responsible for the positive ions produced. It does not respond to
inorganic samples. In fact, their presence affects the performance of the detector. Carrier gas is inert. This
detector is, as such, much more sensitive than thermal conductivity types.
Exhaust
(–)
Ignitor
Electrodes
(+)
Air
H2 Column output
Fig. 8.146 The schematic diagram of a lame ionization detector
Flame photometric detectors are similar to the above except that now the electrode pairs are replaced by
a photodetector/spectrophotometer which focuses upon the flame and measurement, of the radiation emitted
because of the eluted sample, is made. It is now widely used for polluted samples like S and its compounds,
organometallic compounds etc. For monitoring radiation emitted by a specific sample characterized by
specific wavelength, filters are used between the flame and the optical detection system.
The commonly used detectors like thermal conductivity types, ionization types etc., have already been
discussed earlier quite in detail.
8.5.4 Data Processing

Wherever the output is obtained as record like diffractograms in X-ray diffractometry or chromatogram
in chromatography, it is important that the processing, preferably, real time processing, be made of the
graphic data. Considering the chromatographic run, for such processing, the important functions that must
be performed are (a) smoothing of the detector signals as also of the digitized data, (b) detection of the
baseline, time of start of peak, maximum peak height, retention time and the end of peak, i.e., return to
base-line, (c) integration area under the peak, (d) correction, if any, of the baseline drift, (e) resolution of
merged peaks and subsidiary/rider peaks, their separation reallocation and area marking, and (f) printing of
data as required.
All the above functions are now performed by microprocessor-controlled system with specified software
for the purpose.
Smoothing of signal is done by a combination of hardware and software techniques. A major tool in the
formulation of the algorithms of the above functions is the slope-setting. Thus at the crest of the peak, the
slope calculation algorithm reaches zero value and the time of this event is stored as retention time. The
number of the peaks from the programme start is also marked. Establishing baseline also follows slope
setting procedure. The difference in value from consecutive slope calculations and the set slope, initiates to
establish or re-establish the baseline and then the correction for the same is made.
Resolution of fused peaks is done by (i) perpendicular drop, or (ii) tangent method. The former method
is more suitable for fused peaks while the latter for rider ones.
As it is the corrected area under the Gaussian form curve and the time of the peak that are to be
evaluated, it is always advisable, in addition to the above real time processing, a standardisation of the
chromatogram using either external or internal standard. A comparison of the process data with these
‘standardizing curves’ greatly reduces the uncertainty. Once the baseline correction is done and fused peaks
resolved, integration by digital software technique obtains the area under the curve. Comparing this with
the standard and using the present scale factor fixed by calibration the output multiplied by the scale factor
gives the correct value of the concentration of the component.
8.6 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY

NMR spectroscopy is also an absorption spectroscopy where the radiation absorbed is in the radio
frequency region, between 0.5 and 75 m, i.e., 600 MHz and 4 MHz. Absorption phenomenon, in this case,
involves the nuclei and not the electrons and the absorption is made possible in an intense magnetic field.
It offers a method of analysis of chemical nature of a nucleus as also the spatial arrangement of the nuclei
of a substance giving sufficient clue to the bonding situation. In addition, quantitative determination of
components is also possible.
The method of analysis from the experimental point of view is not difficult but the equipment is quite
costly. Besides, the theoretical studies involved in decoding the data obtained are enormous. Yet the scope
of NMR spectroscopy in formalising the nuclear structure is so expansible that a brief introduction of the
method is not out of context here.
The nuclei in many substances have a spontaneous spinning characteristic. Spin, actually, is the
quantization of magnetic intensity just as photon is the quantization of optical intensity. Such spinning
particles are assumed to have an angular momentum associated with them having values that are integral or
1
2
-integral multiple of h/2p, where h is the Planck’s constant. For a particular nucleus the maximum spin
component is given by its spin quantum number I and in the situation as stated, the nucleus can have (2I
+ 1) discrete states, and the components of angular momentum for these states in any direction can have
values I, I – 1, I – 2, …, –I. Without any impressed magnetic field, these states will have identical energies.
The spin number depends on the relative numbers of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Thus the following
classes of nuclei are identified depending on the spin numbers and shown in Table 8.23.
Table 8.23 Spin number and nucleus types

No. of proton No. of neutron I Nucleus examples
Even Even 0 32s 12c 16o
Even Odd 1/2, 3/2... 13c, 1271
Odd Even 1/2, 3/2,.. 1H, 19F, 31P, 79Br,
35Cl, 11B
Odd Odd 1 2H, 14N
, -
1 1 1
If the spin number is , two spin states exist, 2
.
2 2
Since the nucleus bears a charge and when it spins, a magnetic field is generated so that one can say that
the nucleus possesses an intrinsic magnetic moment, and, a magnetic dipole of moment µ is oriented along
the spin axis. This value characterises the nucleus and the magnetic quantum states mq (= I, I – 1, I – 2, …,
– I) is due to the interaction between the spin and the magnetic moment.
When such a spinning nucleus is exposed to an external magnetic field, it tends to change its orientation
such that the spin axis is aligned with the direction of the impressed field and the particle itself behaves like
a bar magnet. Each such orientation with respect to the external field corresponds to a definite energy level
which is limited again to (2I + 1) discrete values as the alignment is permitted to only (2I + 1) positions.
The quantum nature of the nuclear behaviour allows energy E given by
E = – (mq m/I) bΗ (8.167)
where b is a constant called nuclear magneton and H is the external magnetic field. For a particle having spin
number 12 , mq = 12 , - 12 and energy levels are E- = - 12 ( mb H/ 12 ) and E- = -(- 12 mb H/ 12 ) = 12 mb H/ 12 , so
that the difference is
1
DE = 2mbH = mb H/ = mb H/I (8.168)
2
Thus, if the particle absorbs energy hf which equals DE so that
hf = mbH/I (8.169)
the particle moves to higher magnetic quantum level. With the values of m, b, H and I, f can be shown to be
in rf range.
Example 8.6 Calculate the absorption frequency for a 21 spin number particle when applied ield is 15 kG.
Solution Given mproton = 2.7927, b = 5.051 ¥ 10–24 erg/G, h = 6.625 ¥ 10–27 and I = 12 , H = 15 kG;
Hence ƒ = (2.7927 ¥ 5.051 ¥ 10–24 ¥ 15 ¥ 103) / ( 12 ¥ 6.625 ¥ 10–27) = 63 MHz.
In absence of a field, the energies of the magnetic quantum states are same and hence in a large assembly
of protons there will be nuclei of identical number that have mq = + 12 and - 12 and when exposed to an
external field, these tend to align with the field so that the lower energy states with mq = 12 predominate.
NMR technique takes advantage of this predominance. If the number in the high energy states and low
energy states are given respectively by n- 1 and n1 , then one has
2 2
n 1 /n1 = exp (–DE/KT) (8.170)
-
2 2
K being the Boltzmann constant. Using Eq. (8.168)
n 1 /n1 = exp (–mbH/IKT) (8.171)
-
2 2
This value is often very close to unity but slightly less.
Example 8.7 For the values of m, b, I, H, as in Example 8.6 and K = 1.38 ¥ 10–16 and T = 20°C, calculate n 1 /n1 .
-
2 2
Solution Putting the values in Eq. (8.171) one easily gets
n 1 /n1 = 0.999990
-
2 2
If this ratio is 1, no absorption of energy takes place. But with the above data, 10 ppm more protons are
in low energy state so that an absorption band of specified radio-frequency as given by the earlier example,
would be noticed.
Replacing f by w/2p, Eq. (8.169) is rewritten as
w = 2pmbH/Ih = g H (8.172)
where g is called gyromagnetic or magnetogyric ratio and is given by
g = mb/{I (h/2p)} (8.173)
In fact, from the classical viewpoint it is argued that the axis of a rotating particle in the magnetic field
moves in a circular path, i.e., precesses around the magnetic field and the angular velocity of the precession
is w which is directly proportional to the force applied, i.e., the product of magnetic moment mb and field
H, and inversely proportional to the angular momentum (h/2p) I. For absorption of energy the radiation is
to be of the same frequency as that of the precessional frequency, i.e., w/2p = f ; so that
f = g H/2p (8.174)
It is now clear that absorption of radiation depends on a few ppm excess particles in lower energy states
and an intense radiation of appropriate frequency would quickly complete the absorption, to lead to what is
known to saturation, resulting in reduction in absorption or sensitivity. However, relaxation does occur, i.e.,
return from the excited state to unexcited one but if the rate of relaxation is high, i.e., life time is low, line
broadening occurs reducing resolution of the measurement. The optimum lifetime is between 0.1 and 1 sec.
For NMR spectra to be obtained attention should be given to (i) type of instrument used, (ii) state of the
sample, (iii) type of nucleus involved and its environment, and (iv) how the data is required.
As is evident from Eq. (8.169) the spectra can be obtained either (i) by varying ƒ of a radio frequency
oscillator and keeping H constant, or (ii) by varying H and keeping f constant. The spectrometers are of a
few types as given in the chart below:
NMR Spectrometer
(1) High resolution type (2) The Broadband type
(1a) Continuous wave type (1b) Fourier transform type
In type (1) it is possible to obtain the fine structures associated with many absorption peaks. It requires
high magnetic field compared to type (2). In type (1a) the absorption signal can be continuously monitored
by varying either the field or the frequency. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 8.147 where provision for
variation of the field by the magnetic sweep generator is indicated.
The magnet is the most costly part of the instrument. It must produce highly homogeneous, stable and
reproducible, i.e., precise field. It can be a permanent magnet, an electromagnet or even a superconducting
solenoid (obviously a newer innovation). All these are commercially available—the first type in two field
ranges of 7046 and 14092 Gauss for which the required rf values are 30 and 60 MHz respectively.
rf osc. rf recei.
& trans. & detect
N S
Field
sweep gen. Record.
Fig. 8.147 A typical scheme of a NMR spectrometer with sweeping magnetic ield
The second type is usually designed to have higher fields in three steps and correspondingly higher
absorption frequencies, also in three steps. It must be emphasized here that unless the magnetic field is
obtained with a stability of 1 in 109 or more in an hour, the whole experiment would fail. For this to attain, a
reference sample is kept in the field and is being continuously irradiated with its peak absorption frequency.
Any change in its output from the reference condition would indicate a drift in the prescribed magnitude
of the magnetic field. The changed output is fed back to control the current in a coil placed in the magnetic
gap and is used to compensate for the drift. This system of control is known as the frequency lock system.
When the reference sample is taken in a separate sample holder and mounted very close to the analyte
container and is fed from a separate rf transmitter and picked up by a separate receiver, the system is called
external lock system. The sample in such a situation is often taken as water. Alternately, the reference is
dissolved in the analyte solution itself and it then serves as an internal standard. The technique is called
internal lock system. The usual substance is tetramethyl silane. The internal lock system provides a control
of 1 in 1010 while the external one has a value one order less.
For high resolution analysis the rf generator is also required to produce the frequency with a stability
of 1 in 109 or so. The standard frequencies are 30, 60, 90, 100 and 600 MHz. This radio frequency field is
applied at right angles to the magnetic field. Its power is hardly more than 1 W.
The magnetic sweep generator changes the current in the sweep coils to change the field by milligauss
order. This field change may be in dc or ac. The sample container is spun in the fields to ensure
homogeneous irradiation in the sample.
Detectors are of two kinds: (i) the single coil type, and (ii) the cross coil type. Figure 8.148 shows the
former type. The capacitor is varied to tune the rf with the external magnetic field so that the condition
Sample
N S
rf
Detector
Generator
Fig. 8.148 Schematic set-up for NMR spectroscopy

of resonance is produced for making the absorption energy possible. This effectively increases the coil
resistance and the voltage drop across the capacitor provides a measure of the power absorbed by the
sample from the source. The detector can detect the resistive part or reactive part of the coil in parallel
with the capacitor. These are shown in Figs 8.149(a) and (b). The curve in Fig. 8.149(a) is known as the
resonance absorption curve and that in Fig. 8.149(b) is the resonance dispersion curve.
Resistive part
fo Reactive part fo
f f
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.149 Indication of resonance in NMR spectroscopy, (a) resonance absorption curve,
(b) resonance dispersion curve
Another technique of quantitative study with the resonance absorption system is to use an integrator
before the recorder. Actually, two recorders one with and the other without an integrator are provided and
the frequency is sweeped over a wide range to obtain both the absorption curves of all, or most of the major
parts of the constituents and the integral curves. From the absorption curves the identifications are made and
from the integral curve the percentages with a reference are evaluated. An example is shown in Fig. 8.150.
The method is shown to be accurate to within 10 parts in a million. As mentioned already, to ascertain
homogeneity of the magnetic field, it is customary to spin the sample, however, at a large revolution rate of
about 4000 rpm by driving it by air-driven turbine.
%I
Recorder output
Recorder output
II
% II III
% III
f f
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.150 Interpretation of the recorded outputs, (a) integral curve, (b) absorption curve
When an alternate magnetic field is used for scanning, the detection is shown to be more precise. The
basic principle of obtaining a resonance spectrum in the crossed coil type NMR spectrometer is evident
from the set-up shown in Fig. 8.151. The rf generator coils are split into two halves to hold the sample in
between so that rf field falls perpendicular to the coil planes. Over the steady magnetic field an alternating
one with sweeping flux density ranging from mG to G ranges is superimposed. This is allowed periodically
to change the field. This supply is connected to the horizontal deflectors of the cathode ray tube and the
vertical deflector plates are connected to the received coils through the rf amplifier, detector, etc. The pattern
obtained on the CRT screen is known as NMR spectrum. For sure reading of the frequency, it is adjusted
so that the maximum absorption is obtained when the ac field is zero. This method with the crossed coil
actually utilises the principle of nuclear magnetic induction. The receiver coil has the orientation at right
angles to both the magnetic field and the field of the split rf coils. A maximum would evidently be obtained
when the induced emf is maximum.
rf Amplifier
Detector
N S
rf
Generator
30 50
Generator
Fig. 8.151 The schematic set-up ot a cross-coil type NMR spectrometer
The sample container is usually a glass cuvette of circular cross section having an OD of 5 mm that can
hold 0.4 ml of liquid sample. Microtube holders are used for smaller quantity samples.
For very minute quantity samples as well as for special types of samples FT NMR is recommended
where sensitivity is very high. The types of FT NMR used in practice are: (i) pulsed type, (ii) stochastic
type, and (iii) rapid scan correlation type. The pulsed technique type is most common. However, the details
are not covered here as it is considered beyond the scope of this text.
8.7 ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE/

ELECTRON PARAMAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY
This is similar to the NMR spectroscopy and based on almost the same principle except for the fact that
the unpaired electrons in atoms or molecules are now responsible for the inherent magnetic moment. The
spinning of unpaired orbiting electrons gives rise to this characteristic. This occurs in free radicals, certain
odd molecules, transition elements, etc.
When a strong magnetic field is applied to material having the characteristics stated above, an interaction
between the two fields occurs with the result that the electron dipoles are forced for lining up with the
applied field. This sets in a precession in the spin of the electrons whose frequency is related to the applied
field and the inherent magnetic moment. When a microwave field is now applied whose frequency is
identical with the precession frequency, energy is absorbed by the sample and the electrons flip to change
their energy level. Now the lower energy level corresponds to mq = - 12 since electron has negative charge.
Equation (8.169) repeated here in part is valid in this case also,
DE = hfo = mboHo/I = gboHo (8.175)

where bo is the Bohr magneton having a value of 9.27 ¥ 10–21
erg/G, g is the splitting factor and has a value
around 2.0023. With the above values and Ho around 3400 G as is common, ƒo comes out to be about 9.5
GHz in the microwave range.
The basic arrangement for measurement remains the same but the frequency range being different, the
details of the source and detectors are different. The klystron oscillator feeds the sample in a resonator
cavity through a hybrid Tee and crystal detection is applied. The scheme of part of the system is shown
in Fig. 8.152. At resonance microwave power is fully shared by the resonator and the load and hence the
crystal detector goes blank. The magnet is a permanent magnet but Helmholtz coils provide the means for
varying the field over the small range for striking the resonance.
Terminating
resistor load
Crystal
Klystron Measurement
& Record
Hybrid-T
N S
Resonator cavity
with sample
Fig. 8.152 The schematic arrangement of an ESR spectroscopic observation
Another phenomenon, correlated to the NMR, viz., the Nuclear Qudrupole Resonance (NQR), is also
used for analysis purposes. Here resonance occurs because of the existence of nuclear quadrupole moment
in contrast to the nuclear dipole moment in the NMR case. The rest of the system is alike and is similarly
used.
8.8 MASS SPECTROMETRY
Mass spectrometry is based on the principle that the mass component of a sample can be converted into
rapidly moving ions, mainly gaseous, and they can be resolved into a spectrum on the basis of their mass-to
charge ratio. Basically mass spectrometer resolves a beam of positive ions into component of varying mass-
to-charge ratio. If, however, charge is constant and single, a mass spectrum is obtained.
The spectrometer is used in petrochemical, chemical and other industries for quantitative determination
of the components of complex hydrocarbon mixtures or of all types of organic compounds, for identification
and structural analysis of complex molecule etc. When used in chromatography as detector it can identify
and present quantitative result for extremely small quantities of eluate.
Although the basic principle is not very difficult, it is rather complex in implementation and is quite
costly as well. The instrument system is shown in Fig. 8.153 by block representation. From inlet system
to the detector, the entire system is maintained at a high vacuum of about 10–5 N/m2. Block 1 is the inlet
system for samples. There are a number of ways this can be arranged to allow the sample into the ion
source, block 2. Here the mass components are converted into charged particles. It is said that fragmentation
of analyte molecules occurs. Here the positive and negative particles are produced but the negative particles
are removed by imposing appropriate potential. The next block, block 3, the mass analyzer is basically
a dispersion device and the spectrum based on mass-to-charge ratio is produced here by dispersion. The
charged particles or ions are focused here itself to allow them to fall on the appropriate place of the ion
detector represented by block 4. The ion current is then amplified and processed by electronic means and
displayed suitably as represented by blocks 6 and 7 respectively. The vacuum system is represented by
block 5.
5
V.S.
1 2 3 4 6 7
Fig. 8.153 The block representation of the instrumentation of a mass spectrometer (1 sample inlet,
2 ion source, 3 the mass analyzer, 4 ion detector, 5 supply, 6 signal processing, 7 display)
A sample size of about 1 mmole is introduced into the ion source chamber in the form of a gas. In the ion
source chamber, streams of electrons collide with the sample to fragment it and ionize. The positive ions are
then accelerated through a leakage slit to the disperser/analyser. A schematic of the system is shown in Fig.
8.154, without the vacuum system. The inlet system varies depending on the sample type.
Ion source
Mass analyzer
Inlet
Display /
System Record
Sig. Proces.
Detector
Fig. 8.154 The scheme of a mass spectrograph unit
The sample may be injected into the reservoir through a septum and the vapourized sample diffuses
through valves into the ion source chamber. A glass tubing connecting the inlet and the ion source is so
designed that the end, opposite to the ion source, is porous and the sample leaks into the ion source through
this tubing. Appropriate pressure gradient is maintained by expansion. For solid and liquid samples a
heated inlet system is used as mentioned already. Typically, the sample reservoir, glass plug and tubing
as mentioned above are all heated to a temperature of about 200 to 300°C so that the sample produces
adequate vapour pressure. A typical system for gas is shown in Fig. 8.155. Chromatographic column outlet
acting as inlet system may pass on to the ion source, but it is usually passed through a molecular separator
to remove the carrier.
1 to 31 reserv.
Gas
Oven
To
ion source
Meas. vol. Heater
Fig. 8.155 The scheme of an inlet system
Ions can be produced in the ion source in a number of ways—the two major technique are: (i) the
sample is ionized by collision with electrons or positive ions, and (ii) desorption method which involves
a direct transfer of ions from a condensed into a gaseous ionic phase. Without going into the details of the
techniques some methods that are in use are listed below:
(1) The electron bombardment ionization: EI: energetic electrons are used to ionize the sample.
(2) Arc and spark ionization: used usually to produce intense ionic beams as required in the separation
of large quantities of isotopes.
(3) Photoionization: used for gas samples that require low energy.
(4) Laser induced ionization: used for gaseous molecules with multiphoton ionization technique (MPI)
as the high intensity radiation allows the molecules to absorb multiple photons; also used for sample
on a solid surface to vapourize and ionize—the technique is known as laser desorption (LD).
(5) Thermal ionization: sometimes known as direct chemical ionization in which the thermal energy is
sufficient to vapourize and partially ionize a sample.
(6) Chemical ionization: CI: chemical reaction is used to form ionic species.
(7) Field ionization and field desorption: FI, FD: ionization is accomplished by a strong field across
a pair of electrodes, a potential gradient as high as 107 to 108 V/cm is needed; sometimes samples
absorbed on the anode are ionized which is termed field desorption. Anodes are made of tungsten,
molybdenum or gold plated copper.
(8) Ionization by atomic bombardment or fast atom bombardment: FAB: used mostly for liquid surfaces,
often Xe, Ne, He or Ar are used for the purpose; with increasing mass of the bombarding atom,
efficiency increases.
(9) Secondary ionization by ionic bombardment: when a beam of primary ions strikes a solid surface
with a great force, the ions may get embedded in the surface and the kinetic energy lost in the
process subsequently causes neutral fragments as also positive and negative ions to sputter from
the surface. This technique of ionization is used in secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) for
studying both positive and negative ions.
It would be of interest to note that often in the ion source, the complex molecules of a sample split into
component ions of simple structure and a host of peaks would be obtained, the maximum of the lot may not
be due to the original molecule.
The mass analyser itself may be of different designs. Of these (i) the single focussing magnetic sector
analyser, (ii) the double focusing magnetic analyser including the one that uses the Mattauch-Herzog
geometry, (iii) the quadrupole type, and (iv) the time of flight analyser are more popular. Figure 8.156
shows a single focusing type system schematically, which uses a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
to deflect the ion-beam by 60° to 180°. The ions formed by electron impact are accelerated through slits to
enter the analyser metal tube where vacuum of the order of 10–7 N/m2 is maintained. Particles of varying
sizes are focused on to the exit slit by varying the field strength or by varying the accelerating potential
between the slits in the ionisation chamber. The collector electrode collects the ions to send a current
through the resistor and a voltage is developed across it which is then electronically processed.
Accelerating
silts Magnet assembly
Filament
Gas
inlet
r Heavier ions
Anode
To pump
Ionization Exit silt
chamber
The analyser
metal tube
Ion collector
Fig. 8.156 The scheme of single-focusing mass spectrometer
The forces on the ions in the sector shaped magnet poles are (i) the magnetic centripetal force, Fp,
Fp = H.e.v (8.176)
where H = magnetic field strength, e = the ionic charge, and v = particle velocity, (ii) the balancing
centrifugal force, Fg,
Fg = mv2/r (8.177)
where m = mass of the particle, r = radius of curvature and then there is the kinetic energy of the particle, E,
1
E = eV = mv 2 (8.178)
2
where V is the accelerating potential in the ionization chamber as mentioned. As per balance condition,
Fp = Fg, so that
v = H.e.r/m (8.179)
which changes Eq. (8.178) to
m/e = H 2r 2/2V (8.180)
Controlling any one of H, r, V, the mass spectra can be obtained. In modern spectrometry, an
electromagnet is used with the provision of changing the magnetising current while r and V are held
constant. It is seen from above that for heavier mass, the radius of curvature in the magnetic field increases.
A double-focusing variety using the Mattauch-Herzog geometry is shown in Fig. 8.157. An electrostatic
analyser and a magnetic analyser are combined to increase resolution. Ions having same m/e ratio will be
focused at the same band on the photoplate because of same radius of curvature. The band density would be
a measure of the number of ions falling on the band.
The quadruple type analyser is compact, less expensive and rugged, has low scan time but also low
resolution, resolving power being of the order of 104 or so only. Resolution, in fact, is defined in mass
spectrometry as the ratio of the average mass M (amu) to adjacent peaks that are considered just resolved to
the change in mass, DM, i.e.,
Magnet
Accelerating m1
silts 31°50¢ m2
Photoplate
Spark Electrostatic
source analyzer 90° Focal plane
Fig. 8.157 The scheme of the double-focusing type using the Mattauch-Herzog geometry
R = M/DM = (M1 + M2)/(2(M1 – M2)) (8.181)

The quadrupole analyser has four parallel metal rods of about 6 mm diameter arranged symmetrically
around the passage of the beam. The rods are paired each with the opposite one and between these pairs a
dc potential and an rf ac potential of 180° phase shift between them are impressed. Figure 8.158 shows the
arrangement. The fields produced by the pairs do not accelerate the ions coming from the ion source but
cause the particle to oscillate about the central axis of travel. However, those with certain m/e ratio can pass
through without being removed by collision with any of the rods. The m/e spectrum is achieved by varying
frequency of rf source or by varying magnitudes of supplies holding, however, Vdc/Vac and ƒrf constant.
–
+
Hole for ion
passage
+
–
RF source
Fig. 8.158 The quadrupole analyzer
The time of flight analyser also has low resolution but has fast response time. In this design the positive
ions are produced intermittently by bombardment with pulses of electron beam of frequency varying from
10 to 50 Hz and a period of life time of about 0.25 msec. If now a field is applied with same frequency
pulses but with a lag with respect to the electron pulses, the accelerated ions would pass into a field-free
‘drift tube’ about a meter long. As all the particles have same kinetic energy, their velocities in the tube
would vary inversely with their masses. As a result the lighter particles arrive at the collector pair early as
compared to the heavier ones. The total flight time varying from 1 to 30 msec. The schemtaic of the system
is shown in Fig. 8.159. Grids G1, G2. G3 are used to apply pulses of different values of potentials. The
detector is an electron multiplier like photomultiplier tube and is connected to a pair of CRT display plates,
its other pair being synchronised with the accelerator pulses. From earlier equations the time of flight is
given as
1
t = ld /v = ld /{2V (e/m)}2 (8.182)
Electron
gun Filament Drift tube
G3
G2
G1 CRT
Anode
Electron
multiplication
Vac
Fig. 8.159 The scheme of the time-of- light analyzer
As is seen, the detectors used in mass spectrometry are electron multipliers, ion-sensitive photoplates
and the other is a Faraday cup collector which consists of two electrodes one as a plate, the other as a cup
or an open end reflecting box. The plate is connected to the ground via a high resistance across which the
developed potential is amplified for measurement.
Like all spectrometers mass spectrometer can also be adopted as FT-instrument for enhancing S/N ratio,
speed and sensitivity. It utilizes a sort of ion cyclotron resonance, the slits and dispersion elements are
dispensed with, to view the entire spectrum simultaneously.
When a gaseous ion is formed in a strong magnetic field,
it has a circular motion in a plane perpendicular to field 1
direction whose angular velocity (or the cyclotron fre-
quency) of motion wc is obtained as
2
wc = ν/r = H.e/m (8.183)
With increase in velocity the path radius increases. The
frequency wc, however, is inversely proportional to m/e.
Figure 8.160 shows a scheme. With switch in position 1,
an input sinusoidal current through the plate produces H
M
the circular motion for the ions in the field as shown with
frequency matching with input for absorption of energy for AC
specific m/e ratio. If m/e ratio is different, such ions will not
be affected. Switching in position 2 now, the meter records
an image current as shown which decays over a period that
provides a time-domain signal which is quite similar to the
decay signal encountered in other FT spectrometry and Fig. 8.160 The scheme of FT-adaptation of the
analysis is similarly made. mass spectrometer
8.9 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
For analysis instruments, sampling system forms an integral part, which is required to obtain a true
representative of the sample of any state at a steady desired rate and transport the same to the instrument
where the analysis is performed. If in the analysis sample purity is maintained, it is, also, to be returned to
the process at an appropriate point or to be disposed of otherwise.
Sample may be of any state—solid, liquid or gas or a mixed phase like liquid-gas, solid-liquid etc.
Of these solid sampling is slightly different from the others. Solid to be analysed may be in the form of
granules or powder to be collected from a conveyor belt or a chute. In the form of a slurry it becomes solid-
liquid sample and tapping the sample at a suitable point is very important. Granules may be of uneven sizes
when standard sampling fails to work and special consideration must be given.
For gases and liquids, the generalized sampling system would consist of (a) a probe, (b) a sampling
conditioning system, (c) a sample transport system, and (d) a sample disposal system after analysis.
The probe is designed to draw sample from the process line and it is necessary to locate the probe at a
point where the most representative sample can be drawn. Process type determines the type of probe to a
great extent. For example, gas probe for low temperature non-particulate gases will be widely different
from the one for high temperature high dust content type. The latter must be designed to eliminate dust and
lower the temperature to a reasonable value before the gas is allowed into the instrument. In other words,
sample conditioning in part is done in the probe itself. The gas in the latter type is washed with water for
both dust trapping and cooling and the gas-water mixture is then passed to a water trap with appropriate
orientation where water is separated. However, filtering in the transport line is still necessary for a clean
sample. A typical probe with water separator is shown schematically in Fig. 8.161. Gas is aspirated by the
gas inlet (GI). The probe is mounted in the wall of the furnace (FW) with appropriate flanges etc. (F).
Water is introduced through WI and filtered by FI which then mixes with gas to pass into the separator
(WS) through the GWI line. Washed gas goes out via GO and water goes out via WO. Cleaning is done by
opening the cleaning plug CP. Water soluble gases cannot be drawn by such a probe.
FW
GWI
GI GO
FI
WI
WS
WO
CP
Fig. 8.161 The scheme of a typical sampling probe with water separator
Filters are widely varying in design and are used for dust trapping and water separation mainly. In most
of the filters there are meshes of sizes 75 to 400 m, 150 to 5 m made from stainless steel, carbon steel,
bronze etc. Disposable glass microfibre elements bonded with resin or fluorocarbon are also used. Sample
containing oil is water washed and filtered through a coalescer where the sample is passed through a central
tube provided with specially treated filter element through which the sample with water diffuses while oil
is trapped. Water, in the process, forms droplets and is collected in the outer chamber and taken away while
water-free sample goes out at the top onto the analyser as shown in Fig. 8.162.
Filter WF Sample
Coalescer
Water
Sample from
probe
Fig. 8.162 Schematic of a system that traps oil and separates water
Sample preparation also requires the sample to be cooled or heated as the case may be. Depending on the
amount of cooling necessary, air-cooling, watercooling or even refrigerated cooling is done, while heating
is usually done by electric heating.
For process line pressure above the analyser pressure, aspiration is automatic while for the reverse case
in the gas lines depending on the amount of difference of pressure an aspirator called eductor or a pump
may be used. Eductors are like laboratory vacuum pumps usually designed to deliver the sample at the
analyser at a pressure of 20 mm Hg above the line pressure. This aspirator can be located before or after the
instrument. For larger pressure rotary or reciprocating piston pump as also reciprocating diaphragm type
pumps are used, the latter becoming increasingly popular as the diaphragm materials are undergoing fast
evolution with polymer materials. For liquids, on the other hand, centrifugal or positive displacement type
pumps are used.
In the sampling line for flow rate measurement purposes, flowmeters are used. Rotameters are very
common, besides, vane type meters are also used. For maintaining pressure at the analysis system pressure
regulators are used. Simple needle valve or pneumatic diaphragm operated pressure regulators are quite
common.
Sampling lines can be tubings of metals like steel, brass, copper or of polymer-based materials like PVC
stuff. Care should be taken to see that the tube is not permeable to materials inside or outside it. Copper,
for example, is not permeable but has adsorptivity more compared to stainless steel. PTFE is permeable
to oxygen and/or water. Some specially treated PVC tubings are permeable to hydrocarbons. Tubings are
joined or jointed by screwing, flanging, welding or brazing or simply push-on fitting may be done as in
plastic types. However, compression fitting, common in impulse lines is adopted extensively.
Two examples of sampling, one in oxygen analysis in flue gas and other conductivity of steam are
schematically shown in Figs 8.163 and 8.164 respectively. In Fig. 8.163. steam is allowed into the venturi
V at the probe head. By the flow of steam, gas is drawn along the probe which is then water washed and
passed on to separator where dust, steam etc. are separated. The gas is then passed through the air-cooler on
to the oxygen analysis cell. A separate line for calibration is also shown.
To analyser
cell (O2)
Cal. gas
V Air-
cooler
RM
Steam Water / dust
separator
Water PR
Fig. 8.163 The scheme of a steam-injected suction system
In Fig. 8.164, steam is aspirated and cooled in a water-cooled system, and within a prescribed pressure
and temperature it is taken to the measuring cell via a flowmeter. A calibration line is also shown with a two
way valve in position.
Steamline To
conductivity
cell
Cal. input
Cooler
FM
Coolant ret. PI TT
Coolant
Pressure
water
release valve
To drain
Fig. 8.164 The scheme of a sample preparation system in steam analysis
Review Questions
1. What is the sensitivity of a thermal conductivity dependence on supply variation and gas composi-
gas analyzer? What are the different methods of tion variation?
allowing sample into it? How can it be used for 3. Zirconia cells are now frequently used as oxygen
binary mixtures? How conductivity is dependent analysis cells, specially in power plants. Describe
on temperature? this method of analysis. Make a comparative
2. How thermomagnetic method of oxygen analysis study of thermomagnetic method and the
is generally adopted for high acuracy and for less zirconia cell method.
4. How lame and electrothermal atomizers work when used with a buffer of pH value 6.00. Then
when used in atomic spectroscopic studies? Why with an unknown solution, the potential is
is the lame atomizer less sensitive than the –0.2024. What is the pH value and what is the
other? ion-concentration?
How the tubular low and laminar low burners
[8.7369, 30.95 gm ion/litre]
differ in construction and operation? Discuss.
14. How do you distinguish between ion-selective
5. Write about different infrared radiation sources
and infrared detectors. Draw the scheme of electrodes and molecular selective electrodes?
a double beam dispersive type IR absorption Discuss the difference between the membrane
spectrometer and explain its operation. electrodes and metal electrodes with reference to
The vibration absorption peak in the absorption design and principle.
of CO is shown at 2170/cm. Calculate the force 15. What are half-wave period, diffusion current
constant of the C = O bond. as used in polarographic measurement?
[864.1 ¥ 10–12 dynes/cm] What happens when (i) the concentration
6. What are the basic differences between atomic
of the analyte is increased while that of the
emission and atomic luorescence spectroscopy?
supporting electrolyte is held constant, and (ii)
Why is source modulation often employed in
atomic absorption spectroscopy? Describe one the concentration of the supporting electrolyte
particular technique of such spectroscopic is decreased while that of the analyte is held
analysis and explain its operation. constant?
7. For multichannel analysis atomic emission 16. What is difference between nephelometry and
method with inductively coupled plasma source is turbidimetry? Discuss the effect of concentration,
preferred to atomic absorption method. Explain. particle size and wavelength of incident radiation
8. Signal to noise ratio can be improved by specially on scattering in the above measurements.
designed ilters—what are these ilters? How do 17. What is a psychrometer? Describe an industrial
they improve the ratio? psychrometer and explain its operation.
9. Explain why in spark spectra ion lines and in 18. What is a dew cell? What are the variables such
inductively coupled plasma spectra atom lines a cell can measure? Describe the construction
are predominant. of a dew cell and explain its operation from
10. Often in spectrometric analysis an internal thermodynamic balance condition.
standard is used. Why is it necessary? Describe 19. Describe an IR absorption method of measuring
one particular system where it is used and show moisture in a suitably formed sample.
how it helps in the analysis of the sample. 20. What are Saybolt, Redwood and Engler numbers?
11. What types of grating are now preferred for Describe a Saybolt viscometer and discuss on its
high dispersion and high resolution? An echelle utility and accuracy.
grating has 100 grooves /mm and a focal length 21. Sketch an electrostatic type densitometer and
of 0.5 m. Calculate its theoretical reciprocal explain how it works. For what types of luids can
dispersion for a diffraction angle of 60° with it be used?
order 20 and 100. What is Gowmac densitometer? Describe such a
[1 mm/cm, 0.2 mm/cm] meter and discuss its operating principle, range
12. Explain the principle of Fourier transform and limitations.
spectrometry. How is it adopted in IR methods of 22. What are the different types of non-Newtonian
analysis? luids? What method is most universally used for
13. How does a glass electrode work for the consistency measurement of such luids?
determination of pH? What is an asymmetry 23. What usually are the industrial gaseous
potential? How is it taken care of? pollutants? How are they measured in a mixture
A glass calomel pair of electrodes used for of other normal gases? Describe an optical
measuring pH shows a potential of –0.0412 V method for measuring SO2, NO and CO, making
necessary reference and discussions on the sam- min. Calculate the column resolution, the plates
pling of the test gases. in the column and the plate height.
24. How can X-ray absorption spectra be utilized [Rs1 = 12 N1 = 0.1024
for analysis purposes? What are characteristic Rs2 = 4.2 N2 = 0.0988
X-rays? Discuss with relevant diagrams and N3 = 0.1156
analysis. H1 = 4.166 ¥ 10–4 cm/s
25. What are the different types of detectors used in H2 = 1.461 ¥ 10–4 cm/s
X-ray methods of analysis? Make a comparative H3 = 1.1067 ¥ 10–4 cm/s
study of these detectors. Take graph in all cases]
26. Draw the scheme of a X-ray luorescence 31. Distinguish between a packed column and open
spectrometer and explain its operation. Also, tubular column. Draw the schematic diagram of
discuss its possible application areas. a gas chromatograph and describe its operation
27. Discuss the basic principles of a single- with different types of detectors usually required
coil detector type NMR spectrometer with for the purpose.
appropriate diagram. Why cross-coil detectors 32. Discuss the operation of a single-focusing
are sometimes preferred? magnetic sector mass spectrometer. The
28. Discuss the functioning of an ESR spectrometer acceleration voltage in such an instrument is
indicating some of its application areas. How held constant at 3 kV and it requires a ield of 1.2
does it differ from NMR? kG to focus the peak for methane ion. If, now, it is
29. On what factors do band-broadening and band- required to scan a mass range of 15 to 200, what
separation depend in chromatography. What are would be the range of the ield strength?
their consequences in the results of the analysis? [0.6 to 2.19 kG.]
30. A packed column of length 25 cm when used in 33. What are the different types of double-focusing
a chromatograph, three species A, B and C show separators used in mass-spectrometry? Describe
retention times as 5, 14 and 20 min respectively one that forces all ions to be focused on a single
and peak base widths as 0.4, 1.1 and 1.7 min focal plane. Explain how the double focusing
respectively. An unretained species passes in 3 types give narrower peaks and better resolution.
Digital Transducers and
Related Topics
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Digital transducers are defined as transducers with a digital output.

Demand for such transducers is in the increase because of the
present trend of availing of the intelligent instrumentation system,
i.e., a system of measurement that incorporates digital processors.
It should, however, be remembered that transducers, available at
large, are primarily analogue in nature and some form of conversion
is needed to transform them into digital form. One specific
Chapter 9 exception is a vibrating wire which, in response to some change in

physical characteristics experienced by the wire, produces change in
frequency and a digital output is, thus, obtained.
Analogue transducers packed with electronic A-D converters can and
do serve the purpose of digital transducers as are used in intelligent instrumentation. This introduces an additional
uncertainty, that of the converter. In consequence overall accuracy and resolution are likely to be affected.
If the digital output is only to be displayed by a digital readout system, the problem is much less. If,
however, another digital system is to receive this for further processing, ‘handshaking’ of the two systems
would be necessary as would be discussed later.
It is not easy to classify digital transducers on the basis of the common mode such as electrical,
mechanical etc. However, mechanical discs with optical encoding can act as digital transducers which
can be considered as mechano-opto-electrical type. Similarly vibrating wire types can be considered as
electrical type. There are others, using combined principles and can be classified as such, like, the shaft
position of a rotary system which can be considered as mechano-electrical and so on.
9.2 DIGITAL ENCODERS: DISC TYPE

Early encoder disc was such a transducer which consisted of dark and bright spacings on it representing
specific patterns. The dark areas are conducting materials and an electric circuit could be completed through
them via a pair of brushes. Several concentric rings were made on the disc generating a number of different
patterns to yield digital output. Each ring or track, as it is known, used to represent a separate ‘bit’ and on
each ring a separate brush had to be arranged. For common connection still another separate brush was
placed on the ‘energising’ ring.
Brushes have been replaced by optical sources and photodetectors in modern-day disc encoders. The
disc rings are, in consequence, made transparent with opaque areas. On one side a common light source
is used, on the other side of the disc an array of photocells—one for each ring is arranged. A narrow radial
slit close to the disc actually allows the photocell array to receive optical signal from the rings. The output
from the array of photocells will be a parallel binary coded signal. The signal is representative of the shaft
position or rotation of the disc as the darkened and transparent areas of the rings along a radial line are so
designed. Figure 9.1 shows the scheme of an encoded disc in part and Fig. 9.2 shows the scheme of obtain-
ing a digital signal corresponding to shaft positions using photocells and light source.
Fig. 9.1 The scheme of an encoder disc

Slit Photocells
Lens
Source
Shaft
Disc
Fig. 9.2 The scheme of obtaining a digital signal from the shaft
The resolution obtained in such an encoder disc is a function of the number of rings giving the bit
numbers as mentioned earlier. Large number of tracks would thus be required, increasing the disc diameter
and the disc speed should be in consonance with the associated electrical/electronic system as a square
pulse is obtained from a single photocell when activated. The discs are so ‘engraved’ that the innermost ring
represents the most significant bit (MSB) and the outer ring the least significant bit (LSB). The disc should
be engraved with an appropriate code, a cyclic or a grey code for example, so that when it is required to
change binary coded signals abruptly, provision for that facility must be there. For example for an 8-bit
Digital Transducers and Related Topics 447
disc changing from 01111111 to 10000000 requires all the 8-bits to change simultaneously with a minimal
detectable angular position change. This must be ensured.
Commercial absolute encoders with 14-bit resolution are available that provide an angular resolution
of about 1.3 minutes of arc. Accurate position measurement depends upon resolution as also upon the
electronic circuit speed. Greater the resolution, lower is the maximum rotational speed that can ensure an
accurate read out.
Other than brush contact type and optical encoders a third variety is also available with more advantage
than the contact type but less advantage than the optical type. This can be called the magnetic encoders.
In such an encoder the disc is coated with a magnetic material and on this material a prerecorded pattern
is impressed. Pick-up heads with small toroidal magnets are used to read the pattern from the disc. It
obviously has higher rotational life than the contact type.
9.2.1 Enhancement of Resolution

From a possible 14-bit resolution in normal absolute encoder disc, a significant increase of 5 to 6 bits
is possible by modifying the optics and/or the electronic circuits and schemes. By this the output of
the cells of the outer track can be made to produce a sine-wave output. A special track often is engraved
for the purpose. For example, a track is added radially outside the outer track of the absolute encoder
which is used exclusively as a part of the enhanced resolver system. By placing two (or four) sensors in
it, sine and cosine waveforms are obtained. The second sensor is positioned such that its electrical output
is displaced by 90° from the first. A second pair is used for averaging purpose. Three signals are generated
now: (i) sine-wave-obtained directly from the first sensor, (ii) a cosine wave signal obtained from the
second sensor, and (iii) an inverted sine signal by inverting the first signal. A typical scheme of enhancement
by these three signals is shown in Figs 9.3(a), (b) and (c). These signals when fed into an interpolator,
phase changes can be introduced producing a succession of sine waves of increasing phase difference
as shown in Fig. 9.3(c). The sinusoidal waveforms can be now converted to square waves, and by level
detection eight states are identified which give three additional bits. The complete scheme is shown in
Fig. 9.4 and a simple interpolation network is shown in Fig. 9.3(b) which is a resistance chain to which the
sine-cosine outputs are connected as inputs. The outputs of this interpolator marked 1, 2, 3 and 4 produce
a set of quasi-sine-waves with varying phase conditions, depending on the positions of tapping made on
the chain. These waveforms are then used to generate squarewaves, by saturation perhaps, and finally level
detection by simple logic system, pulses are generated. In this particular scheme there are 8 such pulses as
shown in Fig. 9.3(c).
9.2.2 Incremental Shaft Encoders

Angular incremental encoding does not require a multitrack disc as is common with shaft encoders. In fact,
it consists of maximum two tracks comparable to the least significant ones on the absolute encoder disc.
One of these tracks provides indication of a unit of angular rotation and the other is arranged to have a 90°
phase shift with the former, and by employing a simple logic, is used to indicate the direction of rotation.
Figure 9.5 shows the generation of interpolation pulses and the resolution has been shown to be doubled by
using the direction track. A datum mark is provided on the disc, or, for multiturn resolver, a specific position
switch may be provided for the purpose.
A single track incremental shaft encoder is provided with the arrangement of sine-cosine output gadgets
similar to the resolver described in the previous section.
In the present day commercial sensors 5000 segments can be engraved on a 150 mm diameter disc and
this can provide 20,000 pulses in one revolution without any resolver techniques as described so that a
resolution of approximately 1 min of arc is obtained as such.
c
c –sin q
b cos q b
3
a sin q
a 1
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 9.3 The scheme of enhancement of resolution, (a) three waves as signals, (b) the input-output
network, or, Interpolator, (c) the output with increasing phase difference
sin q 3 bit
Sch. Trig. 20
Interpolator 3 bit output
& Logic
cos q 23
24
Sch. trig.
14 bit MSB's
14 14 bit magnets
217
sin/cos sensors
Fig. 9.4 The complete scheme with enhanced resolution
Incremental
track
Direction
track
Interpolation
pulses
Fig. 9.5 The scheme of generation of interpolation pulses
One very simple method of increasing resolution, without employing interpolator, is to use both the
leading and trailing edges of the sine-cosine pairs of outputs for generating pulses that can be counted. This
increases the resolution by a factor of four.
Example 9.1 A digital shaft encoder is used to control the position of the lift in a building having ten storeys
such that the loor level is maintained within 10 mm. If the inter loor height is 3 m, what design of the encoder
would be necessary?
Solution It is assumed that a single-turn rotary digital encoder is employed. The total movement of the lift is
m = 9 ¥ 3 = 27 m
If this is to level to within ±10 mm a resolution of ±5 mm would be necessary so that positions on the
disc should be
p = 27 ¥ 1000/5 = 5400 ª 2n
giving n to be a fraction. However, if n = 12, p = 4096 which is less than 5400, and if n = 13, p = 8192 and
this value of n is to be chosen. Hence a thirteen-bit encoder is to be chosen to keep the level tolerance as
stipulated.
9.3 LINEAR DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCER
The encoder disc transducer can be straightened up to produce a linear version of the angular transducer.
It may similarly provide multitrack absolute ‘linear’ encoding facility but this would make the sensor very
wide leading to inconvenience. Another way of digital measurement of linear displacement is achieved by
converting mechanically the linear motion into rotary motion and then using a rotary encoder as above.
However, this technique is likely to introduce backlash and nonlinearities thereby reducing the accuracy.
The approach using a direct linear encoder track or ‘scale’ is more acceptable where either absolute or
incremental output is obtainable. It is basically the type mentioned in the beginning but the scales are of
incremental type consisting of finely divided optical gratings. It is available up to a length of 10 m now
with a grating of 0.01 mm pitch to provide high accuracy. Optical sensor cells are mounted on to the scale
on one side of the grating. Illumination is done either from the other side or from the side of the cells so
that in the latter case a reflective technique has to be used with the scale engraved or etched on the surface.
In the former case transparent scales are necessary. The scheme is shown in Fig. 9.6(a) while Fig. 9.6(b)
shows the outputs when four different cells are used. It is seen that pulse-counting can be done in this
system as well.
With 4 cells, output from each cell varies sinusoidally by one cycle as the optical system covers one
pitch. Positioning of the cells may be done such that cell 1 gives a ‘sine’ output (say), cell 2 gives a ‘–sine’
output, cell 3 ‘cosine’ and cell 4 ‘–cosine’ outputs. Light is detected by the cells after it passes through the
scale and a graticule which, in turn, consists of short transparent grating having the same pitch as that of the
main scale. With graticule lines and main scale line coinciding with each other output is maximum and it is
minimum when lines in one fill the spaces of the other. The photocell covers a short length of the scale and,
therefore, measures the average of the light received through this length consisting of a number of grating
lines. This arrangement minimizes any small error that might be present in the spacing of the grating.
As shown in Fig. 9.6(a) and (b) four graticules used in a frame are positioned such that their outputs are
phased. Using their outputs in interpolator networks as discussed earlier the scale may be sub-divided in
four or more parts.
4
3
2
1
(a)
1
Cell output (V)
3
4
2
d
p
(b)
Fig. 9.6 (a) The scheme of a linear displacement transducer using grating,
(b) the outputs with 4 different cells
9.3.1 Moire Fringe Techniques

A modification of the above scheme is the Moire fringe technique where the fringes are produced by a
transparent grating and a graticule—again both having the same pitch but the lines of the graticule being
inclined at a very small angle b, with the lines of the grating (scale) as shown in Fig. 9.7. If the graticule is
inclined by one grating pitch, p, over the width of the scale, the angle b is obviously given by
b = tan–1p/w (9.1)
where w = width as mentioned. In this situation, the effect produced is that there is one horizontal dark area
which would move vertically by an amount w as there is a horizontal displacement of the scale by p. If,
however,
np = w tan b (9.2)
b
p Grating
w Dark Light
Graticule
Scale
Fig. 9.7 The Moire fringe technique explained
where n = any integer greater than 1, there would be n horizontal dark areas which move as before. A single
photocell located at a fixed position across the width of the main grating would encounter a cycle of light-
dark-light phase with a relative movement of the graticule with respect to the scale by a distance ‘p’
By incorporating resolvers, i.e., two photocells, for example, displaced carefully so that they give outputs
representing sine and cosine functions, four-fold increase in resolution is possible. Thus, a resolution of
25 ¥ 10–4 mm is obtained with a grating of 100 lines per mm. It can further be enhanced by incorporating
four photocells in appropriate positions as described in the previous section.
9.4 DIGITAL TACHOMETER
Variable reluctance tachometers are often used for speed measurements where variation in reluctance is
utilized to induce emf in an output coil. Its output is nearly sinusoidal with the peak-to-peak magnitude
roughly proportional to rpm. This may be converted into a digital tachometer with the scheme as shown in
Fig. 9.8(a) where a toothed wheel made of ferromagnetic material is mounted on the shaft of the rotor and a
transduction coil wound on a permanent magnet is held close to the toothed wheel. As a tooth comes closer
to the coil, the magnetic field around the coil on the magnet gets distorted which is manifested in the form
of a voltage pulse in the coil. The output increases with closer spacing of the wheel to the transductor and
the frequency of the output pulses is a function of number of teeth on the wheel and rotor speed. Usually
available number of teeth is 60 and the clearance between the wheel tooth and the transductor is about 0.3
mm.
Another variation to obtain pulses proportional to speed is discussed in Chapter 2 where a photocell is
used to detect the light passing through a slit on the rotor or reflected from a bright mark on the rotor as
shown in Figs 9.8(b) and (c) respectively. A counter-timer circuit is employed for the final form of output.
Often a clock serves as a timer which helps to count the pulses over the specified period of time and an
average is thus obtained. Another technique is to measure the time between two successive pulses by
appropriate gating scheme as discussed in Chapter 7. For average speed measurement the latter method
is particularly useful if number of pulses per revolution are more, but, high rpm measurement is often not
possible because the resolution is inversely proportional to the shaft speed. In the former method, very low
speed measurement tends to be erratic because the resolution is directly proportional to shaft speed.
N S Vo
(a)
Source Source
Lens
Photocell
P.C.
(b) (c)
Fig. 9.8 Digital tachometer principle, (a) toothed-wheel magnet scheme, (b) optical method with light passing
through a slit, (c) optical method with light re lecting from a bright spot on the wheel
9.5 FREQUENCY OUTPUT TYPE TRANSDUCERS

Quite a number of transducers are based on the principle that the parameter to be measured is converted into
a natural frequency of vibration of the entire sensor system or a part of it. This frequency is then counted
over a time by converting into pulses. Two of the very frequently used transducers of this category are (a)
vibrating strings (and beams), and (b) vibrating cylinders.
(a) Vibrating String Type The string is effectively used as a strain gauge for measurement of force and
strain. A steel wire is suspended horizontally, with one end fixed and the other end kept in tension by
the force to be measured. If a strain in any member is to be measured, both the ends of the wire need
be fixed to the member between two points of significance. The natural frequency of free vibration of the
string is dependent on the force. The change in this frequency is picked up by a variable reluctance pick-
up. The signal is then amplified and a frequency output is thus available which, in turn, is fedback to an
electromagnet acting as exciter to generate vibration in the wire or sustain the vibration already produced.
Figure 9.9 shows the schematic diagram of the system. The natural frequency is given by
f = (1/2l)(F/m)1/2 Hz (9.3)
where l = length of the wire between the two supports as shown in the figure
F = the force producing the tension, and
m = mass per unit length of the wire
Pick up
VG
Force F
l
Fig. 9.9 The vibrating string transducer VG = Vibration generator
This technique can be extended to the case of a thin beam or a tape. Instead of tensile load, the beam/
tape may be subjected to twist—the amount of twist producing angular displacement which changes the
natural frequency of oscillation in the system.
This vibrating wire technique is also used nowadays in fluid pressure measurement system where the
wire is mounted in a metal tube fixing one end of the wire to the closed end of the tube through an insulator
and the other end of the wire fixed to a bellows element which, in turn, seals the metal tube. The bellows
element is spring-loaded, A magnet assembly is mounted such that the wire is held in its field. The space
inside the tube is filled with a fluid which receives the process pressure through a diaphragm assembly. An
oscillator to cause the wire to oscillate at its natural frequency also gives the output in terms of frequency
which is then saturated by an amplifier for pulse output.
A flexurally vibrating quartz beam can also act as a force sensor when stress is applied through the
mountings at its ends. For a rectangular beam of length l, bending plane thickness t, Young’s modulus Y and
applied stress S producing tension along the axis produces a flexural resonance frequency ƒn as
fn = fo 1 + k1 ( S/Y )(l/t ) 2 (9.4)
where fo is the fundamental mode resonance frequency in absence of stress and is given by
f o = k2 (t/l 2 ) Y/r ) (9.5)
r being the density of the material and k1 and k2 are two constants which for quartz are 0.54 and 1.02
respectively. The shift in frequency with stress S is given as sensitivity S Sf = (df/dS)/(f/S), such that
S Sf = {k1(S/Y)(l/t)2}/{1 + k1(S/Y)(l/t)2} (9.6)
which is nonlinear with S.
A double beam design of such a system is schematically shown in Fig. 9.10. This design reduces or
even cancels the vibrational bending moments, its Q-factor may be as high as 105. The vibration in the two
beams are opposite to each other, Pairs of gold electrodes are produced on the two faces of the beam by
evaporation technique. Applying voltage to these electrodes a shearing force is set that produces a small
flexural deformation. Appropriate symmetric design of the beams and electrodes can generate the desired
stress pattern for exciting the fundamental mode flexure and the vibration is maintained by supplying the
electrodes from electronic oscillators. Frequency fn can be measured by the technique shown in Fig. 9.9.
Frequency output force transducers are also developed using surface acoustic wave (SAW) delay
lines which, in turn, are produced photolithographically defining interdigital transducers (IDT) on
quartz substrate with known separation in between as has been mentioned earlier. Basically an oscillator
is formed and a force is made to develop a stress in the substrate causing a change in length, in turn, a
change in the frequency of the oscillator. Temperature sensitivity of the crystal is minimized by choosing
an appropriate cut of the crystal (Y-cut) for the desired turnover temperature. Also if two SAW delay lines
on the two opposite faces are made and the load is applied as shown in Fig. 9.11(a), two oscillators are
effectively formed with propagation in opposite directions between the pairs of IDT’s on the two opposite
faces. With the deflection, one face is in extension and the other in compression with shift in the oscillator
frequencies in the opposite directions, thus, increasing the total frequency shift. The shift in frequency due
to temperature, however, is in the same direction for the two cases and hence effect due to temperature
change is cancelled. The response curve for the system is shown in Fig. 9.11(b).
–
Mount
Electrode
Vibrating Beams
–
Fig. 9.10 The scheme of a lexurally vibrating quartz beam—the double beam design
A1
SP
m
4 z/g
Df 3 )] H
(–b z/gm (A2)
A
(k Hz) 2 [a – aH
CS 1
Df
0 100 200 F(gm)
A OP –1
FE M –2 b Hz
F /gm (A 1 )
–3
–4
A2
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.11 SAW delay line as digital sensor, (a) the sensor made with two delay lines on the opposite faces,
(b) the system response curves force versus frequency (SP shield plane, FE ixed end,
CS cantilever substrate, OP output, M mixer, F force, AA acoustic absorber)
(b) Vibrating Cylinder Type For measuring fluid pressure, density and mass flow, vibrating cylinder
technique is used quite often these days. The most common design is a hollow cylinder closed at one end.
The cylinder is placed in a gaseous medium so that the density of gas inside and outside the cylinder is
same and no extra-tension is produced because of any difference in density. The cylinder is allowed to
vibrate in its natural mode by exciting it and sustaining by means of an iron-cored solenoid. The detection
is also by a solenoid. The exciter position should be adjusted for natural mode vibration. The frequency of
vibration depends on the cylinder material and its dimensions as also on the mass of the gaseous medium
vibrating with the cylinder walls—this means that the gas density becomes a factor.
If there is a difference of pressure between the outside and inside medium of the cylinder, the frequency
of vibration changes and in such a situation the cylinder can be used as a pressure sensor. For such an
application pressure on one side of the cylinder is required to be held constant.
Typical design data of a cylinder are as follows: (a) material: steel, (b) diameter: 2.5 cm, (c) length:
5.0 cm, (d) wall thickness: 0.0075 cm.
For pressure sensors of this type a frequency variation from 1.5 to 5.0 kHz is obtainable for a pressure
change of 0 to 300 kg/cm2. For varying pressure ranges cylinder dimensions need be changed. Guard
against temperature variation should be taken.
For liquid density measurement there is a slight modification in the design and installation. Two high
nickel content alloy tubes much larger in size and identical in construction are mounted as parallel flow-
pipes. Their ends are secured together to a rigid base plate. These pipes are then coupled to the main flow-
lines through flexible couplings. The drive and sustaining electromagnetic pick-up coils are mounted
between the tubes so that the tubes are allowed to vibrate in a simple lateral mode as shown in Fig. 9.12.
The frequency of vibration is a function of the mass of the tubes, which in turn is dependent on the density
of the flowing fluid, fluid flow rate and the tube material and dimensions. The commercial design keeps the
mechanical Q-factor above 2000 and the nominal frequency 1000 Hz. A 30 per cent change in frequency
occurs for a thousand-fold change in density with an accuracy of 0.1 kg/m3. Corrections for temperature
variation need be done in this case as well.
B.P.
F.C.
S.P.U. D.C.
Fig. 9.12 Vibrating tube digital density transducer (FC lexible coupling, BP base plate,
SPU sustaining pick-up, DC drive coil)
It must be emphasized that this type of transducers can be used to measure force and torque as well.
9.5.1 Vortex Flowmeters

Vortex flowmeters have been considered in Chapter 6. It has been seen that vortex frequency is a function
of the fluid flow rate. A measure of this frequency, therefore, becomes a measure of the flow rate.
Natural vortices caused by interference in the smooth flow of a fluid may be used for measurement
of fluid flow rate. The natural phenomenon is artificially produced now for producing signal that can be
commercially measured. Usually a thick obstructing shedder is placed across the diameter of the pipe.
When the flow velocity is above a certain value, a series of vortices or eddies are generated. The frequency
of these vortices will depend on the fluid velocity and is detected by locating appropriate detectors
downstream of the street. Figure 9.13(a) shows a set of ultrasonic transmitter-receiver placed across the
pipe. With a vortex occurring in the line of transmission of the signal, the signal received has a change in
level, the frequency of this change in level is dependent on the fluid velocity. For Reynold’s number above
10,000, a relation between vortex frequency f, fluid velocity V and the characteristic dimension dc of the
shedding body is obtained as
f = ntV/dc (9.7)
where nt is an experimentally determined constant called Strouhal number, usually a fraction, as discussed
earlier.
This change in frequency is then used to trigger a counting circuit obtaining thereby a digital output.
The shedder is actually a bluff body. The detectors may be piezoelectric pressure transducers which
are used to measure the pressure change in the vortex, or a self-heating thermistor measuring change in
resistance due to vortex formation. These transducers are to be mounted on the shedder itself and design
of the shedder is, therefore, very important. For the piezoelectric element a type as shown in Fig. 9.13(b) is
often used. Differential pressure created on the diaphragms due to vortex formation produces piezoelectric
output at a frequency of the vortex generation which may be picked up by an appropriate pick-up used for
the purpose.
Pulse signal available from the vortex device sensor is amplified to the extent to produce approximately
rectangular pulses of fixed amplitude and then fed to what is often called a pulse conditioner where
frequency division or multiplication is also performed to suit the scale range. A generalized pulse signal
converter is shown in Fig. 9.13(c). The converter can accept voltage pulse signals, current pulse signals
via relay contacts or transistor switches. For the relay contact input, filter must be on to eliminate chatter-
ing noise. Load resistors must be on for current pulse to convert it to voltage pulse. With proper wave-
shaper, an opto-isolator isolates the input from output. The output is always transistor contact signal and
is computer compatible. For analogue output of 4 to 20 mA, frequency to voltage to current conversion
method is to be adopted.
The output frequency of the meter is expressed in terms of the volume flow rate and a K-factor whose
value is dependent on the units in which volume flow rate is expressed. As the Reynold’s number changes
with velocity of the fluid, this K-factor is seen to undergo a shift from the nominal calibrated value. A
typical deviation of K with Reynold’s number R is given in a curve called the signature curve and is shown
in Fig. 9.13(d). The curve shows that for a lower R, lower than a certain value, no pulse output occurs as
vortices are not formed further down that velocity of fluid. Also, the differential pressure across the detector
then is too small for a signal to be picked up.
Instead of using ultrasonic transmitter-receiver as discussed earlier, an optical fibre can be mounted
transversely to the flow in the flowline which acts as a sensor. The schematic is shown in Fig. 9.13(e).
The fibre is vibrated by vortex shedding, the frequency of vibration being dependent on the change
of flow rate. In consequence, the modulation of the optical carrier wave within the fibre that starts along
with vibration also changes. By detecting this modulation by what is known as ‘fibredyne’ technique
the vibration frequency and hence the flow rate is found. This, as is clear, is also directly digitally
implementable.
9.5.2 The Doppler Flowmeter

If a narrow beam of radio-frequency, optical frequency or ultrasonic frequency is allowed to be incident
on a particle in a flowing fluid, the particle scatters the beam and causes a frequency shift. For the flowing
T/R
Vortex D P.S.
Flow
R/T
(b)
(a)
– OC
+
P O.P.
SW
LCP Fl DIF. WS OPC
(c)
FC
FF
2
% Deviation of K
1
F
0
FP
–1
FF
–2
103 104 105 106 + + TA
R
(d) (e)
Fig. 9.13 Digital vortex lowmeter, (a) vortex production and ultrasonic transmitter/receiver, (b) shedder with
a piezoelectric pick-up (T transmitter, R receiver, D diaphragm, PS piezoelectric strain element), (c) a generalized
pulse signal converter. (LCP load for current pulse, Fl ilter, DIF differentiator, P pulse, WS wave shaper, SW switch,
OC optocoupler, OPC output circuit OP output pulse), (d) plot of per cent deviation of K-factor with Reynold’s number,
(e) optical ibre transmitter-transducer. (FC ibre clamp, FF lexible iller, F ibre, FP low pipe, TA tension adjust)
fluid, as the particle also moves with the fluid velocity, the frequency shift due to Doppler effect occurs.
Figure 9.14(a) shows a situation with the transmitter and the receiver on the same side of the flow channel.
This arrangement may be used to measure the fluid velocity V by measuring the Doppler shift fD, being the
difference of received frequency fR and transmitted frequency fT when the beam velocity is C. With zero
fluid velocity, V = 0, l = Ct, but with a fluid velocity the changed wavelength l¢ is given by
l¢ = (C + V cos a1 + V cos a2)t (9.8)
hence
(l¢ – l)/l = (V/C)(cos a1 + cos a2) (9.9)
where a1 and a2 are the angles as shown in the figure. Assuming a1 ª a2 and angle of entry of the
transmitted beam is q = (p/2 – a1) the Doppler shift is,
fD = fR – fT = 2 fT V sin q/C (9.10a)
giving,
V = fD/(2fT)(C/sin q) = kfD (9.10b)
The measuring accuracy with appropriate digital hardware and processor may be ± 1% to ± 4% and a
precision of about ± 0.3%. The variation is due mainly to pipe sizes, flow velocities and types of fluids. An
ultrasonic beam of 0.5 MHz through the pipe wall into the stream is usually projected. In case of difference
of velocities in the transmitter material of the wave Ct (say) and that in the fluid C, Snell’s law may be used
such that
sin qt/Ct = sin q/C (9.11)
and adequate correction in the system made.
A commercial laser Doppler flowmeter principle is shown in Fig. 9.14(b). Micrometer sized particles
present in the stream scatter the laser light. The laser beam is split into two beams—one intense main beam
which after being scattered by a particle loses a minute fraction of energy to reach the light sensor, while the
other is a weaker reference beam going straight to the sensor. The two beams combine at the sensor with the
Doppler shifted scattered light producing a sensor output at the frequency fD, i.e., the beat frequency which
is proportional to flow velocity. It can measure flow velocity from 10–3 m/sec to 103 m/sec with a frequency
shift of about 120 kHz. An alternate optical arrangement is shown in Fig. 9.14(c).
9.5.3 Temperature
Temperature can be converted into frequency by choosing appropriate transducer in a proper situation.
A properly cut quartz crystal is such a transducer. As the crystal is susceptible to temperature change, its
resonance frequency changes with temperature and this frequency is given by a relation of the form
ft = fo(l + a1t + a2t2 + a3t3 + …) (9.12)
By choosing proper material and making a proper cut this relation is approximated to
ft = fo (1 + a1t) (9.13)
The change in frequency per degree Celsius change in temperature, however, is only 3 ¥ 10–5
Hz and to
detect this small change, a very high resolution complex circuitry would be needed. Such a system has a
range of – 40 to 220°C and an accuracy of ± 10–4 °C.
L
Laser
BS
Beam splitter
V
a1 a2
q C
T R
Transmitter Receive MB
LS Main beam
Light sensor
(a) (b)
M D
BS
(c)
Fig. 9.14 Doppler lowmeter, (a) transmitter and receiver on the same side of the low channel, (b) the scheme of
a commercial laser doppler lowmeter, (c) the scheme of an alternate version (T transmitter, R receiver, L laser, BS
beam splitter, MB main beam, LS light sensor, D detector, M mirror)
9.6 OTHER MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS

A very simple digital technique to measure level or depth is by LS LD
using a set of sensors of optical type as indicated in Fig. 9.15. With
eight such detectors three bit signal can be generated.
A direct digital output for level is obtained by using transducers
to detect the change in inductance or capacitance. In the former type
pairs of coils are located on either side of the tube, the presence
or absence of liquid at these levels would influence the inductance
between the pairs causing output of digital nature. A number of
such pairs of coils are arranged around the tube length. Each pair Fig. 9.15 Scheme of a multisensor
may be used to trigger an appropriate pulse forming circuit with the optical digital transducer (LS light
liquid coming in between. The resolution is not very high which, source. LD light detectors)
however, may be improved to a certain extent by inclining the tube as in inclined tube manometer. The pair
of inductors may be replaced by a pair of capacitor plates. The system of measurement involves modulation
and demodulation circuits.
The shaft position of a rotary system may be obtained in terms of digital pulse rate when synchro-
resolvers associated with various types of converters are used. Here the converters are mainly responsible
for giving the digital output with the synchro-resolver outputs, which are proportional to shaft position, as
inputs to the converters.
A synchro-resolver is a rotary transformer with its rotor, acting as a primary, is fed, through slip-rings,
a single phase supply which also acts as reference. The stator acting as the secondary has two windings at
right angles to each other to produce two separate voltages whose magnitudes vary with the angular rotor
position with reference to a datum fixed in the stator with a 90° phase shift. Thus for an input of Vi sin wt,
the two outputs are
vo1 = Vi sin wt sin q (9.14a)
and
vo2 = Vi sin wt cos q (9.14b)
where q denotes the angular position of the rotor.
By means of converters now, these outputs, vo1 and vo2 are ‘demodulated’ to obtain a digital output
proportional to q. A typical converter uses the phase shift technique, shown in Fig. 9.16, to obtain the output
vo3 from vo1 and vo2 as
R C
Vo3
Vo1 Vo2
Fig. 9.16 The scheme of a typical phase shift technique converter
vo3 = Vi sin (wt + q) (9.15)

Thus with reference to the input signal, the converted output is delayed by q. If now the reference and
vo3 are changed to square waves and are used as start and stop signals for a counting system, the count in
the counter would then represent the rotor rotation provided the reference frequency and count rate are
synchronised. This is because the real time between the start and stop pulses is a function of the reference
frequency and hence the ratio of the counter count rate to the reference frequency would determine the
resolution. This is used for slow rotational speed because the counter updating occurs only at reference
frequency. A speed of 20 rpm is a typical figure. The converter waveforms are shown in Fig. 9.17.
For higher rpm systems other types of converters such as function generation type or the tracking type
may be used. In the function generation type vo1 and vo2 are first changed, usually by multiplying, to
vo1 = Vi sin wt sin q cos f (9.16a)

and
vo2 = Vi sin wt cos q sin f (9.16b)
and these are compared to obtain
vo3 = Vi sin wt sin (q – f) (9.17)
Ref. Vo3
t
q
Ref: start
Vo3 : stop
tc Counting time, count µ q
Fig. 9.17 The converter waveforms
The output vo3 is then demodulated to obtain a signal proportional to a function of (q – f) which, in turn,
is used to control a counter to produce the digital output.
In the tracking type conversion technique, the demodulated error signal proportional to a function of q
or (q – f), in analogue form is first time-integrated and then used in a voltage-to-frequency converter. The
frequency is then counted as usual.
In microelectronic systems of signal processing it is almost essential that the sensor signal be available in
digital form and since very few sensors yield direct digital signals, a conversion is necessary as has already
been mentioned. ‘Frequency analogue’ signals are digitized with less cost than ‘amplitude-analogue’
signals. They are easily transmitted as well as isolated by transformers and optocouplers.
9.7 THE SIGNALS AND CONVERSIONS

Some examples of systems that provide ‘frequency-analogue’ output are
(a) capacitive and inductive sensors that control the frequency of oscillators.
(b) resistance sensors including photoresistors usable in relaxation or harmonic oscillators,
(c) quartz sensors in temperature measurement, and
(d) ring oscillators which are integrated on silicon diaphragm as pressure or stress sensors.
A typical case of obtaining output in terms of frequency from a sensor that changes the capacitance in a
measuring medium is shown in Fig. 9.18. It is an unstable multivibrator, has a fixed amplitude square wave
output Vo(t) and due to variation in capacitance has a varying time period T given by
T = 2RC ln (l + 2R2/R1) (9.18)

If R2/R1 is fixed at a value 0.859, it becomes
T = 2RC (9.19)
R1
R2
+
– Vo(t)
R
Vc(t) C
Fig. 9.18 The scheme of a capacitance to frequency converter
Two appropriate zener diodes connected back to back as clippers control the symmetry in saturation and
compensate for temperature variation.
A scheme with resistance variation of a thermistor for temperature-frequency conversion has been shown
in Fig. 5.30(a) with its temperature characteristic shown in Fig. 5.30(b), in Chapter 5.
The ring oscillator mentioned in (d) above is realisable in MOS technology and consists of a number
of cascaded inverters/NAND gates/NOR gates, the output of the last gate being fedback to the input of the
first to make a self-oscillating ring circuit provided the stage gains are larger than unity. The oscillation
frequency is a function of number of gates n, their delay time td, supply voltage Vs and chip temperature
tc. The sensor design using ring oscillator is based on the principle of piezoresistance effect which means
that the channel resistance of a MOS transistor changes under mechanical stress affecting the delay time of
each stage of the oscillator and thereby causing the frequency change. Over a certain range, this change is
linear. The sensitivity of the oscillator depends on the direction of application of stress with respect to the
channel orientation. In general two ring oscillators located appropriately can compensate for the variation
of the supply voltage and chip temperature if the signal derived is the ratio of the frequencies of these two
oscillators.
Any amplitude-analogue output, current or voltage, from a transducer may be converted by analogue-
to-digital converter (ADC) into a proportional digital number besides the conventional voltage-controlled
oscillators which can convert voltage into proportional frequency.
Three different types of ADC’s are commercially available: (a) parallel method, (b) weighing method,
and (c) counter method.
The parallel method is very elaborate in circuit set-up where the input voltage is compared with
n reference voltage levels at a time for determining between which two levels the input voltage lies and
this number is thus obtained by performing a single operation making the method very fast. The weighing
method, also known as the successive approximation (SA) method, works on the principle that the input
voltage is first compared with the most significant bit (MSB) to determine whether it is larger or smaller
than the reference voltage for this bit, and from this comparison if it is found that the input voltage is larger,
the bit must be 1 and then the reference voltage is subtracted from this input to obtain a remainder which
is now compared with next lower bit, and the procedure continued to obtain the total number of bits. This
obviously shows that the number of conversion operations and the number of reference voltage levels are
the same as the number of bits in the converted results.
The counter method is comparatively slower but circuitry is also simpler and works on the principle that
the number of times the reference voltage of the least significant bit (LSB) must be added to arrive at the
input voltage, is actually counted and thus the number of operations becomes the result.
Of the above, the successive approximation method and the counter methods are quite common for
moderately fast systems. A typical 8-bit ADC using SA method is shown in Fig. 9.19. The register is
initially set to zero by the control logic, then the MSB, b7 is set to 1 so that
V(b) = 27VLSB (9.20)
b7 b2b1b0
VRef
DAC Register
Vk Control
Logic
S/H
Vi
Clock
Fig. 9.19 Scheme of a typical 8-bit ADC using SA method
appears at the ADC output. If Vi > V (b), b7 would be 1, if Vi < V (b), b7 becomes zero and hence the
comparator output Vk is also zero, the control logic would then reset b7 to zero. In the next step,
Vi – b7 . 27 . VLSB is compared with the next lower bit and, thus, in succession eight steps are executed so that
the register will have a binary number NB. This after conversion by DAC, should be equal to Vi within the
resolution of VLSB The sample and hold circuit prevents any immediate change in Vi to affect the conversion.
The number obtained for a voltage Vi is thus
NB = Vi/VLSB (9.21)
The commercially available chips of this type are 8 bits: 0800 and 12 bits: 1210 (from National).
The counter method is the most common of the three types because of circuit simplicity and high accuracy,
but, as mentioned earlier, it is slow in response. This type has a variety in its design. The commonly followed
schemes are (a) the compensation type, (b) single slope type, and (c) the dual slope scheme.
The first type is similar to that of the type of Fig. 9.19 with its register replaced by a counter as shown
in Fig. 9.20. The compensating voltage is V(b) and for Vi – V(b) > 12 VLSB, the counter counts upwards to
make V(b) approach Vi. If, however, Vi – V(b) < – 12 VLSB, the counter counts downwards and this way the
compensating voltage is made to follow or track the input voltage. As tracking is the technique used here
and restarting is not done from zero as is done in the weighing method, for slowly varying input voltage
conversion time can be low.
The single slope and the double slope methods do not require any DAC for their operation. The
schematic of a single slope converter is shown in Fig. 9.21. A sawtooth generator and two comparators are
utilized to convert the input voltage to a proportional time interval. The output of the sawtooth generator Vst
makes an excursion from negative to positive and is given by
Vst = VRef t/To + V(O) (9.22)

where To is the generator time constant. The output of the exclusive OR gate is 1 for 0 < Vst < Vi and hence
the interval over which the output is retained is
Dt = (To/VRef )Vi (9.23)
which is measured by counting the pulses of a precision oscillator. With the counter reset to zero at the start
of every conversion cycle, one gets the counter state at
b = Dt/T = TofVi /VRef (9.24)
with the upper comparator triggered, i.e., exceeding the trigger level. For negative Vi, the sequence of saw-
tooth voltage excursion can be used to determine the polarity of Vi.
b7 b2 b1 b0
VRef Up/down
DAC Clock
counter
V(b)
Vi Up/down
control
Fig. 9.20 Scheme of counter method
Osc. Quartz
Vi C1
1
f=
T
+
b
Vst Counter Display
+
–
VRef C2
Fig. 9.21 Schematic diagram of a single slope converter
Accuracy is dependent on time constant To and is around ± 1%. In the S.S. method VRef has only been
integrated whereas in the Dual slope type both VRef and Vi are integrated. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 9.22.
S3
S1 t1
Vi RI Control Sample period
+ logic counter
– CI C –
+ VIO C t2
VRef S2
(–) Clock Display
Fig. 9.22 Schematic of a dual slope method

The operation starts with S1 and S2 open and S3 closed for resetting. The conversion cycle starts with S3
open and S1 closed while S2 is still open. S1 remains closed for a specified period t1 so that Vi is integrated
over this period. This period is defined and set by the sample period counter. After t1, therefore, the
integrator output is
t1
VIO (t 1 ) = (-1/To ) Ú Vi dt = (-1/To )(Vi n1T ) (9.25)
0
where n1 is the number of clock-pulses determined a priori by the sample period counter and T is the clock-
period.
Next step is called the evaluation step when S1 is opened and S2 closed to integrate the negative VRef so
that the magnitude of the integrator output decreases till it reaches zero value as shown in Fig. 9.23. Three
curves are shown for three different magnitudes of Vi. The interval t2 required by the integrator output to
reach zero is determined by the comparator C and display counter. Also
t2 = n2T = To|VIO(t1)|/VRef (9.26)
t2'''
t2''
t1 t2'
t
VIO
Cycle
starts
Fig. 9.23 Explaining the operation by dual slope
Combining Eqs (9.25) and (9.26), the count n2 is now given by

b = n2 = (Vi/VRef)n1 (9.27)
which is independent of clock frequency f = 1/T and integrator time constant To. If the clock frequency
remains constant during the interval the accuracy of measurement can be maintained high, to almost 0.01%.
Such a converter is frequently used in digital voltmeter. Commercially available chips are many in numbers.
Some are AD7550, 7107, MC14433, etc. AD converter errors are (i) static or the systematic quantisation
error which occurs due to the limited resolution of the converter and has often a value 12 VLSB, (ii) dynamic
that occurs due to continuous change in the input voltage. Nonlinearity, aperture jitter are some other static
and dynamic errors which are taken care of or are specified for correction purposes.
The straight binary numbers as converted signals, if required to be reconverted, can be so done by
digital to analogue converters (DAC) to a proportional voltage by the scheme of Fig. 9.24 where the basic
principle is explained and where a weighted resistance ladder has been made use of. The output voltage Vo
is given by
Vo = – (Rf /R) VRef (8b3 + 4b2 + 2b1 + bo) (9.28)

with 0 £ 8b3 + 4b2 + 2b1 + bo £ 15.
VRef
R/8 R/4 R/2 R
+
b3 b2 b1 b0 Vo
–
23 22 21 20
Rf
Fig. 9.24 Scheme of the basic principle of DA converter
Actually the closing of each switch sends a current appropriate to that bit weighting, and a switch closes
corresponding to a bit 1. Increasing the ladder section with weighting by factor 1/2n, more number of bits
can be covered. Accuracy is governed by the resistor tolerance. For the 2n bit, i.e., bn system, the resistance
tolerance must be smaller than DR/R = 1/2n + 1, i.e., better than 100/2n + 1%.
Improvement in DA converter design has been done over the years and adaptation for different uses has
been made. Only the basic has been covered here for demonstration of the principle.
9.8 THE INSTRUMENT SYSTEM

Output of a digital transducer usually is in the form of pulses or quasi-pulses the rate of which is dependent
on the strength of the variable being measured. These pulses are usually counted by a counter. In fact a
counter can be used in different modes of operation like counting of events over a specified period of time
or even continuously, measure frequency time, time interval or pulsewidth etc. A counter consists of a
number of parts as shown in Fig. 9.25. These are (i) the input circuit which basically is a signal conditioning
unit, (ii) the gating circuit which is designed to allow the signal to the counting unit, (iii) the counting unit
with display, (iv) the time base that provides the reference period with great accuracy, and (v) the control
circuit which controls the entire scheme of operation of the counter.
Signal Input Gating

circuit
Counting Display
Clock Time base Control
unit
Fig. 9.25 A counter scheme with block diagrams
(1) The signal conditioner converts the signal into a form compatible with the logic circuitry of the
counter. It produces only 1’s and 0’s. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 9.26. The signal is coupled
to the potential divider PD or attenuator A via a switch S1 which when closed passes the signal
direct and when open, coupling is via a capacitor. Switch S2 controls the attenuation value usually
in decade steps starting from 1 when the switch is in position 1. The limiter circuit L consists
of a pair of diodes and a pair of zener diodes as shown, for both negative and positive overload
protection. Output from the limiter goes to the differential amplifier DA through a pair of FET-
operated level control circuit LC. By adjusting RL, the level potentiometer, the trigger point can be
changed over a wide range from positive to negative values. The FET-pair is used for impedance
level conversion as well. The output from the differential amplifier goes to the Schmitt trigger
circuit T via an emitter follower EF. Zener diode Dz is used to compensate for any difference in
voltage level between the stages. The trigger circuit ensures pulse form output irrespective of the
waveform of the input. The trigger does have a hysteresis often called the ‘trigger window’ which
(a) determines the counter sensitivity to a certain extent, and (b) provides some noise immunity. A
waveform having its peak-to-peak value in excess of this window can have both ‘set’ and ‘reset’
level to obtain output pulses convenient for counting. This is explained in Figs 9.27(a), (b) and
(c). The trigger takes a finite amount of time to change its state. If the signal repetition rate is high
enough so that trigger fails to follow this change, then there will be loss of count unless a faster
trigger is used.
DA
RL
EF
Dz
LC
T
+
Vo
4
x103 x10
PD/A
x102
S2
2
x10
S1 DC
AC
1
x1
SI
Vi
Fig. 9.26 The scheme of a signal conditioner

Signal
Window
Output
(a)
Signal
Window Signal
Output No output
(b) (c)
Fig. 9.27 Explaining the operation with ‘trigger window’, (a), (b), and (c) three different
waveforms and the corresponding pulse output or no-output conditions.
(2) The gating circuit consists of a standard dual-input logic with its one input as the process signal and
the other gate control input which turns ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ the gate allowing or stopping the signal to
pass to the counter. The TTL or MOS gates are slow, for high frequency input specially-designed
emitter coupled logic gates are used.
(3) Counting circuit is actually a decimal counting unit consisting of a number of cascaded counting
decades—the first counting in units, the second in tens, third in hundreds and so on. The scheme
of a three decade decimal counting unit with static display is shown in Fig. 9.28. The input signal
is counted in the usual way and when counting is finished, the decades become steady containing
some BCD coded information. The decades are connected via AND gates to memory blocks, which
contain D-type flip-flops. With a transfer line connected to the AND gates the information can be
sent to D-memory with the transfer line made ‘high’. With this transfer line made ‘low’ again, the
decade gets disconnected from the memory and counting may be restarted with a reset operation.
The output of the D-memory is connected to BCD-to-decimal counter, then to drivers and finally to
numerical indicators. Usually decoder driver is a common combined chip.
To N1
4 4 4
3 3 3
BCD
Output
D
2 2 2
Transfer
Signal
1 1 1
Reset
Fig. 9.28 The scheme of a three decade decimal counting unit with static display
In the dynamic display technique only one decoder driver is used and naturally a scanning system
must be added. Dynamic method is better for larger number of digits equal to or larger than 8 is good
choice. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 9.29. In the usual way the counted pulses by the counter
decades D’s are transferred to the memories M’s and stored there. Each memory output is connected
to an AND gate which receives another inverted signal from the scan decoder. The outputs of the
+
Q1 Q2 Qn
123 ... ... n SD BCD to 7 SDD BCD Output

d c b a
Scan n
Counter WSBP
SnC & & & &
Clock
M1 M2 Mn
Transfer
Signal D1 D2 Dn
Reset
Fig. 9.29 Scheme of counting with dynamic display

AND gates, i.e., A, B, C, D lines are grouped in ‘wired logic’ and connected to the A, B, C, D inputs
of the decoder driver. The outputs of the 7-segment decoder driver are connected to the numerical
display with all the identical cathodes connected in parallel. The anodes are connected separately
to a positive voltage via a transistor Q which, in turn, is biased from the scan decoder as shown.
The scan decoder is fed from a clock generator via a normal counter. Up to 10 digits a single normal
counter and a BCD to decimal decoder can be used or else special binary counters and decoders are
required. Operation is simple as can be seen from the figure.
(4) Time base When frequency is measured, the number of input pulses must be counted over a precisely
defined interval of time. This time interval, in turn, is measured by means of trains of pulses of
precisely known frequency which are counted during the time the gate is open by control signal in
relation to the time interval of measurement. The basic time reference is the clock frequency of a
compensated crystal oscillator. Decade counters are again used for scaling the reference frequency
in steps of 10. Generally, the counters are provided with a time base ranging from 100 nsec to 10 sec
in decade steps. The decade scaling may be made sufficiently accurate but ultimate accuracy of the
time standard is governed by the accuracy of the crystal oscillator which should be compensated for
temperature drift and aging. A compensated oscillator can have a drift as low as 5 ¥ 10–8/°C and for
aging, recalibration is recommended.
(5) The control circuit is required to (a) control the main gate, (b) generate reset pulses for the counting
decades as well as time base scalers, (c) generate memory transfer pulses, (d) generate the clock
pulses for dynamic display system, (e) control display time, (f) control indication, and (g) control
printers/recorders connected to BCD output.
It is the brain behind the entire counter scheme. A typical control unit scheme is shown in Fig. 9.30. In
frequency mode operation of the counter, the outputs of the AND gates 1 and 2 are ‘high’ allowing the time
base-clock pulses to pass through ‘NAND’ gate 3 which are received by the clock input gate of the FF1.
The complementary output Q1 of this flip-flop is connected to the main gate (OR gate) which is closed
when Q1 is high and vice versa. If at any instant Q1 is ‘high’ then D input of the FF1 is also ‘high’ which
means that with a positive going edge of the first time pulse arriving at FF1, Q1 will go ‘low’ opening the
main gate and the input signal passes through it to the decade counter, and the measuring interval also
starts. With the next positive edge pulse at clock input of FF1, Q1 goes high, the gate closes and then the
display time interval starts. In this interval the ‘transfer’ and ‘reset’ pulses are sent to the decade counters.
With positive-going edge of the main gate control signal from FF1 (Q1) which is fed to clock of FF2,
FF2-Q2 gets a ‘high’ and a ‘reset’ (clear) signal is sent to FF1 via gate 4 keeping FF1 in clear state for the
moment. Then Q2 is ‘low’ and, without IH signal, it makes output of NOR gate 6 ‘high’. This positive
edge output is differentiated by ClRl and a transfer pulse is generated by NOR gate 7 and NAND gate 8.
Also output of gate 6 is applied via R2 to display time multi MV NOR gate 9 and NOT gate 10. With the
capacitor starting to charge, MV is triggered only after a threshold level of gate 9 is reached. The multi-
output (from NOT gate) is shaped properly with appropriate slope to a reset/preset pulse by OR gate 12.
This pulse p resets the time base scalers and also clears the FF2 through NOT gate 11, when Q2 goes ‘high’.
The cycle of the entire system is ready to restart. With memory switch closed, which keeps the memory off,
Q1 is directly connected to AND transfer gate 8, thus making the transfer pulse to coincide with the main
gate pulse at the short time received at the beginning of the display time.
With the inhibit signal IH given to NOR gate 6, this gate is blocked and transfer, reset/preset pulses are
not generated. Counting process can, however, be restarted only after IH is withdrawn, Manual reset (Reset
M) is a push button control to generate the above described sequence.
Main gate
Signal
To decade counters
Memory off
Ch A FF1
Start FF2 C1 R1
1 D SQ1 D Q2
From 8
3 CL CL 6 7 Transfer
time base
2 R Q1 R Q2 IH
Stop R3
Ch B +
Display
R2 time
9 10
MV
C3
C2
+
4 11 12
5
f
t Reset/preset
r1 Start Stop r2 13
Count Reset (M)
Fig. 9.30 Scheme of a typical control unit
The details of counting time, display time, decimal setting etc., are not discussed here. Standard texts on
counters and company manuals may be consulted for the purpose.
In Fig. 9.31(a), a scheme of frequency counting is shown while the signal flow scheme is shown in Fig.
9.31(b).
As mentioned a counter can be designed in different modes and should be adopted as is necessary.
In most universal counters, the last of the measuring modes is the ‘check’ in which the internal crystal
frequency is counted for a set time-base switch. In this mode, the input is disconnected from the main
gate and the oscillator output is given as the input with the display now showing the value of the crystal
frequency.
Digital measurement can be and is being increasingly done in microprocessor-based systems. While
more and more facilities are being incorporated in such systems with increasing memory, the detailed
digital hardwares are to a certain extent sidelined.
9.9 VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION
The concept of virtual instrumentation was introduced by National Instruments who suggested that a
software, when properly designed, can work as an instrument of versatile features. A personal computer
with such a software can be shown to demonstrate the ability to function as a voltmeter, an oscilloscope,
a spectrum analyzer, a digitizer and so on. Obviously for full functioning the software has to be interfaced
with acquisitioned data from the process and measurement medium.
However, the purpose of the NI has gradually been extended to make it a virtual instrumentation system
(VIS) which is now being used for safe, effective and reliable monitoring and control of various processes
often using the terrestrial communication links and/or internet data. VIS can be well exploited by the
planners and system supervisors to access information from any location and consequent monitoring and
control of the system at that location. Figure 9.32 shows the simplified view of a VIS the components of
which are easily found to be software driven.
Main gate Display

Input Signal pro. Memory
(5)
& trigger Counter
(1) (2) (4)
(3)
1mS 10mS
1s
Cry. Osc. Scaler (time)
(a)
(1) t
(2) t
(3) t
(4) t
(5) t
(b)
Fig. 9.31 (a) Scheme of frequency counting, (b) scheme of the signal low ((1) input, (2) input to gates,
(3) time base, (4) gating signal, (5) count)
If may be seen that the information relating to the operation in terms of measurement and control can be
accessed by a number of users and the decision by such users can be fedback for operational inprovement
by this system.
This digitial technology revolution has also helped to bring in the process of virtualization in technology
field. It is now opined that virtualization is the increasing substitution of matter by information. In VIS a
bulk of this information is from the process. Virtual in the context has been defined as “when a system or a
situation is created which is not real but can represent reality as required for our purpose—it can be called
virtual.”
Embedded
Software
Transducers and Data

Control Personal
Signal Conditioning Acquisition Output
Software Computer
System
User Network Software
Fig. 9.32 The VIS scheme
The entire software horizon is a part of virtual technology which is emerging as virtual reality. Virtual
environment and virtual systems. Virtual instrumentation is such a system which now ensures direct active
online and on screen handling of activities at the physical and informational layers of a system to provide
easy, multifunctional pictorial monitoring.
Currently accepted architecture of virtual instrumentation system is shown in Fig. 9.33.
PC Processor OS
User Interface
VI Software
Measurement
Systems
Fig. 9.33 VI architecture
HP-VEE and LabVIEW (NI) are the worldwide accepted VI softwares. LabVIEW uses graphical
programming language to create programmes which are called virtual instruments in block format.
LabVIEW follows a dataflow model for running VIS. A block diagram node executes when all the inputs
are available and on completion of execution it supplies data to its output terminals and passes the output
data to the next node in the data flow path. All programming techniques with add-on tools and libraries
can be graphically represented. The approach of the HP-VEE software is based on flowchart. Level of
abstraction is the prime consideration here.
All in all, a VI looks like a computer simulation of a traditional physical set up with the PC screen
window (front panel) appearing as the real instrumentation system. The VI is a programme in G and it
consists of an interactive user interface, a dataflow diagram (or a flow chart) that serves as a source code
and icon connections allowing the VI to be accessed from higher level VI. VI is hierarchical and modular.
When the button is clicked, rotated or the power switch just turned on, the functionalities of the real devices
are simulated on the screen.
Review Questions
1. How is a disc type encoder used as a digital 8. Describe the dual-slope method of A/D
transducer? Discuss its resolution capability. conversion.
Can this resolution be enhanced by appropriate If the clock pulses in a speci ied period T is 200,
adequate circuits? the reference voltage is 5 V, what would be the
2. Explain how optical grating principle can be number of pulses in the same interval for an
utilized in making digital linear displacement input voltage of 2.3 V?
transducer. [92 pulses]
On what principle does a Moire fringe transducer 9. Draw the scheme of a counting circuit. What is
work? What is the order of resolution obtained in dynamic display? How is it different from static
such a system? display system?
3. What are the different types of frequency output 10. Describe a frequency counting technique
transducers? Discuss the operating principle of a with block diagram representation alongwith
vibrating string type frequency output transducer. waveforms at the outputs of each block.
What is the range of such an instrument? 11. (a) What is virtual instrumentation system?
4. Describe a digital density transducer. What other De ine virtual reality and virtual
variables can be measured by it? environment.
5. How vortex frequency is converted into low rate (b) Show the block diagramatic representation
output in vortex lowmeter? Describe in details of a virtual instrumentation system and
the operating parts of such a meter where optical explain the use of the blocks in the system
ibre is used as a sensor. operation.
6. Describe a laser Doppler lowmeter and explain 12. (a) Sketch the currently accepted architecture
its operation. What are its areas of applications? of a virtual instrumentation system (VIS).
7. How shaft position of a rotary system can be (b) What longuage is used in programming in a
obtained in terms of digital pulse rate. Describe a VIS?
method with diagrams.
Telemetry
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Instrumentation could never have been considered complete without

telemetering or telemetry which literally means ‘measurement at a
distance’. Often it is not the measurement that is done at a distance
but signals in proportion to the measured value of certain variables
are transmitted to a distance, say, a control centre for centralized
datalogging, data/signal processing or for control action to be taken/
implemented in a large scale system consisting of distributed control
10
subsystems. In many industrial set-ups like a refinery, a chemical
plant, a steel plant, a power plant etc., there are subsystems spread
Chapter over a wide area with varying distances from a centralized control
room, without being very remote, however. There are, in addition,
instances of remote distance telemetring like oil or pipe-line
systems. Further, these may be inaccessible as well, as in a satellite or in a spacecraft. Sometimes the signal
generation/transmission transduction/transmission need be done from a distance as in the case of hazardous
environment
10.2 PNEUMATIC MEANS
Transmission in telemetry is traditionally done either through pneumatic or electrical channels. Pneumatic
transmission has been in extensive use in process instrumentation till control has shifted from pneumatic
to electronic and then onto computer-based types although it has not been entirely dispensed with as yet.
In such a system, the measured variable is converted into an air pressure within a range of 0.2 to 1 kg/cm2,
3 to 15 psig or 20 to 100 kPa to transmit over a distance of about 300 m through a 6.35 mm or 9.5 mm OD
tubing of copper or plastic material.
Advantage of pneumatic systems are: (i) they are intrinsically safe and explosion-proof, (ii) they are
unaffected by electric power failures provided that sufficient compressed air-storage is available to meet
the requirement during the failure time, (iii) pneumatic actuators and control valves are directly operated
through pneumatic signals without requiring any conversion, (ii) its range has been fixed to provide a live
zero for the instruments which provide guard against failure, and (v) improved dynamic response and
facilities for calibration and checking.
However, pneumatic systems require dry, regulated air supply that must not contain streaming particles
larger than 3m in size or oil more than 1 ppm. An usual supply pressure of 20 psig or 140 kPa is needed.
The dynamic response is affected by changes in regulated pressure level, change in signal level (± 5% at
midscale is often the specified level), air temperature, the allowed range being about –7 to 50°C, tubing
diameter and tubing length. Smaller tubing diameter, 6.3 mm OD, for which 4.32 mm is ID for plastic and
4.83 mm ID for metal, is not used for long distance transmission such as from field location to control room
and such small diameter tubing is used for short distance transmission, as this is known to increase response
time. Usually, 9.5 mm OD tubing for which 6.35 mm is ID for plastic and 7.75 mm is ID for metal, is
used for long distance work. Larger diameter tubes consume more air, longer tube increases response time,
introduces dead time and increases tubing losses, for which often boosters are recommended.
A typical pneumatic telemetring system is shown, for level transmission in Fig. 7.5 in Chapter 7, where
the level is transmitted in terms of pressure in a sealed system.
10.3 ELECTRICAL MEANS
Increasing requirement of telemetering in instrumentation system to cover wider distances using convenient
newer electronic/electrical techniques has shifted the scene from the pneumatic front to the electromagnetic
front. This can be broadly classified into electrical telemetry and the frequency telemetry. While electrical
telemetry uses frequency range from dc to 104 Hz with the channels usually being twisted telephone cable
while the frequency telemetry uses a frequency range from 104 to 1015 Hz, the channels being coaxial cables
for 104 – 109 Hz, radio wave link or microwave link for 104 to 1012 Hz or optical fibre communication line
for 1014 –1015 Hz.
Electrical telemetry using twisted cables as transmission channels may again be divided into voltage,
current or position telemetry systems.
In voltage telemetering, the measured value of the variable is transmitted as a voltage function which is
usually produced in the measurement system either by the primary device itself such as a thermocouple or
through a secondary conversion element such as a diaphragm movement changing the core position of an
LVDT. A typical case of the latter type using a Bourdon element as a primary device for pressure variable
is shown in Fig. 10.1. The channel is tried to be kept within 300 m. In the receiver side, a self-balancing
potentiometer is sometimes used with the calibrated scale marked in terms of the actual values of the
variable.
Channel
Receiver
Transmitter
Fig. 10.1 The voltage telemetering system
For low voltages, signal-to-noise ratio must be quite high. The current is attempted to be kept very low,
zero for null-balance type. In consequence, the power of the transmitted signal becomes very low so that
noise energy level is also required to be controlled for a meaningful measurement.
Wired current telemetering has changed from its early form where a slide wire potentiometer in series
with a power supply used to provide the necessary current change via the sliding contactor moved by the
primary sensor, the current being directly measured at the receiver end with a milliameter which in turn was
graduated in terms of the values of the variable transmitted. The newer trend in the force-balance current
telemetry where the position of the secondary element is balanced by the output indicating current which is
Telemetry 477
fedback to do so. Thus, effectively, the input variable is opposed. The current telemetering system is more
immune to noise arising out of thermal or inductive effects because of larger voltage it can produce than
the voltage telemetering systems but leakage current should be strictly guarded against. The current range is
standard 4 to 20 mA making it a live zero system and it can be adapted as multitransmitter multireceiver system.
Position telemetering systems have also undergone changes over the years of existence. Its early version
is somewhat like a Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 10.2.
Zero-center
galvo
Tele channel
Transmitter Receiver
Fig. 10.2 A typical position telemetering system
Synchrotransmitters and receivers are also being used as telemetering systems for quite sometime now.
The scheme of such a system is shown in Fig. 10.3. The transmitter and receiver are almost identical in
design with that like a three phase alternator. The rotor of the transmitter gets a single phase ac supply and
if it is oriented at a specific angle with respect to the stator coils connected in star form, the induced line
voltages have different magnitudes with a 120° and 240° phase displacement which thus are transmitted to
the stator windings of receiver where a rotating field is produced. If now the rotor of the receiver is given
an ac voltage, presumably the same as that of the rotor of the transmitter, a motor action takes place in
the receiver and if this rotor is not in the same position or orientation as that of the transmitter rotor, the
receiver rotor, if free to rotate, would do so to take a position such that the field induced by this on the stator
would be equal and opposite to that induced in it by the rotor of the transmitter, thereby, preventing any
further motor action to occur. Thus a position of the rotor in the transmitter is telemetered in the receiver.
2 Channel 2
q
ac
ac
120°
3 1 3 1
120°
Fig. 10.3 Synchrotransmitter and receiver system
10.4 FREQUENCY TELEMETERING
Instead of traversing through the sequential development that has taken place over the years, a generalized
present day telemetry system is considered as a subject matter of the discussion here. It would be seen
as shown in Fig. 10.4, such a system would consists of (i) a group of transducers, (ii) associated signal
conditioners, (iii) multiplexer unit, (iv) transmission channel, (v) demultiplexer unit, and (vi) data output/
display. As mentioned earlier, the channel may be a pair of wire, generally for short distances, a coaxial
cable or telephone line connecting two sides; rf or microwave link, generally for larger distances when
data are transmitted or communicated by modulation of rf or microwave carrier, or optical links where
transmission is via modulation of light wave through a fibre optic cable. Current, voltage or position
telemetry is possible only with the first category of channel. Other channels are intended for pulse or
frequency telemetering in which case the process variable is transformed into frequency such that frequency
so generated is proportional to the magnitude of the process variable, or, pulse where, again, a number
of possibilities exist in terms of modulation for transmission such as (i) the pulse magnitude proportional
to transducer signal magnitude, known as the pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), (ii) pulse duration
proportional to the signal magnitude known as pulse duration modulation (PDM), (iii) pulse spacing or
position that provides two pulses corresponding to the beginning and end of the duration as mentioned
in (ii), known as pulse position modulation (PPM), (iv) pulses per unit time indicating the signal speed
or signal magnitude known as delta modulation or sigma-delta modulation, and (v) binary (digital) pulses
obtained by ADC from signal and transmitted serially known as pulse code modulation (PCM)—this is
the most common type but again has a number of variations in terms of code designations, some of which
would be described later briefly.
1 1
Channel
Data output
2 2 1 to n 1 to n and
Display unit
n n Multiplexer Demultiplexer
Transducer Signal
conditioner
Fig. 10.4 Scheme of a generalized telemetering system
For transmitting more than one signal over the same channel multiplexing is done which, again, can be
either on time division basis or on frequency division basis. Transmission over the channel may be made
as the frequency band of the signal, called the baseband, or a carrier wave may be modulated in amplitude,
frequency or phase mode.
10.5 MULTIPLEXING
There are two types of multiplexing specified as: the time division multiplexing (TDM), and the frequency
division multiplexing (FDM).
In TDM, the signal to be transmitted from a group of sensors are sequentially sampled to fit into a
series of time slots in the transmission channel, arranged usually in a cycle. Thus, if there are n signals
and sampling time Ts, one time frame or cycle is nTs (pulse width neglected) in which each signal pulse
is transmitted once after due scanning. Each sensor would get chance to transmit its output at every
interval nTs. The amplitude of the pulse of the individual signals can be sent as such as in the case of pulse
amplitude modulation. A typical 4-channel time division multiplexing system (PAM) is shown in Fig. 10.5.
Telemetry 479
LPF LPF
LPF LPF
Channel
LPF LPF
LPF LPF
1 Frame Sync. 1 Frame
Switching
Fig. 10.5 Scheme of a typical 4 channel time division multiplexing system
Synchronised switching can be done by electronic scanners controlled by a master clock of adequate
frequency as shown in Fig. 10.6. TDM is simpler than FDM system as far as implementation part is
concerned. Circuit nonlinearity introduces small errors in TDM, crosstalk is low if wideband system
is used. If transmission rate is increased, error comes in because of timing zitter, pulse inaccuracy and
synchronisation problems.
Frequency division multiplexing accommodates a number of signals by splitting the available bandwidth
of the transmission system into an equal number of frequency bands to be utilized by the signals. If the total
medium bandwidth is ft and the number of transducer signals is n, then the splitting is generally done into n
bands of equal width fi so that
n
ft = Â fi = nfi (10.1)
i =1
However, f1, f2, ..., fn would have separate frequency ranges. To minimise crosstalk between any two
adjacent subchannels, fi and fi + 1 for example, adequate separation is provided by introducing what are
known as ‘guardbands’ fs, as shown in Fig. 10.7 for a five sub-channel transmission system. This reduces
the actual channel width per signal. A typical FDM system of transmission is schematically shown in Fig.
10.8. Sensors with amplifiers, signal conditioners are shown to produce ‘band-limited’ signals of different
spectral characteristics. In fact the low-pass filters (LPF) are used to band-limit the signals which enter
modulators in individual channels. These modulators are basically subcarrier oscillators with frequency
bands f1, f2, …, fn etc. Any type of modulation may be used but preference is for one that needs minimum
bandwidth so that more number of channels may be accommodated over a given specified carrier band.
Figure 10.8 shows amplitude modulation. The summer makes the transmission frequency band as Sfi. The
transmitted band is received, amplified and separated into different bands by the bandpass filters (BPF) in
different channels, which are subsequently demodulated to obtain original signal patterns. The demodulated
outputs are passed through lowpass filters and displayed over proper display units. The guardbands are
used here to provide the attenuations after the bandpass filters. Each channel, thus, requires a modulator,
a bandpass filter and a demodulator which are additional as compared to the TDM systems. If phase and
amplitude nonlinearities are not small, intermodulation and harmonic distortions become large in FDM
systems.
M
at
rix
co
nt
ro
l
Flip-flop
3
Master
Flip-flop Flip-flop clock
2 1
Logic diode matrix

(Gate control)
Gate +
(G)
–
1
G
2
Sampled output
G
3
Inputs
G
4
G
5
G
6
G
7
G
8
Fig. 10.6 Scheme of an electronic scanner

ft
f1 f2 f3 f4 f5
fs fs fs fs fs
Fig. 10.7 Introduction of guardband

Telemetry 481
f1
f1 f1
C
Sen 1 LPF Mod H BPF Dem. LPF
A
f2 f2 + N Ampl. f2
Output
N to
Sen 2 LPF Mod BPF Dem. LPF
E Display
fn L Unit
fn fn
Sen 2 LPF Mod BPF Dem. LPF
Fig. 10.8 Scheme of a typical frequency division multiplexing system
10.6 MODULATION
Modulation is essential in telemetry system whether it uses multiplexing or not. It serves to (i) match the
frequency characteristics of the signal with those of transmission channel, (ii) reduce the effects of noise and
interference, (iii) help efficient signal radiation. In FDM, it helps to allocate the specific frequency band. In
digital techniques modulation provides the bandwidth against signal-to-noise trade-off as indicated below.
As is known, the channel information capacity for digital signal transmission is limited by (i) the
available bandwidth, (ii) the power level, and (iii) the noise level in the channel. As per a theorem by
Shanon and Hartley, this information capacity Ic in bits per sec for a channel bandwidth B Hz is given by
Ic = B log2 (1 + S/N) (10.2)
where S is the average signal power and N is the noise power at the output of the channel. This, obviously,
is the theoretical upper limit, the practical limit being considerably lower because of the non-ideal gain and
phase characteristics of the channel and because the simplified practical coding and decoding arrangement
fail to satisfy the required theoretical considerations.
Bit-rate limitation in digital data transmission also arises because of bandwidth limitation via what is
known as ‘intersymbol interference’, which means that the channel response to one digital signal interferes
with that to the next. For a bandwidth of B Hz, the impulse response of a channel has zeros separated by
1/2B sec, thus a second impulse transmitted over the channel after a time less than 1/2B sec, interference
would occur implying that the maximum data rate for the channel for no intersymbol interference is 2B
bits/sec (bps). This rate is called the Nyquist rate. Figure 10.9 explains the situation.
1/2B
< 1/2B
–1/2B –1/2B
Fig. 10.9 Diagram related to the explanation of Nyqist rate
Carrier wave modulation can be of three types—amplitude, frequency and phase. The techniques are
well known for analogue signal transmission. They can be used for digital signal transmission as well.
Of the various types of pulse modulation systems, pulse code modulation is the most important as it is
the true digital form of encoding. The analogue signal is sampled and converted into binary digital form as
mentioned earlier. The obtained data are then serially transmitted. The difference between the pulse code
and other pulse modulation techniques is indicated in Fig. 10.10. PDM is less susceptible to noise because
of equal height in the pulses. Distortion in pulse shapes, however, would not be counteracted in PDM but
is done in PPM. Bandwidth requirement, however, for short duration pulses is higher, i.e., for PPM than for
PDM. Likewise PCM requires a wide bandwidth but the position of the pulses is not critical here as in PPM
because each sample of the signal has been coded now.
Signal
t
PAM
t
PDM
t
PPM
t
PCM
t
Fig. 10.10 Different pulse modulation forms (PCM pulses are given as ‘lines’ with the signal
coded as 1010, 1100, 1101, 1111, 1110, 1101, 1100, 1011, 1010, 1100 for the ten amplitudes)
If a signal has a bandwidth of the fb Hz and is pulse coded into N bit binary code, the minimum
bandwidth required to transmit this PCM signal would be (fb . N) Hz, a increase of just N times, i.e., the bit
number times.
Usually, the bits generated are at a specified rate of, say, one bit in every tB sec implying that the
‘information rate’ is 1/tB bits/sec, (bps). Here tB is considered as the ‘unit interval’ or, the duration of the
shortest signalling element. Signal speed is often expressed in terms of ‘bauds’ and a baud is the reciprocal
of the length (in seconds) of the shortest pulse transmitted.
Telemetry 483
Example 10.1 A teletypewriter transmission system works with 60 words/min, each word is equivalent to six
characters of the Boudot code that has a start pulse of the same length as data pulse which are fixed in number.
Pulse code telemetering system uses several coding systems such as (i) Binary number coding system,
(ii) Binary coded decimal system, (iii) 8421 coding system, (iv) Boudot coding system, (v) American
standard code for information interchange (ASCII) system, (vi) Two out of five code system, (vii) Extended
binary coded decimal interchange code (EBCDIC) system, etc.
The binary number coding system is the straightforward coding into binary form, such as, a decimal
value number 17 would be represented by 10001, i.e., 1 ¥ 24 + 0 ¥ 23 + 0 ¥ 22 + 0 ¥ 21 + 1 ¥ 20 = 17. The
BCD code is proposed to simplify the hardwares specially on the receiver side as it would then be required
to decode only four bits at a time. Decimal number 17 in this code would be 0001-0111, i.e., 0001 ∫ 1 and
0111 ∫ 7, or every individual digit in the decimal number is separately coded in binary format. When only
two sets of BCD coding are used as a set it is known as EBCDIC coding. The 8421 coding is a single BCD
code with a parity. Addition of an extra bit, a zero or a one, used for checking errors is known as parity and
by this the message word has either odd number of 1’s or even number of 1’s—the parity is then called
odd or even respectively. Two out of five code has even parity always which means that this code has five
‘pulses’ of which two are 1’s—and three are zeros. If by any chance, because of noise etc., a bit in the
message changes from 0 to 1 or vice versa, it would be immediately detected because of this parity chack.
Boudot code has its application mostly in teletype systems and consists of three parts, a start pulse which
is a spacing or a blank, and of the same time length as that of the data pulse lengths, five data pulses and
a stop pulse which is 1.42 times the length of the data pulse length. The start pulse is for synchronisation,
data pulses form the codes for alphabets, numbers and symbols.
ASCII code is a 7-bit + parity code such that it can handle 27 characters.
Several forms of PCM are there in practice. Such PCM is obtained as the encoder performs logic
operations on the data as also on the associated clock where one clock cycle is equivalent to a data bit
in terms of time. The most common form is the non-return to zero (NRZ); obviously return to zero can
be a format. Figure 10.11 shows the above two formats along with the clock pulses and the set of binary
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1
UP, NRZ
Full binary
UP RZ
1/2 binary
UP RZ
Full binary
BP RZ
Full binary
Fig. 10.11 Different types of PCM formats

information. Both are unipolar form with NRZ format in full binary form, i.e., both zero and 1 are part of
the format while RZ (Return to Zero) format is in half-binary form, i.e., only l’s are transmitted and ‘0’s
are recognised as the absence of pulse at the time of the clock transition. The full binary RZ format is
1
also shown below 2 -binary RZ in the same figure. A bipolar form would use the negative side as well, as
shown for the full binary RZ format in the figure. This is one of the most reliable formats for transmission
specially for low speed up to about 600 bps that uses frequency shift keying in frequency modulation
(please see next section). All these systems are two level systems each bit transmitted corresponding to one
symbol. There are other variations in these again, such as 12 binary bipolar RZ, 12 -binary bipolar NRZ,
1
2 -binary unipolar NRZ and so on. Besides these, variations in NRZ are there such as non-return to zero
mark (NRZ-M), non-return to zero space (NRZ-S), etc. Then there are others like biphase (BIf) which
again can be classified on level mark and space basis—here a bit transition occurs at the centre of every
period (Cf. full binary unipolar RZ). Delay modulation is a type of code with M and S types, which has
transitions at mid-bit and at the end of the bit time. Delay modulation codes are often chosen for saving
bandwidth but are more susceptible to error and are therefore usable only when S/N ratio is high and only
when bandwidth compression is to be done.
If one symbol can be used to represent a number of bits, the transmission speed can be enhanced. This
is possible if a multilevel coding is done. A four level code known as the quadrature binary format may be
used, each level representing a bit-pair, ‘dibit’ such as 00, 01, 10, 11. Thus when one level is transmitted,
effectively two bits are transmitted increasing the rate of transmission. But this also is susceptible to noise
and distortion as the individual states in a multilevel system are distinguished with difficulty compared to a
two-level system. However a speed of 960 bps may be obtained in this format.
10.7 MODULATION OF DIGITAL DATA
So long single channel coded form modulation for transmission wave was being considered. However, as
for analogue signals, digital data already in pulse coded format, may further be used to modulate a sinewave
carrier in amplitude, frequency or phase for message/information transformation. The block diagram
remains similar to that as shown in Fig. 10.8. A very simplified block schematic diagram with rf link as the
channel of transmission is shown in Fig. 10.12.
Aerial
I/P Mod. Transm. Receiv. Demod.
Antenna
Carrier
Fig. 10.12 A simpli ied block schematic diagram of telemetering with RF channel
As mentioned already, in amplitude modulation, the carrier is varied in relation to the coded information.
For a two level modulating input signal the modulated signal appears to be just the chopped-off carrier as
shown in Fig. 10.13(a) but it does contain the two side bands which are sum and difference frequencies of
the carrier and the modulating signal, in addition to the carrier component. For a four level digital coded
input data, the amplitude modulation form is shown in Fig. 10.13(b). Both the side bands have sufficient
amplitude and phase information for reconstructing the data and hence the bandwidth for transmission may
be reduced by single sideband modulation (SSB) or vestigial side band modulation (VSB). While SSB
has only half of the bandwidth of the simple amplitude modulation system, VSB transmits one side band
Telemetry 485
completely and a trace of the other. It is also possible to have a system where two independent signals
modulate the same carrier through individual SSB modulators. The upper side band of one is then combined
with the lower side band of the other for transmission. Different informations in the two side bands are
operated in phase quadrature so that detection in the receiver becomes convenient. Such a system is known
as quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). It can have a safe speed of up to 9600 bps.
Modulating
signal
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
00 01 10 11 01 10 00 01 00
Modulated
signal
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.13 Modulating and modulated signals: (a) single level coded data, (b) four level coded data
The frequency modulation in on-off or digital data transmission is done such a way that the transmitted
frequency is equally shifted in one direction or the other to indicate transmission of a ‘1’ or a ‘0’. Such a
scheme of frequency modulation is also know as frequency shift-keying (FSK).
NRZ and RZ codes are frequently used for FM systems. Frequency modulation of a typical NRZ pulse
train is shown in Fig. 10.14, where it is shown that the frequency varies between two values f1 and f2
corresponding to ‘1’ and ‘0’. When information is absent, frequency f1 is continuously transmitted. While
change in frequency occurs for change in binary states the phase condition is preserved.
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
Modulating
signal
f2 f1 f2 f1 f1 f2 f1
Modulated
signal
Fig. 10.14 Representation of frequency modulation of NRZ pulse train
For a bipolar format, the two discrete frequency levels for ‘1’ and ‘0’ are (fc + fm) and (fc – fm) while the
intervals between ‘1’ and ‘0’ are represented by fc.
The phase modulation of a digital data is effectively phase shift-keying (PSK) which shifts the phase to
discrete values of 0° and 180° corresponding to ‘0’and ‘1’ level of data structure. A typical ‘modulation’ is
shown in Fig. 10.15. The amplitude and frequency in phase modulation system do not change although to
make it so equipment cost and complexity become high. For high speed data transmission, often phase shift
keying is used. For multilevel transmission the phase levels are also increased from two to n, where n is the
number of levels. For a four levels system the choice is between 0°, – 90°, – 180°, – 270° and 45°, – 135°,
– 225°, – 315°.
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Modulating
signal
0°
Modulated
signal
180°
Fig. 10.15 The phase shift keying
Commercially marketed combined modulators and demodulators, known as ‘modems’ are used to
interface the terminals of computers with telephone network where the terminal outputs are suitably
modulated for transmission over voice telephone facilities and correspondingly demodulated at the
receiving side. Frequency bands are obviously changed from the standard telephone line transmission band.
Modems generally use FSK and PSK modulation and are classified as simplex or duplex types. Simplex
is the type where the data is transmitted in one direction along a telephone line. Half-duplex is a type in
which transmission is in both ways but in one direction at a time, and finally, the duplex type in which the
transmission of data occurs in both directions at the same time.
The operation of a modem is shown in Fig. 10.16. Data terminal equipment is basically a peripheral
equipment or it may even be a computer. Between this and the data communication equipment, i.e., a
modem, standards have been set in terms of interface so that serial data transmission can be done easily.
One such standard RS 232C is frequently used. For higher transmission rates RS 449 interface is available.
The protocol starts with the signal ‘data set ready’ (DSR) to indicate that the equipment is ready to
transmit data and then the ‘request to send’ (RTS) signal is sent. The modem starts transmitting signal after
synchronisation is achieved with the receiving modem when ‘clear to send’ (CTS) signal is received by the
equipment. When signal is received in the receiver side, the data carrier detector (DCD) circuit is bypassed
and the signal is demodulated as shown by the scheme.
Data to be
E M Filter A BPF
transmitted Channel
Bit Baud
clock clock
From Transmit To From
DTE timing
Clock
set Equalizer
Received data Decode Det. AGC
To data Bit Baud

terminal
Reception DCDC
equipment
timing
Timing
Fig. 10.16 Block schematic representation of cperation of modem
10.8 TRANSMISSION CHANNELS

As has already been mentioned, for short distances inside the plant twisted wire pair is used or coaxial
cables may be used for transmission of transducer signals. Likewise, between sister plants located apart
Telemetry 487
with facilities of telephone line link, this medium can be used for the purpose. For greater distances only
radio frequency or microwave links are used. Wire transmission lines have their resistances, leakage
conductances, inductances and capacitances in distributed mode. At low frequencies (f < 1000 kHz) a
medium length line behaves as lumped resistance-capacitance low pass filter, otherwise the distributed
parameter constants R, L, G abd C, defined on per unit length basis can be used to obtain the characteristic
constants such as characteristic impedance Z0 as,
Z 0 = {[ R + jw L} /(G + jw C )}1/ 2 ohm
(10.3)
attenuation a per unit length of line, as,
a = 8.68[0.5{ ( R 2 + w 2 L2 )(G 2 + w 2 C 2 ) + ( RG - w 2 LC )}]1 2 dB/unit length (10.4)
and the phase shift b as,
b = [0.5{ ( R 2 + w 2 L2 )(G 2 + w 2 C 2 ) - ( RG - w 2 LC )}]1 2 rad/unit length (10.5)
Coaxial cables are used to transmit at higher frequencies as they have less attenuation at higher
frequencies. A comparison in Table 10.1 would give some idea of the transmission properties of paired
wires and coaxial cables. The frequency for twisted paired wires is limited to about 1 MHz. In comparison,
in the telephone links, the usable frequency band is 300 Hz to 3 kHz.
Table 10.1 Comparison of twisted wires and cables
Twisted paired wires Coaxial cables
Z0 140 ohms at high freqs. 50 to 75 ohms
(a) 3.5 dB/km at 100 kHz (a) 8 dB/100 m at 100 MHz
a (b) 15 dB/km at 1 MHz (b) 25 dB/100 m at 1 GHz
(c) 40 dB/km at 10 MHz
Radio frequency telemetry can be used to transmit signal of frequencies ranging from low (VLF) of
about 3 Hz to extremely high (EHF) values of about 300 GHz and the transmission is by means of (i)
line of sight propagation, (ii) ground/surface wave diffraction, (iii) ionospheric reflection, or (iv) forward
scattering.
Radio regulations of International Telecommunication Union (Geneva) contained allocations for
frequency bands for such transmissions. These allocations and regulations have been revised after first
proposition. For low power telemetry systems, there are four bands in the range 0 to 460 MHz.
Fibre Optics Optical fibres are being increasingly used in data telemetering /communication because of
certain advantages they offer in such areas. Application of fibre optics to transmission systems requires
some introduction/review of the basic principles of fibre optics itself.
The optical system has three components: (i) the optical transmitter, (ii) the optical receiver, and (iii) the
actual fibre optic medium connecting the transmitter and the receiver.
The transmitter uses either a laser or coherent light source (semiconductor laser diode) or a light emitting
diode (LED) which produces incoherent light. Laser source can provide higher power in the fibre link, in
the range of 1 to 100 mW and coupling with the optics in case of laser is more efficient. It has a very narrow
spectral band, less than equal to 2 nm, making chromatic dispersion less and faster rise time, of about 1 ns.
LED’s in comparison, can provide power approximately l/10th of the laser source and have a peak emission
at a frequency of about 0.8 to 1 mm in the near infrared region and a rise time may be as large as 10 ns,
being larger than 2 ns on the lower side. As they have a larger spectral band, the spectral components of a
given mode travel at different speed through the fibre, i.e., the core material has varying refractive index
for varying wavelength, the rise time is enhanced. A comparison of the spectral output of an LED and a
laser diode is made in Figs 10.17(a) and (b). Both LED and laser diodes require complex drive circuitry,
specifically for higher rate transmission.
I I
Io Io
1.0 1.0
Laser diode LED

0.5 0.5
0 0
0.998 1.000 1.002 0.94 1.00 1.06
l l
lo lo
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.17 Spectral output of (a) laser diode, (b) light emitting diode
The receiver uses photodiodes—either pin type or avalanche type. They are oriented in the direction of
the incoming optical signal. The responsivity of the silicon pin diode is around 0.65 A/w in the wavelength
region of 0.8 to 0.9 mm. The avalanche diode has higher responsivity but has higher noise level as well
which occurs because of random nature of production of photoelectrons. Dark current and thermal noise in
the detector and resistive components of the associated amplifier circuits also contribute to this noise but
this is almost same in both types of detector modules.
The transmission channel is a glass or plastic-based fibre optic link connecting the transmitting source
to the receiver as indicated in Fig. 10.18. The fibre consists of a core surrounded by what is known as
cladding—the latter has a refractive index less than that of the core—as a consequence of which most of
the transmitted light is retained within the core because of total internal reflection at the interface of the
two. Optical fibres are classified into two basic categories depending on the number of optical field pat-
terns which can propagate through the fibre. Actually propagation of light through the fibre is governed
by Maxwell’s equation. Depending on the particular solution of this equation with boundary conditions
appropriate for a particular fibre, a discrete number of bounded electromagnetic waves, called ‘modes’ are
only allowed to propagate through the fibre producing the abovementioned field pattern. The fibres are,
thus, either monomode when the core radius is small enough to permit the light to travel along only one
path of the fibre, or, multimode which again has two different types, the step index type and the graded
index type. The step index has a construction similar to the monomode type but has a much larger core
diameter to allow multimode propagation but the graded index fibre uses core of varying refractive index
such that the transmitted light is constantly deflected towards the centre of the core producing a field
pattern entirely different from that of the step index type. The three types are schematically shown in
Figs 10.19(a), (b) and (c). Cores of larger radii are easier to connect with similar fibres and can well receive
power from source and hence LED sources may also be used there, whereas for small diameter core fibres,
laser excitation is almost essential.
Telemetry 489
Sig. OFL Display

A
TD LS PD
etc.
Fig. 10.18 Transmission via optic ibre link
There is a maximum core angle for light rays so that total internal reflection of all incident rays do occur.
This is called fibre numerical aperture Na and is obtained vis Snell’s law as
Na = sin q = a (n12 - n22 )1/ 2 (10.6)
Cladding r.i.n2
Core r.i.n1
ª120 mm Propagation
path
ª2 – 10 mm
(a)
Multimode
50 mm propagation
step index
(b)
Graded index
multimode
propagation
(c)
Fig. 10.19 The ibre op ic propagation system, (a) monomode, (b) multimode, step index,
(c) multimode, graded index
where n1 and n2 are core and cladding refractive indices respectively as shown in Fig. 10.19(a). Na lies
between values 0.15 and 0.40 for 16° < q < 46°. Larger angles produce greater losses and restrict bandwidth.
In multimode propagation intermodal dispersion occurs because the modes propagate at different velocities,
although very close to each other. A pulse when launched into a fibre, its energy is likely to be distributed
in all possible modes and dispersions, because of velocity spread, spreading out the pulse itself causing
restriction in the bandwidth. This restriction is specified as the product of the frequency and distance, i.e.,
in MHz-km. Graded index multimode fibre has a large bandwidth limitation than the step index type. For
monomode operation, this is still higher. Typical values are 6-25 MHz-km, 200-400 MHz-km and 500-1500
MHz-km respectively for plastic-clad fibres.
Another important consideration is attenuation in the fibre, expressed as dB/km, which is caused by
absorption, scattering and radiative losses. Absorption occurs mainly because of impurity materials in the
fibre—such as OH-ion causes attenuation at a specific wavelength. Structural irregularity, microscopic
variation in density/composition etc., cause scattering. Any bend in link layout initiates radiative loss.
Attenuation, as in all optical systems, is a function of wavelength. Manufacturers provide the attenuation
chart for ready reference. For glass fibre, minimum attenuation is at about 1.5 mm the value being 0.2
dB/km.
Although fibre optic cables can be used for both analogue and digital transmission, advantage with
regard to bandwidth is more with digital type. Because of large bandwidth, it is possible to transmit a
number of high data rate informations using multiplexing techniques. Also, time-division multiplexing is
quite suitable as a single wavelength is likely to provide high transmission rate communication.
The advantages of fibre optic transmissions may briefly be listed as follows:
(a) they are not affected by electromagnetic interference,
(b) because the signal is confined by total internal reflection, data security is more with no or little inter-
fibre crosstalk,
(c) because the data can be transmitted at higher frequencies, multiplexing of larger number of signals is
possible,
(d) they can provide better safety in hazardous area,
(e) compared to copper cable weight and size, they are much more convenient, and
(f) ground loop problems are less in such transmissions.
10.9 BRIEFING OF A TELEMETRY SYSTEM IN OPERATION
Example of a medium to long line telemetering system being in operation over four decades now is the
telemetering and control (i.e., telecontrol) of the oil pipeline between two of the eastern states in India.
The telemetering system employs time division multiplexing with random access facility which is made
possible because of a novel scanning method. There is a master station from where the control over the
entire scheme is exercised.
The pipeline has a number of pumping (booster) stations which are monitored and controlled by the solid
state digital telemetry-telecontrol complex from the supervisory centre, as mentioned. The telechannels
between the master and the substations are multichannel radio link network working in a frequency range
of 160 to 190 MHz. One speech channel of nominal 4 kHz bandwidth is used for remote indication and
control between the stations and the master. The carrier equipment is a 36-channel system.
Each measurement point is covered by the interrogation-reply process in which case the specific data
source behaves as a responder that remains quiescent unless it receives its identifying address from the
master director which generates and routes the switching and intelligence signals at each station.
The total telemetering scan time is 10 seconds and 4 seconds are allowed for control instruction signals,
although control instruction signals are sent quite infrequently. A full supervisory cycle is thus 14 secs. The
operational time is determined by the system speed which is set at 1200 bauds. For the design purposes, the
speech channel is taken as 3 kHz. The duration of one address-reply, i.e., one complete interrogation cycle
is around 100 msec so that 10 scanning operations can be performed in a second.
10.10 WIRELESS I/O

The basic principles of telemetry are now being conveniently used in remote instrumentation systems
where the main purpose is to dispose of the hard wiring. Besides, in some cases safety is better ensured.
With increased use of embedded sensor systems and points from where asset informations are available, the
Telemetry 491
remote monitoring and control, diagnostics and optimizations are becoming easier and more sophisticated.
The innovation is termed the wireless I/O and it is primarily very cost effective and often as reliable as its
wired counterpart.
Wireless I/O permits any signal like, 4–20 mA or 1–5 V DC or digital/discrete types to be transmitted
from an input device such as a sensor module to a control device, such as DCS or PLC or any other terminal
unit such as remote terminal unit (RTU) through wireless medium and received back. The transmission is
generally through radio frequency modulation with the carrier greater than 900 MHz and spread spectrum
broadbanding facility is availed of for error-free transmission. In process control systems or plants this
adoption covers data transmission from flow, pressure, level, temperature processes, control signal for
actuation of the final control elements, alarm signals for annunciation and much more. Because of high
frequency transmission through wireless medium, the I/O (terminal) devices are to be modified. The range
of frequencies chosen is license free and the design is done through spread spectrum radio technology such
that integration of remote assets and SCADA is made. A typical wirless I/O system is shown in Fig. 10.20
WIRELESS
Control
Equip
Wirless
I/O Process
Slave
Signal
Processor
Central
supervisory
Wirless control
Analog Digital
I/O station
input output
Master
Fig. 10.20 A typical wireless I/O system
Figure 10.20 shows one Master and one slave. It may be mentioned that capacity may be increased by
installing additional I/O slaves with the same master sending the command. This is called scaling. In case
the communication link between the master and the slave (S) fails, the output of the I/O slave will be at its
fail safe preprogrammed position—which may be on, off or steady. Also, alarms are there which make the
users aware of the failure.
For implementation of the wireless I/O system the wireless network topology and architecture should
be considered with respect to the proper hardwire devices. The job starts with the site survey, then features,
data throughput and the rates at which the network needs be updated are determined. Security is an
important considration. Accuracy of transmission, recovery methodology specially for any transmission
error and power supply are other factors.
The essential items in the instrument network are

(i) Instrumentation device with radio i.e. wireless instrumentation,
(ii) Power source for the above,
(iii) Gateway or the access point receiver that can receive communication from the wireless devices,
(iv) Power source for the above.
The physical characteristics of the site should satisfy the feasibility of implementation of the wireless
network. Special attention should be given to the interfering or obstructing objects like buildings/structures,
electromagnatic installations, tanks, pipelines etc.
Communication protocols are already available in conformity with the emergent standards of wireless
and radio like : WiFi (IEEE 802.11g), ISA (100.11a). Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1) etc. A wireless network
can be added to an existing process unit for which the interface process of the host system is of prime
significance as this dictates the type of the gateway needed. Some of the connectivity options are listed in
Table 10.2—adoption of these covers a wide range of host systems.
Table 10.2 Connectivity Schedule
Host Protocol
DCS and PLC Modbus/RTU
DCS, PLC and HMI Modbus/TCP
Assess Management Systems; Ethernet
Plant LAN Applications
Web interfaces for Configuring HTTP
and Monitoring
In process plants the implementation, nowadays, is initiated by the vendors who offer the devices and
the protocal softwares. Appropriate system has to be selected on the basis of the requirement of the plant.
The requirement is dependent on
(1) the process area to be covered, the number of control loops
(2) the instruments to be brought under the scheme
(3) topology of the network
The commonly known topologies are
(a) point-to-point configuration
(b) expanded form of type (a)
(c) multipoint configuration
(d) mesh or meshed instruments configuration
(e) mesh-node configuration.
The nodes are high-powered repeaters like relay stations. The configurations are shown in Figs 10.21(a)
to (e).
Figure 10.21(a) shows that one radio at the wirless process transmitter is paired with one gateway radio.
This type is used in pipeline systems, tank level transmission systems etc. Figure 10.21(b) is an extension
of the system of Fig. 10.21(a) where multiple I/O points or tranmitters transmit-receive through a single
radio. The number of such I/O points is limited to about 15.
Figure 10.21(c) shows a variation of the above where multiple individual transmitters (I/O points)
are connected by wireless protocol to the process control system. Gateway capacity limits the I/O point
numbers. Type of protocol is also important in the situation.
Telemetry 493
Figure 10.21(d) shows the meshed device topology where the power and protocol are chosen to allow
each transmitter to transmit-receive data with other transmitters till the data are received by the access point
(gateway or host). The clock is common and each device is allowed to turn on or off to transmit or receive
to and from other devices. This is a self-organizing network in which the protocol provides the following
features:
(a) The mesh network is self configuring.
(b) When one device fails or RF interference occurs the path is adjusted by the others for data
transmission; the failure is reported to the gateway.
(c) Individual instruments are powered by a battery housed in it.
(d) Network size is limited by the capacity of the gateway and the communication protocol.
PCS GW RAD
TR
(a)
PCS GW RAD
TR
TR
(b)
TR
RAD
TR
RAD
PCS GW
TR
RAD
(c) TR
TR TR
PCS GW
TR TR
(d)
TR
NODE
PCS GW TR
NODE
TR
TR
(e)
PCS : Process Control System

GW : Gateway
TR : Transmitter
RAD : Radio
Fig. 10.21 Topologies
The meshed-node configuration of Fig. 10.21(e) is more complex where nodes have been provided
which communicate with the I/O devices, other nodes as also the gateway. Individual instruments are not
permitted to do so—they can only report data and their power requirement is thereby reduced. Nodes are
often externally powered like the host (gateway) to make them high-powered. There may be redundancy
in the gateway and thence the system becomes very robust. This is a configuration for large number of
instruments.
For bidirectional transport of data, as in loop control and monitoring, the requirements are used to settle
the data formats and data exchange rates.
Security is an important aspect and features are to be incorporated to prevent access of unauthorized
personnel. Coding is so made that such ‘penetration’ is prevented.
Data received from the wireless devices must be available to be used at present and at future times.
As mentioned already wireless measurement and control system requires a ‘host’ system: wireless smart
gateway which essentially is a control network node, the network (self organizing, mesh, wi-fi etc.) and the
trans-receive I/O devices/instruments. Protocols as specified also vary : Modbus, TCP/IP, OPC or HTML
are some used by different vendors.
Transmission of data takes help of spread spectrum broadbanding technique which is a type of
modulation and multiplexing technique. It distributes the signal and sidebands over a wide (spreadout) band
width and it is now very commonly used in LAN’s, BLAN’s and now in wireless I/O’s. Its main advantage
is resistance to narrowband interference. The power density-frequency plot of the signal to be sent after
broadbanding and also the received signal with adequate filtering are shown in Figs 10.22(a) (b) (c) and
10.23(a) (b) respectively.
The signal is broadbanded in Fig. 10.22(b), the area under the plots in Figs 10.22 (a) and (b) remain
the same. Power level now is less, but loss of data is not there. In Fig. 10.22(c) additional broadband and
narrowband interference are there with the signal. This is received, as shown in Fig. 10.23(a) where it is
dispread and converted into a narrowband signal while the narrowband interference is spread. This is now
passed through a bandpass filter and the actual output is shown in Fig. 10.23(b). The signal has high power
and it can be used to reconstruct the original signal. This technique is extendable to a number of channels
all of which may use the same frequency band, with code division multiplexing (CDM) for separating them
in the receiving side. Spreading of the narrowband is done by using a code—each channel has its own code,
Telemetry 495
the same code has to be used for recovery. The coding process is considered in the following but before
that it is pertinent to discuss that there are two types of spread sprectums: (i) the direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) and (ii) the frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)—the DSSS is not well suited for
industrial wireless I/O systems.
dP dP dP
df Signal df df Narrowband interference
Signal Broadband interference

Signal
f f f
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 10.22 Plots for transmitted signal
dP dP
df df
Signal
Broadband interference
Narrowband interference
f f
(a) (b)
Fig. 10.23 Plots for received signal
In FHSS system the available bandwidth is split into a number of channels of lesser bandwidths with
appropriate guard spaces provided for. The technique is similar to frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
Each channel of lesser bandwidth is then used in the time division multiplexing (TDM) scheme. Thus one
such channel is used by a transmitter and the corresponding receiver for a specified priod of time at the
end of which another channel is used called ‘hopped in’. The sequence in which the channels are used by
a single set of trans-receiver is called the ‘hopping sequence’ and the period of time a particular channel
is used is called the ‘dwell time’. Hopping may be ‘slow’ or fast. The different frequencies of hopping
have different interference characteristics. Slow hopping is cheap, but less accurate i.e. it has high tolerance
limits and it is also less immune to narrowband interference. Fast hopping, on the contrary, is complex and
costly, synchronization is to be with more stringent limits but it is more immune to narrowband interference.
As it sticks to a frequency for a very short period of time there is no frequency selective fading. When the
hopping is fast it may be expressed as hops/bit for slow hopping it may be expressed as bits/hop. Figures
10.24(a) and (b) show the schemes of the transmitters and receivers respectively of the FHSS system.
The narrowband signal has two frequencies, f1 for 0 and f2 for 1. The PSN code generator gives the
sequence which goes to frequency synthesizer and generates the carrier fc so that the spread signal has
now f1 + fc for 0 and f2 + fc for 1 respectively. The number of FHSS may be quite high as said, without
overlapping the transmission is possible to be made interference-free for which each carrier fc has to be
different. Thus FHSS can be given collision-free access for which specific time slot and frequency may
be allotted for transmission. This technique can be combined with error detection and automatic repeat
requests (ARQ) for increasing reliability. Frequency hopping is still proprietory and is, therefore, inherently
secure.
The wireless I/O is characterized by the counts of operating frequency, sampling frequency, battery life,
range (distance), network topology and security. Two frequencies are chosen 900 MHz—as told already, the
other is 2.4 GHz. Sampling frequency varies from vendor to vendor.
Transmit
Data Narrow- signal
FSK band RF
Modulator Modulator
Signal Amplifier
F.H. Sequence Freq.

Gen. Synthesizer
(PSN CODE
GEN)
CLK (a)
Received Narrow-
Signal band
Demodulator Demodulator Original data
Signal
F.H. Sequence Freq.

Gen. Synthesizer
(PSN CODE
GEN)
CLK
(b)
Fig. 10.24 (a) Transmitter, (b) Receiver of the FHSS system
The fastest for Honeywell is 1 sec (to date), for Rosemount Emmerson it is 15 sec (to date). There
are others as well. Battery life varies from 1yr to 20 yrs, 10 yrs is quite a reasonable value. Range of
transmission also is different with different manufacturers. Typical figures are 650 ft and 1000 ft line on
sight. Topology has already been discussed, mesh topology is most common. Security is code specific and
proprietary.
Review Questions
1. Give the general description of a telemetry 4. Why modulation is essential in telemetry? In
system starting from the transducers to the data digital techniques, modulation provides a
output on the receiving side involving the various trade-off between bandwidth and signal-to-
components in between. noise ratio—how is it done? If the average
2. What are the frequency-wavelength ranges signal power to noise power is 15 and channel
for twisted pair telephone cable, coaxial cable, bandwidth 100 Hz. What would be the
radiowave and optical ibre as communication theoretical upper limit of information capacity
channels? [Hint: tptc: 105 – 106 Hz (100 m), cc: in bits per sec?
108 – 109 Hz (~10 cm), rw: 104 – 1012 Hz (~9 km [400 bits/s]
– 10 mm), of: around 1014 Hz (10 –7 m)]. 5. Why PCM is so extensively used in industrial
3. What is the difference between time- telemetry systems? Explain with a diagram
division multiplexing and frequency division what is actually meant by pulse code modulation
multiplexing? Discuss their advantages and and how is it different from pulse amplitude
disadvantages. modulation.
Telemetry 497
6. How frequency modulation is effected with digital (b) What are commonly known topologies of
data? Describe with diagrams the frequency shift wireless I/O systems? Illustrate and explain.
keying of a typical NRZ pulse train. 9. (a) Why is frequency hopping spread spectrum
7. What is phase shift keying? How much is it (FHSS) broadbanding technique used in
useful in digital data transmission? Describe wireless I/O systems? Explain with suitable
the principle of operation of a modem. Why diagrams.
are modems becoming so popular? Describe (b) Draw block diagrams of a transmitter and
the operation of a modem with appropriate a receiver of an FHSS system. Mention the
diagrams. advantages of its adoption in wireless I/O
8. (a) Sketch a typical wireless I/O system and systems.
explain its operation.
Display, Recording, Alarm
11.1 INTRODUCTION
All measurement systems must end with an element that indicates

the variable instantaneously with a pointer scale arrangement or via
illuminating displays as is done on CRT screen, with light emitting
diode display system, liquid crystal display system, or, permanently
by recording the values of the variables on papers and charts by
different techniques, on magnetic tapes or semiconductor memories,
etc. It has already been seen earlier that for obtaining spectrograms,
11
chromatograms etc., recorders are essential. In recent years, the
detectors of such measuring systems are made directly involved
Chapter in data acquisition and processing, and final data are available as
printouts. Simple variables are often displayed as is done in digital
multimeters. The analogue data are thus converted into digital form
and displayed mostly by illuminating type display systems. In still some other cases no display or record of
a variable is made but if the variable crosses preset limits either way, an alarm is sounded and only then,
perhaps, some prints of the variable values are made on time axis.
11.2 DISPLAY METHODS
One can classify the functions of this final functional block in the light of the above discussions as:
Indication, as already discussed briefly, can be made by a number of systems: (i) Pointer-scale
arrangement—in which either the scale or the pointer is fixed and the other movable, these are mostly
mechanical or electromechanical systems. With a moving pointer, the scale can take horizontal, vertical,
straight, circular positions and configurations with varying design of pointers such as hair line, arrow-
shape, edgewise strip etc.; while with fixed pointers, the scales may be moving dials, moving drums etc. (ii)
Bar-graph display which is becoming increasingly popular and indication is in terms of a column oriented
horizontally or vertically. It can be a simple ribbon driven mechanically or LCD/LED elements glowing
serially when appropriately arranged, (iii) Illumination displays such as plasma, LED, LCD or CRT screen
etc., are also used extensively now.
Display, Recording, Alarm 499
11.2.1 Pointer-scale System

Scale pointer indication means as has been described above has a serious source of error, often termed as
parallex error. For minimizing this, a mirror is sometimes mounted behind the pointer. Besides, there are
some standard specifications in terms of the reading distance as also the number of divisions for a given per
cent of error in terms of full scale deflection based on the physiological consideration of the performance
of a human eye between two adjacent divisions. In it, a reading at a distance of 70 cm should provide a
minimum scale length of 4.9 cm and for reading within 1% FSD twenty main divisions should be there.
In this specification it has been assumed that a human eye can subdivide a main division into another five
parts.
Some sketches of pointer-scale arrangement both for moving and fixed pointers are shown in
Figs 11.1(a) and (b) respectively.
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(a)
(i) (ii)
(b)
Fig. 11.1 Sketches of pointer-scale arrangement, (a) moving pointer types, (b) ixed pointer types
11.2.2 Illumination Display

Plasma displays were being used from quite early days in measurement systems where the cathode glow
of a neon discharge lamp was the indicator as used in Nixie tubes, 7-segment display units, etc.
In Nixie tube systems each of the figures 0 to 9 has separate cathodes. In recent years plasma display
has been made available in 7-segment display or plasma panel display. In the seven-segment types, each
segment is used as a cathode and a common anode is used, in between neon gas with traces of krypton
and mercury for discharge to occur. However, discharge needs a voltage of about 180 V. The plasma panel
consists of n ¥ n horizontal (y) and vertical (x) electrodes on two panels and the space in between is filled
with gas. Voltages are applied to x and y electrodes so that the crossing spot (x, y) location has a voltage
more than the required ionization potential and a glow is produced there. Thus for display, selected pairs
are energized. The quenching is done by applying voltages of opposite phase. Figure 11.2 shows a panel-
scheme.
In certain forward-biased special junction semiconductor diodes, containing mostly Ga, As, P and N,
majority carriers from both sides of the junction enter the other side to become minority carrier there,
disturbing the population of the local minority carriers but getting in excess which, in turn, try to diffuse
away from the junction and thereby cause recombination. x

As a result electroluminescence takes place which would Gas
emit visible radiation if the band gap is greater than
1.8 eV. In fact the radiation wavelength l is inversely y
proportional to the band gap. Commercial LED’s (x, y Spot)
are available in a few colours. Table 11.1 shows the
composition, wavelength and colour.
Table 11.1 LED Characteristics
Material Wavelength Colour
of emitted
radiation, nm Fig. 11.2 The scheme of a plasma panel
Ga As(60) P(40) 650 Red
Ga As(35) P(65)/N(doped) 610 Orange
Ga As(15) P(85)/N(doped) 589 Yellow
Ga P/N(doped) 570 Green
Other materials are GaAlAs, GaN and SiC, Zn and Oxygen doping are also used other than N. Materials
have high quantum output but also have high refractive indices and in the air-interface total internal
reflection may reduce the intensity appreciably which is countered to a great extent by encapsulating the
diode in a hemispherical dome as shown in Fig. 11.3. This dome is made of epoxy resin or plastic.
Encapsulation
p-n junction
Fig. 11.3 The encapsulated LED
LED requires good amount of power, its required current varies from 10 to 100 mA to produce a drop
of 1.6 to 2.2 V. Commercially LED’s are available as single lamps, seven-segment and sixteen-segment
alphanumeric display units and also in dot-matrix format in chip level design. A typical connection diagram
for a seven segment display is shown in Fig. 11.4.
There are certain organic materials which in liquid phase have the characteristics of crystals when
viewed under X-rays and are known as cybotactic liquids although they are more viscous than such liquids.
For these crystals to be of any use as display devices, it is necessary that they must be geometrically
anisotropic reverting to isotropicity through thermal action. There are many organic compounds of this
type. Those that are of use have rod-like molecules and if in addition to rectilinear elongated form they are
flat as well, the property of crystallinity is enhanced. They are strong dipoles and are easily polarisable.
Such crystals are of three kinds: (i) smectic—where the molecules are arranged in definite strata, example:
Fig. 11.4 The connection diagram of seven segment display unit
p-ethylazoxybenzoate; (ii) nematic—where the molecules spontaneously orient with their long axes
parallel to themselves; also, they orient with respect to solid interface but no strata are found, example:
p-azoxyarisole, (iii) lyotropic or cholesteric—where at least two components are present and a complex
structure is formed. The smectic and the nematic groups are shown in Fig. 11.5. Liquid crystals as
described above, exhibit characteristic optical properties. With a solid interface, the nematic crystals
exhibit homogeneous or homeotropic nature, i.e., the molecules align themselves parallel and perpendicular
respectively to the solid surface. The crystals themselves are passive and emit radiation of their own
depending on the modulation of reflected or transmitted light. Also, the crystals are birefringent, indicating
that light entering the crystal polarises in the direction of the alignment of the molecules, will leave the
crystal with its polarisation rotated by 90º. Also, when a field exceeding a certain value is applied across a
pair of plates holding the crystal, the molecules will align themselves so that their energy is minimum, i.e.,
in the direction of the field and polarised light now entering the crystal will not undergo any rotation. Thus,
if a crystal is placed between two polaroids and no electric field is applied across, unpolarized light entering
the system will pass through it and a reflecting mirror at the far end will reflect this light so that bright
display will be there. If, however, the field is applied, usually in the form of ac rms of 5 V at a frequency
of 25 to 1000 Hz, no light would pass through the crystal and the display will be dark. The scheme is
shown in Fig. 11.6. Whether a voltage is applied or not is determined by the variable condition. A number
of appropriate arrangements are made for proper display.
(i) (ii)
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.5 The LCD materials, (a) the smectic group, (b) the nematic group
Polaroid
V Reflector
Crystal
Fig. 11.6 Arrangement for display with LCD
The temperature range of such a crystal is –10 to 70ºC with average power consumption of 2 mW which
is 10–6 parts of the LED type. The response time is 0.1 to 0.15 sec. Because of reflection, the viewing
angle is limited to ±45°. However, cholesteric crystals used with dichroic dyes increases this angle to ±90°.
LCD’s can be arranged in configurations similar to those of LED’s. Colour displays can be made available
here by using colour polarisers. Figure 11.7 shows a technique.
Colour polarizer
Reflector
Light
Crystal Linear
polarizer
Fig. 11.7 Scheme of colour display with LCD
Cathode ray tubes are used for display of periodic or transient waveforms. In CRT, the display unit uses
phosphor which converts the energy of the electron beam striking it, into light. The type of phosphor coating
the front screen of the CRT determines the colour, relative luminence, speed of writing and decay, i.e., the
persistence time. In fact, the colours available are white, blue, yellow-green and green. Blue phosphor gives
highest writing speed but green gives the brightest display. Green is now commonly used in CRO’s. Table
11.2 shows the comparison between the different phosphors on the above counts.
Table 11.2 CRT Phosphor characteristics
Phosphor Relative Relative glowing Relative Uses and other
fluorescence luminescence speed decay time remarks
colour
White 0.5 0.4 0.5/0.2 For TV sets; burn resistance is medium-high.
Blue 0.15 to 0.35 0.75 to 1.0 1.0 For photo-recording, medium burn resistance.
Yellow- 0.5 0.2 0.5 In earlier monitoring units, presently least used,
green burning resistance medium.
Green 0.1 0.5 0.5/0.2 In almost all CRO types computer monitors and
others, burn res. high
In CRT display, colour vision can be obtained using screen that uses three phosphor dots which may emit
red, green and blue light. A shadow mask, made as a metal screen with holes in it, is located close to the
CRT screen on the inner side. The electron gun focuses three electron beams corresponding to red, green
and blue on the mask so that passing through it they diverge and each one energizes one of the three types
of phosphors. The colour range is obtained by relative intensity adjustment of the beams. There are other
methods as well, such as use of penetration phosphor or liquid crystal colour display as shown in Fig. 11.7.
The light here comes from the CRT tube.
In PC or computer-based instrument system the display usually is the visual display unit, in short known
as the VDU. It consists of a keyboard and a CRT display unit. The characters to be displayed are usually
made up of 7 ¥ 5 dot matrix as shown in Fig. 11.8 and the display uses the raster scan technique. For each
character, therefore, seven raster scan lines would be required and a maximum of five dots in position would
be located. Between the dots in a line, a gap of one dot is usual and between two lines of the character
matrix, a gap of one or two raster scan lines is kept. In common case, the entire screen can display 24 lines
of characters having 80 characters per line.
Fig. 11.8 7 ¥ 5 dot matrix format
Normally the data to be displayed, which may be alphanumeric in nature, are stored in a memory-store
in seven bit ASCII code (see Ch. 10) with a total of 24 ¥ 80 words. The character pattern is then stored in
ROM from which the specific rows of the characters are selected by proper inputs into it and the pattern
in parallel output form is converted by a parallel to serial shift register which controls the brightness of
the CRT screen. In successive scan the row address of the ROM which contains the character pattern is
changed. For a single scan, the row address is fixed but the ROM is addressed by the ASCII codes for the
80 different characters in a line. The scheme is shown in Fig. 11.9.
Fig. 11.9 The scheme of the display with the stored character pattern
For graphical displays somewhat a similar procedure is followed. The picture to be displayed called the
frame is divided by a large number of raster lines—a standard system has a pair of interlaced 313-line set
totaling 625 lines with a scanning rate of 0.64 ms/line per set. Each line of scan is subdivided into a large
number of picture elements called pixels. Every pixel is stored in a RAM or a serial store called frame store
from which the display via the usual procedure of selection is made. Depending on the number of level of
brightness, the number of colours and number of pixels per line, the RAM/frame store size varies. For a
good resolution, it may be as large as 1.5 M bits.
11.2.3 The CRO

Although simple CRT display is very common now and its basic circuit scheme is well known, there are
other ways a CRO may be used as in (i) sampling, (ii) storage, and (iii) digital storage mode. The basic
scheme of a CRO is shown in Fig. 11.10. In its common mode of operation the waveform to be displayed
is applied to the vertical input line where it is amplified/attenuated and applied to the vertical plates. The
amplified output may be used to derive a trigger pulse or an external trigger may be given for the sweep
generator. In the former case synchronisation is easier. The output of the sweep generator with requisite
amplification is applied to the horizontal plates. Also, the sweep generator is designed to provide a pulse to
the electron gun of the CRT that blanks off the beam during retrace to make it invisible.
Screen
VP HP
CRT
Pow. sup.
Vert.
Ampl.
input
Ext. Triggered
trigger sweep. gen.
Horiz.
Ampl.
input
Fig. 11.10 The basic scheme of a CRO
The conventional oscilloscope has a limit as regards to its response to high frequency signals because
of amplifier cut-off as also fall of CRT screen luminous efficiency at high spot speeds. Upper frequency
limit, in recent years, for analogue oscilloscopes is about 109 Hz. By sampling the waveform the repetitive
waveforms of frequencies far in excess of the maximum analogue limit can be displayed. The amplitude of
the input waveform is sampled at successively later points in its cycle and then reassembled into a replica
of the input waveform on the screen. The principle is known as stroboscopic sampling in which a sampling
pulse is delayed by a varying amount with respect to a trigger which bears a fixed time relation with the
signal. The principle is illustrated in Fig. 11.11. Often a clamp circuit is used to obtain an output pulse
sufficiently long to allow display. Further, because of the repetitive nature of the signal, the sampling can be
done every tenth cycle instead of successive cycles so that the sampling and display circuits are required to
operate at only 1/10th of the input frequency. The basic circuit of sampling technique with CRO is shown
by block in Fig. 11.12. A staircase waveform is used for horizontal (x) deflection. When the fast sweep
started by an external trigger reaches the level of the slow staircase waveform, a pulse is generated. This
samples the input at the gate and simultaneously moves the staircase up by a step. The sweep speed is the
ratio of the x-axis change per step of staircase generated to the time advance of the fast sweep per sample.
It is to be noted that the sampling mode can be used only with repetitive waveforms and the pulse generator
must produce very sharp pulses.
Storage oscilloscopes are used to display signals that are too slow (or, that are too fast) and to display
events that may occur at different periods of time. Not considering the digital technique of storage, the
storage technique can be classified as given below.
The storage is specified in cm/ms or div/ms writing speed.
Storage
Bistable Variable per- Fast transfer Fast transfer Fast transfer +

sistence or + Bistable Variable per-
Half-tone sistence
Input
Trigger
Sampling pulse
Display
Fig. 11.11 Principle of stroboscopic sampling

Input Y
Delay Sampling
Clamp
line gate
Sampling
pulse
generator
Staircase X
generator
Fast
Comparator
sweep
Attenuator
Trigger
Fig. 11.12 Scheme of sampling technique with a CRO
In storage scopes, there are two electron guns or sources—the signal actuated writing gun and ‘flood’-
gun which provides low velocity electrons covering the entire screen uniformly. These electrons provide
secondary emission to maintain the stored image made by the writing gun even after it is withdrawn from a
spot. The writing gun emission hits a spot on the screen with high energy to light the phosphor and produce
secondary electrons which are being lost in this way to keep the spot positive. The flood-gun electrons
slowly hit the screen all around but fail to light the screen as a whole, however, they make the area negative
by being accumulated there. The written area, because it is positive, will attract these electrons with suf-
ficient velocity to keep this area illuminated, as in the process more electrons are let loose from the spot and
the process may continue from 15 min to even an hour or more and the writing speed is not more than 0.5
cm/msec. Figure 11.13 shows the basic idea.
Flood elec. gun
Writing elec. gun
Fig. 11.13 CRT with a writing gun and a lood electron gun
The variable persistence or half-tone technique displays a signal at different or varying levels of
intensity—the intensity being dependent on beam current and the time of ‘dwell’ of the beam at a particular
phosphor area/particle. In fact, the CRT screen, in this technique, consists of two screens, a storage screen
consisting of a fine metal mesh coated with a dielectric, and a collector screen located behind the storage
screen. The writing gun makes a positive trace on the storage screen by removing the electrons from the
dielectric coating which are collected by the other screen and the area on the dielectric without the electrons
becomes ‘transparent’ to the slow electrons from the flood-gun. Actually these electrons generate this area
and not the other parts of the storage screen and the process becomes similar to the earlier case discussed.
By controlling the charge on the mesh the contrast between the transparent and non-transparent areas may
be changed. However, the storage is only over the period of repetition. The writing speed is about 5 cm/
msec and storage time not more than 30 sec.
The fast transfer technique consists of an intermediate mesh target screen which holds the waveform for
a short duration only to transfer it to another long-term storage screen. This increases the writing speed to
5500 cm/ms.
Digital storage oscilloscopes use digital memory where the data are stored and hence the storage time
is virtually unlimited. Figure 11.14 shows the basic blocks, a digital storage scope is likely to have. In the
digital storage part of the scope, signal is converted by ADC and stored in digital memory. These stored data
are displayed in a number of modes: (a) a roll mode, when the data and display are continually updated, (b)
refreshed mode, when stored data and display are updated only with a fresh trigger, (c) hold mode when
the display is freezed or held till a new display form is to be initiated. There are other mixed modes as well.
Common laboratory or test digital storage scopes are dual channel type with 8-bit 1 K memory storage
facility, 8-bit ADC and signal frequency up to 100 MHz in both the channels. Additional storage facility,
i.e., extra memory can also be attached to the built-in memory. The sampling rate can also vary widely.
Sig. x
Digit.
ADC DAC
mem.
Cont. Sweep
logic gen
Fig. 11.14 Operating scheme of a digital storage oscilloscope
11.3 RECORDERS
Often instantaneous display of a process variable is not enough and a permanent record is necessary for
management decisions, tariff evaluation, long term efficiency and performance adjudication of plants and
machinery etc. Recording of data or values of variables is thus made in what is known as recorders or
graphic recorders—because the variable is obtained as a graph on a chart paper with suitable coordinate
systems such as x-t or x-y. The chart paper has various forms and coordinates are also varying in nature.
Most popular of the analogue recorders that record values of the analogue variables with time are (i) the
circular chart type, recording on circular coordinate system, and (ii) the strip chart recorder, recording on
rectangular coordinate system. In special cases (iii) drum type recorders, recording on curvilinear cordinate
system are also used. When a variable y is plotted in terms of another variable x and not in terms of time t,
the recorder is (iv) an x-y recorder. Other recorders are (v) oscillographic, and (vi) CRT recorders etc.
Recorders consist of a few parts which can be considered common to most of the types: (a) marking
mechanism on the chart paper, i.e., recording means, (b) chart drive mechanism, and (c) drive mechanism
of the marking system in relation to measured variable, or simply the measuring part.
The most recording means is the pen recording on the paper with the pen moving in response to the
change in the process variable. There are different types of pens such as ball-point pen, V-pen, fibre-tipped
pen, large reservoir or bucket type pen, capillary-fed recording tip pen etc.—the last type has two varieties:
(i) pressurized, and (ii) gravimetric. In recent years, disposable ink cartidges or pen assemblies have
become popular. Fluid ink recording is not always permitted as (i) with increasing speed, pen paper friction
increases (ii) for low ambient temperatures ink fluidity decreases, and (iii) with vibration or shock spilling
may occur.
Thermal and electric recording are inkless writing. In thermal technique, the writing system is heated
by sending electric current and a heat sensitive chart paper is used such as a coating on the paper which
changes colour under the influence of heat or a coat of coloured wax may be given to the chart which
melts to show the contrasting chart surface. The tip of the stylus may be made as small as 10–5 sq.cm using
sapphire. Figure 11.15 shows the schematic view of such a system. Multiprint facilities are also made
available. For example, up to about 420 printing Chemical coat
elements per printing head made of solid-state
material enclosed in ceramic bar and with metal
print heads are available commercially. The
sensitized paper is not continuously used, instead
Chart
dot printing is made with about 4 to 5 dots per
mm trace, the width of the chart paper would be
dependent on the width of the printing bar con- Fig. 11.15 Recording by stylus heating
taining the printing elements.
Electrical writing is done by erosion or etching. The chart paper itself is made conducting by giving a
coat of aluminium and a light tungsten wire stylus keeps contact with the chart paper surface. An energizing
voltage of about 30 to 40 volts at a frequency of 8 to 10 kHz is provided to the stylus—this, in turn, etches
the aluminium coat exposing the contrasting, usually black, chart paper substrate. High frequency is used to
avoid possible grounding of the supply through aluminium coat on the chart and at such a high frequency
the recording discontinuity due to this high frequency interruption would not be observable on the chart
even at the highest chart speed.
Printing type recording means is also in vogue for quite some time now. Its early form consists of a
pointer moving in response to the measurand which is clamped in position for a small period of time and
a pressure bar mechanism above the pointer presses down the pointer on a carbon ribbon which is located
between the chart and the pointer. The improved version is the wheel type printing system in which a print
wheel engraved with a number of symbols for identification of the different variables travels like the pointer
across the scale. The print wheel is kept inked by an inkpad suitably mounted. At intervals determined by
the number of variables and scanning necessary, the print wheel is detached from the measuring circuit for a
very short duration and is lowered onto the chart paper to mark
the symbol and returned to be reconnected to the next circuit in Chart
the sequel through a commutator switch. Multicolour printing
is possible and instruments are available commercially that can
Mirror
have records of up to 20 variables.
Oscillographic recording can be of two types, the
galvanometric type and the CRT type. The schematic Light source
arrangement of a galvanometric oscillographic recording system
Vin
is shown in Fig. 11.16. The deflecting light beam from a small
mirror in the suspension of the galvo measuring coil falls on a
recording chart which must be chemically treated to produce a
record when light beam falls upon it. The disadvantage is that
the chart exposed to ambient light also faces the reaction. To Fig. 11.16 Schematic arrangement for
avoid this, ultraviolet radiation is being used. In CRT recording galvanometric oscillographic recording
photographic films are also very common.
Electrostatic writing is becoming popular in recent years. The xeroxing technique basically uses the
same principle. The paper is passed on a ‘roller’ which can develop variable charges depending on the
image focused on it on application of a field. By rotating the roller with the paper, the system is passed
through what is known as toner-head where the oppositely charged ink particles stick onto the paper at
charged points. The excess toner is then removed by a knife called the vacuum knife. On exposure to air the
adhesive coated charged ink particles are bonded to the paper and a true copy is made available.
In a circular chart recorder, the measuring part Meas. elem.
and the operating part including the recording
mechanism movement are the same. A typical
circular chart recorder is shown in Fig. 11.17. 22
An electrical transducer signal operates a 20 24
Chart hub
ferro-dynamic mechanism which attracts the Chart
18 2
indicating-cum-recording mechanism more
or less, the recording tip would trace a path
on the chart which is driven by a chart-drive 16 4
motor, usually a synchronous motor with gear Record pen

Chart drive
arrangement for appropriate speed reduction. 14 6
The outer periphery of the circular chart has the
12 8
time scale, a full rotation usually indicating 24 10
hours. The resolution along the circular scale
Chart positioning stud
length is generally non-uniform and the chart
runs only for short periods as mentioned. Chart Fig. 11.17 Scheme of a circular chart recorder
diameter is generally limited to 25 cm. Some
measuring elements where the output movement is small, a link-lever assembly is incorporated by which a
magnification can also be obtained. The tip motion of the measuring element is transferred to the recording
tip by a set of links and a lever.
There is a variety of recorders that uses drum or cylindrical type chart. They are used mostly as
laboratory instruments.
For a strip-chart recorder, the transducer signal, usually in the form of a voltage available directly or
converted, is put to a null-balance circuit discussed in an earlier chapter. The general class of such a system
for recording with protection against oscillation is shown in Fig. 11.18. The tachogenerator is incorporated
for damping and the critical damping is set by this control. The reproducibility of recording is determined
by the constancy of the bridge supply.
Mechanical
coupling
Constant
current
supply
TG
M
DV
Vin P
Fig. 11.18 Scheme of the potentiometric recorder

The basic principle of a potentiometric compensating recorder is that the detector signal is opposed by
a standard reference signal obtained across a potentiometer. The difference signal is chopped and amplified
by a factor of about 105 to 107 before feeding it to an induction servomotor which adjusts the potentiometer
wiper to change the reference so that the wiper position can give a direct measure of the signal to be
recorded. The wiper is coupled to a pen roving over a strip chart. The recorder sensitivity, the source
resistance, the damping and interference signals determine the true recording of the variable. Sensitivity
is dependent on the measuring range, resolution of the potentiometer and sensitivity of the servo-amplifier.
At the null condition, the effect of the source resistance is negligible. However, the maximum permissible
source resistance can be calculated from a knowledge of the balancing circuit parameters. If the balancing
potentiometer is fed from a current source, the voltage developed at its tapping is independent of the
supply voltage. Let the servo-amplifying pick-up voltage be Vp, the reference voltage VR and the signal or
source voltage Vs with the source resistance Rs. Let the input resistance of the servo-amplifier be Rp and the
reference or compensator resistance RR. The schematic view is shown in Fig. 11.19(a) and its equivalent
in Fig. 11.19(b). If the circuit current is i and the full-scale voltage of the recorder is Vm and the dead
zone is d% of this voltage which occurs due to the limited gain of the servo-amplifier, then instead of full
compensation, i.e., Vmd = Vs, one can have
VR ~ Vs = 0.01Vmd (11.1)
Also from Fig. 11.19(b)
i(RR + Rs + Rp) = VR – Vs = 0.01Vmd (11.2)
but Vp = iRp, so that
Rs = 0.01VmRpd/Vp– (RR + Rp) (11.3)
Vm
VR RR
VR
Vp i Vp
Rp
Servo ampl. Rs
Rs Vs Vs
Rp
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.19 Null-balance scheme of the recorder, (a) the circut scheme, (b) equivalent circuit
The uncertainty, however, prevails in the value of RR as it varies with the changing value of the
measurand for obtaining balance. For calculating Rs, RR is taken as the midvalue of the potentiometer
resistance. When the damping is controlled by the tachogenerator, this also minimizes the stepping action.
The interference signal comes mainly from ac source and is known as hums—its value may vary from a
few mV to a few volts. Filters are used to eliminate or minimize this.
The response time of the recorder which is the time needed to move the carriage through chart width, is
also affected by source resistance. The acceleration and deceleration give nonuniform speed of the carriage
over the span. At the extreme ends of the chart either the signal itself is too low or the change is small and
matching of the source with the recorder is necessary for proper ‘linear’ scale. Figure 11.20 shows the end
scale indications.
a'
Chart top
Chart zero
a Time constant
Fig. 11.20 Indication of error at the top and bottom of chart
Example 11.1 Let Vm= 10 mv, d = 0.1%, Vp = 1 mV, Rp = 10 K ohm and RR vary from 0 to 2 kohm. Obtain the
maximum source resistance.
Solution Rs = (0.01(10 ¥ 10–3 ¥ 10 ¥ 103)/10–6) ¥ 0.1 – (2 ¥ 103/2 + 10 ¥ 103) = 89 ¥ 103 ohms
As mentioned, interfering signals like the ac from the supply may be superposed with the measurand
dc or either an ac or a dc between the ground and the two input terminals may be affecting the recording.
These voltages should thus be made negligible in comparison with the measured voltages. By analogy these
are expressed in terms of series mode rejection and common mode rejection ratio respectively. Expressing
in terms of scale lengths, the same may be specified. Thus, for a 0.1% error in a recorder in terms of scale
length, a rejection ratio would be 1/0.1% : 1, i.e., 100 : 1.
The wiper on the linear potentiometer P in Fig. 11.18 or the wiper driven by the servo is designed
to carry the recording pen with the help of a carriage provided for the purpose. The whole system
is then driven by a string-and-pulley drive from the servomotor. A schematic of the system is shown in
Fig. 11.21(a).
Strip charts have the advantage of a long-period run, a chart length of 35 to 40 cm is quite common and
almost 90% of the 30 cm chart width is usable whereas in circular charts the utility percentage is only about
50. Chart speeds in stripchart recorders are altered by easy lever actions, i.e., changing gear ratios from
10 mm/hr to more than 70 mm/sec in several steps. The chart is in rectilinear coordinates and hence chart
resolution as such may be uniform.
For low-power chart drives, mechanical clocks may be used particularly for portable field survey jobs
like meteorological data recording. In early years, where electric drive were not permitted or prohibitive
and mechanical means were inconvenient, pneumatic air-jet drives were used which have mostly been
replaced by sealed electric drive units. In the majority of industrial cases, chart drive is provided by
2-4 W self-starting synchronous ac motors which are provided with life-time lubrication means through
sealed enclosures. In strip chart recorders, the arrangements of chart movement are varying. Basically the
drive motor with speed changing gears drives the drive roll of the chart which contains the guide pins or
sprockets to engage the chart holes. The rewind roll is also driven through the drive roll by spring-belt
or what is known as flexible coupling. With the increase of the diameter of the rewind roll, the friction
increases and the linear speed tends to change which is taken care of by the flexible coupling. The scheme
of the system is partly shown in Fig. 11.21(b).
DV Servomotor
Sprocket Drive roll
Pulley
Flexible
coupling
Rewind
roll
Chart
drive
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.21 (a) Details of the recording part of Fig. 11.18, (b) the chart and its drive
In recent years, microprocessor-based high speed recorders have been developed which can take up to 30
analogue signals, convert them to digital forms and print them as dot traces as also provide digital display.
These may be termed as hybrid recorders.
11.3.1 X-Y Recorders

When a variable is to be recorded not on time reference scale but against another variable, as in
polarography, so that y = f (x) the pen of the writing-head is controlled by a duel servo-drive system. The
pen has, in that case, two degrees of freedom of movement on a chart held fixed in position on a flat bed by
electrostatic attraction or vacuum. The chart paper is A3 or A4 size. Some X-Y recorders are provided with
a ramp voltage generator which can be applied to any one of the above inputs of the servos as a time base
and the recorder then acts as an X-t recorder. The basic schematic of an X-Y recorder is shown in Fig. 11.22.
Block 1 is a FET-input amplifier block, block 2 is a polarity-check unit cum inverter where calibration,
gain and zero-setting are also done. Block 3 is a summer with signals coming from the pen movement in
position form and velocity form for compensation, block 4 is a power amplifier with appropriate safety and
protection gadgets. The sensitivity in the two axes is independently adjustable usually in steps. The X and Y
inputs can have ranges from 0.25 mV/cm to 10 V/cm with a dead zone of 0.1 per cent FS. X-Y recorders are
often provided with separate pen-lift, sweep start, reset and chart-hold circuits.
X 1 2 3 4
Pen
Y 1 2 3 4
Fig. 11.22 The basic scheme of an X–Y recorder

Digital X-Y plotters are also available now where the feedback servodrives are replaced by open-loop
stepper motor drives. Provisions are kept for communication with such recorders via IEEE 488 or RS232
interfaces. Such provisions include (i) simultaneous sampling of a number of input channels and storage
of the input data, (ii) a number of trigger modes, (iii) multipen plotting, and (iv) coordinating the data with
date, time and channel marks etc.
Digital printers are now increasingly used as peripheral equipment in computer stations. They are of a
few kinds; (i) serial/line, (ii) dot matrix/whole character, and (iii) impact/nonimpact.
A serial printer produces a single character at a time in a line moving from left to right and in some cases
also from right to left of the page being printed up to about about 200 characters per sec. In comparison, a
line printer prints a full line at a time up to about 4000 lines per min.
Dot matrix printing follows the same techniques as the dot-matrix display system where selective
printing of dots is done in a row or column while in the whole character printing, the entire character is
printed at a time.
In impact printers the character element makes an impact on the paper through an inked ribbon while in
the non-impact type use is made of the electrophotographic, as in xerographic or laser printing as also ink-
jet or electrostatic techniques where impact is either absent or minimal. The last mentioned printers have
high speed—about 45000 line per min can be easily printed. In fact, in recent years laser printers are being
used at a large scale because of high resolution and quiet operation besides high speed, in spite of higher
cost.
11.3.2 Magnetic Recording

Magnetic recording and reproducing units are used in many equipment like tape-recorders, computers etc.
A magnetic recorder can record a voltage, store it as long as wanted and this record can be reproduced any
time electrically without being erased in the process so that it can be ‘played-back’ as many times as is
needed. The recording can be direct or frequency-modulated, pulse-duration modulated, PCModulated or
any other digitally-modulated form.
The magnetic tape, on which the record is made, is often in the form of powder of ferromagnetic material
oxides coated on a plastic tape. During recording, it is magnetized in relation to the signal that produces a
magnetic field in the recording head. The scheme of Figs 11.23(a) and (b) show how recording and playback
are done using magnetic recording techniques. The basic oscillator (BO) is not always used. When it is not
used, the input is amplified and made to send a current i into the recording head to produce a flux
f = k1i (11.4)
Magnetic
Input A1 recording head A2 Output
B.O.
v
Tape
Record gap Reproduce gap
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.23 The scheme of magnetic recording and display, (a) recording part, (b) the playback part
in a sharply defined gap made in the head and the tape is allowed to pass under it. The ferromagnetic oxide
particles, then, change position to retain a permanent magnetisation proportional to the flux at the gap. For
playback the tape is similarly allowed to pass under the gap of another recording head of identical design
when the magnetic field of the tape induces a voltage in the pick-up head coil which is then amplified and
used as necessary. If the current signal input is
i = io sin wt (11.5)
and the tape speed is v, the intensity of magnetisation would be
m = k2io sin (w x/v) (11.6)
where x is the distance on the tape from the gap. Also, m = k3f. The magnetization variation, because of the
variation in the input and of the tape speed v, has a wavelength 2pv/w. If the input is dc, a constant flux is
generated and in the reproduce head, no induced emf is produced as there is no change in flux.
The oscillator BO usually provides a high
frequency ac bias for improving the linearity of the B
recording process. Figure 11.24 shows the schematic
of the magnetisation curve of the tape showing Bias + Sig.
nonlinearity. Also shown are fields due to the bias and
the bias-cum-signal. Bias has to be sufficiently large.
In fact, the bias field should be about five times the Remanent
magnetism Bias
signal field. The large ac bias allows the material to
have its magnetisation traverse only minor hysteresis H
loops. The signal field in the figure is seen to displace
the minor loop so that the remanent magnetization is
finite and with the major loop having straight linear
Sig. field
sides, the relation between the remanent magnetisation
and signal becomes linear.
As mentioned, the dc signal is not reproduced; in
fact, the lower limit of frequency is usually 100 Hz. Max bias field
The higher frequency is dependent on the highest tape
Fig. 11.24 The magnetisation curve of the tape
speed and gap width. If the magnetisation wavelength
becomes equal to or less than the gap width, the
average magnetisation in the gap becomes zero, so that one must have lm > gap length. A maximum tape
speed of 600 cm/sec and a gap width of 0.0002 cm gives the upper frequency limit as
fmax = w/2p = (600 cm/sec)/0.0002 cm = 3 MHz
Actually in use limit is less than half of this i.e., about 1 MHz. In fact, the gap in the playback head, lg, is
more important. The rms playback voltage Vpb for a sinewave signal of frequency w is given by the relation
Vpb = k4w {sin (wlg/2v)}/(wlg/2v) (11.7)
where k4 is the product of the rms magnetic flux in the tape and the number of the turns of the coil on the
playback head. Equation (11.7) shows that at low frequencies, Vpb is small, rises to a maximum when
(wnlg/2v) = p/2 and falls sharply to zero when wnlg/2v = p. From the last expression the wavelength for zero
pick-up is given as
ln = v/fn = v {2plg/(2pv)} = lg (11.8)
as has already been mentioned. The response characteristics of the record and playback heads are shown in
Figs 11.25(a) and (b) respectively.
Noise
level
m Vpb
i m
1 10 102 103 104 105 1 10 102 103 104 105

f f
(a) (b)
Fig. 11.25 Response characteristics of (a) record, and (b) playback
When recording is to be further improved and response to dc voltage is desired FM-recording is

employed. The basic approach of FM is the same, the signal modulating a carrier, which is used as an input
to the recording head coil. The carrier central frequency is chosen on the basis of the tape speed and a ±40%
deviation of the same is permitted. A list of tape-speed versus mid-carrier frequency is shown in Table 11.3.
As noise is a very important factor this must be given due consideration. At lower frequencies the S/N
ratio should tend to be smaller, a permitted lower value is 40 dB.
Table 11.3 Choice of Carrier Frequency

Tape speed cm/sec Carrier frequency kHz
4.7 1.70
9.4 3.40
18.8 6.75
37.5 13.50
75.0 27.00
150.0 54.00
300.0 108.00
The digital modulation technique that is common in magnetic recording is the PCM technique and the
coding used is often the NRZ type.
Multichannel tape recorders can have up to 14 channels still keeping the instrument portable. The tape
size is about 12 mm. The direct and FM recording-playback techniques discussed are performance wise
compared in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4 Comparison of Performance

Technique Recording frequency band kHZ Input sensitivity Vrms S/N ratio dB
Direct 0.1 to 300 0.1 to 2.5 40
FM dc to 40 0.1 to 10 50
In PCM technique, a data transfer rate of up to 0.48 Mbits/sec is possible in the above instrument.
11.3.3 Galvanometric and CRT Recording

The schemes of galvanometric and CRT recording are similar to their display counterpart except that now
a recording medium with its movement is attached. Thus a typical galvanometric recorder is shown in
Fig. 11.26. The record chart paper is required to be photosensitive.
Micro-galvo
Light source
Mirror
Record mirror
S N
Record lens
Coil Record
chart drive
Fig. 11.26 A typical scheme of the galvanometric recorder
In fact, in CRT recording the arrangement is similar as shown in Fig. 11.27. The recording oscilloscope
is specified in terms of four axes—the conventional x-axis or horizontal time base, y-axis or vertical-
signal axis, the z-axis or spot intensity or blanking and the y¢ axis or the movement recording medium.
Proper choice of the screen phosphor has to be made to match the recording medium. The focusing on the
recording medium is done by a lens system as in a camera or photographic recording or by providing a fibre
optic face plate with which the recording medium is placed in intimate contact. As in CRO, the time base
has a wide range from 2.5 sec/cm to 1 msec/cm and recording speed may then vary from 0.1 to 250 cm/sec.
The picture quality is dependent on the sensitivity of the recording medium, the sharpness of spot as also
bandwidth of z-axis amplifier. These also guide the recording speed to a certain extent. CRT recording is
obviously much faster than galvanometric recording. In fact the latter is 100 to 1000 times slower compared
to the former.
It must be remembered that all types of CRT displays including alphanumeric ones can be recorded on to
an appropriate recording medium.
The fibre optic face plate consists of a few million glass fibres fused together to form a sheet of 5 ¥ 200
mm cross-sectional area. These fibres can effectively transfer the ultraviolet light from the CRT phosphor to
the recording photosensitive paper with the paper in close contact with the face plate. No additional optical
system is necessary in this case.
Y-ampl.
Z-ampl.
Trigger
X-ampl. Timebase
Chart
drive
Fig. 11.27 Scheme of a CRT reocrding arrangement

11.4 ALARM ANNUNCIATION
The abnormal condition that may develop in a process or a system is indicated by means of an audible and/
or visible discrete change to draw attraction of attending personnel. These audible and/or visible change is
known as alarm-display and is generally located in the control room or at other strategic locations where the
attending personnels are constantly present or frequent visitors. Alarm is a plant monitoring device—which,
in particular, monitors equipment safety and smooth production process.
Alarms that are critical requiring prompt action by the operator can be of two types:
(a) Most critical alarm—action required to maintain online unit, protection of important major
equipment, or, personnel safety; visual display is usually red.
(b) Less critical alarm—action required to maintain unit load, not of a complete online system, and
protection of equipment; visual display is usually white.
There are others such as (c) non-critical alarms, (d) status information display, (e) tripping information—
usually necessary for restoring the process. The last three are not normally displayed on control panel visual
annunciators but displayed on a CRT screen with number (e) taken into a hard copy as well.
Each alarm system has a closed/open electric circuit. On generation of a fault in a system, making or
breaking of a contact in that circuit occurs producing the visual/audio display or a sort of announcement of
the fault is made and hence the entire system of alarms generation for a unit/plant is sometimes called the
alarm annunciation system. The alarm, itself, is actuated (i) by the contacts, as mentioned, located within
an instrument such as a magnetic mercury switch arranged with the set pointer, (ii) from transmitter output
such that a change in the transmitter output gives the alarm actuating signal, (iii) by direct-acting actuators
such as pressure switch, level switch etc.
Input to the alarm devices may be N/O-N/C relay contacts, isolated field contacts logic-gate operated
voltages, computer outputs, transmitter outputs—in the ranges of 4-20 mA, 0-5 V, 0-15 V, deviated from a
fixed span, up or down scale.
Finally, a note is appended on the alarm system and annunciator logic where different schemes are now
known for the sequence used in actuating and deactuating the alarm displays. A common sequence is given
here.
In the annunciation system, usually, for a fault generated at any location a visual display occurs in the
form of a flashing red/white light and associated with it a hooter sounds. This is an abnormal condition.
Alarm is acknowledged by the operator by the ‘acknowledge’ push button when the flashing of the light
stops showing a steady glow only and the hooter also stops. It is now tested to see that whether it was
an accidental annunciation or a temporary one. This is done by operating the ‘reset’ push button and then
the ‘test’ push button. If not, the ‘acknowledged’ fault would be rectified and then the ‘reset’ and ‘test’
operations are performed. During the last operations again some visual/audio indications may be made
available if so desired and designed.
It may be emphasized that there are various design philosophies of alarm annunciation systems. In most
of the smaller units digital logic gate based designs using ‘NAND’-gates are common. In recent years
where services of a computer is available software packages have been and are being developed for alarm
annunciation, fault diagnosis and ‘clearing’, and the system may then be christened as ‘automated accident
prevention system’ AAPS.
11.5 DATA LOGGING SYSTEMS
Data loggers or data acquisiton systems are of comparatively recent origin and are gradually being accepted
universally in medium to big plants. It has a microprocessor or computer based control system where the
analogue or digital inputs are received serially after scanning and then processed and sent to storage units or
printed or displayed otherwise. The control system receives control instructions from the front panel, even
programme change etc. can also be implemented this way. The analogue inputs are in the form of voltages
or currents. The control system can also send signals through RS232C/IEEE 488 interface to controllers or
computer for plant level operation. A simplified schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 11.28.
8 9
Alarm Display
1 3 4 6
Analog
inputs Scan ADC MP-based
from control
process
2 5 7 11 10
Digital Scan Front pan Interface Interface
inputs cont.
Remote Record
control tape, CRT,
computer print
Fig. 11.28 Scheme of a simpli ied data logger
Block 1 represents analogue inputs of various process variables like flow, pressure, temperature, strain,
rpm, level, frequency etc., block 3 scans or multiplexes the inputs, usually cyclically, intermittently
or continuously and block 4 is the conversion block; block 2 represents digital inputs, if any, which are
scanned by block 5 and all such inputs are then allowed into block 6, the microprocessor control system
which is controlled from the front panel and the functions performed are (i) scanning, (ii) linearization,
(iii) temperature compensation, (iv) setting alarm units and limits, (v) averaging of data, (vi) providing
engineering units etc. This system is connected bilaterally with the interfaces mentioned for remote control
as shown by block 11. Block 8 shows the alarm annunciating unit and block 9 the display units. Block
10 shows the interfacing of the recorders/printers/teletypewriters or the computer terminals. It must be
pointed out that the logger is backed up by battery for emergency power failure and it is capable of being
in communication with other systems via the interfaces as shown by blocks 10 and 11. Programming in
the main frame for control via the front panel can be done and this may be menudriven or any high level
language can be used.
It should be noted that the larger systems may dispense with the microprocessor and utilizes the services
of a computer, often on a time-sharing basis. Commercial loggers are equipped with logging software which
have different categories. As mentioned earlier programming is done in the system for logging—this is
necessary for type-3/level-3 software package which has subroutines for different operational functions. In
level-2 package certain instructions are provided for test, print and other specifications or even for operation
of certain switches as in alarm annunciation. Level-1 package is a menudriven package, as mentioned
already, allowing the system to log data as soon as it is commissioned.
Review Questions
1. What are the different types of illumination writing in such a recorder? How does a strip-
display? chart recorder differ from a circular chart
Describe the function of a plasma panel as a recorder?
display board with appropriate diagrams. 7. What are the essential differences between
2. How liquid crystals are used as display units? a strip chart recorder and an X–Y recorder?
What types of material are suitable for the Explain the operation of an X-Y recorder with
purpose? block diagrams.
3. Make comparative study of different CRT 8. What are the essential components of a
phosphor characteristics indicating usage. How magnetic recording and reproducing system?
alpha-numeric data are displayed in dot-matrix Why, sometimes, a modulation is used in such a
pattern? Explain with diagrams. recorder? Why is the gap in the playback head so
4. What techniques are used in non-digital storage important in determining the speed limit of such
scopes for data storage? What are writing guns a recording system?
and a lood gun? Explain the different modes of 9. What are most critical and less critical alarms?
storage in such scopes. Describe brie ly an alarm annunciation system
5. Describe the operation of a digital storage as used in practice?
oscilloscope. What are the different modes of 10. Describe the block schematic diagram of a data
display with such scope? logging system or data logger and explain its
6. Describe the working principle of a strip-chart operation.
recorder. What different techniques are used in
Power Plant Instruments
12.1 INTRODUCTION
A typical plant/process would have demands on measurement of a

number of variables spread out over the plant; each variable, in turn,
may be required to be measured at several points. Besides, many of
these variables may have to be controlled as well.
For a plant with a typical produce has to be considered on the
following counts for its instrumentation:
(i) profitability with respect to the product,
12
(ii) operational safety, and
(iii) environmental protection.
Chapter Each count has its subdivisions. A typical example of power
plant has its product output as energy/power, it should be produced
in such a quantity and made available to the consumer in such
a way that profitability becomes optimum. Plant operational safety has to be ensured by regulation and
this needs alarm system, auto-corrective or auto-stop equipment, besides, other critical variable monitoring
systems. Environmental protection systems or methods also need many types of protecting gears and
instrumentations which are often different in different areas of the plant depending on the type of ‘pollution’
it creates. One important aspect to be noted here is that the loss in energy conversion process is mainly
manifested as pollution and hence one way of reducing it is to make the conversion process more efficient.
In any case the above factors connote careful design and optimum plant management. This, in turn, would
involve collection of huge quantity of information and data, processing of these collected informations in a
reasonably low time enabling one to take appropriate decisions and actions. This entire task is often taken
up by control and instrumentation or simply Instrumentation system which has the following functions to
perform:
(a) measurement, (b) control, (c) operation, (d) monitoring, and (e) protection.
Each of the above functions has its own subdivisions, again, on functional basis such as a measurement
system has (i) the sensor parts, and (ii) the signal conditioning units, the control systems have (i) the
manual, (ii) the open loop systems, and (iii) the closed loop ones or, (i) the single loop units, and (ii) the
multiloop units; the operation involving (i) the start up, (ii) routine running, and (iii) shut down; monitoring
of (i) the different units on cycle basis, and (ii) the entire plant as an entity, protection leading to adoption
of (i) safety measures, and (ii) ecofriendliness.
It would, however, be observed that for all these functions to be essentially successful, appropriate
sensing and signal processing turns out to be the starting point. Sensors are installed closest to the process
and a centralized operation and maintenance necessitates transmission of these available sensor outputs,
preferably, in converted electrical form.
Power Plant Instruments 521
For all plants and processes including power plants, the measurement system needs be designed so that
(i) the measurement is very accurate and accuracy specification has to be assigned; (ii) reliability should
be ensured, again with assigned specification; (iii) measuring time, called delays, should be as small as
possible, effectively making the ‘block’ a zero-order system; (iv) redundancy is kept particularly for critical
cases where plant equipment failure or faulty operation may lead to hazards on counts of safety, pollution
level, plant shut down etc.; (v) signal conditioning matches the overall instrumentation system or the
‘loop’ concerned; (vi) it helps to switch on to manual operation when a block or overall control system has
recorded a failure; and so on.
12.2 THE POWER PLANT SCHEME

Majority of the power plants in our country, till today, are thermal, i.e., heat generated by burning, mainly,
coal produces steam in a boiler and this steam at high temperature and pressure is used to run a turbine-
generator set. Heat can also be generated using nuclear fuel when the plants are termed nuclear power
plants. The other most important variety is the hydel power plant.
It is proposed here to concentrate mainly on the thermal power plants. A typical power plant cycle is
shown in Fig. 12.1. It would be noticed that the power plant cycle itself is subdivided into a number of
subcycles each of which has its own control-instrumentation system and simultaneously interacting with the
other cycles. The broadly classified cycles of this category are (i) water cycle that includes the condensation,
make up, demineralisation, heating and deaeration, feed pump and economizer, (ii) combustion cycle
consisting of economizer, boiler, superheaters, and (iii) steam cycle with boiler, superheaters and turbines.
Transmission
Super HP IP and LP and distribution
Gen.
heaters turbine turbine system
Cooling
Boiler Reheater tower
Condenser
Economizer
Make-up
HP heaters water
Deminer-
alisation
Feed De- LP Cond. plant
pump aerators heaters pump
Fig. 12.1 Scheme of a typical power plant cycle
Each cycle has its varied measurement demands. With a generalised approach of demands in a power
plant cycle, a classification of the measurements involved may be made as follows:
(i) Pressure, (ii) temperature, (iii) flow, (iv) level, (v) vibration, (vi) expansion/contraction, and (vii)
analysis of (a) water, (b) steam, and (c) flue gas. These measurements would then be utilized in (a) process
monitoring and operation, (b) control of loops, (c) alarm annunciation, (d) protection and safety ensurity,
and (e) economic budgeting.
Before taking the complete power plant cycle and listing the instruments and their locations, it is
perhaps more appropriate to consider individual cycle as mentioned or individual units of the complete set
(plant) and mark the location, parameter to be measured and type of instrument to be chosen. Most of the
instruments that would be required are already described in earlier chapters.
A typical combustion system for boilers is shown in Fig. 12.2 in which the measurements needed are
apparently seen as (i) air flow, air temperature and air pressure of which pressure may be considered to be
somewhat redundant; (ii) fuel (a) oil flow and temperature, (b) pulverized coal feed (flow) rate; (iii) feedwater
flow rate, feedwater temperature; (iv) steam flow rate, steam pressure and steam temperature; (v) stack gas
quality (a) oxygen, (b) carbon dioxide, (c) sulphur dioxide, (d) nitrogen oxides, and (e) dust concentration.
Steam
Feedwater
Stack gas
Fuel
(coal)
Combustion
Heat
transfer
Air
Oil
Fig. 12.2 A typical combustion system of a boiler
Obviously, water, steam, combustion cycles as shown here are only part of full cycles and complete set
of instruments should also include the rest of the cycles in the plant.
In a typical coal-fired thermal power plant of, say, 500 MW capacity, the locations/points of
measurement, approximate number of sensor elements, types of variables and types of sensors are given in
Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Measurement points and variables in a thermal power plant
Variables/ Measuring locations/points Types of sensors/ Approximate
parameters instruments number in the plant
1. Pressure (a) Boiler drum Bourdon tube, diaphragm
(b) Turbine: 1st and 2nd stages
(c) Turbine throttle
(d) Primary airline (header)
(e) Deaerator
} capsule, bellows elements,
all associated with
transmitters
Diaphragm-capacitor
375 – 400
(f) Furnace transmitter. Bell gauges

(Contd)
Table 12.1 (Contd)

2. Temperature (a) Steam at mains superheater
inlet and outlet Thermocouple
High pressure bypass steam
}
(b) Auxiliary steam (header)
(c) Feedwater at economiser inlet
point RTD
(d) Water at condenser inlet
(e) Deaerator
(f) Air preheaters 700 – 750
(g) Primary and secondary air
(h) Flue-gas superheater
(i) Flue-gas reheater
(j) Bearings of turbine and
generator
(k) Bearings of FD, ID fans boiler
} Thermocouple
RTD
feedpumps, condensate
pumps, various mills
3. Flow (a) High pressure steam Orifice, venture
(b) Feed-water inlet Flow-nozzle, rotameter etc.
(c) Condensate 75–100
(d) Heater drain lines
(e) Primary and Secondary air
4. Level (a) Boiler drum Differential pressure
(b) Condensate tanks methods, float type
(c) Deaerators indicators/transmitters 75–100
(d) Heaters (waterline)
5. Vibration (a) Bearings and shafts of ID, FD,
PA fans, boiler feed pumps,
condensate pumps } (a) Proof-mass-spring
system combined with
reluctance technique is
common
(b) Turbine and generator shaft (b) Mass-spring with 30–50
and bearings shells and casings potentiometric,
capacitive, eddy-current
piezoelectric and optical
types are also used
(c) Fibre-optic techniques
in critical points such
as stator core teeth in
turbogenerators
(Contd)
Table 12.1 (Contd)

6. Expansion (a) Turbine shaft Relative displacement
(b) Turbine casing combined with reluctance or
(c) Heated lines (often not inductance change pick-up 6–8
measured but compensation
is in-built in horse-shoe form)
7. Analysis
(a) Steam
(i) Conductivity (a) Satuarated steam
(ii) Silica
(iii) Sodium
(b) Mainline steam
(a) Main steam
} Conductivity cell and meter
Silica analyser
Sodium analyser
4–6
1–2
1–2
(a) Superheater inlet
(b) Water
(i) Conductivity (a) Make-up water Conductivity cell with meter
(b) Feedwater at economiser inlet 8 – 12
(c) Boiler feedpump inlet
(d) Boiler drum
(e) Condenser
(f) Condensate pump discharge
(ii) Silica (a) Feedwater at economiser inlet Silica analyser 3–4
(b) Boiler drum
(c) Condensate pump outlet
(iii) Sodium (a) Condensate
(b) Make-up water
(c) Demineraliser unit outlet Sodium analyser 3–4
(iv) pH (a) Feedwater economiser
(b) Boiler drum pH meter 2–4
(v) Dissolve (a) Boiler feed pump inlet
oxygen (DO) (b) Condensate pump inlet DO analyser 2–4
(vi) Turbidity (a) Condenser outlet Turbidity meter
Optical method 1–2
(vii) Hydrazine (a) Economiser Hydrazine analyser 1–2
(c) Flue gas
(i) Oxygen (a) Gas duct: economiser to air heater Oxygen analyser zirconia cell 2–4
(ii) CO2 (a) Air heaters inlet and outlet CO2 analyser 2–4
(iii) CO (a) Stack CO analyser: IR method 2–4
(iv) SO2 (a) Stack SO2 analyser IR method 1–2
(v) Nitrogen (a) Stack N-oxide analysers 1–2
oxides
(vi) Dust concen- (a) Stack Optical method 2–3
tration
While most of the types of sensors/instruments have been discussed over the previous chapters of the text,
some aspects of measurement and instrumentation should be considered with annotation for specific references.
12.3 PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, FLOW AND LEVEL
Pressure, temperature and flow are the three most extensively measured variables in power plants. In fact,
pressure range varies from vacuum as in furnace to a very high value of 200 Mpa at the main steamline.
Often the pressure considered as the differential pressure with atmospheric pressure as the reference
pressure is sensed and transmitted by differential pressure transmitter where capacitor type has become
almost universal. This system is now being built as silicon technology based microsensor system where the
signal processing parts are also in-built.
As mentioned, thermocouples and RTD’s are extensively used in power plant practice. The lower range
temperature is covered by RTD’s as indicated in the table. RTD’s have better time stability, a drift of about
+ 01ºC/year is the usual figure but has a slightly more response time than that of the thermocouple. As
thermocouples can be connected in series for increased sensitivity, in power plants for measuring average
temperature over a wider area as in flue-gas stack, primary and secondary air-heaters, parallel use of
thermocouples is also recommended. However, balancing resistors are necessary to avoid undue circulating
current vitiating the performance of the set-up. Any break in any one of the thermocouples does not affect
the measurement. Thermocouples can be differentially connected as well for temperature measurement but
it is conveniently done when the thermocouple characteristics are quite linear in nature. The average and dif-
ference mode connection schemes are shown in Figs 12.3(a) and (b) respectively.
Ref. junctions
J1
J2
To meter
Jn
Balancing
resistors
(a)
M1
J1
M2 To meter
M2
J2 M = Metal
M1
(b)
Fig. 12.3 (a) The scheme of average mode connection of thermocouples,
(b) the difference mode connection scheme
Newer devices are gradually being introduced in P1

different variable sensing. One such is the pressure
sensor using Hall effect. In the scheme simultaneous
account of the temperature variation can be taken. The
scheme is shown in Fig. 12.4. Pressure is measured by
utilising position/proximity type Hall sensor as shown.
The principle has been discussed in an earlier chapter. PM
The additional temperature sensor is utilized to perform HS x
TS
temperature effect compensation.
Hall effect sensor produces a voltage Vp given by
Vp (x) = Rh (Ih/d) B0 exp (1– x/x0) (12.1)
PCB
where B0 = B(x0), the magnetic induction at the sensor due
to the permanent magnet, x0 being the initial value of x, Rh Vp Vt
is the Hall constant, Ih is the Hall sensor control current
and d is the Hall sensor thickness. But with k1 > 0, Fig. 12.4 A scheme of pressure sensing
with simultaneous provision for temperature
x = x0 – k1(p1) (12.2)
compensation
Hence, combining Eqs (12.1) and (12.2),
Vp(x) = Rh (Ih /d) B0 exp (klp1/x0) (12.3a)
= V0 exp (p1/p2) (12.3b)

where, V0 = B0RhIh/d and x0/k1 = p2.
Temperature dependence of Hall effect sensor is
t1
graphically shown in Fig. 12.5. Using the curves the
t0
correction for a particular temperature, corresponding to a
given pressure, can be made.
tn
Transmitters play a very important role in process
industries and nonetheless in power plants. Be the variable a
V (p, t)
pressure, flow, temperature or level, after the basic sensing,
conversion of the available signal into a suitable format to
be transmitted as an information for the automation system
is essential. Transmitters with electrical output, so long, have
been of two types—the two wire type and the four wire type. p
In the former the 4 to 20 mA transformed signal and the
power supply of 24 V dc are on the same set of wires while in Fig. 12.5 Temperature dependence of Hall
the latter they are isolated. effect sensor
Smart transmitters are now available which are basically microprocessor based transmitters providing
digital output for being directly connected to field data bus. The essential elements of a smart transmitter
are shown in Fig. 12.6. Variables are sensed by sensor element S the output of which is amplified by the
amplifier A and further manipulated for making it amenable to be digitally converted by the data converter
D. A typical manipulator or a hardware processor H is the analogue filter often chosen over digital type to
avoid too much of real time processing power. Data conversion should also be supplemented by linearizing,
auto-ranging etc. Next stage is the information processing done by the software processing unit SP. Finally,
the communication processing part is connected to the communication bus. This simple scheme does not
clearly show many more functions such a transmitter has to perform. A practical scheme is shown in block
form in Fig. 12.7 where both analogue 4-20 mA and digital output may be made available and the major
processing unit takes into account of all basic considerations of linearisation, autoranging, engineering
units, diagnostics, communication, span, zero set etc. However, their application has been restricted to a
large extent because of the absence of a universal protocol for digital communication between the field
mounted units and high level automation units supplied by different manufacturers and for this reason the
4-20 mA output is still made available.
A H
SP C
Variables S D
Bus
Fig. 12.6 Showing the essential elements of a smart transmitter
LP BUS
HP
Cap. Prog. EE
Sen. Prog. SM RAM DAC 4-20 mA
PROM PROM
ADC PRO PRO
M M
Temp. Digital
mP Digital
commun.
Lineariser, Ranging,
Engg. units. Diagnostics,
Commun.
Span Zero
Adjust
Fig. 12.7 The practical scheme of smart transmitter
Countries like USA, Germany, UK and France have undertaken to develop protocols of process field bus
and have given names SP 30, Profibus. Eureka and FIP respectively. These projects are maintaining liason
with each other.
To maintain optimum plant efficiency, fuel, air, steam, feedwater flow have to be measured, monitored
and controlled within prescribed limits. Media are different and various sensors, discussed already in
an earlier chapter (6) are used. However, differential pressure method or head type is extremely popular
and extensively used in power plants, and it is known that for employing such methods pressure and
temperature are additionally required to be measured and a correction in density for these variations is done
separately in a ‘computer’. In some units of power plants, flow is measured by measuring pressure, as in the
case of main steam flow which is linearly proportional to the first stage turbine pressure and this pressure is
measured. This is to avoid the permanent pressure loss that occurs in a head flowmeter and which, in turn,
causes reduction in efficiency of the power plant cycle.
Measurement of level in boiler drum is the most important liquid level measurement particularly
because of its condition in terms of pressure, temperature and ebullation. The other units are deaerator
and condenser. Differential pressure method is employed in these cases as well with compensation for
density variation made by using a pressure signal by a level correction computer or compensator. Thus the
importance of a differential pressure transmitter is never overemphasized.
12.4 VIBRATION AND EXPANSION
Moving systems with angular or linear movements have, in them, mechanical displacements and vibrations,
and thermal systems have, in them, thermal stress due to thermal expansion and compression leading again
to internal displacements. These movements cause wear, fatigue etc., ultimately causing failures. The
variables such as vibration or expansion should, therefore, be measured and monitored continuously for
plant safety. Monitoring should include processing of these signals, and their utilisation in controlling.
In power plants, moving systems are rotors of turbines or turbogenerator sets which are manufactured in
high-precision balanced condition. Any small unbalance that might still remain would produce vibrations
that are passed on to the casing via the bearings. These vibrations are to be measured for ascertaining the
load conditions on the bearings. Because of high precision balancing, these vibrations are small and are
considered acceptable and running of the system is said to be quiet. Any damage to turbine blades would
cause an abrupt change in these variables. If there is any bearing problem, change in these variables for
worse is gradual. The locations for measuring vibrations are (i) bearing shells, (ii) bearing casings, and
(iii) shaft. Other rotating parts in a power plant where vibration measurement is necessary are pumps and
draught fans. The important pumps are (a) feedwater pump, (b) condensate pump, (c) cooling pump etc.,
and important fans are (a) Induced draft (I.D.), (b) Forced draft (F.D.) and (c) Primary Draft (P.A.).
Vibration measurement techniques have been discussed in Chapter 2. In fact, accelerometers are sensors
that can measure vibration quite satisfactorily. A double integration of the accelerometer output gives the
vibration. The accelerometer of Fig. 2.49(c) is quite convenient for the purpose.
Expansion, as mentioned, is important in thermal systems. Besides steam turbines, the prime movers in
thermal power plants have parts with varying temperatures during run especially during load changes. This
causes relative displacements between the parts and unless these displacements are measured, monitored
and kept under control, accidents are possible. Induction pick-ups are often chosen for measuring these
expansions, because such sensors have high sensitivity. A typical scheme is shown in Fig. 12.8.
R
S Xer
Digital
M1 M2 R.O.
C 4-20
mA
V/I Con
g1 g2
Fig. 12.8 A typical scheme of expansion/contraction monitoring in turbine and other prime movers
Shaft (S) expansion in a turbine occurs because of temperature difference between the HP and IP/LP
sections. In between a ring or disc of magnetic material is accommodated (R). Two measuring coils (M1,
M2) are arranged very close to this ring rigidly fixed to the housing or casing (C) on the two sides of the
ring. Because of relative displacement of the shaft with relative expansion and contraction at different hours
as mentioned, the air gaps (g1, g2) between the ring and the coils change. This change causes changes in
flux linkages between M1 and R and also M2 and R. As the change in the gaps is very small and mounting is
also close, the inductance change that occurs is approximately proportional to the change in the air gaps or
the shaft expansion.
Fibre optical systems can also be used for shaft expansion or vibration measurement using the optical
transducer itself as a proximity sensor. In difficult operating conditions such systems can also transmit the
signal to a safe longer distance without loss of signal strength. Fibre optic techniques have been considered
earlier in Chapter 4. Special reference may be made to the system described in Fig. 4.26.
12.5 ANALYSIS
Presence of impurities in water and steam can reduce efficiency and damage major equipment by
corrosive actions or erosion etc. The equipment on the pathway of water and steam such as pump, boiler,
superheaters, reheaters, turbine blades etc., are the most vulnerable. Impurities appear in a variety of forms
such as salts, alkalies, acids, other minerals, contaminants and dissolved gases. Both in steam and water
common analysis problems are for conductivity, silica and sodium. Direct online measurement for analysis
is often not possible because of the reasons mentioned earlier in Chapter 8. Besides, sampling points,
sample conditioning are important features that go along with analysis which are, in turn, dependent on
process types, size etc.
12.5.1 Conductivity
Its measurement technique has been discussed in detail in an earlier chapter where it has been shown that
its measurement is required to be corrected for temperature as conductivity, basically, is dependent on the
residual salt contents which, in turn, is affected by temperature variation. For power plant water/steam
conductivity, a range of 0–2.5 mS/cm is good enough and accuracy available is usually less than ±1.5% FS.
The important conductivity analysis points are, (a) saturated steam, (b) main steam, (c) make-up water,
(d) condenser, (e) boiler feed pump suction point, (f) feedwater economizer inlet point, (g) condensate
pump discharge point, and (h) boiler drum water.
Sampling, as would be seen, is critical in many cases and frequency of analysis is also different at
different points.
12.5.2 Silica
Silica in steam and water tries to settle in the inner side of the conveying pipe or surfaces of the container or
other equipment coming in contact, in the form of deposit, deteriorating the performance of the equipment
and, in turn, of the generation cycle. Deposition on turbine blades for example, increases the blade weight,
initiates corrosive action; on heat transfer equipment reduces heat transfer efficiency and overall capacity;
and so on.
Silica monitoring is done at specific points in the cycle such as (a) main steam, (b) feedwater at the
economiser inlet point, (c) boiler drum, (d) discharge point of the condensate pump.
The technique of analysis is partly chemical and partly optical although the entire technique can now
be automated. The prepared and measured quantity of sample is taken and reagents like molybdate, amino
acids, sodium citrates are added in measured quantities to obtain specific colours and colorimeters are used
to give the silica in percentage over a precalibrated scale. Accuracy of the measuring system is around ±5%
FS with a resolution of 2 in 1012 parts for a range of 0 to 100 in 1012 parts.
12.5.3 Sodium
Sodium in water or in steam initiates corrosive action with the possible formation of Na2SO4, NaOH and
NaCl. The latter two at high pressure and temperature are known to damage boilers and superheaters by
stress corrosion leading to cracks.
The points of measurement and analysis are typically; (a) at superheater inlet for steam, (b) make up
water, (c) condensate inlet, and (d) output point of the demineralizer.
Sodium contents at points (a) and (c) should be same, if not. it is suspected to be deposited as salt in the
steam cycle and precautionary measures are to be initiated.
The analysis technique is illustrated in Fig. 12.9 and explained as follows. Sample processing involves
making it alkaline to have a pH value larger than 10, done usually by mixing it with air saturated with
ammonia or dusopropylamine. Before that the sample is brought at a specified pressure by the pressure
regulator PR and filtered by filter F. The sample, thus prepared, is passed through a measuring cell
containing electrodes similar to pH measurement, i.e., sodium sensitive glass electrode, NaE and a reference
electrode, RE. Depending upon sodium concentration an emf E is developed given by the familiar relation
E = (RT/F) ln QNa + + K1 (12.4)
To
Meas.
circuit
Na E
RE
M
F
TS
Drain
SV NV FM
Sample PR
Air
Fig. 12.9 A scheme for analysis of sodium
where R = gas constant, F = Faraday constant. T = temperature in K, QNa + = sodium ion concentration and
K1 = a constant. A temperature sensor TS is used to take into account of the changing temperature. In a
well-designed circuit, it can be used for automatic compensation purposes.
The range of such an instrument may vary from 0 – 10 in 1012 parts or 10 – 1000 in 1012 part with a
resolution of 1 in 1013 parts and an accuracy of ± 5% FS.
12.5.4 pH, DO, Turbidity and Hydrazine

Other than conductivity, silica and sodium water in power plant cycle need be checked for acidity (pH),
dissolved oxygen (DO), turbidity arising out of contamination by suspended material and hydrazine
which, in fact, is added from outside to the feedwater for deaeration purpose but the excess of it should be
monitored.
Measurement techniques for pH have been detailed in a previous chapter with sensor and circuits. It is
required to measure pH of (a) make up water, (b) boiler drum water, and (c) feedwater at economiser inlet.
With digital readout techniques direct indication of pH is now possible with a measurement accuracy of
around ±0.5% span.
Oxygen dissolved in water reacts with container or other iron to form iron oxides which initially
form scales, then peels off the surfaces of the containers and finally produce sludge. This is, therefore, a
major cause of corrosion. It is required to be measured at various points of the plant cycle. Two important
locations are (a) feed pump inlet, and (b) condensate pump discharge. It is measured by using the potential
developed across a specially designed electrode pair sensitive to dissolved oxygen. It has also been dis-
cussed in Chapter 8 with some details. Also, oxygen dissolved in water reacts with thallium to form
thallium oxide which in aqueous solution shows good conductivity. Thus when water is passed through a
chamber containing thallium, water acquires increased conductivity at its outlet, it is then concluded that
dissolved oxygen is present in this water and this increased conductivity is a direct measure of the dissolved
oxygen. A scheme that uses the comparison method is shown in Fig. 12.10.
Thallium
chamber
Fig. 12.10 Scheme pertaining to the analysis of dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen analysers have an accuracy of about ±5% FS and a range of 0 to 100 in 1012 parts.
Turbidity develops due to contamination as has already been mentioned and is usually measured at the
outlet of the condensate polishing unit in the entire plant cycle. Because of suspended particles, optical
property of such water changes. The measurement technique, therefore, exploits this property. A light
source of constant intensity I is allowed to be incident on it and pass through. But a part of it is scattered
by the solid particles and allowing for absorption, the transmitted light intensity becomes a measure of the
turbidity when compared with the incident intensity. The intensity is measured by a photocell. The relation
between the power of radiation P0 falling in the sample and radiation P received by the photocell after the
beam traverses the cell of length l is given by
P = P0 exp (– t/l) (12.5)
where t is called turbidity coefficient, or, simply the turbidity, whose value is usually related linearly with
the concentration c of the scattering solid particles so that c = t/k1, or,
ln (P0/P) = k1cl (12.6)
A turbidity meter is similar to a photometer, a double beam type of which is sketched in Fig. 12.11
where a null detection (ND) technique is used and comparison is made between the sample cell (SC) output
via photocell 1 (PC1) and the reference cell output (RC) via photocell 2 (PC2). There is provision for
zero adjustment and scale length adjustment. The scattering is affected both by size of the particles and
the wavelength of incident radiation. For power plant cycle, the size does not substantially change, but, t
changes inversely with wavelength l as given by
BS SC
PC1
RC
ND
PC2
Fig. 12.11 Scheme of a double-beam turbidity analyser
t = k2/l (12.7)
The coefficient t has a value around 4 when particles have sizes significantly smaller than the wavelength
and a value around 2 when they are comparable with the wavelength. For power plant cycle analysis, white
light is used and colour becomes largely unimportant.
It has already been pointed out that the excess of hydrazine, N2H4, that has ben added to feedwater for
deaeration purpose is to be measured and monitored. Usual deaeration is done by steam injection by which
dissolved air is extracted, but this is often not enough for bringing down the DO level to the harmless stage.
Hydrazine is injected at the condensate pump outlet and allowed to react with dissolved oxygen to produce
nitrogen and water. Also, it often combines with iron oxides to form a magnetite layer on the container
surfaces preventing, thereby, further action of oxygen on it. Finally, it makes the water alkaline and thereby
tends to prevent acidic corrosion. Hydrazine is costly and toxic in nature and hence its overuse is to be
prevented. This connotes its measurement.
The measurement technique again involves a cell potential measurement. The cell consists of silver/
silver oxide cathode covered by a porous porcelain tube over which a platinum anode is formed. The cell
potential developed initiates a galvanic action with the following reaction at the anode
N2H4 + 4OH– Æ N2 + 4H2O + 4e– (12.8)
and
4e– + 2Ag2O + 2H2O Æ 4Ag + 4OH– (12.9)
at the cathode. The diffusion rate of hydrazine at the anode is directly proportional to its concentration and
also, the current is limited by this diffusion rate. The basic cell system has a resolution of about 1 in 1012
parts with a range of about 0–200 in 1012 parts—the measurement accuracy is not better than ±4 to ±5% FS.
The cell output is amplified and converted to 4 to 20 mA and/or adapted for digital readout.
12.6 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Flue-gas analysis in power plant practice has acquired predominance in recent years because of two
very important reasons: (i) to ensure complete combustion of fuel for maximum energy conversion and
utilisation, simultaneously, no excess air or dilution should occur, (ii) to ensure non-polluting discharge
from the plant for protecting the environment and to make it ecofriendly.
For the latter, statutory regulations have been imposed and are being enforced for pollution control
down to stipulated level. For this, and for the former purpose various parameters are to be measured and
monitored in the flue-gas such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
oxygen, dust concentration etc. Besides, for reducing nitrogen oxides, ammonia is injected in the flue
gas, or, what is known as denitrification process is initiated. Efficiency of such a process is monitored by
measuring the excess ammonia.
For flue-gas analysis, sample preparation is still more important than in the case of steam or water. The
gas has to be extracted from stack or the flue line at a specific point. Usually, the gas is aspirated often using
a sample-pump and is brought into the condition of analysis by cooling, filtering for particulate matters etc.,
specially for finding the concentration of the various gases. The subject has been discussed to a certain
extent earlier in Chapter 8.
Gases like CO2, CO, nitrogen oxides, specifically NO2, SO2 are analysed by using the nondispersive
spectroscopic method as elaborated earlier. Infrared radiation when passes through a gas sample,
there occurs absorption of wavelength bands which are molecular-specific in nature. Thus for a specific
gas, specific bands are absorbed and the amount of absorption of that/those bands is proportional to the
concentration of the gas in the sample. The comparison method with a reference cell and a measuring cell
is generally used in the technique. The radiation is chopped and the radiation outputs from the cells are
received by a receiver chamber where a microflow sensor is used to obtain flow pulses whose amplitude
depends on the absorption of radiation, i.e., the gas concentration. For different gases different filters are
used isolating the absorption bands for measurement purposes. A second receiver chamber is often used to
generate a feedback signal and the circuit is designed to increase the selectivity with such a feedback.
Specific schemes of such measurement techniques have been given in Chapter 8. The schematic of a
generalized system is, however, shown in Fig. 12.12. These instruments have an accuracy of about ±1.5 to
±2% FS, and because of microflow detection mechanism its response time is comparatively large coming
up to a value around 5 to 7 seconds.
Source Diaphragm
RC R2
Mod: Chopper
MC R1
Chopper Receiver/
Detector
Fig. 12.12 General scheme of a gas analysis method
Oxygen analysers may be of different types. A few important types have already been discussed in an
earlier chapter. Of these, on line technique using zirconia cell is very common in process industries these
days, and very convenient for oxygen analysis in power plant cycle. As has been discussed already, if both
the sides of such a cell are exposed to different oxygen concentration, an emf develops across it which can
be measured by an appropriate electronic circuit scheme and meter. The emf equation following the Nernst
law is given by
E = (RT/4F) ln {pr (O2)/ps (O2)} + k (12.10)

where pr(O2) is the partial pressure of oxygen in the reference gas, usually air, and ps(O2) is the partial
pressure of oxygen in the sample, k is a cell constant. Thus, the emf developed is proportional to the inverse
logarithm of the partial pressure of oxygen in the sample for a given temperature since pr(O2) = pair (O2)
is constant. It is interesting to note that with lower oxygen concentration, emf has a larger sensitivity.
The cell works only at higher temperature but at constant value and hence it is kept at about 850ºC by a
heater control system. Figure 12.13 shows the basic installation scheme of a zirconia cell with temperature
controller, air set and amplifier-converter.
Duct
Stack
Cell
Piping Flue
Air supply
Wires
Air-set A-C-TC 4-20 mA

P/R
Fig. 12.13 Scheme of installation of zirconia cells
This type of cell can have an approximate linear range from 0 to 10% of oxygen with an accuracy of
±5% and resolution 10-2%.
Dust concentration in flue-gas is not only determined but reduced also by taking appropriate measures.
This is statutory now for avoiding environmental pollution. The measurement is often termed as particulate
measurement and in power plant cycle or elsewhere, the optical method is most popular. The principle, to
a certain extent, is similar to turbidity measurement but instead of scattering, absorption property of dust is
utilised. On one side of the stack a head consisting of a light source and a receiver, such as a photocell, are
mounted. On the diametrically opposite side of the stack a reflector is mounted so that the collimated light
from the source traverses the stack once, gets reflected by the reflector and retraverses the stack to finally
fall on the receiver. The attenuation of light due to dust concentration is measured and on the precalibrated
scale the indication is readily obtained. Figure 12.14 shows a schematic representation of the system. The
range is chosen as per requirement from 0 to 0.1 on the lower side to 1 to 6 on the higher side, the figures
indicating the number per unit volume. Accuracy is within ±2% FS. Provision must be there to keep the
optics clean by draught or wipers.
Dust is trapped by specially designed high voltage electrodes and equipment that are recommended for
clearing dust of all kinds by using such a technique are commercially available and known as electrostatic
precipitator or, in short, ESP. Its efficiency depends on the choice of the types of electrodes, voltage to
generate an electrostatic field which, in turn, are governed by the type of dust, its size, material, moisture
content etc. This system itself forms a separate course of study.
Stack
Receiver 1 Head
Source Reflector
Optically
transparent
windows
Flue
Receiver 2
Fig. 12.14 Scheme of representation of the method of measurement of dust concentration in stacks
Harmful nitrogen oxides such as NO and NO2 emanating from burning fuel is reduced by injecting
ammonia into the stack where reaction takes place in presence of catalysts like titanium dioxide and
vanadium oxide to produce nitrogen and water. Thus,
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 fi 4N2 + 6H2O (12.11)
( cat )
and
6NO2 + 8NH3 fi 7N2 + 12H2O (12.12)
( cat )
Ammonia is always given slightly in excess for complete reduction and the excess ammonia after
denitration is measured for (i) indication of the appropriate reaction taking place as expected, and (ii)
controlling the amount of ammonia to be injected in this so-called selective catalytic reduction process.
Ammonia can absorb certain wavelengths in the IR spectrum and like other gases of importance as
discussed already spectrometric method can be used for its measurement. The gas is extracted from the
stack, made it free of dust by passing through ceramic filters, then made it free of SO2 and SO3 by passing
it through SOx-absorber at a high temperature (≥ 300ºC) to avoid reaction between NH3 and SOx. The gas is
then cooled and passed once again through a fine dust filter and then through splitter to form two channels.
In one channel, the gas free of dust and SOx is passed through a NH3 absorber and a non-return valve and
a pressure regulator into a reference chamber irradiated with infrared light. In the other chamber the gas is
straightaway passed via a non-return valve and a regulator which also is irradiated with IR radiation. The
comparison of the output IR lights in the two cases is made as is done earlier in Fig. 12.12. Figure 12.15
shows the scheme of analysis.
NH3 absorb. NRV PR

Fine
dust
SOx-absorb. filter
CDF Eq. valve

Probe
NRV PR
Temp. ≥ 300
MC
Stack
RC
Fig. 12.15 Scheme of ammonia analyser (CDF ceramic dust ilter, NRV non-return valve,
PR pressure regulator, MC measuring cell, RC reference cell)
The range of such analysers vary from 0 to 10 to 0 to 50 ppm with an accuracy of about ±5% FS.
Review Questions
1. Describe the power plant cycle by drawing a 5. What is hydrazine? Why is it used in water/
schematic diagram of the same and indicate in it system cycle in a power plant? How is it
the positions of measurement of low in the cycle. measured and monitored? What are the points
2. What are the important variables that need be where it is measured?
measured in power plant cycle? Make a list of 6. Describe a sodium analyser. Where is sodium
the same along with the times a variable is to be required to be measured in the cycle? What is, if
measured for a 500 MW plant. any, harmful effect of sodium in the power plant
3. Where are vibrations, expansions and equipment?
contractions to be measured and monitored in 7. Describe the operation of a smart differential
a power plant cycle? What technique is used pressure sensor with block diagram.
usually for expansion-contraction measurement? 8. Describe the scheme of a measurement system of
Do these measurements help in production or dust concentration in ‘stack’ in power plants. What
ensure safety? special precautions are to be taken in its use?
4. List the places in a power plant cycle where 9. How harmful NO, NO2 are eliminated using NH3-
temperature is to be measured alongwith the injection in the ‘stack’. Describe the reactions of
types of transducers to be used in different reduction and the method of analysis of excess
locations. ammonia with diagrams.
Hazard and Safety
13.1 INITIAL CONSIDERATION

In the past it was not uncommon to be informed that such and
such part/portion of a plant was on fire or met with an explosion or
sorts of things like that raising issues of safety. These made people
aware that there are certain factors that need attention in plants
and factories for safe operation. The ‘element of unsafe situation’
is termed as hazard which depends on (i) materials produced and
present because of other reasons, (ii) the possibility of inflammable
13
materials getting the ignition temperature through various sources
including electrical ones.
Safety is ‘established’ by describing the unsafe condition.
Chapter International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has prescribed the
unsafe or hazardous areas as also the classes of hazardous materials.
The locations where concentration of flammable materials may be present are divided into zones:
Zone 0: Hazard probability high, the atmosphere is in explosive range over a long period of time and
required protection against ignition by electrical apparatus.
Zone 1: Hazard probability medium, relaxation in protecting apparatus.
Zone 2: Hazard probability low, maximum relaxation.
However, classification of a hazardous area/location is to an extent relative. The factors that need be
considered should include (i) hazardous material and its quantity which may be released for making the
relation unsafe, (ii) site topography, (iii) construction of the plant including building, and (iv) past history
of explosion and fire.
13.2 ENCLOSURES
Explosion is considered as a very fast-spreading form of fire. Fire from electrical causes is from the supply
side of instrumentation i.e. the entry point of power. Electrical instruments with signal level 4 to 20 mA
has so low operating energy/power level that the possibility of hazard due to power is very less. Power
entry to instruments is now under guidance and surveillance from the state regulations and safety is thereby
ensured.
Safety depends on (i) enclosure design that may prevent short circuit and personnel hazard, (ii) fuses and
circuit breakers which should operate fast in overload condition, (iii) appropriate grounding of all exposed
metallic items.
Enclosures are of different designs. They must allow safety as regards human handling, should not
allow foreign materials to go in or hot materials to come out or sparks to escape in case internal short
circuits occur. In fact stringent requirements are specified by standardizing bodies (agencies) or associations
of manufactures. Two such sets of specifications are in vogue : those established by National Electrical
Manufactures Association (NEMA) (USA) mostly of motors and starters and those by Ingress Protection
(IP) used extensively in the continent.
13.2.1 NEMA Types

NEMA type enclosures are:
Type 1: General purpose—designed for protection against dust, light and indirect splashing although
it is not dust-tight.
Type 2: Drip tight—designed for use where condensation may be severe as in cooling rooms and
places where activities with water are there.
Type 3: Weatherproof—designed for protection against specified hazardous weather condition and
are suitable for outdoor use.
Type 4: Watertight—designed for outdoor application and also for adaptation in dairies, breweries,
ocean/sea vessels etc.
Type 5: Dust tight—designed for use in cement plants, steel mills and such other places.
Type 6: Submersible—designed for use in mines, quarries, manholes with given condition of
pressure with time limits.
Type 7: (A, B, C, D) : For class I hazardous locations.
Type 8: (A, B, C, D) : For class I hazardous locations—oil-immersed variety.
Type 9: (E, F, G) : For class II hazardous locations.
Type 10: Bureau of mines—designed as explosion-proof type enclosure for gassy coal mines.
Type 11: Acid and fume resistant oil immersed types—used in carouser fumes.
Type 12: Industrial use—designed to prevent entry of dust, fibres, flyings, lint and also oil and other
seepages.
Type 13: Oil and dust tight—designed for indoor use only to prevent entry of items as in type 12.
National Electrical Code (NEC) describes classifications of hazardous locations for which two sub-
groups are made : class, group and division are thus considered on which NEMA terminology is based.
Class I: Gas and Vapour type combustible materials (like methane)
Class II: Dust type combustible materials (like carbon)
Class III: Fibre type combustible materials (like textile flynigs)
Groups are subdivisions of classes in which presence of certain specific gases, dusts or fibres are
considered as given below:
Group A: Acetylene
Group B: Hydrogen or vapours of this hazardous category (manufactured gases)
Group C: Ethylene, ethyl ether, cyclopropane
Group D: Gasoline, hexane, benzene, butane, propane, naptha, alcohol, benzol, acetone, solvent vapors
and/or natural gas.
Group E: Dust of aluminium, magnesium and their alloys and other metal dusts of hazardous nature.
Group F: Carbon black, coke dust, coal etc.
Group G: Grain dust, flour, starch etc.
A further subclassification is division which is intended to encode the explosive mixture present in an
atmosphere. Each class (I, II or III) has its divisions like:
Division 1:
(a) Concentrations of flammable gases/vapors exist in hazardous amount—continuously, intermittently
or periodically under normal conditions of operations.
(b) Presence of the above occurs frequently because of leakage or flow in operation and maintenance
(O&M).
Hazards and Safety 539
(c) Release of such gases in ignitable proportion due to breakdown/faulty operation of equipment and
simultaneous failure of electrical equipment.
Division 2:
(a) Volatile flammable gases/vapours handled keeping confined in closed containers but may get
released accidentally due to breakage of container, abnormal operation etc.
(b) Inflammable gases/vapours are normally ventilated out but may get accumulated due to failure of the
ventilating equipment.
(c) Combination of Div. 1(a) and Div. 2 (b)
Divisions for other groups are similarly done with the respective materials.
13.2.2 IP Type
IP type of enclosures are specified with two digit numbers following the alphabets IP as prescribed by
the IEC 60529/2001-2002. The first numeral digit refers to the protection given against said foeign
matters and the second to the protection provided against water penetration. Thus the specification is
IP x y; where x is from 0 to 6 and y is from 0 to 8. By way of example if x is 5 and y is 4 such that the IP
specification is IP54, solid materials meant is dust and water penetration is splash type i.e. splashing water.
Table 13.1 shows the other materials and water penetration types.
Table 13.1 IP Speci ication Terminology: IP xy
x Protected against (Materials) y Protected against (Water penetration)
0 Not protected 0 Not protected
1 Solid objects dia>50 mm 1 Water dripping
2 Solid objects dia>12.5 mm 2 Water dripping, tilting
the enclosure by 15º from
normal position
3 Solid objects dia>2.5 mm 3 Water spraying
4 Solid objects dia>1.0 mm 4 Water splashing
5 Dust 5 Water jets
6 Dust tight 6 Water at high seas
7 Water on immersion
8 Water: Continuous submersion
Two letters A and B after numerals x and y are often quoted, B standing for degree of protection against
operating conditions and A standing for degree of protection for hazardous parts. For specification in the
safety of instrumention these are often omitted.
13.3 INTRINSIC SAFETY

In safety consideration a term ‘intrinsic safety’ is frequently used. It was detected as early as 1913 in
England in a mine explosion that a spark from an electrical (signalling) apparatus was the cause. From
that time onward, it was in the mind of the people that the electrical apparatus themselves must be made
safe—that is ‘intrinsically safe’.
Intrinsic safety is specified by what is called safety triangle. The sides of the triangle are constituted
by (i) combustible material (ii) heat and (iii) oxygen. Figure 13.1 shows the triangle. The central area
is denoted as ‘fire’. When combustible material reaches a concentration that can be explosive—the fire/
explosion may be initiated by (i) the apparatus surface temperature if it exceeds the ignition temperature of
the combustible material (gases) or by (ii) electric spark. An alternative triangular representation is shown
in Fig. 13.2 Here the vertices are assigned the factors of ‘Fire’.
Ignition source/heat
Heat Oxygen
Fuel/ Oxygen/
Combustible Combustible oxidizing
material material agent
Fig. 13.1 Safety triangle Fig. 13.2 Alternative triangle
Thus if an electrical equipment is so designed that it is incapable of acting as a source of ignition as

it would not release electrical or thermal energy greater than or equal to minimum ignition energy of the
explosive ‘atmosphere’ in which it is located, the equipment would be declared intrinsically safe.
Intrinsic safety of an apparatus in an hazardous location is ensured by (i) providing electrical and
mechanical isolation, (ii) limiting voltage and current, and (iii) by providing shunt elements. Electrical
isolation is provided by a transformer—the primary and secondary windings are provided with a
grounded shield which ensures any fault on the primary side to be ground-shielded and the secondary
side potential is kept within the safe limit. Mechanical isolation is basically a spatial isolation and is
provided by encapsulation. Required isolation both for intrinsically safe and nonintrinsically safe circuits
as provided by spatial separation preventing contact between the two. In encapsulation the techniques
of sealing and immersion should also be considered. Explosion-proof or flame-proof enclosures for
electrical equipment are standardized—the table of standards of such sealed housings is given in
Table 13.2.
Table 13.2 Standard of Explosion-proof Housings
Country Standard
USA UL 698
UK BS 5501 pts 1 and 5
Continent CENELEC EN 50014 General
CENELEC EN 50018 (Flame-proof)
Canada CSA C22 .2-30
Voltages are limited using zener diodes which are discussed later. Redundancy is essential in such
protections. Currents are limited by using series resistors of thin film or the wire wound type.
For absorbing the energy that might have been released by inductor or arc to make the system unsafe
shunt elements are used as ‘bypass’ paths containing capacitors, resistors or diodes. For dc circuits diodes
are more common. Redundancy is used in shunt elements as well.
13.4 PREVENTION OF IGNITION
To eliminate the possibility of ignition the source of ignition is removed to a location when there would not
be any combustible material (cf. safety triangle), alternatively, the technique would be to use equipment
and/or circuits etc. which are intrinsically safe.
However, certain plants/processes require that source of ignition be continuously present in location
where there are inflammable materials and explosion-proof housing is the alternative to contain the
explosion/ignition. The alternatives are shown in the charts of Fig. 13.3
Fig. 13.3 Ignition Prevention
The charts show the possible isolation techniques briefly. Ignition source can be isolated by immersion—
oil immersion would prevent the contact between the ignition source and atmosphere. Sand-filled
equipment, though not very common or popular, have their use in the continent. Sealing and encapsulation
are isolation processes as already mentioned.
Another technique of reducing hazards of accummulation of combustible material to the concentration
of the level of ignition/explosion is to have pressurization of instrumentation with inert material such as
generators are cooled by pressurized hydrogen, there are hydrogen annealing furnaces where the presence
of hydrogen is maintained to have its concentration above the limit of explosion. In special processes,
reactors are blanketed with carbon dioxide or nitrogen at a pressure, coal mine galleries and shafts are filled
with rock dust.
Increased safety is a nomenclature which actually means that during the design and manufacturing
stages electrical equipment in general (like transformers, motors, cables etc.) are given more than adequate
ruggedness, insulation reliability, protection against over-temperature which contribute to factors of safety.
Restricted breathing is a technique that uses an enclosure that is tight but has very slow access of
flammable vapours and gases to the source of ignition but building up of the concentration of the material is
delayed enough to prevent explosion.
13.5 METHODS OF PROTECTION
In general the techniques/methods considered have certain aspects in regard to actual safety, cost,
maintenance, flexibility. The ones most important are the (i) intrinsic safety, (ii) purging types (pressurized
and ventilated), and (iii) explosion-proof types. These are somewhat in order for safety. On the counts
mentioned above these are compared in Table 13.3. The ratings are obviously relative. Purging provides
the midpath adaptation when all the counts are considered. This also has different categories as prescribed
by ISA and National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). These categories are X, Y and Z. In type X, an
ignition source is allowed inside the enclosure and as failure of purging may lead to disaster, provision for
immediate tripping is kept there. In type Y, no such source is allowed and failure of purging is indicated by
an audio/visual alarm while in type Z the atmosphere accommodating the equipment is not flammable and
again an audio/visual alarm indication is sufficient.
Table 13.3 Comparison of the Methods
Methods Safety Equipment Installation Adapts into Adaptation
Flexibility in the to
safety operation Maintenance
Intrinsic safety A C A C A
Purging/Ventilation B B B B B
Explosion-proof C A C A C
Classes, groups and divisions mentioned Section 13.2.1 are given protection methods depending on their
specification and application. Protection methods for these are shown in Table 13.4 for ready reference.
Table 13.4 Protection Methods for Classes and Groups
Class I Gr. A, B, C, D Class II Gr. E, F, G Class III
Protection Methods
Div 1 Div 2 Div 1 Div 2 Div 1 Div 2
Instrinsic Safety
Purging Follows NFPA – –
recommodation
Explosion-proof Required NA NA
enclosure for sparking (With no over-heating)
Devices
Dust ignition NA NA NA NA
proof (with no overheating)
Potting – – – –
(With no overheating)
Sealing – – – –
(With no overheating)
Oil immersion Not suitably used for instruments – –
Nonincendive NA
(With ignition-proof) (With no overheating)
13.6 ANALYSIS, EVALUATION AND CONSTRUCTION
The level of energy to cause ignition at a location is not a very well-defined parameter as ignition depends
on specific gas, its concentration, voltage/current, energy storage elements, contact material size and
operational speed. The level varies from 20 mJ for hydrogen to 0.3 mJ for hydrocarbons. Approved testing
agencies in different countries provide charts of components in operation for intrinsic safety—specifically in
component values and minimum igniting currents operated in atmosphere specified by groups listed above.
Testing agencies have their established rules and test procedures. National Fire Protection Association (493-
1978) gives typical evaluation process which is broken down into three parts:
(1) determination of worst possible fault condition by circuit analysis,
(2) retablishing and ensuring a safety margin under condition (1)—this is the main evaluation,
(3) critical components are to be prescribed for maximum reliability—this is related to design and
construction.
In fact the three parts are identified as Analysis (circuit), Evaluation and Construction.
Analysis is basically a review of the circuit—different components—energy level in them, their location
in hazardous area or otherwise etc. It is good to remember that if the supply power enters the hazardous
area, the vulnerability is enhanced. The field circuits are therefore to be specially considered in this situation
and identify the fault conditions.
Evaluation requires a systematic procedure to ascertain whether the fault condition are the ultimate i.e.
possibility of ignition exists. Usually test setups are necessary where a suitable combustible gas with air
is kept as a readily ignitable mixture and the field test of the apparatus is performed there. The circuit is
developed and the circuit components are opened or short-circuited with the help of a pair of contacts which
act as ‘simulated’ broken wire, short-circuiting of a pair of leads and/or such other things. The supply can
be measured for quantities of voltage and/or current and components like capacitance and inductance can
be compared with reference values. The ‘test apparatus’ itself is now standardized.
Construction is a procedure required for prescribing the suitable components in the ‘design and
construction’ as mentioned already. The construction must follow these prescriptions. A component is
chosen by testing it critically. These tests are also prescribed. Obviously the considerations are centered
around field-mounted instruments. Such field-mounted instruments are divided into two categories as far as
hazardous locations are concerned :
(a) Simple apparatus like RTD’s, photocells, LED’s, thermocouple; etc. they donot require approved
certification.
(b) Intrinsically safe apparatus like solenoid valves, transmitters, I/P converters etc. which require
certification with respect to type/class of hazards (in terms of energy levels).
Instruments are connected to associated apparatus through cables across the barriers which may be
passive or isolated for reasons of safety. Again certification are required for such types of circuits which
are designed on the basis of maximum energy level in a particular gas group. A typical intrinsic safety
instrumentation installation scheme is depicted in Fig. 13.4.
Devices which are not intrinsically safe like programmable logic controller (PLC), distributed control
system unit (DCS), indicators, recorders etc. are housed in the control room. Barriers are installed in the
nonhazardous (safe) area to provide the necessary separation between the intrinsically safe devices in
the field and the above ‘nonintrinsically safe’ ones. The barriers also need certification which states their
suitability for installation in particular places. They are required to communicate between the field devices
and the ones in the control room and display the following specification on them:
(a) Maximum open circuit voltage and short circuit current.
(b) Maximum values of energy storage elements : capacitance and inductance etc.
(c) Maximum power transferred.
The mandatory details are available in the IEC regulation schedule.

Fuse is a safety device as are grounding and a zener barrier. Any short circuit or failure of a component
may damage the instrument completely and/or makes the system inoperative till the failed components are
repaired/replaced/restored. The use of ‘undervalued’ fuse is sometimes recommended for protecting the
instrument from such failures.
Barrier
Hazardous Non-hazardous
Area Area
Associated
Apparatus
Simple
Apparatus
Intrinsically
safe Control
Interface Room
Intrinsically
safe apparatus
Fig. 13.4 Intrinsically safe installation
Grounding is one of the most important aspects in installation of instruments and a proper grounding
not only protects the devices but also makes the operation normal and ‘error-free’. It provides safety as the
supply side is also grounded and a fault would thus be identified by fuse blowout. Shock hazards resulting
from sudden rise in flow of current due to fault is largely eliminated because of the process of maintaining
all exposed surfaces at ground potential by adequate grounding technique.
Grounding is usually done by bonding all elements together to form a system which is then terminated
at the ground connection of the supply line or other suitable earth line. The steel structure of the casing/
housing are effectively good grounds.
Grounding helps to conduct leakage current that may be produced due to deterioration of insulation with
time so that potentials on exposed surfaces donot build up. Otherwise ground connection is not supposed to
carry any current.
If grounding is equipotential and dedicated type as is common in many installations and the field
mounted devices are isolated from the ground, zener barries can be used. If the grounding is not
equipotential, galvanic action should be prevented. For grounded field-mounted instruments such adoption
of galvanic isolation is a must, zener barriers are well-accepted isolating devices which are inexpensive and
reliable without requiring power supply unit. But they require equipotential grounding. The intrinsically
safe equipment must be equipotentially grounded at a single well-defined point with an isolated conductor
having specifically low value of resistance (maximum 1 ohm). The unbalanced and balanced schemes of
Zener barries are shown in Figs 13.5(a) and (b) respectively.
Fig. 13.5(a) Unbalanced Scheme
Fig. 13.5(b) Balaced Scheme
Grounding in these barrier systems is very important and is specially considered. Zener diodes and
limiting resistors are used in the barrier which transfer signal to and from the hazardous area to safe area
via isolators (opto or transformer). Duplication of the barrier (one zener one resistor) is done (triplication
is also not uncommon) for adequate protection in case of failure of one set. In Fig. 13.5(a) the maximum
voltage or current would be limited by the zener D1, resistance R2 enables zener D2 to limit the voltage in
the fuse (F1) in the blow-off stage. D2 may have higher rating then D1.
Review Questions
1. How are hazardous locations determined? What 5. What are the different methods of protection
are the different zones classi ied on this basis? regarding actual safety, cost and maintenance?
2. Explain the terms NEMA and IP. What sort Explain and compare the methods.
of speci ications do they make in relation to 6. What are analysis, evaluation and construction
hazards and safety? as suggested by NFPA?
3. (a) What is intrinsic safety? (b) How does a 7. (a) Draw the schematic diagram of an
safety triangle account for safety in conditions intrinsically safe installation and explain the
of hazards? (c) How is intrinsic safety of an technique brie ly.
apparatus ensured in a hazardous location? (b) What is a zener barrier? How does it provide
4. How can ignition be prevented in a hazardous protection in an installation?
area? Explain the techniques of prevention— (c) Draw the balanced scheme of a zener barrier
append a chart for your explanation. protection system and explain its operation.
Appendix
Table 1 Table of density of water and mercury with temperature
Temperature Density
Water Mercury
ºF ºC lbf/ft3 gm/cc lbf/ft3 gm/cc
32 0.0 62.416 1.000000 848.72 13.597
40 4.4 62.424 1.000128 848.04 13.586
50 10.0 62.408 0.99987 847.16 13.572
60 15.5 62.364 0.99916 846.29 13.558
70 21.1 62.300 0.99814 845.42 13.544
80 26.6 62.214 0.99676 844.60 13.530
90 32.3 62.112 0.99512 843.73 13.517
100 37.7 61.991 0.99319 842.92 13.504
110 43.3 61.858 0.99105 842.04 13.489
120 48.9 61.710 0.98868 841.23 13.477
Table 2 Table of low coef icients: ori ice plates

A. Flange taps R: 104 105 106 107
0.1 0.6134 0.6046 0.6036
0.2 0.6104 0.5987 0.5974
0.3 0.6150 0.6018 0.6003
2 in pipe (5.01 cm) 0.4 0.6278 0.6104 0.6090
0.5 0.6521 0.6275 0.6247
0.6 0.6945 0.6558 0.6515
0.7 0.7630 0.7025 0.6959
0.1 0.6118 0.5971 0.5955
0.2 0.6151 0.5970 0.5950
0.3 0.6212 0.6023 0.6002
4 in pipe (10.16 cm) 0.4 0.6343 0.6110 0.6084
0.5 0.6631 0.6271 0.6231
0.6 0.7158 0.6556 0.6490
0.7 0.7985 0.7001 0.6892
0.1 0.5953 0.5922 0.5918
0.2 0.5996 0.5961 0.5957
0.3 0.6039 0.6008 0.6004
8 in pipe (20.32 cm) 0.4 0.6122 0.6085 0.6081
0.5 0.6291 0.6229 0.6223
0.6 0.6600 0.6483 0.6471
0.7 0.7110 0.6906 0.6885
Appendix 547
B. pipe tape R: 104 105 106 107

0.1 0.6172 0.6070 0.6057
0.2 0.6291 0.6143 0.6126
0.3 0.6565 0.6379 0.6358
2 in pipe (5.01) cm 0.4 0.7003 0.6752 0.6725
0.5 0.7724 0.7347 0.7306
0.6 0.8909 0.8301 0.8243
0.7 1.0881 0.9868 0.9757
0.1 0.6181 0.6027 0.6010
0.2 0.6326 0.6128 0.6106
0.3 0.6591 0.6372 0.6347
4 in pipe (10.16 cm) 0.4 0.7035 0.6754 0.6723
0.5 0.7815 0.7357 0.7305
0.6 0.9129 0.8316 0.8227
0.7 1.1344 0.9887 0.9725
0.1 0.6011 0.5985 0.5982
0.2 0.6130 0.6100 0.6096
0.3 0.6373 0.6344 0.6341
8 in pipe (20.32 cm) 0.4 0.6760 0.6725 0.6721
0.5 0.7375 0.7312 0.7306
0.6 0.8360 0.8235 0.8223
0.7 0.9971 0.9710 0.9708
Table 3 Table of discharge coef icients: venturi

Pipe ¥ throat R: 104 105 106 107
1 in ¥ 1 in (2.54 cm ¥ 1.27cm) 0.9460 0.9720 0.9725
2
2 in ¥ 1 in (5.08 cm ¥ 2.54 cm) 0.9485 0.9750 0.9755
4 in ¥ 2 in (10.16 cm ¥ 5.01 cm) 0.9500 0.9800 0.9805
8 in ¥ 4 in (20.32 cm ¥ 10.16cm) 0.9820 0.9850 0.9852
16 in ¥ 8 in (40.64 cm ¥ 20.32 cm) 0.9825 0.9860 0.9862
For elaborate tables and data charts following publications are recommended:
Bridgeman, P.W., The Thermodynamics of Electrical Phenomena in Metals, Dover, 1970.
Clarke, S.P., Handbook of Physical Constants, Geological Survey of America, 1966.
Considine D.M., Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, McGraw Hill, New York, 1988.
Hodgman, CD., Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, The Chemical Rubber Publishing Company, Ohio,
1962.
Keenan, J.H. and Keys, F.G., Thermodynamic Properties of Steam, John Wiley, New York, 1967.
Liptak, B.G., Instrument Engineers Handbook, Vol. I, CRC Press, 2003.
PID Symbols
In the design, installation and operational stages, instrumentation systems with respect to processes are
represented by piping and instrumentation diagrams (PID) for which a set of symbols is essential. A few
useful symbols are listed below for convenience.
Class I: INSTRUMENTS Class II: OTHERS, ACTUATORS, VALVES etc.
Locally mounted Pneumatic control valve
Electrically operated
At control centre
control valve
Bifunctional or Hydraulically operated

two services control valve
Self-contained controller
Transmitting type
(i.e., with actuator)
Safety valve
Class II: OTHERS, ACTUATORS, VALVES etc.

Orifice installed line Pneumatic line
Process lines Capillary line
Point of measurement Hydraulic line
Sonic or other frequency line

Fluid pressure lines
(with or without wire)
Electric lines Undefined signal line
Specifications are necessary for identification of the instrument. At a particular point, pressure is
measured giving an indication or making records and controlled at the same time. Instead of using two
symbols and various identification marks, the same symbol may be used with enclosed identification
letters. Capital letters are used for such specifications and a maximum of three letters may be used. The first
indicating the variable, the second indicates the type of instrumentation such as indication (I) or record (R)
and the third is used for auxiliary functions like record (R) or control (C). There are exceptions depending
on the types of instrumentation and process. For multipoint instruments, numerical suffixes are used. When
a particular variable is instrumented at different points, numerical figures are used to mark the positions
from the starting side of the process. The example below clarifies the above discussion.
The instrument is a pressure recorder and controller. It is a 3-point instrument and the
PRC3
actual location is at mark 2 which means there are more of this type of instrument.
2
(However suffix 3 and mark 2 generally do not come together).
An arbitrary simple process instrumentation diagram is shown in Fig. A-1. The gauge glass is connected
to the tank via two stop cocks. LG stands for level gauge, LR for level record and FRC for flow record and
control.
It is, however, unfortunate that till today symbolic representation could not be made universally
acceptable standard in form. However, general forms are briefly given above, as mentioned variations in
representation do exist and such variations are often resorted to for incorporating special functions and for
compact representation. Boiler control representation (see Principles of Process Control, TMH, by the same
author) is an example in point.
Appendix 549
Fig. A.1 A simple instrument diagram

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Index
A Bellows element 129 Combination electrode 361
Bevel protractor 112 Combustion system 522
AAPS 517 Bias 25, 514 Comparator 102
Absorptivity 377 Bibliography 550 electrical 107
Accelerometers 84 Bicolour magnetic wafers 277 optical 103
Accuracy 3, 25 Bimetal thermometer 171 pneumatic 104
Acoustic intensity 166 Blue tooth 492 Compound lever 67
Acoustic Interfermeter 220 Boiler drum level 302, 528 Conductance probe 291
Activity coefficient 365 Bolometer 211 Conductivity 364, 529
AD Converter 462 Boltzman distribution 220 Consistency 401
counter type 463 Bourdon tube 124, 172 Coriolis force 239, 240
Air purge level gange 282 Breathing 541 Critical edge 417
Alarm 517 Bridge flowmeter 243 CRO 504
annunciation 517 Buffer solution 360 Cross-coil detector 432
Alphanumeric 503, 516 Buoyancy effect density Cross section ionization 426
Alphatron 151 gauge 395 Cross sensitivity 46, 81
Ambient effect 176 Crystal monochromator 405
Ammonia 535 Curie’s law 316, 318
Amperometric 325 C
Curve fitting 29
Analysis 306, 524, 529, 543 Calibration, dynamic 14
Analytical balance 65 Caliper 97
Angle 112 D
Capacitance gauge 57, 138
Annubar flowmeter 233 Capacitance level gauge 292 D-A Converter 465
Annunciator logic 518 Capacitive pressure Dahl Tube 229
Appendix 546 transmitter 158 Data logger 5 17
Area flowmeters 235 Capillary column 420 DCDT 57
ARQ 495 Catastrophic failure 34 Deadweight tester 127
ASCII 482, 503 CDM 494 Deformation sensitivity 44
Atomic absorption 386 Characteristics, transfer 2 Density measurement 393
Atomic emission 388 dynamic 5 Deviation, mean 22
Atomic spectroscopy 382 input/output 2 standard 22
Atomizer static 2 Dew Cell 346
electrothermal 383 Charge sensitivity 60 Dew point 342, 347
flame 383 Chart drive 511 Dial gauge 102
Chemilumenescence 339 Diaphragm 127
B Chemiresistors 341 slack 127, 129
Chi-squared test 27 box 283
Backlash 98 Chromatography 419 Differential pulse 372
Band-limited signals 481 Chromophore 376 Diffraction spectroscopy 418
Barometric effect 176 Cladding 301 Digital instrument 466
Barriers 543 Clark cell 325 Digital transducers 445
Base length 44 Clinometer 114 Diode sensor 194
Bayard-Alpert type 149 Cold cathode type 150 Dipstick 202, 282
Beer’s Law 338 Cold junction compensation 202 optical 299
Bell gauge 132 Colorimeters 377 Dirichlet’s condition 13
Index 557
Disc type encoder 446 loading 19 G

Displacement 13 operational 17
Displacer element 279 precision 23 Gas analysers 308
Dispersive spectrometer 331 radiation 176 Gas expansion thermometer 174
Dissolved oxygen random 25 Gateway 491
analysis 358, 531 statistical 21 Gauge blocks 98
Doppler flowmeter 456 systematic 25 Gauge factor 44
phenomenon 219 Ethernet 492 Gauge glass technique 274
Double focussing type 436 Expansion factor, rational 225 Gauge pressure 120
Double pass 313 Expansion, shaft 528 Geiger Muller Counter 300, 407,
D/P transmitter 156 410
External estimate 23
Dr. Beck’s method 270, 528 Glober 330
Drift 3, 408 Golay detector 33 1
Dropping mercury electode 370
F Gow Mac 395
Drude’s law 209 Gravimetric 348
FDM 479
DSSS 495 Grounding 544
FHSS 495
Dual slope ADC 465 Gyroscopic flowmeter 242
Fibre optic link 487
Dust concentration 534 Fibre optical system 140
Dynamic, calibration 14 Fibre optic thermometer 217 H
characteristics 5 Fick’s law 369
error 5 Hall dervice 79, 281, 526
Fidelity 5
Dynamometer 93 Hair hygrometer 345
Filled-in systems 173 Hazard 537
Fits 100 Head type flowmeter 223
E Fixed points 169 Heat of reaction 314
Flame ionization detectors 427 Hot cathode type 148
Eco-friendly 533 Flame photometry 388, 427
Eddy current transducer 64 Hol-wire anemometer 260
Flapper nozzle 155 HP-VEE 473
Elastic load cell 73
Flapper orifice 284 HTTP 492
Elbow type flowmeter 234
Float type 275 Humidity 341
Electret type 164, 247
Flood gun 506 Hydrastep 302
Electro caloric flowmeter 243
Flow 222 Hydraulic transmission 278
Electrolysis type humidity meter
marker method 265 Hydrazine 532
346, 347
nozzle 229 Hydrostatic density gauge 394
Electromagnetic flowmeter 249
Electron capture 306 switches 271 Hydrostatic level gauge 281
Electrostatic precipitator 535 Flue gas 532 Hydrostatic plunger 70
Elution technique 420, 421 Fluorescence 382 Hygrometer 345
Enclosures 537 spectroscopy 415 Hysteresis 4, 130
Encoder 445 Fluorogram 416
Environment 520 Fluted rotor type 247
Final element 2 I
Enzyme electrode 358
EPR spectroscopy 433 Force balance 157, 284, 476 IC temperature sensors 194
Error, Force constant 132 IEC 537, 539
cumulative 25 Ford cup 399 IEEE 488 513, 518
distribution 23 Fourier transform Ignition 541
elevation 176 spectrometer 335 Impulse type flowmeter 271
equipment 18 Frequency responise 8, 11 Incremental shaft encoder 447
estimate 22 Frequency telemetering 477 Installation notes 230
ganssian 24 Frequency voltage converter 120 Interdigital transduces (ITD) 141,
installation 17 FSK 485 217, 256, 453
interference 17 Fuel cell 324 Interferogram 337
558 Index
Interferometer 111 Masnetostrictive 48, 89 number 25 1

Internal estimate 23 Manometers 121 NQR spectroscopy 434
Interpolator 448 inclined tybe 122 Nuclear density gauge 396
Intrinsic safety 538, 542 ring balance 123 Nuclear magnetic induction 433
I/O 490 U-tube 121 Nuclear radiation 300
Ionization chamber 408 Mass absorption coefficient 404 Nuclear solid flowmeter 269
Ionization gauge 148 Mass flowmeter 239 Nutating disc type 246
Ionization methods 434 Mass spectroscopy 434 Nyquist rate 48 1
IP 539 Mattauch-Herzog geometry 438
IR absorption type 326, 328 Mcleod gauge 142
O
IR moisture meter 353 Mean deviation 22
IR sources 330 Mean-time-to-failure 36 Opacity meters 339
ISA 492 Mechanical advantage 67 Open channel flowmeters 267
ITU 487 Median 21 Open tubular column (OTC) 423
Membranes, ion selective 357 Optical dipstick 299
molecular selective 357 Optical fibre type level
K
Metal insulated thermocouple 201 detector 299
Katharometer 309 Metrology 97 Optical fibre vibrator 456
Knudsen gauge 152 Micromanometer 122 Optical flats 109
Knudsen’s laws 143 Micrometer screwgauge 98 Optical pressure gauge 140
Microphone 164 Optical pyrometer 215
Microwave absorption 352 Orbitals 376
L
Mitchelson interferometer 112, 335 Orifice 226
Labview 473 Modbus 492 ORP 355
Lag 5, 186 Modem 486 PAM 478
Lagrange interpolation 191 Modulation 481 Paramagnetic 315
LAN 492 digital data 484 Particulate 339
Laser excitation source 386 Moire fringe 450 PCM system 482, 515
LCD 501 Moisture 348 Peltier effect 198
LDR 211, 374 Monochromators 331, 373 pH, electrodes 358, 361, 530
Least accuracy 3 prism 332, 373 Phorophorescence 382
LED 487, 500 Multimode fibres 301 Photodiodes 212, 488
Level control 278 propagation 489 Photomultipliers 374, 414
optical detectors 288 Multiplexing 478 Photovoltaic cell 374
piezo-crystal type 288 Piezoelectric, constant 60
Levers 67 crystal 59, 138
Limits 101
N load cell 73
Linear encoder 450 NASICON 341 transducer 59
Liquid analysers 354 NEC 538 Piezoresistive effect 44, 49, 137
Liquid level 274 NEMA 538 Pipeline telemetry 490
Load cells 70 Nephelometer 392 Pipe-vibration density meter 396
Lobed impeller type 246 Nernst equation 323, 356 Pirani gauge 145
Luminescence 339, 382 Nernst glower 330 Piston type area flowmeter 238
LVDT 52 NFPA 542 Pitot tube 232
NMR methods 352 Planck’s constant 334
NMR spectroscopy 428 Planimeter 116
M
Noise equivalent power 213 Plasma display 499
Magnetic float 277 Non-dispersive spectrometer 328 Plasma source 384
Magnetic susceptibility 315 Non-linear scale 189 Plasma spectroscopy 389
Magnetodynamic 316 Non-linearity 4, 189 PLL 241
Magnatoelastic lead cell 72 Normalized conductance Pneumatic, Load cell 71
Index 559
transmitter 157 magnetic 513 Sodium 530

Pointer-scale 499 oscillographic 508 Solid flow measurement 276
Poiseuille’s method 397 thermal 508 Sound pressure level 163
Polarography 369 Redox 355 Span 3
Pollution 520, 533 Reference electrode 361 Spark source 385
Positive displacement 245 Reliability 35 Spatial spectrometry 335
Potentiometry 355 Repeatability 3 Specific gravity 393
Potentiostatic 372 Resistive humidity sensor 346 Spectrophotometers 378, 414
Power plant scheme 521 Resonance technique 352 Spectroscopic analysis 326
Precision 3, 25 Resonator 142 Speed of response 5
Pressductor 73 Responsivity 213 Spin type flowmeter 266
Pressure 120, 525 Revolution counter 77 Spread spectrum 494
Pressure constant 132 Reynold’s number 224, 226 Spring balance 69
Pressure gauge, Bourdon tube 124 Ring oscillator 462 SSB 484
thermal type 144 Root square accuracy 3 Static error 5
Primary element 2 Rotameter 235 Steelyard 68
Proportional counter 410 viscometer 399 Storage scopes 505
PSK 485 Rotary transformer 457 Strain gauge 44
Psychrometer 342 Rotor friction gauge 154 Strain sensitivity 44
PTAT sensor 195 RS 232C 486, 513, 518 Stroboscope 8 1
Pulse code 482 RTD 180 Surface acoustic wave 76, 141,
Pyroelectric detectors 213, 331 RTU 181 341, 453
SAW thermometer 217
Q S Synchro-resolver 460
Synchro-transmitters 477
QAM 485 Safety triangle 540
Quadrupole type mass Salinity 369
spectrometer 438 Salt bridge 356, 359
T
Quartz crystal thermometer 217 Sample injection system 420 Tacho 77
Quartz fibre deflector 266 Sampling techniques 440, 505 capacitive 77
Quartz reference vacuum gauge 153 Saturated hydrogen electrode 356 drag cup 78
SAW 141 Tachogenerators 79
R Saybolt viscometer 399 Taper gauges 101
SCADA 491 Tappings 231
Radiant emissivity 145 Scintillation counter 300, 412 Target flowmeter 234, 266
Radiation thermometry 208 Screw gauge 98 TDM 495
Radioactive method 300 Secondary element 1 Temperature standards 168
Range 3 Seebeck effect 198 Temporal 327
Ratiometric type 216 Self-heating error 185 Theoretical plates 424
Rational expansion factor 225 Semiconductor, sensors 340 Thermal conductivity type 145,
Reciprocating piston type 247 X-ray detectors 414 308, 426
Recorder 507 Sensitivity 3 Thermal effect 286
circular chart 509 Shaft power 91 Thermistor, NTC 186
potentiometric 509 Shunt element 540 PTC 189
strip chart 510 Silica 529 Thermocouple 198
xy 512 Sine bar 113 detector 331
Recording, CRT 515 Slide wire method 184 gauge 147
electrical 508 Sliding vane type 246 Thermoelectric coefficients 203
electrostatic 509 Smart transmitters 526 Thermoelectric power 199
gaivanometric 515 Snell’s law 257, 458, 489 Thermoemf 186, 198
560 Index
Thermomagnetic 318 V Vortex flowmeter 263, 455

Thermopile 207, 210 VSB 484
Thomson effect 199 Vac-ion technique 150
Threshold 4 Vacuum 142
Vapour pressure thermometer 174 W
Torque 88
balance 157 VDU 593 Wasiljewa constants 312
gradient factor 126 Velocity 77 WBCOUF 257
tube 280 Venturi 228 Weighing machines 67
Total radiation pyrometer 210 Vibrating cylinder 454 Wifi 492
Tracking type resolver 461 Vibrating string 452 Wireless I/O 490
Transmission channels 486 Vibration 528
Transmittance 377, 531 Virtual instrumentation 471
VIS 471 X
Turbidity 392
Turbidimeter 392 Viscometer 398 X-ray absorption
Turboflowmeter 239 cone and plate 401 spectroscopy 417
Turbomagnetic type 247 Engler 399 X-ray, characteristics 403
Tyndall scattering 339 Redwood 399 generation 403
Rotameter 399 methods 402
Savbolt 398 spectrometer 406
U Scarle’s 400
Ultrasonic flowmeter 235 Viscosity 397
measurement 397 Z
Ultrasonic level detector 295
Units 39 Visible sources 374 Zero-crossing detector 240
derived 39 Volume expansion Zero-elevation error 231
fundamental 39 thermometer 173 Zero-suppression error 231
UV sources 375 Voltage sensitivity 60 Zirconia oxygen analyser 321, 533
UV spectroscopy 373 Voltage telemetering 476

Principal of Industrial Instrumentation Compress

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Principal of Industrial Instrumentation Compress

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Principles of Industrial

Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited

Copyright © 2010 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited.

This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers,

ISBN 13: 978-0-07-069971-7

Managing Director: Ajay Shukla

Head—Higher Education Publishing: Vibha Mahajan

Cover Printer: SDR

1. Characteristics of Measurement System 1

2. Displacement, Force, Velocity, Acceleration and Torque 43

4. Pressure Measurement 120

5. Temperature Measurement 168

6. Flow Measurement 222

7. Level Measurement 274

8. Instruments for Analysis 306

9. Digital Transducers and Related Topics 445

10. Telemetry 475

11. Display, Recording and Alarm 498

12. Power Plant Instruments 520

13. Hazard and Safety 537

Roadmap for Various Courses

∑ Concept of Virtual Instrumentation System is given in this edition.

Sanjeev Ojha D Bandyopadhyay

N B Hui P Kanaga Sabapathy

R Ananda Natarajan G Prakasham

DCD Data Carrier Detecter MTTF Mean Time to Failure

DME Dropping Mercury Electrode NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

DO Dissolved Oxygen ORP Oxidation Reduction Process

DP, D/P Differential Pressure PCM Pulse Code Modulation

ESR Electron Spin Resonance RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

FT Fourier Transform SAW Surface Acoustic Wave

GC Gas Chromatography SCE Saturated Calomel Electrode

I/O Input/Output UV Ultraviolet

IR Infra Red VIS Virtual Instrumentation System

List of Important Symbols

The basic purpose of instrumentation in a process is to obtain

1.2 FUNCTIONAL UNITS

1.4 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

1.4.1 Static Characteristics

R.S.A. £ a12 + a 22 + ... + a n2 (1.4)

adversely affect precision. In an analytical balance, for example,

1.4.2 Dynamic Characteristics

A very common example of a ﬁrst-order instrument is a mercury-

Fig. 1.9 (a) Amplitude response for a irst order instrument,

Fig. 1.11 Response of second order instrument with step input

Fig. 1.12 Response of a second order instrument with ramp input

1.5 DYNAMIC CALIBRATION

The approach now turns graphical with the unit

l / kx0 = exp (-pz / 1 - z 2 ) (1.40)

Fig. 1.18 The circuit of a dc voltage measurement scheme

Stiffness = effort variable / Ú (flow variable) ◊ dt (1.54)

Compliance = ﬂow variable / Ú (effort variable) ◊ dt (1.56)

1.7 STATISTICAL ERROR ANALYSIS

1.7.1 Mode, Median, Mean

1.7.2 Error Estimates

1.7.3 Error Distribution

± (n – 2) e, …, ± 2e around the expected zero value

1.7.4 Calculation of the Probable Error

1.7.5 Accuracy and Precision

1.7.6 Evaluation of s and Correction of Measurement Reading

Hence, Dx = Sni(xi – x ¢)/N = 7/96 ª 0.073

1.7.7 Test of Normal Distribution of Data: The Chi-squared Test

S = Sm ± (5/4) | DSm | / n - 2 (1.88)

Obtain the slopes in three different methods.