Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Carlomagno 3
Carlomagno 3
Fianna
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.
Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.
King's Warband
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.
Kerns
Although the word ‘ceithern’ - pronounced ‘kern’ – simply refers to a group of fighters, they were one of
two essential components of later Celtic Irish armies, the other being gallowglasses. Often found fighting as
light infantry and occasionally light cavalry, kerns were very much designed to provide skirmishing support
to their heavy infantry counterparts. However, the training afforded them and the eventual roles kerns
filled very much depended on the needs of their clan. Although their stock-in-trade was the execution of
surprise skirmish attacks, after which they would melt back behind the gallowglasses, kerns occasionally
engaged in melee and could easily run down fleeing routers. On the battlefield kerns wore a light leather
coat, rather than the heavy chainmail favoured by the gallowglasses, which ensured unrestricted
movement. They also carried a variety of missiles, often sporting darts but also slings and javelins on
occasion.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.
Gazehounds
Dogs have always been useful for guard, patrol and scout work. With skilled handlers they can also be used
effectively on the battlefield. Attack dogs were specifically bred and trained to ignore the noise and chaos
of combat. Taught to attack on command, they were starved a little to ensure aggression before being
unleashed upon enemy formations as a savage wave. Faced with a pack of foaming, hungry dogs many men
naturally broke or faltered, opening gaps in a battle line that could then be exploited by melee troops.
King's Warband
In Celtic Ireland, ‘fianna’ were independent bands of men and women, often aristocratic but yet to inherit,
who proved their mettle in service of a local lord. As such, they were supplied with food and shelter during
the winter months in return for keeping the peace. In the summer, the members of the fianna – known as
‘fian’ – had to hunt for their own food, making additional income from selling the pelts of animals they had
eaten. Fianna and their exploits are featured heavily in Irish folklore, particularly the Ulster Cycle - in which
a band of twenty-seven fian are led by the druid Cathbad - and the Fenian Cycle – in which the mythical
warrior Fionn mac Cumhaill leads them to victory against the enemies of the High King.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was
still a rarity at that time.
Kerns
Although the word ‘ceithern’ - pronounced ‘kern’ – simply refers to a group of fighters, they were one of
two essential components of later Celtic Irish armies, the other being gallowglasses. Often found fighting as
light infantry and occasionally light cavalry, kerns were very much designed to provide skirmishing support
to their heavy infantry counterparts. However, the training afforded them and the eventual roles kerns
filled very much depended on the needs of their clan. Although their stock-in-trade was the execution of
surprise skirmish attacks, after which they would melt back behind the gallowglasses, kerns occasionally
engaged in melee and could easily run down fleeing routers. On the battlefield kerns wore a light leather
coat, rather than the heavy chainmail favoured by the gallowglasses, which ensured unrestricted
movement. They also carried a variety of missiles, often sporting darts but also slings and javelins on
occasion.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.
Royal Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
Select Axemen
The 'fyrd' was, in the simplest terms, a levy of ordinary farmers - 'freemen', in the parlance of the times,
meaning those not tied to a lord as vassals. The infrequent but bloody struggles between the Anglo-Saxon
kingdoms during the early Middle Ages, and the Viking threat that followed, meant that the process of
levying troops to fight was still necessary. If people are fighting for their very homes and livelihoods - not
just a distant figurehead of a monarch - they tend to have a sense of purpose and urgency. Courage can
come later, bolstered by massed ranks in the mean time, as can proficiency - there was rarely much time
set aside for training amateurs before a battle. Originally, every able man was recruited to fight but this
revealed a flaw in that if a war or struggle became protracted, or if too many people died, then there would
be nobody to work the fields at its conclusion. To this end, the Anglo-Saxons developed what we now call
the "select" system, where only those deemed most able would be chosen to join the fyrd. The remainder
would stay at work, creating a surplus of provisions and equipment for both the marching army and those left behind in
order to sustain the realm and improve the army's chances of victory. In practice, the majority of men were not levied,
so many were expected to service the war machine in other practical ways. The fyrd were called upon on many
occasions during the years of the Viking invasions, most famously to fight the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada at the
Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066, just weeks before the cataclysmic Saxon defeat at Hastings.
Thegns
As retainers of the Anglo-Saxon king, 'thegns' were de-facto noblemen, though in reality they ranked
between freemen and those of actual noble blood. These men were, and had always been, warriors,
rallying to their king's side during wartime to command the army. Some thegns became more powerful still,
being directly involved with the running of the Saxon state in addition to their military duties. Despite this,
thegns still formed the backbone of Anglo-Saxon armies and as such were better trained and equipped than
the common, levied fyrd. In the past, their equivalent - the 'gesith' - were the tribal leader's personal
companions, his stalwart retainers, champions, and defenders on the battlefield. Eventually, following the
emergence of the European kingdoms during the Dark Ages, their services were rewarded with lands and
titles as a precursor to the concept of fealty and vassalage.
Fyrd Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and simultaneously
increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the slingshot can be flung a large
distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people grew up throwing stones found on the river
beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready
supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of
low status in society, and therefore in battle, slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing
a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard
the slingers as they unleashed their missiles. Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or
cavalry.
Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior French army.
Select Archers
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Anglo-Saxon armies they were never used in large
numbers, as traditional military values placed greater importance on melee infantry and the glory to be
gained through hand-to-hand combat; for instance, only one archer is depicted amongst the English forces
on the Bayeux Tapestry. Whilst a thegn may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon,
standard fyrdmen would not have had that advantage. Those who were, however, commonly used the
longbow - which became more common across Europe during the early Middle Ages. Made of yew or ash,
with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to selfbows. British proponents of the
longbow, mainly the English and Welsh, became renowned for their skill with the weapon in later centuries
- the most famous example being the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, when English archers were key to the
defeat of a supposedly-superior French army.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the
Roman period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades,
with triangular pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right
across Europe. Swords during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the
Danes through either trade or, as is more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions.
Although they were all of a roughly similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although
they were more speedily produced, mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control
that went with it, was still a rarity at that time.
Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.
Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.
Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.
Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager made use of a
sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot through torsion. As
the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam was incorporated
into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the
incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed
wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
REINO DE POWYS
Kingdom of Powys (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Teulu
The 'teulu' were the personal bodyguard of the Welsh chieftains. They followed a tradition common in
other Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies of the time, whereby close companions and retainers to the lord
or king fought alongside him in battle with unwavering loyalty and skill. In this way they are analogous to
the hearth companions of the Saxons and the housecarls of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Teulu literally
means 'family', which implies the close bond they shared with their lord. Riding into battle carrying spears
and shields, clad in mail, they were in many ways much like early knights. On the battlefield they were
visibly-similar, charging down their enemies with spear or lance in their lord's name.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the
Roman period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades,
with triangular pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right
across Europe. Swords during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the
Danes through either trade or, as is more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions.
Although they were all of a roughly similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although
they were more speedily produced, mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control
that went with it, was still a rarity at that time.
Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.
Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.
Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.
Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot
through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam
was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten
crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly
constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
REINO DE GWYNEDD
Kingdom of Gwynedd (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Teulu
The 'teulu' were the personal bodyguard of the Welsh chieftains. They followed a tradition common in
other Anglo-Saxon and Germanic societies of the time, whereby close companions and retainers to the lord
or king fought alongside him in battle with unwavering loyalty and skill. In this way they are analogous to
the hearth companions of the Saxons and the housecarls of the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. Teulu literally
means 'family', which implies the close bond they shared with their lord. Riding into battle carrying spears
and shields, clad in mail, they were in many ways much like early knights. On the battlefield they were
visibly-similar, charging down their enemies with spear or lance in their lord's name.
Swordsmen
Originally a rare weapon of quite some prestige, the sword became more common in the early Middle
Ages, with blades produced on a larger scale to more standardised specifications. The spatha of the Roman
period became the basis of Viking and Carolingian longswords. These single-handed blades, with triangular
pommels and short grips, were widely used, not only by the Viking Danes but right across Europe. Swords
during the era were chiefly produced by the Franks and obtained by the Danes through either trade or, as is
more likely, raiding, pillaging and looting of Frankish possessions. Although they were all of a roughly
similar length, there were variances of several inches as, although they were more speedily produced,
mass-production of arms and armour, and the standardisation and quality control that went with it, was still a rarity at
that time.
Welsh Archers
As far as the Celts were concerned, the best way to kill a man was in hand-to-hand combat. They thought
there was great value in personal bravery and there was no honour in killing from a distance. Even so,
slingers, javelinmen and archers still had their place on the battlefield. It was often the only way that some
Celts could go to war; warriors paid for their own equipment, so only the wealthy could afford, or had the
right to carry, fine armour and weapons. Skirmishers were usually the poor - freemen who served as clients
to the noble class. While they could never hope to achieve the same status as their noble masters, they
could still prove their worth in the cut and thrust of battle.
Welsh Longbowmen
Whilst archers had their place in the battle lines of Celtic armies, they were never used in large numbers, as
traditional military values places important on melee infantry and the glory of hand-to-hand combat.
Whilst a noble may have been trained in how to use a bow as a hunting weapon, the standard freeman
would not have had such training, unless he were a forest-dweller, where hunting was crucial to survival.
Those who were, however, used the longbow that became common amongst the northwestern European
peoples. Made of yew or ash, with bowstrings of looped and corded linen, longbows were superior to
smaller varieties, particularly in Britain, where English and Welsh longbowmen became renowned for their
skill in later centuries.
Levy Spearmen
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for promotion on
merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the
time to learn and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one
in battle in short space of time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to
stop enemy swords and spears travelling down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for
deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally, the development of heavy cavalry led to longer,
heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced to unseat horsemen or massed to
create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield to provide
additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly effective against
cavalry charges.
Royal Horsemen
Most armies of the early Middle Ages relied heavily on foot soldiers. This was due to the large number of
low-status soldiers with little equipment of their own – certainly not horses – and little real training to
speak of. In fact, cavalry-heavy forces were not generally part of the military fashion of the time until the
development of the stirrup and the peaked saddle made them more attractive to the western powers. The
stirrup increased the endurance, manoeuvrability and speed of the horse and reduced its rider's fatigue as
the animal was easier to control; this, along with advances in armour technology, meant cavalry – now as
heavy as the eastern cataphracts of antiquity - once again became a fixture on the battlefield.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks or shot
through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the projectile. A padded beam
was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines could require as many as eight or ten
crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly
constructed wherever wood was readily available, onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
REINO DE ASTURIAS
Kingdom of Asturias (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Royal Guard Cavalry
As long as there have been kings and queens, there has been an elite cadre of men charged with defending
them. From Philip of Macedon's Somatophylakes or the Roman Praetorian Guard to the Mongolian Kheshig
or the Forbidden Troops of Tang Dynasty China, the very best military men have always defended their
leaders. The proximity that royal guards had to their rulers often meant that the political power they
wielded was amplified to the point that crises would often be determined by which side the royal
defenders backed; if they stayed loyal, then the leadership often survived, but if they defected, the ruler
would be supplanted in favour of a candidate of their choosing, if not one of their own.
Royal Guardsmen
As long as there have been kings and queens, there has been an elite cadre of men charged with defending
them. From Philip of Macedon's Somatophylakes or the Roman Praetorian Guard to the Mongolian Kheshig
or the Forbidden Troops of Tang Dynasty China, the very best military men have always defended their
leaders. The proximity that royal guards had to their rulers often meant that the political power they
wielded was amplified to the point that crises would often be determined by which side the royal
defenders backed; if they stayed loyal, then the leadership often survived, but if they defected, the ruler would be
supplanted in favour of a candidate of their choosing, if not one of their own.
Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Noble Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Spearmen
The spear has been around almost as long as people have, having been employed for hunting and fishing
long before war. A versatile weapon, it could be held in either one or both hands and used for thrusting in
melee, throwing during skirmishes, or braced in formation to stop cavalry charges. The spear was the most
commonly-used weapon through antiquity and remained so into the Middle Ages; elite warriors had the time to learn
and master the polearm, yet the common man could also be taught the basics of handling one in battle in short space of
time. Unearthed Saxon spears have broad heads with wings along the blade to stop enemy swords and spears travelling
down it, whereas others are thinner and longer to allow for deeper penetration when stabbing opponents. Naturally,
the development of heavy cavalry led to longer, heavier variants (the lance) and then to pikes – which could be braced
to unseat horsemen or massed to create an almost impenetrable wall. Most spearmen of the period also carried a shield
to provide additional defence and make spear or shield walls, which were virtually impenetrable and particularly
effective against cavalry charges.
Ambushers
Due to its sound logical reasoning, the ambush remains one of the most ancient and enduring military
tactics. Essentially, a surprised enemy, and one who is hopefully surrounded at the time, can be defeated
more swiftly and easily. Learned on the hunt, the skills needed to successfully ambush were first tested by
early man against the beasts he hunted for food. Some of the most famous ambushes of history
demonstrate the form's devastating potential, such as Hannibal's surprise attack on Roman forces at the
River Trebia in 218BC and Arminius' resounding victory at the Teutoburg Forest, where his men descended
from the forests to cut a Roman Legion to pieces. For the wise military commander, any forest or mountain
pass presented an opportunity to lay an ambush or, if not scouted and traversed with sufficient care, to be
ambushed.
Tribesmen
The Kingdom of Asturias was built atop the remnants of the Visigothic Kingdom, shattered by the Umayyad
Caliphate's invasion during the first half of the 8th century AD. As such, many societal and military styles of
earlier periods survived into the Asturian era. Aspects of old Iberian tribal culture were still alive and as a
result Muslim forces encountered more difficulty capturing territory in the north. Its lack of modern, urban
centres forced the fight out into the countryside - topography that the Asturians knew far better than the
invaders and used to their advantage. In fact, the fledgling kingdom - founded by the Visigothic noble
Pelagius - united the many displaced Christians against the Muslim threat. It was largely populated with
Gothic refugees from the Umayyad conquest, who had refused to convert to Islam and submit to the
caliphate's rule. As such, whilst Christian knights and soldiers became commonplace, tribal warriors
remained an integral part of the Asturian military model, leading the kingdom to its first victory at the
Battle of Covadonga in AD711.
Levy Skirmishers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
Levy Skirmishers
Levies could be quickly mustered, outfitted and turned into an army whether citizens or subjects. Usually
commanded by nobles or local dignitaries, levies supplemented the elite professional soldiers; the king
would order his subordinates to muster troops and gather at an appointed time and place. These noblemen
brought their households, attendant warriors, and levies. Over time there was a gradual move away from
citizen and subject recruits to professional standing armies and greater use of mercenaries. Both classes
were formerly levies who saw warfare as a career rather than a duty. In turn, this opened the way for
promotion on merit rather than birth, creating armies loyal to generals rather than the old social order.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad.
Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the
Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
TAIFA DE BARCELONA
Taifa of Barcelona (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in Al-Andalus,
as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite units were drawn from
the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was reserved for the elite of the slave
military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory, Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with
status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks
continued to grow, they began occupying positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian
administrations, eventually toppling their masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri
dynasty.
Andalusian Warriors
Men who signed up to fight in the Andalusian armies of the Umayyad Caliphate were usually motivated by
their religious beliefs, as was generally the case right across the burgeoning Islamic empire. Spain was an
extremely wealthy territory due to its iron and silver resources. These seams, mined by both Carthage and
Rome in centuries past, were reopened by the Umayyads, who then used the resultant wealth to import
well-made weapons and armour from across Europe as well as creating their own. Less is known about
Andalusian infantry than their cavalry, save that they represented the bulk of Umayyad armies in the region
at a time when its cavalry was considered inferior and insufficient for purpose compared to that of their
western European rivals.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and
skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general
according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the
world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were
not a common sight in western Umayyad armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the
caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of
Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers
and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the
Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy
their loyal mamluks against both rivals and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their
missiles. Sl
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military divisions -
consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally
speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat the Romans at
such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the Muslim forces
stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
TAIFA DE TOLEDO
Taifa of Toledo (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in Al-Andalus,
as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite units were drawn from
the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was reserved for the elite of the slave
military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory, Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with
status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks
continued to grow, they began occupying positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian
administrations, eventually toppling their masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri
dynasty.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and
skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general
according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the
world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were
not a common sight in western Umayyad armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the
caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of
Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers
and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the
Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy
their loyal mamluks against both rivals and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad.
Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were generally given cheaper armour and
equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered
by foreign mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders,
beyond Transoxiana, the mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the
guard. This was for two reasons; freed slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from
outside the caliphate would be far less likely to intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces
became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west
augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of native Iberian and Visigothic
settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as peacekeepers contributed
greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks against both rivals
and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful asset for the
Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
EMIRATO DE GRANADA
Emirate of Granada (Age of Charlemagne) Melee Cavalry
Umayyad Guard Cavalry
The Umayyad military was a mixture of traditional Muslim warriors, descended from the Syrian garrisons in
Al-Andalus, as well as local Andalusian converts to Islam and Berber people from Africa. Although the elite
units were drawn from the Andalusian garrisons, the role of the caliph's personal guard - or 'hasham' - was
reserved for the elite of the slave military class - the Mamluks. Right across the caliphate's territory,
Mamluks formed the bulk of the armed forces, with status beyond that of a normal slave and even of a free
citizen. As the centuries passed, the influence of the Mamluks continued to grow, they began occupying
positions of increasing seniority in both the military and civilian administrations, eventually toppling their
masters in Egypt during the 13th century to become the sultans of the Bahri dynasty.
Andalusian Skirmishers
Until very recently, when mechanisation reduced the amount of close-quarters fighting required,
skirmishers were used to harass, never giving the enemy pause to regroup and distracting them until melee
troops or cavalry could pin them down. In the ancient world, particularly among the 'civilised' states of the
Mediterranean, many skirmishers were considered highly skilled, with places such as Crete and the Balearic
Islands specialising in producing first class archers, slingers and javelineers. In the north and west of Europe,
such weapons were generally thought considered cowardly - only fighting hand-to-hand in melee carried
the required amount of honour and glory with it. As antiquity gave way to the Middle Ages, and tribal
society subsided to the more hierarchical feudal system, good skirmishers were highly valued once again.
Aside from the longbow, the javelin remained their favoured weapon, particularly when fighting from
horseback; a rider could hurl his weapon at the enemy and be far away before they had time to react. If
they were foolish enough to turn and face the threat, they could be blinded to an infantry or cavalry charge bearing
down upon them.
Andalusian Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained
biased in favour of infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from
the native Andalusian and north African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both
melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be
changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which they were presented. Despite
advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east - skirmishing remained
primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western Umayyad
armies of the period.
Armoured Archers
Although the amount of cavalry fielded by the Umayyads increased over time, the numbers remained biased in favour of
infantry (and weight of numbers at that) for much of the early Middle Ages. Drawn from the native Andalusian and north
African Berber populations, infantrymen had to be proficient in both melee and skirmishing techniques and carried both
axes and bows, so their battlefield role could be changed by the general according to the tactical situation with which
they were presented. Despite advances in horse archery elsewhere in the world - and particularly in the east -
skirmishing remained primarily an infantry role; horse archers were used, but were not a common sight in western
Umayyad armies of the period.
Slingers
The sling is one of the oldest ranged weapons in existence, possibly dating back to before the Neolithic
period. Its use throughout history is evidenced by depictions upon Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, as well as
those of later times, such as Trajan's Column and the Bayeux Tapestry. A sling is essentially a length of
material (usually leather, but sometimes stretched pig bladder) with a cradle in the centre to hold a stone.
The slinger then holds the ends and spins the sling to generate momentum. By extending his arm and
simultaneously increasing the force of the spin, then releasing the stone at the precise moment, the
slingshot can be flung a large distance - far greater than would be possible without it. Many young people
grew up throwing stones found on the river beds of Europe, giving them a natural advantage when applying
the skill to combat. Rocks and stones were in ready supply so, whilst spears may have needed repair after a
battle, slingers were always well provisioned. Often people of low status in society, and therefore in battle,
slingers would typically take up position behind veteran warriors, providing a blanket of slingshots to hamper the enemy
when charging. In return, the veterans would use their shields to safeguard the slingers as they unleashed their missiles.
Slingshot could be an effective weapon against close enemy formations or cavalry.
Berber Spearmen
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Berber Warriors
The Berbers were one of the most tenacious and stubborn ethnic groups encountered by the Umayyads
during their conquests. The caliphate did not have the strength to successfully subjugate all corners of its
holdings, so the westernmost Berbers remained relatively independent and able to pursue their own goals,
including expansion into the Byzantine-controlled Theme of Sicily. The western Umayyad 'jund' - or military
divisions - consisted in large part of Berbers, leading the charge into Al-Andalus under the command of
Tariq ibn Ziyad. Generally speaking, Berber armies were considered to be of lower quality and were
generally given cheaper armour and equipment than their Andalusian counterparts.
Umayyad Guardsmen
The personal guard of the Umayyad caliphs, drawn from the ranks of the mamluk slave army and bolstered by foreign
mercenaries, was known as the 'hasham'. Captured beyond the caliphate's eastern borders, beyond Transoxiana, the
mamluks (or ghilman) were trained in captivity and freed on appointment to the guard. This was for two reasons; freed
slaves owed a debt of duty to their former masters and those from outside the caliphate would be far less likely to
intrigue or join an insurrection against it. Mamluk forces became the backbone of Islamic military power in the eastern
empire, but the Cordoban caliphs of the west augmented their armies with Berbers and native Andalusians (a mix of
native Iberian and Visigothic settlers). The proliferation of mamluk soldiers across the Umayyad Caliphate as
peacekeepers contributed greatly to its later destabilisation, as commanders were able to levy their loyal mamluks
against both rivals and the central authorities alike.
Horsemen
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Berber Light Cavalry
When the Umayyads first conquered the Iberian Peninsula in AD711, they did so under the command of a
Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, at the direction of the caliph. The Berbers were a collection of diverse people from
right across northern Africa who came into contact with Islam during its conquests of the 7th century AD.
Although their compliance was hard-won, the Berbers did become a crucial and distinct part of Muslim
society, distinguishing themselves rather than simply vanishing into the homogenous mass of subject
citizens. They formed significant portions of the "junds", the divisions of the caliphate's army. The Berbers
were known particularly for their breed of horse - the 'Barb', renowned for its endurance and strength. The
Barb was descended from the Numidian breeds used by Hannibal during the Second Punic War to defeat
the Romans at such climactic battles as Cannae, in 216BC. As a result, Berber horsemen were a powerful
asset for the Muslim forces stationed in Spain.
Bastion Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.
Onager
One of the simplest forms of one-armed catapult, the onager relied on twisted skeins of animal sinew
which provided the power to hurl either rocks or shot. Inaccurate but powerful, it was an effective siege
machine against buildings and fortifications, but was of far less use on the battlefield unless firing into
massed infantry ranks. First mentioned by Philon of Byzantium in his treatise on ‘Mechanics’, the onager
made use of a sling-like cradle attached to a firing arm. This arm was inserted, twisted, and propelled rocks
or shot through torsion. As the firing arm was released, the sling-like cradle would unhook, firing the
projectile. A padded beam was incorporated into the housing frame to restrain the arm. Larger machines
could require as many as eight or ten crewmen, and the incredible recoil meant that they could not be
easily or safely mounted on walls or towers. Quickly constructed wherever wood was readily available,
onagers soon became a staple of siege warfare.