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Faunal remains from the Early Neolithic Starčevo Settlement at Bukovačka

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Article · January 1994

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Haskel Joseph Greenfield

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 Institut
Archeologique
Beograd

STARI NOUVELLE SERlE VOLUME XLIII-XLIV 1992-1 993

REDACfEUR RESPONSABLE, Pet.. PElROVI C

COMlTE DE REDAcnON: Sandor BOKONYI (Budapest), Miloje VASIC, Rastko VASIC,

Milutin GARASANIN, Noel DUVAL (Paris). Maja PAROVIC-PE5IKAN, Vladislav POPOVIc:'
Ana PREMK (secretaire de 1a redaction), Dragoslav SREJOVIC

BEOGRAD 1994
 Faunal Remains from the Early Neolithic Starcevo v

Settlement at Bukovacka Cesma

HASKEL J. GREENFIELD, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada

A. INTRODUCTION ecological resources. The faunal remains show that

This paper presents the results of the Caunal
analysis Crom Bukovacka Cesma, located approxima-
tely three km north o ~ the city of Jagodina ( Republic
of Serbia, Yugoslavia) . The si te is dated to the Early
Neolithic (Slartevo culture - 6100-5100 BC, calibra-
ted: Manson 1990). It is onc of a handful! o f Early Ne-
olithic seulements in the central Balkans (rom which
faunal remains have been collected and a nalYlcd over
the past three decades. Bukovacka cesma is the se-
cond fauna l assemblage to be analy7..cd (rom a
Starcevo settlement within the Morava river drainage.
The Morava has been (and still is) an important roule
for the spread of Early Neolithic adaptations from the
Aegean to central Europe and a center for Starcevo
settlement (cv. Barker 1975; Srejovic 1979). As. such,
it represents an important link in understanding the
spread of early farming adaptations out of the sout-
hern Balkans into the rest of Europe . .
The settlement is located upon a rise which over-
looks the confluence of the Lugomir rive r, a west
bank tributary of the Lower Morava River, as it
empties into the Lower Morava. It lies on the first set
of terraces, west of the floodpla in of the Lower Mora-
va river (Vetnic 1974: 146). The proximity of the site
to the floodp lain and associated wetlands of the Lo-
wer Mo rava and its tnbutaries provided the inhabi-
tants ready access to a rich and d iverse set of
the inhabitants of the site did not ignore the wealth of
resources surrounding the site .
In 1972, Sava Vetnic initiated a salva~rc excavati-
on of the Early Neolithic part of the site at Bukovacka
cesma. Nine 6x6 m sondas or trenches (6x70 m) were
excavated in a north-south line across the site with in-
ternal profiles (Vetnic 1972: 12-13). During 1982, exa-
mined the recoved and curutcd faunal assemblage. A
second phase of excavatio n was undertaken by Vetnic
during 1985 (Vetnic 1988), but the faun:t have not be-
e n examined and the results arc not included in this
report.
The excavations revealed the presence of an Ea-
rly eolithic cultural horizon approximately 60-80 em
thick, semi-subterranean dwelling areas, hearths, and
pits associated with a layer of artifacts, including coar-
sc and fine ceramics, altars, amulets, chipped and gro-
und stone tools, bone and antler lools, and
unmodified animal bones and shells. The ceramics
were thick-walled and decorated with a variety of
typical Starcevo decorative motifs, including monoc-
hrome and multi-colored, intc rior burnishing,
pinching. impressing, channelling, and barbotine .sur-
race decorations (Ve tnic 1972; 1974; 1988).
Remains from the excavation at Bukovacka ees-
ma (and all other Slareevo sites, with the partial ex-
ception or Anza) were collecled by hand . In general,
hand-collection of bone remains tcnds to be unsyste-

• I would like to express my sincere gratilUde to Sava Vetnic (National Museum, Jagodina) and Pro[ Dr. Milutin Garabnin (Uni\·er·
sity of Belgrade) for enabling me to analyze and repon o n the fauna from Bukovacka Cesma; to Rachae! Greenfield wh o shared my field ex·
periences; to Larry Stene for helping to produce the map; and to the National Science Foundation (N BNS810S3S!1), the Wenner-G ren
Foundation for Anthropological Research (*~21O), the Fulbright- Hays Foreign Language and Area Studies Program (Prog. no. 84.022;
Pro;. no. 022AHI00(8), and the International Research and &:canges Soan:! (1981-82) for fund ing the research upon which this publication
is based. Any errors, OO\r.tever. are my sole responsibility. .
 104 Haskel J. Greenfield
matic, affecting the results of the analysis in the fo llo-
wing manner: the larger the bone. the greater is the
probability that it will be seen in the soil and collected
during excavation.
The eITect of hand-collection upon the Buko-
vacka Cesma assemblage can be found in the distribu-
tion of bones from differe nt parts of the body. Bones.
such as phalanges. carpals, and tarsals, arc completely
absent. These bones are small and di((jcult to see
when the excavated soil is briefly inspected by hand
only. In contrast, these bone elements are among the
most numerous in sieved assemblages (e .g. Greenfield
1986; Payne 1972). Any conclusions drawn from hand
colIected fauna l remains are subject to suspicion and
dramatic changes may have to be made when the po-
o rly-collected data bases are compared with more
systematically collected samples.
lhe faunal assemblage fro m Bukovacka cesma is
\\'Orth consideration even with its acknowledged limi-
tations fo r scveral reasons. First, the diversity of envi-
ronmental settings in which Starcevo sites, from which
,. ' 100 It" D E levollOn) 200 meters
Fig. I. - Map of central Balkans, showing Early N~oJilhic sites wi th
analyzed faunda! assemblages mentioned in texl. Site name abbrevi·
.lotions u5Cd in all figures and lable5 are: A"Anl..l. : BC"' Buka.·atka
tesma: D - D;"'05lin; G - Golukot; HV"' Hajdu6;a Vodenica;
LV-upenski Vir; L B - Lud~ Budhk; N = Nosa: 08 .. Obre:
1>.Padin a. RB - Rug Hair; S=StarCevo.
faunal remains have been collected, is extremely
small . Bukovacka Cesma's position overlooking the
flood plain of the Lower Morava river adds a new di·
mension to our understanding of Stareevo adaptati.
ons. Second, the dominance of wild fauna in the
assemblage fro m Bukovacka eesma is unique among
Starcevo settle ments located outside of the Iron Ga-
tes area of the Danube. Third, no other Stareevo as-
semblage has been evaluated from the perspective of
assemblage attrition and sample representiveness, im·
portant considerations when evaluating the compara-
tive utility of data sets.
Two guantification techniques have been used fo r
Early Neolithic assemblages in the Central Balkans:
number of individual specimens (NJSP) and minimum
number of individuals (MNI). Both quantification
procedures were used fo r Bukovacka Cesma. During
the NISP analysis, each bone or bone fragment was
separately identified and analYL.ed using proced ures
outlined in Greenfield 1986, 1991. In brief, when arti-
culations between bones or fragments were recogni-
zed, they were analyzed as belonging to the same
individual and quantified as equal to one specimens
regardless of the number of bones that were present.
-rnerefore, each separate specimen of group of articu-
lated specimens was q uantified only onec. MNI's were
calculated using BOk6nyi's (1970) method. Similar quo
ant ification proced ures were used fo r all other sites in
the region. No who le or ske letons were found in the
asc mblage.
B. m E SAMPLE
Bl. Rate a/Species Identifteation
The percentage of bones that were identified to a
genus or species taxonomic level is relatively high
(NISP = 57.7%). Such a high level of identificatio n is
common among assemblages that are hand-collected.
A smaller, but still relatively large percentage (36.6%)
of the remains we re identifiable only to. a size-class
(e.g. small, medium, or large mammals), while very
few bones we re comple tely inidentifiable (5 .6% - Tab-
le 1). This is clarly the result of hand-collection reco-
very techniques.
B.2. Sample Size and Spec~ Diversily
A total of 544 bones and bone fragments were rc-
covered during the excavations at Bukovacka Ccsma
and analyzed. of which 23 were articulated with other
bones and 24 were fragments that were mendable
with olhers.
 Faunal Remains from the Early Neolithic Stareevo Settlement ... \05

1lI.ble I - Frequency of laJtonomic groups identified al Bukovatka At least eleven different taxonomic groups were
¢esma. NISP '" Number of Identified Specimens; ART _ number
of aniculat ions o f mended fragments. not included in NISP mun!.
identified in the assemblage (Table 2). The small
They arc occasion:dly included in the counts of 1lI.ble 4. where they number of taxa is a reflection of the sample size, since
re prese nt a K parate bone element; TOTAL -lOtal number of frag. there is a positive corelation between identi..fied sam-
ments. ple size and species diversity (or number of identified
TAXA NISPfART MNI TOTAL taxa) among Stareevo sites (Greenfield 1993). The
t:!:Q (~ MISf) t!<I t:!:Q, (~) greater the sample size, the greater is the number of
A. Domestic Vertebrates identified species. Many more species are present in
o,.is/Capra I3n (J)I.~
Bos taurus
Sus s<;rofa dom.
70"
2112
(25.5)
(1J7.~
",• 20
74
23
the larger faunal assemblages from Stacrevo sites.
such as Obre I (Bokonyi 1974b).
Domenic SUb-Total 104/13 (37.9) 117
B. Wild Vertebrates B3. Degree of Preservation
80s primigenius ,,- (01.4)
,, •
Sus scrofa fer. 27/4 (09.8) 31 The bone assemblage from Bukovacka eesma was
Cervus e laphus 7813 (".5) 81 remarkably well-preserved. None of the bones shoo
Capreolus carpeolus
Ur5US arctus
19/ 1
1/-
(05.9)
(00.4)
•
I
20
I
wed any evidence of pitting of their surface from ero·
sion. The surfaces of even delicate bone ends and
Castor fiber 8/- (02.9) 3 8
Pisces sp. 29/- (10.6) 29
articular surfaces were smooth and well-preserved.
The high degree of preservation is also illustrated by
Wild Sub-lOta!
Sus scrofa (?) ,,-
1'6/8 (60.5)
(01.4) ,
174
the high percentages of long bones ands in the assem-
Iden tified Vertebrates 274123 (99.8) 294 (55. 1) blage that normally fuse very late in growth develop-
C. Invertebrates ment (such as proximal humerus and tibia, distal
Uniosp. 13 13 (02.6) radius, proximal and distal femur, etc). They outnum-
D. Size-Oasses bered early fusing long bone ends among aurochs, cat-
Medium-Sized Mammals OJ lie, swine, pigs, red deer, and roe deer (Table 2).
Large-Sized Mammals
o,.is/CaprafCapreolus
Bos taurus/Ce rvus elaphus
"
2S
I3 B4.Buming
Size-Oass SUb-lOtal 188 (36.6)
E. Unidentified 28 (OS.6) Most Early Neolithic faunal reports do not men-
F. lOtal of all Fragments '20 (99.9) tion burnt bones at all. At Bukovacka eesma, only one
G. lOtals of Domes tic and Wild Species burnt bone fragment was found. Three possible expla-
Domestic IJ)I (38.5)
nations easily come to mind 10 explain the low burnt
Willi l~ ("I,S)

Table 2. - Distribution ofspecies by body part and bone density (includes articulations but not mendable fragments)
S~cies o,.l8:CaEra 80s erim. Bos taurus Sus Scr. fer Sus $Cr. dom Cervus elaehus CaEI"eolus ca~olus
Body Part
Small. hard
.
, 2 24 , , 7
Early fusi ng@
Late fusing@ 2
IO
II
5
10
•
I3
23 ,
2

Pelvis 3 • 3
Loose t«th
Mandible
3
4
19 I
3
2
2 ,
Shaft fragment 2 3 13 8
Rib/Vertebra 12
MaJtilJa 2 2
Cranium 2 3+
Loose Antler 2
lOtal I' • 69
0: Small, hard elements include tarsals, carpals, and phalanges. " 21 81 19

@: Early fusing are long bone ends that fuse early in development, i.e. distal humerus and tibia, proximal radius and metapodials.
@: Late fusing are long bone ends that fuse late in development, i.e., proximal humerus and tibia, distal radius and me tapodia, pfOllimaland
distal ulna and femur, and proximal calcaneus. Whole long bones are counted as one and placed in the later fused end group if alleast one
end is a late fusing end.
+ : 'TWo of the aanial fragm e nts have antJer5 still attached.
106 H askel J. Greenfield

fractions. First, if the low fract ion of burnt bones is a in that most contemporary assemblages outside of the
reflection of their origina l proportions in the asscm· Iron Gates of the Danube (e.g. at Obre, Anza, Divas·
bIage, we have to assume that most bones probably tin, Ludos-Budzak; but not at Nosa and Golukot) ha·
were still covered with meat when exposed to [ire, we· ve much higher pe rcentages of domestic animals. The
re boiled in a stew-like concoction, or had their meat relatively high percentage of wild animals at Buko·
removed prior to cooking. In this case, there would vacka Cesma is very similar to two groups of sites: tho·
have been limited contact between the bone and the se from the Iron Gates and those with small sample
£lame. A second possibility is that the burnt bone may sizes.
have simply disintegrated in the soil, since burnt bone
fragmen ts more readily than uncoked bone (Bonfield BB. Spatial Distribution
and li 1966). A third reason that few pieces of burnt
bone are found could be differential disposal patterns. The assemblage contained faunal remains from
Cooking areas (hearths) and nearby middens are the six out of the mine trenches. The distribution of bones
deposi tional contexts in which burnt bone most likely and fragmen ts is not uniform from trench to trench,
would have been discarded. Few hearths, however, or within trenches (Table 3). Greater quantities of bo-
were fou nd, while most debris derives from exterior nes were recovered from Sounding 8 (N = 410);
middens where the burnt bone would have broken up 75.4% of the total) than all the others combined (So-
and disintegrated relatively quickly. Similarly low pro- undings 3, 4, 5, 6, 9). However, given the manner of
portions of burnt bone are found in Late Neolithic as· excavation it is difficull io determine whether the une·
scmblages as well (Greenfield 1991) . qual spatial distribution of remains re£lects the origi·
nal distribution of remains o r not. The highest density
B5. Soi[pH of remains within Sounding 8 came from excavation
layer 3-5.
The soil pH levels were nol measured during ex-
cavation, since they took place prior to an interest in C. THE SPECIES
taphonomy in the region. But the remarkable preser-
vation of the bone surfaces at the site can be used as a Cl. Sheep (Ovis aries) and Goat (Capra hirr:us)
proxy measure to determine the effect of soil acidity
on bone attrition. Given the absence of bone destruc- Sheep and goal remains are discussed in this sec· .
tion by acids when the assemblage was analyzed and tion together since no elements were identifiable with
the relationship between soil pH bone preservation any certainty to the species level, due to the paucity of
noted at o ther sites in the region (Greenfield 1986, remains and their fragmentary nature. Domestic ovi-
1991), it is likely thai soil acidity was not an important caprincs are found in small numbers at Bukovacka
factor in assemblage attrition. Ccsma, with a NlSP of 13 and a MNI of 5 (N = 20,7 of
which arc bones articulated with other bones) . They
B6. Size Categories represent only 4.7% of the tolal bone assemblage
identified to the species taxonomic level, and 12.5 %
A substantial quantity of remains were identified Uble 3. - Number o[ bones [ragments collected from each Trench
only to a general taxonomic size category (N = 182), and digging level BukO\'i~a ~sma
sich as mcdium-sized mammals (equivalent to a she· Trench I&yel Number o[ Erarmen!$ Code
epsized animal, N = 90) and large-sized mammals 03 04 4 03-04
(cattle or red deer-si.zed animal, N = 54). Most of the 04 OS south half 3 O4-<JS
fragments relegeted to these categories were ribs, ver- OS 06 4 OS"",
OS 06 around Ih e heanh 40 OS-<J7
tebrae, and other fragmentary remains thaI were diffi- 06 OS S 06-<JS
cult to identify to a higher taxonomic level. Some
remains were identifiable to a norrower, but sti ll rela-
08
08
01
02
under the hearth
"II
OS-<JI
08-<J2
tively nonspecific taxonomic gro uping of genera (e.g
Ovis/Capra/Capreolus: N = 25; Bos/Ccrvus: N = 13).
08
08
08
OS
03

OS
.
02 around the hearth

"
II

3S
146
OS-<J7
08-<J3
08-04
OS-<JS
B7. Domeslic: Wtld Ralio 08 OS from Ihe daub I7 ..-<18
08 OS from Ih e daub under Ihc hearth 4 OS-06
00 02 8 09-02
The low relativc frequency of domestic (38.5%) 00 03 70 00-03
and high frequency of wild species (61.5 %) is unusual liml ~lIm~[ g{ 8'1:G'~ ~'H
 Faunal Remains from the Early Neolithic Startevo Settlement ... 107

of the domestic animals. These percentages are simi- Table 4. - Distribution or species by age groups. The number fo l·
lar to those [rom the sites in the Iro n Gates and the l(!WillS a slash refers to the number of additional spe cimcns of the
l:lll:! that articulaled with othe r specimens of the l:llla. They are no t
Pannonian Plain (BOko nyi 1971; 1974<1, 1974 b; Cla-
furth er quantified. Pos t-Cranial reCers to post...qan ia l long bones
son 1980; Greenfie ld n.d.; Lazic 1988). but 3re much
and Ccanial 10 cr.uaial ele ments not atl:1Ched to the m:lllilia or
smallcr than the ana lyzed faunal assemblages from antler/ho rn ( unless specified).
Starccvo localitics in Se rbia (south of thc Danube).
Bosnia, and Macedonia. such as Anza, Di\"ostin, Obre o.·islCaprn
I, and Rug Bair (BOkonyi 1974b; 1976; 1988 : Schwartz
Ag' POSt- Man·
Crania! dibl~ ""'"
Ieeth
Total
''')
1976): Several years ago , BOk6nyi noted that thc fur- Unknown - 2 2 ( ... )
ther north the sites are found, the smallcr are the fre-
quencics of ovicaprines (d. BOk6nyi 1974b).
InCantile W
Juvenile 2 ~I
,
I (12.')
(62.5)
However, northern sites with the highe st frequencies Subadult I ( 12")
o f ovicaprines tend to be in the rolling hill s of Serbia s" 3 3( ...)

o r mountains of Bosnia and not directly associared

with Inri-It river noodpains (e.g. Divostin. Obre I). Dif-
Adult
Tot:!1 , 1/3
4 1
I
13
( 12.')
(1 00.0)
Sostaurus
ferences in Ihe ovicaprinc relative frequencies be-
tween Starcevo sites do nol seem to be attributable to
Ag' POSl- Cranial Louse
!:,;ranial I!::Elb
Tot:!1
''')
Ju ~e nile I (6.2)
collection methodology. since all the assemblages
have been similarly co llected. Instead. it mny be duc liS
Subad ull ,
I
3
I
8
(6.2)
(2!i.O)
to a number of o ther processes, including ecological ...
[X>sition. season of occupation. chronological position
S/A
Adult ,
34/" 3
11
38
20
( )
(62.5)
o f assemblage within Starecvo culture. etc. At present, To ml ~O I' 19 (22.2)
it is di(ficull to condusively argue which, if any, of the Sus scrofa fer.
above arc responsible. Ag' Post- Man· Maxilla
Cl!!nial !.lit!l;
""",
Teeth
TOI:!I (& )
Durable and dense bone elements, such as earlv NeOfiatal I (H)
fusing long bone ends (i.e. proximal radius, dist;l !Infantile
= =
tibia; N 5), mandiblcs (N 4), and loose teeth (N Subauull 2 2 jl 1.8)
...
= 3), are the most co mmon elements. These are the S/A
Adult ,
IOJ4
3 2
I.
14
( )
(82.3)
most likcly to survivc erosion and ot her attrilional
forccs. Only two laic fusing long bones fragments (dis- TOlal 21 3 ., 27 ooom
Sus scroCa dam.
tal radius and proximal tibia) and a single ilium frag- POSt- Ceanial ~Ian- Maxilla Looo, Total
Ag'
ment wcre from the more delicate bonc cate!,'Ories. A Cranial d ible TEE tb (!1:l
renection of the systematic rel.."Overy bias against small Infantile I 1 (1.7)
bone elements is the total or near abse nce o f pha- Juvenile 8 11 (69.2)
langes, carpal, and tarsal bones [or cach of the me- Subadutt 2 2 ( t5.4)
dium - and small- sized mammalian 1a:<3. Such S/A 3i2 2 2 8 ( ...)

.,
Adult I 1 (7.7)
clements were collected only for large mammals (Ta- Tom! 13 , 2 21 (tOO.O)
ble 2). •
Cer.·us Elapbus
Most of the agreable remains were from rela- Ag' P05I- Crania t Man· Cranial + Looo, Total
tively immature individuals (87.5%). This is an unusu· Cranial dible Antler Anller £%l
aUy high percentage of age able remains, and is a Juvenile 2 2 (45)
rcnection of the unusually high degree of preservation Subadull 14f1 14 (3 \.8)
S/A 3211 I 34 (...)
chnracteristic of this assemblage. Immature remains
u<;u;,lly have a lower probability of surviving attritional
Adutl 2111
,3 2
2
2
2
28 (63.6)

prvccsses such as cooking. scavenging. and weather-

ing. to be recovered during excavation. They are de-
I QI:!1
" Capreotus capreolus
Post- Ceania t TOIaI
7§: (9\l.lll

Ag' (")
stroyed in higher frcquencies by a variety of cultural. Crani!l
climatological. and sedime ntological proc'Csses. As a Infantile I 1 (''')
Juvenile 9/1 10 (55.5)
result, these age categories are usually substantially
underrepresented vis-a-vis their original numbers.
All ca tegories of body parts (mandibles. p:>st-<ranial
lIS
Subadull
S!A
I
, I (5.5)
5 (27.8)
1 (... )
lo ng bones, loose tceth) reveal simi lar age distribu- Adull I 1 ('.5)
lions (Table 4). TOlal 18 191911.8)
 108 Haskel J. Greenfield
C.ulorfiber
Ag' POSI- M3n- 1.00<, T0(31 (%»
JU\'enile ,
03ni31 dit.l~ Ieelh
2 (28.6 )
Slibadlill J (14.3)
S/A
Adlilt , 1 ( ... )
" (57. 1)
TOl31 6 8 (I00.0j
The high frequency of j uveniles and inCants may
imply a late spring-late summer for the span of occu-
pation at the site. The tooth eruption sequence fro m
the three juvenile mandibles implies that they we re
slaughte red as relatively young juveniles (less than 6
months old ). If we assume the same timing of birth
was the same as amon~ modern lambs and kids born
in the region today (FebruaryfMarch), this would
plal."t! their death and. by implicat io n, the occupatio n
of the site into the warmcr half of the ycar. Thi ~ time
of year coincides with traditional modern and historic
scawnal expli)ilatio n of the surrounding wet-lands.
One tibia appears to have been modifit:d into a
bone awl, and is (.'Overed with substantial surface pol-
ish. None of the bones shO\\' evidence o f weathering.
hurning. or bUIl;hering.
C2. Aurochs (80s Prim igtmiils)
Aurochs are ranked ninth in the N ISI' frequency
of identified taxa (i\T]SP = 1.4% ) a t Hukovacka
~esma, but with an MNI of only I. Only fo ur frag-
me nts of aurochs' bones we re idemified (an axis, dis-
tal met;lCarpal, and first and second phalanges), which
allowed a MNI calcu lation of a single individual.
Auroch rem:lins ere relative ly easy to di~tinguish from
d o mestic cattle in the asscmbla!,'C because of their
much greater size, lhicknes... of the bone wall, and the
mo rc developed muscle attachmcm areas (cf. BOk6 nyi
1974b). However, their fragmente d state made meas-
urement and size e stimation d ifficult. Only the distal
metacarpal could be identified as be longing to an
adult. The three other bones were ageable o n the ba-
sis of their state of fu sion only to the subadult/adult
class. None of the remains showed a ny signs of be ing
modified into tools, bUrnt , or wcathered, or of the
butcht'rinS pn-.cess.
a. Domestic Cattle (Bos taurus)
Domestic cattle are the second most common
species (NISP = 25 ..5'd.. ) and the most common do-
mestic species (67.3SC) in the asscmbla!,'C. Seventy
unarticulated fragments, plus four articulated frag-
ments were identified. producing and N ISP of 70 and
an MNI of 6 individuals. Callic are tied with roc deer
for firSI place in the MNI frequency_
The largesl ca tegory of remains were from small,
very dense bone elements, such as carpals, tarsals, and
phaJan!:,>cs (N = 24). The relatively large number of
small cattle bone clements is an indication thai the
distribution of cattle elemenls is more represcntive
than among medium - and sma ll-sized species. The
nexl category was the loose teeth (N = 19). Early and
late fusing long bone ends were found in relatively
equal numbers (N = 10 and 11). The relatively high
Sla le of prcsctvntion is once again altested by the
rel<tlive balance between carly :Lnd laic fusing long
bone ends and by the absence of any evidence for
weat hering of bone surfaces "among the cnllic re-
m ains. A few fragment o f pelvcs, a long bone shaft.
and a cranial fragment round oul the rest of thl:! as-
semblage. The demlh of vertebrae and ribs is due 10
the facl thai they were identified only to the more
ge ncral taxonomic level of BoS/CeT\tls of large-mam-
mal category. Mandibular and other cTlInial clements
are no ted for Iheir near or to tal absence. But the d:lta
arc inadequate to explain why commonly-recovered
and durable e lements. such as mandibles, evcn in
poorly--<.'Ollected samples. arc totally absent. One pos-
sibility may be differential prehistoric disposa l prac-
tices for cattlc crania1 cle ments.
The sample of 3h'<:able remains is heavily skewed
toward the adult age group (62.5 % ). llle low numtx:r
of immature remains docs no l secm to be a re Ocl;tian
of substantial attrilion af the hlmcs of younh>cr age
groups hccausc: the re appears to bo.;- lillie evide nce far
differcntiul hone nllritia n belween C:lrly ancl late fus-
ing callie long hone cleme nts. Thc high numhc r of
immature ovicaprine remains in the samplt- also im-
plies little differential allritia n of clements by age
categories.
Threc bones had bUlchering marks. A distal
me tacarpus was chopped cross-wist, to the m:lin axis
of the bone. Two amagalii had cut marks, probably
related 10 skinning and or dis.. rticulation of the lower
limbs. None were burnt.
C4. Pigs (Sus sCl'Ofa )
Domestic and wild pigs were more difficull in
some cases to distinguish than were the d o mestic and
wild forms of cattle . Therefore a small group of four
bones was no t identified \0 the more exact taxonomic
category.
Most of Ihe mt asurements were tnken from wild
specime ns, since most d o mestic pig bones were not
measurable either hcca usc of th('jr dllmal..ocd slale o r
degree of fusion . .AJlhough the mensuTl..·rilenls in tht:
 Faunal Remains from the Early Neolithic Starcevo Settlement ...
appendix do not allow quantification o f a substantial
gap between do mestic and wild forms, there was in
fact a substantial and very evident size diffe rence be-
tween domestic and wild forms. This parallels
BOkonyi's (1974b, 1988) results from Obre and Divos-
tin, supporting his thesis that there is an absence of
transitional individuals. He argues that this would in-
dicate that domestication of pigs may have taken pla-
ce much earlier in this area and not during the
occupation o f the site. But it also may indicate that it
co uld have taken place e lsewhere and pigs were intro-
ducet to this area already domesticated.
CS. Wild Pigs (Sus scrofa fer. )
Wild pigs are the fourth most common taxa in the
assemblage (NISP = 27, plus 4 articulated fragments ;
MNI = 4), with 9.8% of the total identified remai~
and 16.3% of the wild taxa. These figure s are somew-
hat unusual when compared to other sites, since wild
pigs are usually less common than domestic ones. The
greater frequencies of wild , vis-a-vis domestic pigs,
may be attributable to processes such as differential
bone recovery. Small bone elements are recovered in
higher relative frequencies among wild (17.8% of bo-
nes) than domestic pigs (0.0%). There is little eviden-
ce fo r differential bone attrition by age category
among wild pigs since the number of late fusing bone
ends is nearly twice as great (35.7%) as that of early
fusing bone ends (17.8%) . Differential recovery by si-
re for wild pigs also seems to be an unlikely process
since the frequency of small wild pig bones such ascar-
pals, tarsals, and phalanges (54.2%) is relatively high.
Therefore other explanations have to be sought to ac-
count for the higher lIequencies of wild versus domes-
tic pigs in the assemblage. One possibility is the
environmental setting o f the site. The surrounding en-
vironment would have been quite favorable for wild
pigs, as attested by the large size of some of the indivi-
duals.
Most of the wild pig remains belong to adults
(82.3%), with subadult (1 1.8%) and neonatal/infantile
(5.9%) remains accounting for the rest. 1b.is age dis-
tribution is reminiscent of almost every analyzed sam-
ple of wild individuals from the region.
Three bones had butchering marks. Two bones
the distal limbs probably have skinning/disarticulation
marks (astragalus and calcaneus), while the cut marks
on the proximal ulna probably reflect disarticulation
or other activities later in the butchering process. No-
ne were burnt.
Most of the measurable pig bones fell within the
wild size range, as defined by BOkonyi (1974a, 1974b,
1976, 1988; personal communication). The two mea-
109
surable L\13's fall into the lowe r and middle end of
the wild range, while some of the long bone measure-
ments belong to quite large wild individuals. Whithers
height was calculabe for two astragalii (greates lenght
x Teichart's (1969) quotint), resulting in 959.44 and
882.47 mm.
CS. Domestic Pigs (Sus scrofa dam.).
Domestic pigs ranked fifth among the identified
taxa (with a NISP of 21 and a MNI ad 5), repre-
senting 7.7% of the total identified assemblage and
20.2% of the domestic taxa. The assemblage is extre-
mely wellpreserved. None of the bones show any sings
o f weathering o f burning. The ratio of early versus la-
te fusing long bo ne ends is relatively high (3:6) , indi-
cating little differential destuction of the late fusing
eleme nts. In contrast, the smallest elements (carpals,
tarsal, phalanges) are totally absent, an unusual situa-
tion especially when compared to wild pigs. This may
suggest that small bones of domestic pigs were recove-
red less syste matically than similarly-sized wild swine
bone clements, reducing the percentage of do mestic
pigs among the identified taxa. In contrast, the early:
late fusing ratio and high percentage of very young in-
dividuals indicate there was less significant differenti-
al attrition of younger than older domestic pigs.
The age distribution is dramatically different
than that of wild swine. The majority of age able rema-
ins are from immature individuals (92.3 % - Table 4) .
Juve niles are the largest group (69.2%), followed by
subadults (15.4%), infants (7.7%), and finally adults
(7.7%). This pattern is common whereve r domestic
pigs arc identified in assemblages. The presence of in-
fants and young juveniles indicates that the settlement
was occupied at least during the latc spring and sum-
mer.
Only one bone (the skull of an imammature indi-
vidual) shows any evidence of butchering activities,
with cut marks parallel to the long axis of Jhe bone.
C6. Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)
Red deer is the most CODunon species in the as-
semblage (28.5%), with a NISP of 78 fragment s, plus
three additional articulated fragments. However, the
MNI estimate of only five individuals is equal to do-
mestic pigs and less than domestic callie. The NlSP
relative freguency is also quite unusual when compa-
red with that from other Starcevo faunal asse mblages
from sites not in the Iron Gates region. Most Stareevo
faunal samples are dominated by domestic cattle (Ob-
re I. Divostin I) or ovicaprines (Anza, Rug Bair -
110 Haskel J. Greenfield
BOk6nyi 1974b; 1976; 1988; Schwartz 1976). The ae.
cepled explanation for the dominance of red deer in
the Iron Gates assemblages is that e ither they predate
the introduction of domestic stock to the region or the
terrain is not conducive to domestic pastoral activiti-
es. In the case of Bukovacka cesma, the surrounding
environment of the site with its rich wetlands may
help explain the high frequencies of red deer. Late
Neolithic sites in similar surroundings, such as Opovo,
have also yielded unusually high frequencies of deer
(Greenfield 1986). However. Starcevo, itself, with its
low red deer and high cattle frequencies is found in a
similar kind of rivcrine~ge environment (Oason
1980).
The relatively high ratio fa late (using (N = 23)
to early fusing long bone ends (N = 13) is again indi-
cative of the high degree of preservation and the low
differential preservation of bones by age. However,
the relative low number of carpals. tarsals, and pha-
langes (small, hard bones) point either to less syste-
matic recovery o f the smaller and less obvious bone
remains during excavation or to their absence in the
excavated part of the site. II is unlikely that the relati-
ve rank of red deer among the identified taxa is affec-
ted by the number of loose antler fragmen ts. since
these represent o nly a small fraction of red deer re-
=
mains (2.5 %; N 2).
Five pieces of bones show butchering marks, all
at points for skinning or carcass dismemberment.
Ski nning marks were found around the base of an an-
tler still attached to the sk ull. C ut or slice marks per-
pedicular to the main axis of the bone , probably
represent ing disarticula tion activities, are found on a
distal tibia, distal metacarpal, astragalus, and atlas.
O ne bone, a lumbar vertebra, was burnt. Two red deer
anller fragments were mod ified into artifacts, both of
which wcre unattached to crania. Each is covered with
a high polish and one is also perforated.
Gnawing marks on two red deer bones (distal
scapula and at the acetabular end of an ischium) are
the only indications of the probable presence of dogs
at the site. However, it is possible Ihat since dog re-
mains arc totally absent from the assemblage, ot her
agents (such as pigs) may be responsible for the chew
marks (Greenfield 1988).
1ne age distribuiton emphasize the presence of
adults (63.6%). but also includes a larger than usual
number of immature remains (36.3%). Most of the
immature remains belong to subad ult bones (87.5%).
AJlhough there is probably a recovery bias against the
bones of the smaller and younger individuals, the ex-
cellent preservation at the site makes it unlikely that
subadu lts are severely underrepresented vis-a-vis
adults. It is diffucult to be as confident with the youn-
ge r age ca tegories.
The remains of two antlers were still attached to
their respective crania. Since both seem to have been
fully deve loped antiers, this may indicate that the ani-
mals had been killed sometime between the period la-
te in the autumn when antlers are fully grown and the
early spring when red deer shed their antlers. These
data, when coupled with the ovicaprine and dome stic
pig age distributions, may indicate year-round occu-
palion at the site.
0, Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)
Roc deer are found in relatively small numbers
(NISP:: 19; 6.9%), but with a relatively high MNI (N
= 6) at Bukovacka cesma. They arc ranked sixth in
NISP frequency at the site among the identified taxa,
but tied for first place with domestic catt le in the MNl
freq uency.
Preservation of the surface and articular ends of
roc deer bones is excellent (as with the other species).
The relatively high ratio of late of early fusing long
bone ends (N = 4:2) is of a similar order of mah'll.itu-
de as found among red deer. lne presence of other
(ragile bone clements, such as pelves and crania. at-
test to the high degree of preservation. Once again, as
with red deer the numbe r of small bone elements in
disproportionately low indicating recovery biases du-
ring excavation or their absence from that part of the
site, The absence of loose teeth from ali hut one of
the wild ungulate taxa (aurochs, red and roc dee r) iii
intiguing especially considering the dearth of mandib-
les and maxillae for these taxa. A p::lssible explanation
for this distribution may be that mandibular and maxi-
llary elements were abandoned at kill sites, with the
exception of red deer mandibles. None of the remains
show any evidence [or weathering, butchering. gna-
wing, burning, or modification into tools/ornaments.
None of the bones were me asurable due to their state
of fragmentation or immmaturity.
The age distribution of roc deer remains is also
relative ly unusual [or a hunted species in this area. A
relatively large number of the ageable remains belong
to immature individuals (94.5%), possibly indicating
(as among red deer) a focus upon immaturc individu-
als during the hunting season or se lective hunting du-
ring the lime of the year when younger ah'C gro ups arc
particularly prevalent in the population and susceptib-
le to discovery. No antler remains were found altac-
hed or unattachcd to crania. 'The presence of infantile
remains would indicate al least a spring occupation of
the sitc.
 Faunal Remains from the 5:lrly Neolithic Slareevo Settlement ...
C8. Brown Bear (Unus Arctos)
A single proximal radius frah>ment o f a suba-
dult/ad ult brown bear was found. It was not measura-
ble due to its dama!,ocd state.
C9. Beaver (Caslor fiber)
A total of eight beaver specimens we re ide ntified.
representing a NISP of 2.9% and a MNI of 3, among
the identified taxa. Beaver ranked e ighth in NISP and
seventh in MNI frequency at the site. The substantial
percentage of beaver remains in the assemblage was
another interesting surprise. It makes this asse mblage
distinctive from most o the r StarCcvo sites. whe re the
percentage of beaver remains usually is a small fracti-
o n of a percent, and may be a reflection of e ither se-
lective hunting strategies at the site o f their
prevalence in the surrounding riverine wetla nds.
The surface and articular ends of the bones were
relatively well preserved, with no evidence of weathe-
ring. gnawing, butchering. burning, or modification in-
to tools/ornaments. Most o f the rcmains belong to
adults (57.0%). although the number of immature
specimens in higher when compared with other as-
semblages. Most of the immature remains belonged
to juveniles (28.6%). Subadults are the smallest group
(14.3% ). The beaver specimens are now in the posses-
sio n of the PaleontologicaJ-Geological Inst itute in
Zagreb fo r further metrical analysis.
ClO. Freshwater Mussels (Unio piclonlm)
Thirteen separate fragments of fre shwater mus-
sels were found in the collection.
CI I. Fish (Pisces sp. )
A small number of fish (Pisces) remains (NISP
29; 10.6% of taxa) were present but not identified.
These were sent for more taxonomically specific
analysis to Dick Brinkhuizen. Biologisch-Archaeolo-
gisch Institut, G roningen, Netherlands.
D. SlIT SEASONALlTI'
The tooth eruption sequence from the three ovi-
caprine juvenile mandibles implies that they were sla-
ughtered as relatively young juveniles (less than 6
months olds). If we assume the same timing of birth as
among lambs and kids (and other species considered
below) born in the region today (FebruarylMarch),
the high [requency of juveniles and infants may imply
that the site was occupied at least during the late
spring-latc summe r. This time of year coincides with
111
traditional modern and historical seasonal exploatati-
o n of the surrounding wet lands. The presence of in-
fan ts and young juveniles among the domestic pig
remains also indicates that the settlement was occupi-
ed at least during the late spring and summer. The
presence of infantile roe dee r remains also indicate at
least a spring occupation of the site. -[bc remains of
two red deer antlers are still attached to their respec-
tive crania. Since both see m to have been fu lly develo-
ped antlers, this mav indicate that the animals had
been killed some li~e between late in the autumn
when antle rs are fuly grown and the early spring when
antlers are shed. These data, when coupled with the
ovicaprine and domestic pig age distritubions, may ex-
tend the probable scason of occupatio n at the site
from possibly as early as the late fell/early winte r into
the summer.
E. DISCUSSION
Anlhough the assemblage [rom Bukovacka ces-
ma is relative ly small and fraught with collection bia-
ses, the sample is still worth considering. The faunal
sample can be characterized by a predominance o[ fa-
una. This assemblage is relatively unusua l when com-
pared with most of the other contemporary Starcevo
sites, outside of the Iron Gates. The distribution of [a-
unal remains, which is relatively high, is more similar
to those from the Mesolithic hunter-gathere r Iron
Gates refugium than from other Starcevo sites beyo-
und the Iron Gates. There is no reason to assume that
Bukovacka cesma was inhabided by hunter-gatherers,
since alternative explanations exist. The preponderan-
ce of wild fauna cannon be entirely attributed to col-
lection methodology since wild arumals arc generally
not larger than domestic animals. If anuthing, many
wild taxa are smaller (e.g. beaver and fish) and would
= be more difficult to recover by hand, which would un-
derrepresent the wild component of the assemblage.
For example, fish remains are poorly collected by
hand . If they already reprsent 10% of the Bukovacka
Cesma assemblage, they were probably present in even
greale r frequencies before excavation. The surroun-
ding environment and its relationship 10 the subsis-
tence economy is a more important variable in
understanding wild: domestic distributions. The site
overlooks a marshy flood plain and the high wild fre -
quency may be a reflection of the exploita tion of the
rich wild resources in the surrounding wetlands.
Bukovacka cesma is presently one of a handful of
Ea rly Neolithic Starcevo sites from the central Bal-
kans with analyzed fauna l remains. While the fa una
from Bukovacka cesma is one of the sma ller samples
from the region and likely to be skewed by the effects
112 Haskel J. Greenfield

of sample size, this does not mean that we cannot Je- Sus scmfa
am anything from it. The analysis of the Bukovacka UM3 length breadth
tesma faunal remains adds new light upon the diver- 08-05 40.0 24.0 (wi
sity of Early Neolithic subsistence strategies and sland LM3 length breadth
in contrast to earlier studies o f the earliest food pro- 06-<J6 m 18.0 (wi
ducing communities in the central Balkans which have 0S-<l3 47.3 29.1 (wI
generally attempted to show that subsistence econo- Upper Canine greatest diameter
mies were largely oriented towards domestic econo- Il8-04 11.5 female
mies. Scapula SLC GLr LG BG
03-01 3O~ '4S 3S~ 32.0 (wi
Humerus Bd B. OdO
APPENDIX 1: Bone Measurements (mm.) Dr
OS-<>I 68.6 45.5 56 .. (wi
All abbreviations for measurements taken from 08-05 89.0 (wi
Von den Driesch, 1976, with the exception of those 08-05 59.0 46.4 57.2 (wi
with an asterisk(·). These are defined below as: Rad ium B,. BF, De
Dd - greatest depth o f distal end OS-<ll 40,2 'Q2 29.2 (wi
Dp - greatest depth o f proximal end Ulna LO DPA SDO BPC
GD - greatest depth 05-07 "
27.0 (wi
Other Abbreviations: 03-01 77.0 56.5 47.8 3O~ (Wi
Z - measured on damaged points 06-0S 3O~ (Wi
w -wild Fibula GL B,
d -domestic 0S-<l3 7<1 11.1 (dl
Mlragab Gil G'm
1rench - DiUing level
08-<l1 53.6 46.1 (wi
Boup.
0S-<l3 493 44.3 (wi
LM3 length breadth domestic sex Calcaneus GL GB
!wild
03-0, 28.0 (w)
05-06 43.0 17.0 (dl
CerYus elaphus
03-23 17.3 (dl
Odo Cranium 36 39 .0 41
H umerus Bd B,
03-01 281.0 204.5 223.5
09-<J3 85.1 77.2 84.3 (dl
Radius B, BF, 03-04 14~
De
Tibia B, De Bd Od2
09-<l3 87.2 BO.O 42.2 (dl
09-<>3 95.1 87. 4 49.5
08-<l1 56.3 43.0
(dl
Metacarpus B, 0, DO Bd Dd
08-05 .. > 74.0 -
Astragalus Gil Glm DI Om Bd
OS-<16 24.4 32.2

.
60.' (dl
03-03 59.8 54.3 32.0 34.1 31.0
05-06 34.7 11.2 37.4 (w?)
QO.02
09-<12
22.5
51.5
32.4
32.0
(dl
(dl
0S-<13
03-04 , 60.1
33~
34.6
33.2
36.'
39.8
39.0
08-05 68. 4 54.0 32.1 33.4 37.1
09-<>3 56.8 34.' (dl
09-<J3
M etatars us ., 0, DO
",
Bd
38.2:2: (d)
Od
Calca neus
08-05
GL GB
31.5

04-<15
QO.02 25.4 '"
53.1
34.3
»0
(dl
(dl
Tibia Bd
05-<16 61.0 (dl
Astraga lus Gil Glm 01 Dm Bd
06-<IS 68.' 6>' 38.7 39.3 40,6 (dl
09-{)3 n.1 73. 4 42.5 43.6 41.7 (dl
09-<J3 70.. 40.0 (dl
Cuboid GB GDo
09-<l3 55.0 49.2 (dl
09-<l3 60.' (d) UDe 5621569"6343"(497.1 1)
 Faunal Remains from the Early Neolithic Starcevo Settlement ...
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