Derivative and Its Appli

ations
2
2.1 Definition and Basic Formulas of Derivative

2.1.1 Definition of Derivative

Slope of a straight line

Let A(x0 , y 0 ) and B(x1 , y 1 ) be points on the x y-plane. Suppose that x0 6= x1 , and let L be the line
passing through points A and B.

L b

B(x1 , y 1 )
P (x, y)
b

A(x0 , y 0 ) x
O
b

C D

y − y0 y1 − y0 y1 − y0
Let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point on L. Then = . The ratio is called the slope
x − x0 x1 − x0 x1 − x0
(or gradient) of the line L, which determines the rate of change (at any point) of the line.

Limit of a function

Let y = f (x). If as x gets close to a (but not equal to a), f (x) approaches a fixed number L
(x → a ⇒ f (x) → L), then the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, denoted by lim f (x) = L.
x→a
In particular, if y = f (x) is a polynomial, then lim f (x) = f (a) for any a ∈ R.
x→a
If as x gets close to a (but not equal to a), f (x) gets arbitrary large (x → a ⇒ f (x) → ∞), then
we write lim f (x) = ∞; lim f (x) = −∞ is defined similarly.
x→a x→a

24
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 25

Theorem 2.1.1. If f (x) = g (x) for all x near a (except possibly at a), then lim f (x) = lim g (x) = L.
x→a x→a

Example 2.1.2. Note that for all x 6= 1, (x 2 − 1)/(x − 1) = (x − 1)(x + 1)/(x − 1) = x + 1. Then

x2 − 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 1 + 1 = 2.
x→1 x − 1 x→1

Theorem 2.1.3 (Limit Rules). Suppose that lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M. Then
x→a x→a

(i) lim [ f (x) ± g (x)] = L ± M.

x→a
(ii) lim f (x)g (x) = LM.
x→a
(iii) lim [ f (x)/g (x)] = L/M, if M 6= 0.
x→a
(iv) If f (x) ≤ g (x) for all x near a (except possibly at a), then L ≤ M.

Consider any curve y = f (x).

(i) Fix the point P (a, f (a)) on the curve. Let Q(x, f (x)) be another point on the curve.
(ii) Connect P and Q. The slope of the line through P and Q is m PQ = [ f (x) − f (a)]/(x − a).
(iii) Let Q approach P , i.e., x → a. Then the line through P and Q approaches the tangent line
of y = f (x) at x = a.

Example 2.1.4. Find the tangent line of y = x 2 at x = 1.

y
•
m PQ = x 2 −1 Q(x, x 2 )
x−1•

b
P (1, 1) x
O

Solution. Fix P (1, 1) and let Q(x, x 2 ) be another point on the parabola y = x 2 . Then the slope of
the line passing through P and Q is m PQ = (x 2 − 1)/(x − 1). So the slope of the tangent line at
x = 1 is (refer to Example 2.1.2)
x2 − 1
m = lim = 2.
x→1 x − 1

Hence, the tangent line of y = x 2 at x = 1 is y = 2(x − 1) + 1, i.e., y = 2x − 1.

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 26

Definitions

Let y = f (x) be a function, and P (a, f (a)) a point on its graph. The derivative of y = f (x) with
respect to x at x = a is the slope of the tangent line of y = f (x) at x = a, denoted by f ′ (a).
Let ∆x = x − a(6= 0) be the change in x-coordinate from P to Q, and ∆y = f (x) − f (a) be the
change in y-coordinate. Then the slope of the line through P and Q is ∆y/∆x; and
¯ ¯
′ ∆y d y ¯¯ d f ¯¯
f (a) = lim = = .
∆x→0 ∆x d x ¯x=a d x ¯x=a

It determines the rate of change of y = f (x) at x = a.

¯
In Example 2.1.4, if y = f (x) = x 2 , then f ′ (1) = (d y/d x)¯ = 2.
¯
x=1
Let y = f (x) be a function. Then its tangent line at x = a is the line through the point (a, f (a))
with slope f ′ (a):
y = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a) .

Its normal line at x = a is the line through the point (a, f (a)) and perpendicular to the tangent
line at x = a, i.e., of slope −1/ f ′ (a) (provided that f ′ (a) 6= 0):

y = −1/ f ′ (a) · (x − a) + f (a) .

As in Example 2.1.4, the tangent line to y = x 2 at x = 1 is y = 2(x − 1) + 1, i.e., y = 2x − 1, and

the normal line at x = 1 is y = −1/2 · (x − 1) + 1, i.e., y = −x/2 + 3/2.

A function y = f (x) is differentiable at a if the graph of y = f (x) has a tangent line at x = a.

In this course, we shall only consider differentiable functions.
Suppose that y = f (x) is differentiable. Then its derived function (or the derivative) with
respect to x
dy d f d d
f ′ (x) = = = y= f
dx dx dx dx
¯
is the function so that f ′ (a) = (d y/d x)¯ at each a.
¯
x=a

Example 2.1.5. Find f ′ (x) if (i) f (x) = c, where c is a constant, (ii) f (x) = x, and (iii) f (x) = x 2 .

∆y
Solution. (i) Let y = f (x) = c. Then ∆y = 0, and = 0 → 0 as ∆x → 0. So f ′ (x) = 0.
∆x
∆y ∆x
(ii) Let y = f (x) = x. Then ∆y = ∆x, and = = 1 → 1 as ∆x → 0. So f ′ (x) = 1.
∆x ∆x
∆y (x + ∆x)2 − x 2 2x∆x + (∆x)2
(iii) Let y = x 2 . Then = = = 2x + ∆x → 2x as ∆x → 0. Hence,
∆x ∆x ∆x

f ′ (x) = 2x.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 27

2.1.2 Differentiation Formulas

Differentiation rules

Theorem 2.1.6. Let y = f (x) and z = g (x) be two functions and c be a constant.

d dy
(i) (c y) = c .
dx dx
d dy dz
(ii) (y + z) = + .
dx dx dx
d dy dz
(iii) (y z) = z +y .
dx dx dx
d ³ y ´ z (d y/d x) − y (d z/d x)
(iv) = , if z 6= 0.
dx z z2
d ³ x ´
Example 2.1.7. Find .
d x x2 + 1
2 dx d 2
d ³ x ´ (x + 1) d x − x d x (x + 1) (x 2 + 1) · 1 − x · (2x + 0) 1 − x2
Solution. = = = .
d x x2 + 1 (x 2 + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)2 (x 2 + 1)2

d n
Example 2.1.8. Use mathematical induction to prove that (x ) = nx n−1 for every positive
dx
integer n.

d n
Proof. Let P (n) be the statement (x ) = nx n−1 .
dx
d 1
Initial step: P (1) is the statement (x ) = 1x 1−1 :
dx
dx
LHS = = 1 = 1x 0 = RHS.
dx
Hence, P (1) is true.
d k
Inductive step: Assume that P (k) is true for some positive integer k, i.e., (x ) = kx k−1 . We
dx
d k+1
shall verify that P (k + 1) is also true, i.e., (x ) = (k + 1)x (k+1)−1 :
dx
d k+1 d k d k d
(x )= (x · x) = x (x ) + x k (x)
dx dx dx dx
= x · kx k−1 + x k · 1 = kx k + x k = (k + 1)x k = (k + 1)x (k+1)−1 .

Hence, P (k + 1) is also true.

d n
By mathematical induction, P (n) is true for every positive integer n, i.e., (x ) = nx n−1 .
dx
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 28

Theorem 2.1.9 (Chain Rule). Let y = f (x) and z = g (y). Then z = g ( f (x)) and

dz dz dy
= · .
dx dy dx

The chain rule can be illustrated as follows:

dy dz
dx dy
x −−→ y −−→ z .

dz
Example 2.1.10. Find if z = (x 2 + 1)5 .
dx

Solution. Let y = x 2 + 1. Then z = y 5 . By chain rule,

dz dz dy
= · = 5y 4 · (2x + 0) = 5(x 2 + 1)4 · 2x = 10x(x 2 + 1)4 .
dx dy dx

Theorem 2.1.11 (Differentiation Formulas).

d r
(i) (x ) = r x r −1 , where r is any fixed real number.
dx
d 1 1 d 1
(ii) (loga x) = · , where a > 0 and a 6= 1. In particular, (ln x) = .
dx ln a x dx x
d d x
(iii) (a x ) = a x ln a, where a > 0. In particular, (e ) = e x .
dx dx
d d
(iv) (sin x) = cos x, (cos x) = − sin x.
dx dx
d d
(v) (tan x) = sec2 x, (cot x) = − csc2 x.
dx dx
d d
(vi) (sec x) = sec x tan x, (csc x) = − csc x cot x.
dx dx

d ³ 2
´
Example 2.1.12. Find 3x tan(ln x) − 2e x +5x .
dx
d dx d
Solution. First of all, by product rule (x tan(ln x)) = tan(ln x) · +x · tan(ln x).
dx dx dx
Let y = ln x. Then tan(ln x) = tan y. Consider the following chain:
dy d
dy tan y
dx
x −−→ y −−−−−→ tan y = tan(ln x).

d dy d 1 1
So by chain rule, tan(ln x) = · tan y = · sec2 y = · sec2 (ln x). Hence,
dx dx dy x x

d 1
(x tan(ln x)) = tan(ln x) · 1 + x · sec2 (ln x) = tan(ln x) + sec2 (ln x).
dx x
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 29

2
Next, let z = x 2 + 5x, then e x +5x
= e z . Consider the following chain:
dz d z
e 2
x −−→ z −−−→ e z = e x +5x
dx dz
.
d x 2 +5x d z d z 2
So by chain rule, e = · e = (2x + 5)e z = (2x + 5)e x +5x .
dx dx dz
Therefore,
d ³ 2
´ 2
3x tan(ln x) − 2e x +5x = 3 tan(ln x) + sec2 (ln x) − 2(2x + 5)e x +5x .
¡ ¢
dx

d
Example 2.1.13. Find sin3 (e x ).
dx
Solution. Let y = e x and z = sin y. Then sin3 (e x ) = z 3 . Consider the following chain:
dy dz d 3
dy z
x −−→ y −−→ z −−−→ z 3 = sin3 (e x ).
dx dz

Therefore,
d dy dz d 3
sin3 (e x ) = · · z = e x · cos y · 3z 2 = e x · cos(e x ) · 3 sin2 (e x ).
dx dx dy dz

Higher order derivatives

Let y = f (x) be a function. Then the 2nd (order) derivative of y with respect to x is the derivative
of d y/d x:
d2y
µ ¶
d dy
2
= or f ′′ (x) = ( f ′ )′ (x).
dx dx dx
In general, by differentiating y = f (x) with respect to x n times,

dn y
= f (n) (x)
d xn

is called the nth (order) derivative of y with respect to x.

f (0) = f , f (1) = f ′ , f (2) = f ′′ , f (3) = f ′′′ , f (4) = f ′′′′ , ....

dn y
Example 2.1.14. Find , n = 1, 2, 3, if y = xe x .
d xn
d dx d x
Solution. (xe x ) = e x +x (e ) = e x · 1 + x · e x = (1 + x)e x .
dx dx dx
d2 d d d x
2
(xe x ) = [(1 + x)e x ] = e x (1 + x) + (1 + x) e = e x · 1 + (1 + x) · e x = (2 + x)e x .
dx dx dx dx
d3 x d x x d d x
(xe ) = [(2 + x)e ] = e (2 + x) + (2 + x) e = e x · 1 + (2 + x) · e x = (3 + x)e x .
d x3 dx dx dx
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 30

2.2 Techniques of Differentiation

2.2.1 Implicit Differentiation

Differentiation of equation

Note that an equation in x and y determines a curve in the x y-plane. In order to analyze on the
tangent lines to the curve, we shall evaluate d y/d x.

2 y
x 2 + 2y 2 = 1
y
(1, 1) (2, 2)
b b
1 2

1
2x + y 2 = y 3
−2 −1 O 1 2 3 x

O 1 2 3 4 x
−1

In general, it is unnecessary to express y explicitly in terms of x.

(i) Differentiate the equation with respect to x to obtain an equation in x, y and d y/d x.
(ii) Express d y/d x in terms of x and y. (It is unnecessary to convert y into an expression of x,
unless it is required by the question.)

An equation in x, y is sometimes called an implicit function, and the above procedure of find-
ing derivative d y/d x of an equation is called implicit differentiation.

Example 2.2.1. Find the tangent line to the curve 2x + y 2 = y 3 at (2, 2).
d d 3
Solution. (i) Differentiate with respect to x: (2x + y 2 ) = (y ).
dx dx
d dx d 2 dy d 2 dy
(2x + y 2 ) = 2 + y = 2+ · y = 2+ · 2y,
dx dx dx dx dy dx
d 3 dy d 3 dy
(y ) = · y = · 3y 2 .
dx dx dy dx
We obtain an equation in x, y and d y/d x:
dy dy
2 + 2y = 3y 2 .
dx dx
(ii) Solve d y/d x in terms of x and y:
dy 2
= 2 .
d x 3y − 2y
(iii) Substitute (x, y) = (2, 2) to obtain
¯
d y ¯¯ 2 1
= 2
= .
d x (2,2) 3 · 2 − 2 · 2 4
¯
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 31

(iv) The tangent line of the curve at (2, 2) is thus y = (1/4)(x − 2) + 2 = x/4 + 3/2.

dy
Example 2.2.2. Find if x tan y + cos(x y) = 1.
dx
Solution. (i) Differentiate the equation with respect to x:
d d d
(x tan y) + cos(x y) = (1) = 0.
dx dx dx
Let z = x y. Then cos(x y) = cos z.
µ ¶ µ ¶
d dz d dx dy dy
cos(x y) = cos z = y +x (− sin z) = − y + x sin(x y),
dx dx dz dx dx dx
d dx d dy d dy
(x tan y) = tan y +x tan y = tan y · 1 + x · tan y = tan y + x sec2 y .
dx dx dx dx dy dx
Hence, µ ¶
dy
2 dy
tan y + x sec y − y +x sin(x y) = 0.
dx dx
(ii) Express d y/d x in terms of x and y:
dy y sin(x y) − tan y
= .
d x x sec2 y − x sin(x y)

Derivative of inverse trigonometric functions

For each x ∈ [−1, 1], there is a unique y ∈ [−π/2, π/2] such that sin y = x, denoted by y = sin−1 x.
y

y = sin x 1

O x
− π2 π
2

−1 y = sin−1 x

The function y = sin−1 x : [−1, 1] → [−π/2, π/2] is called the inverse sine function.

y = sin−1 x ⇔ sin y = x, for all y ∈ [−π/2, π/2].

For each x ∈ [−1, 1], there is a unique y ∈ [0, π] such that cos y = x, denoted by y = cos−1 x.
The function y = cos−1 x : [−1, 1] → [0, π] is called the inverse cosine function.

y = cos−1 x ⇔ cos y = x, for all y ∈ [0, π].

For each x ∈ R, there is a unique y ∈ (−π/2, π/2) such that tan y = x, denoted by y = tan−1 x. The
function y = tan−1 x : R → (−π/2, π/2) is called the inverse tangent function.

y = tan−1 x ⇔ tan y = x, for all y ∈ (−π/2, π/2).

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 32

π y y = cos−1 x y y = tan x
π
2
π
2 y = tan−1 x
O
1 x
− π2 π
y = cos x 2
x
− π2
O 1 π π
2
−1

Similarly, one can define cot−1 x, sec−1 x and csc−1 x.

Theorem 2.2.3 (Derivative of Inverse Trigonometric Functions).

p
(i) ddx (sin−1 x) = 1/ 1 − x 2 .
p
(ii) ddx (cos−1 x) = −1/ 1 − x 2 .
d
(iii) dx
(tan−1 x) = 1/(1 + x 2 ).
d
(iv) dx
(cot−1 x) = −1/(1 + x 2 ).
d
p
−1
(v) dx
(sec x) = 1/(x x 2 − 1).
d
p
−1 2
(vi) d x (csc x) = −1/(x x − 1).

Proof. (i) Let y = sin−1 x. Then x = sin y. Differentiate with respect to x to get

dx d dy d dy
1= = sin y = sin y = cos y.
dx dx dx dy dx
q
2 2
Note that sin y + cos y = 1 and cos y ≥ 0 for y ∈ [−π/2, π/2]. Then cos y = 1 − sin2 y and

d dy 1 1 1
(sin−1 x) = = =q =p .
dx d x cos y 1 − x2
1 − sin2 y

(ii)–(vi) are left as exercises.

d tan−1 x
µ ¶
Example 2.2.4. Find .
d x 1 + x2

d tan−1 x (1 + x 2 ) ddx (tan−1 x) − (tan−1 x) ddx (1 + x 2 )

µ ¶
Solution. =
d x 1 + x2 (1 + x 2 )2
2 2 −1
(1 + x ) · 1/(1 + x ) − (tan x) · 2x 1 − 2x tan−1 x
= = .
(1 + x 2 )2 (1 + x 2 )2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 33

2.2.2 Logarithmic Differentiation

Differentiation of products and quotients
dy
We can apply the following method to find if y = [ f 1 (x)]a1 [ f 2 (x)]a2 · · · [ f n (x)]an :
dx
(i) Take logarithmic functions both sides:

ln y = a1 ln f 1 (x) + · · · + an ln f n (x).

(ii) Differentiate both sides with respect to x: Let z 1 = f 1 (x), . . . , z n = f n (x).

d dy d dy 1
LHS = ln y = ln y = · ,
dx dx dy dx y
d d
RHS = a1 ln z 1 + · · · + an ln z n
dx dx
d z1 d d zn d
= a1 ln z 1 + · · · + an ln z n
d x d z1 d x d zn
= a1 f 1′ (x)/ f 1 (x) + · · · + an f n′ (x)/ f n (x).

Therefore,
f 1′ (x) f n′ (x)
· ¸
dy
= a1 + · · · + an [ f 1 (x)]a1 · · · [ f n (x)]an .
dx f 1 (x) f n (x)
This method is called logarithmic differentiation.

dy x 5 sin9 x
Example 2.2.5. Find if y = p .
dx x −2
Solution. Note that y = x 5 (sin x)9 (x − 2)−1/2 . Then
¸ 5
x sin9 x
·
dy 5 9 cos x 1
= + − p .
dx x sin x 2(x − 2) x −2

Differentiation of exponentials
dy
We can also use logarithmic differentiation to find if y = [ f (x)]g (x) .
dx
(i) Take logarithmic functions both sides:

ln y = g (x) ln f (x).

(ii) Differentiate both sides with respect to x: Let z = f (x).

dy 1 d d d
= [g (x) ln f (x)] = ln f (x) · g (x) + g (x) · ln z
dx y dx dx dx
dz d f ′ (x)
= ln f (x) · g ′ (x) + g (x) · ln z = ln f (x) · g ′ (x) + g (x) .
dx dz f (x)
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 34

Therefore,
f ′ (x)
· ¸
dy ′
= ln f (x) · g (x) + g (x) [ f (x)]g (x) .
dx f (x)

Example 2.2.6. Find d y/d x if y = (sin 2x)ln x .

Solution. Let f (x) = sin 2x and g (x) = ln x. Then f ′ (x) = 2 cos2x and g ′ (x) = 1/x. Hence,
· ¸
dy ln(sin 2x) 2 cos2x
= + ln x (sin 2x)ln x .
dx x sin 2x

2.2.3 Parametric Equations

Suppose an object is moving on the x y-plane to form a curve.
bb
bb
bbb
bb b b b b b b b b b b b
b b
b b
b b
y
bb b b
bb b
b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
b b b b b b b
b b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b b
b b b b
b b b b b b
b b bb
b b b bb
b b b
b b b bb
b b bb
b b b bb
b b
b b
b
b
b
b bb
b b bb

x
b
b b b
b b bb
b b b b bb
b b bb
b b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b
b b b b b b b
b b b b b b b
b b b b b b b b b b b b b b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b b
b
b b
b b
b b
bb b
bb b b
bb b b
bb b b
bbb b b
bb b b b b b b b b b b b

Let x(t ) and y(t ) be the x- and y-coordinate of the object at time t , respectively. The functions
x = x(t ) and y = y(t ) are known as parametric equations of the curve. By chain rule,

d2y
µ ¶
d y d y/d t 1 d dy
= and = · .
d x d x/d t d x 2 d x/d t d t d x

Example 2.2.7. A curve is defined by x = cos3 t and y = sin3 t . Find d y/d x and d 2 y/d x 2 .
Solution. Let u = cos t . Then x = u 3 and
dx d 3 du d 3
= u = u = − sin t · 3 cos2 t .
dt dt dt du
Let v = sin t . Then y = v 3 and
dy d 3 dv d 3
= v = v = cos t · 3 sin2 t .
dt dt dt dv
Therefore,
d y d y/d t cos t · 3 sin2 t sin t
= = = − = − tan t .
d x d x/d t − sin t · 3 cos2 t cos t
d2y
µ ¶
1 d dy 1 d 1 1
2
= · = 2
· (− tan t ) = 2
· (− sec2 t ) = sec4 t csc t .
dx d x/d t d t d x −3 sin t cos t d t −3 sin t cos t 3
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 35

2.2.4 Partial Derivatives

This section shall be used as references for MA1505 Part II.

Partial derivatives

Let z = f (x, y) be a function in two independent variables x and y. Fix y and differentiate z with
respect to x; then we obtain the partial derivative of z with respect to x, denoted by ∂z/∂x or
fx .
Similarly, fix x and differentiate z with respect to y; then we obtain the partial derivative of
z with respect to y, denoted by ∂z/∂y or f y .

Example 2.2.8. Let z = x 2 + 3x y + y − 1. Then

∂z ∂ 2 ∂ ∂ ∂z ∂ 2 ∂ ∂
= x + 3y x+ y = 2x + 3y and = x + 3x y+ y = 3x + 1.
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

Example 2.2.9. Let z = y sin(x y). Then

∂z ∂ ∂
=y sin(x y) = y cos(x y) (x y) = y cos(x y)y = y 2 cos(x y),
∂x ∂x ∂x
∂z ∂ ∂ ∂
= sin(x y) y+y sin(x y) = sin(x y) + y cos(x y) (x y) = sin(x y) + x y cos(x y).
∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y

Second order partial derivatives

Let z = f (x, y) be a function in two independent variables x and y. The second (order) partial
derivatives are
∂2 z
µ ¶
∂ ∂z
= = f xx ,
∂x 2 ∂x ∂x
∂2 z
µ ¶
∂ ∂z
= = fyy,
∂y 2 ∂y ∂y
∂2 z
µ ¶
∂ ∂z
= = fx y ,
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
∂2 z
µ ¶
∂ ∂z
= = f yx .
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y

Example 2.2.10. Let z = x 2 + 3x y + y − 1. Then

∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z ∂2 z
= 2, = 3, = 3, = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y∂x ∂x∂y ∂y 2

Example 2.2.11. Let z = x cos y + ye x . Find all its second order partial derivatives.

Answer. ∂2 z/∂x 2 = ye x , ∂2 z/∂y 2 = −x cos y, ∂2 z/∂x∂y = ∂2 z/∂y∂x = − sin y + e x .

CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 36

2.3 Graphs of Functions

2.3.1 Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Theorem 2.3.1 (Increasing and Decreasing Test). Let f be a (differentiable) function on an in-
terval I .

(i) If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in I , then f is increasing on I .

(ii) If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in I , then f is decreasing on I .
(iii) If f ′ (x) = 0 for all x in I , then f is constant on I .

For example,

(i) Let f (x) = e x , then f ′ (x) = e x > 0 for all x ∈ R; so f (x) is increasing on R.
(ii) Let f (x) = −x 3 − x, then f ′ (x) = −3x 2 − 1 ≤ −1 < 0 for all x ∈ R; so f (x) is decreasing on R.
(iii) Let f (x) = sin2 x + cos2 x. Then f ′ (x) = 2 sin x cos x + 2 cos x(− sin x) = 0 for all x ∈ R; so f (x)
is constant on R. In fact, it is well-known that sin2 x + cos2 x identically equal to 1 for all
x ∈ R.

In general, let y = f (x) be a function. We can determine its intervals of increasing and de-
creasing:

(i) Find f ′ (x) and solve f ′ (x) = 0. Suppose the roots are

x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 < · · · < xn−1 < xn .

Then x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 , xn cut I into subintervals.

(ii) On each subinterval, check whether f ′ (x) is positive or negative.
◦ If f ′ (x) > 0 for all x in a subinterval, then y = f (x) is increasing on that subinterval.
◦ If f ′ (x) < 0 for all x in a subinterval, then y = f (x) is decreasing on that subinterval.

Let y = f (x) be a differentiable function. If f ′ (c) = 0, it is said that y = f (x) has a stationary
point at x = c. Equivalently, the graph of y = f (x) has a horizontal tangent line at x = c.

Example 2.3.2. Find the intervals of increasing and decreasing of f (x) = (2x − 1)/(x 2 + 2).

Solution. f ′ (x) = −2(x + 1)(x − 2)/(x 2 + 2)2 . Let f ′ (x) = 0. Then x = −1 and x = 2, which are the
stationary points.

x < −1 −1 < x < 2 x >2

x +1 − + +
x −2 − − +
−2/(x 2 + 2)2 − − −
f ′ (x) − + −
f (x) ց ր ց
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 37

y b

−1
O 2 x

2x − 1
f (x) =
x2 + 2
b

Example 2.3.3. Find the intervals of increasing and decreasing of f (x) = e x /(x − 1)2 (x 6= 1).

Solution. f ′ (x) = e x (x − 3)/(x − 1)3 . Let f ′ (x) = 0. Then x = 3, which is the stationary point.

x <1 1<x <3 x >3

x
e + + +
x −3 − − +
(x − 1)3 − + +
f ′ (x) + − +
f (x) ր ց ր

y
ex
y=
(x − 1)2
b

O 1 3 x

2.3.2 Local Extreme Values

Let y = f (x) be a function. It has a local maximum at x = c if f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x near a; and it
has a local minimum at x = c if f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x near a.
In Example 2.3.2, f (x) = (2x −1)/(x 2 +2) has a local minimum at x = −1 and a local maximum
at x = 2. In Example 2.3.3, f (x) = e x /(x − 1)2 has a local minimum at x = 3.

Theorem 2.3.4 (1st Derivative Test). Suppose y = f (x) has a stationary point c, i.e., f ′ (c) = 0.

(i) If f ′ (x) changes from negative to positive at c, then y = f (x) has a local minimum at x = c.
(ii) If f ′ (x) changes from positive to negative at c, then y = f (x) has a local maximum at x = c.
(iii) If f ′ (x) does not change sign at c, then y = f (x) does not have a local maximum or mini-
mum at x = c; it is said to have a saddle point at c.

Theorem 2.3.5 (2nd Derivative Test). Let y = f (x) be a (twice differentiable) function.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 38

(i) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) > 0, then y = f (x) has a local minimum at x = c.
(ii) If f ′ (c) = 0 and f ′′ (c) < 0, then y = f (x) has a local maximum at x = c.

2.3.3 Concavity
The following two graphs are both increasing; but they look different.
y y

O x O x
concave up concave down

Let y = f (x) be a (differentiable) function on an interval I .

(i) If f ′ (x) is increasing on I , then y = f (x) is said to be concave up on I .

(ii) If f ′ (x) is decreasing on I , then y = f (x) is said to be concave down on I .

If y = f (x) changes concavity at x = c, then it is said to have an inflection point at c.

Theorem 2.3.6 (Concavity Test). Let y = f (x) be a (twice differentiable) function defined on an
interval I .

(i) If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in I , then y = f (x) is concave up on I .

(ii) If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in I , then y = f (x) is concave down on I .

In general, let y = f (x) be a function. We can determine its intervals of concavity:

(i) Find f ′′ (x) and solve f ′′ (x) = 0. Suppose the roots are

x1 < x2 < x3 < x4 < · · · < xn−1 < xn .

Then x1 , x2 , . . . , xn−1 , xn cut I into subintervals.

(ii) On each subinterval, check whether f ′′ (x) is positive or negative.
◦ If f ′′ (x) > 0 for all x in a subinterval, then y = f (x) is concave up on that subinterval.
◦ If f ′′ (x) < 0 for all x in a subinterval, then y = f (x) is concave down on that subinterval.

Example 2.3.7. Let f (x) = xe −2x . Find its intervals of increasing and decreasing, and intervals
of concavity.

Solution. f ′ (x) = (1 − 2x)e −2x . Let f ′ (x) = 0. Then x = 1/2 is the stationary point.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 39

x < 1/2 x > 1/2

−2x
e + +
1 − 2x + −
f ′ (x) + −
f (x) ր ց

By the 1st derivative test, y = f (x) has a local maximum at x = 1/2.

f ′′ (x) = 4(x − 1)e −2x . Then f ′′ (1/2) = −2e −1 < 0. Alternatively, by the 2nd derivative test,
y = f (x) has a local maximum at x = 1/2.
Let f ′′ (x) = 0. Then x = 1.

x <1 x >1
4(x − 1) − +
e −2x + +
f ′′ (x) − +
f (x) concave down concave up

Moreover, y = f (x) has an inflection point at x = 1.

y local max
b

b
inflection point

y = xe −2x

O 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x

ր ց
down up

Example 2.3.8. Let f (x) = (x 2 − 1)/(x 2 + 3). Find its intervals of increasing and decreasing, and
the intervals of concavity.

Solution. f ′ (x) = 8x/(x 2 + 3)2 . Let f ′ (x) = 0. Then x = 0, which is the stationary point.

x <0 x >0
8x − +
(x + 3)2
2
+ +
f ′ (x) − +
f (x) ց ր

By the 1st derivative test, y = f (x) has a local minimum at x = 0.

f ′′ (x) = −24(x +1)(x −1)/(x 2 +3)3 . Then f ′′ (0) = 24/27 > 0. Alternatively, by the 2nd derivative
test, y = f (x) has a local minimum at x = 0.
Let f ′′ (x) = 0. Then x = −1 or x = 1.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 40

x < −1 −1 < x < 1 x >1

x +1 − + +
x −1 − − +
−24/(x 2 + 3)3 − − −
f ′′ (x) − + −
f (x) down up down

Moreover, y = f (x) has inflection points at x = −1 and x = 1.

y x2 − 1
y=
x2 + 3

inflection points

b b

O x
−2 −1 1 2

b
local min
ց ր
down up down

2.3.4 Asymptotes of Rational Functions

A rational function is a function of the form y = P (x)/Q(x), where P (x) and Q(x) are polynomi-
als. Its asymptote is a line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches 0
as they are away from the origin O.

Vertical asymptote

Suppose Q(a) = 0 and P (a) 6= 0. Then y = P (x)/Q(x) has a vertical asymptote x = a:

x → a ⇒ |P (x)/Q(x)| → ∞.

(x − 1)(x − 3)
Example 2.3.9. Let y = . Then the curve has 2 vertical asymptotes
(x − 2)(x − 5)

x = 2 and x = 5.
y
4
(x−1)(x−3)
3 y= (x−2)(x−5)
2

O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x
−1

−2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 41

x
Example 2.3.10. Let y = . The curve has 4 vertical asymptotes
(x 2 + 1)(x 2 − 2)(x 2 + 3)(x 2 − 4)
p p
x = −2, x = − 2, x = 2 and x = 2.
y

0.10

0.05
p
x =− 2
x
−2 −1 O 1 2

p
−0.05 x= 2

−0.10

Horizontal asymptote

The rational function y = P (x)/Q(x) has a horizontal asymptote

(i) y = 0, if deg P (x) < degQ(x).

(ii) y = an /b n , if deg P (x) = degQ(x) = n, and

P (x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 , Q(x) = b n x n + b n−1 x n−1 + · · · + b 1 x + b 0 .

For any case, if y = L is the horizontal asymptote, then

x → ±∞ ⇒ P (x)/Q(x) → L.

Note that if deg P (x) > degQ(x), then y = P (x)/Q(x) has no horizontal asymptote.

3x 4 + 4x 2 − 3x + 1
Example 2.3.11. y = has a horizontal asymptote y = 0.
6x 6 + 3x 4 + x 3 + 1
y

4 2
2 y = 3x +4x −3x+1
6x 6 +3x 4 +x 3 +1

−2 −1 O 1 2 x
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 42

3x 6 + 4x 2 − 3x + 1
Example 2.3.12. y = 6 has a horizontal asymptote y = 3/6 = 1/2.
6x + 3x 4 + x 3 + 1
y

6 2
2 y = 3x +4x −3x+1
6x 6 +3x 4 +x 3 +1

y = 1/2 1

−2 −1 O 1 2 x

3x 7 + 4x 2 − 3x + 1
Example 2.3.13. y = has no horizontal asymptote.
6x 6 + 3x 4 + x 3 + 1
y

3x 7 +4x 2 −3x+1
2 y= 6x 6 +3x 4 +x 3 +1

−1 O 1 2 x

Oblique asymptote

Suppose that deg P (x) = degQ(x) + 1. Divide P (x) by Q(x) to get

P (x) = Q(x)(Ax + B) + R(x), where A 6= 0 and deg R(x) < degQ(x).

Then we say y = P (x)/Q(x) has an oblique asymptote y = Ax + B:

x → ±∞ ⇒ P (x)/Q(x) ≈ Ax + B.

Example 2.3.14. Find the oblique asymptote of y = (x 3 + x 2 + 1)/(x 2 + 1).

Solution. First simplify (x 3 + x 2 + 1) ÷ (x 2 + 1) using long division:

x +1
2 3 2
x + 0x + 1 ) x + x + 0x +1
x 3 + 0x 2 + x
x2 − x +1
x2 + 0x +1
− x
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 43

Then x 3 + x 2 + 1 = (x 2 + 1)(x + 1) − x. Equivalently, (x 3 + x 2 + 1)/(x 2 + 1) = (x + 1) − x/(x 2 + 1).

Therefore, y = (x 3 + x 2 + 1)/(x 2 + 1) has an oblique asymptote y = x + 1.
y
y = x +1
4

x3 + x2 + 1
2 y=
x2 + 1

−4 −2 O 2 4 x

−2

Example 2.3.15. Find the oblique asymptote of y = (x 3 − x 2 + 1)/(2x 2 + 1).

Solution. First simplify (x 3 − x 2 + 1) ÷ (2x 2 + 1) using long division:

1
2x − 21
2x 2 + 0x + 1 ) x 3 − x 2 + 0x + 1
1
x 3 + 0x 2 + 2
x
1
− x2 − 2x + 1
− x2 + 0x − 21
1 3
− 2x + 2

Then x 3 − x 2 + 1 = (2x 2 + 1)(x/2 − 1/2) + (−x/2 + 3/2). Equivalently,

(x 3 − x 2 + 1)/(2x 2 + 1) = (x/2 − 1/2) + (−x/2 + 3/2)/(2x 2 + 1).

Therefore, y = (x 3 − x 2 + 1)/(2x 2 + 1) has an oblique asymptote y = x/2 − 1/2.

y
x3 − x2 + 1
1 y=
2x 2 + 1

−2 −1 O 1 2 x

−1 y = 21 x − 12
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 44

2.4 Applications of Derivatives

2.4.1 Linear Approximation

Let y = f (x) be a function. For x near a, the value of f (x) can be approximated by the tangent
line of the y = f (x) at a. That is,

x ≈ a ⇒ f (x) ≈ f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a) .

O x

p
Example 2.4.1. Let f (x) = x.
p p
(i) Find the derivative at a: f ′ (x) = 1/(2 x) ⇒ f ′ (a) = 1/(2 a).
1 p
(ii) The tangent line at x = a is y = f ′ (a)(x − a) + f (a) = p (x − a) + a.
2 a
p 1 p
(iii) Hence, as x ≈ a, x ≈ p (x − a) + a.
2 a
p p
In order to approximate x, we shall find a near x, such that a can be easily evaluated.
p
(i) 2: 2 ≈ 1.96 = 1.42 . Use a = 1.96:
p 1
2≈ (2 − 1.96) + 1.4 ≈ 1.414.
2 × 1.4
p
(ii) 3: 3 ≈ 2.89 = 1.72 . Use a = 2.89:
p 1
3≈ (3 − 2.89) + 1.7 ≈ 1.732.
2 × 1.7
p
(iii) 23: 23 ≈ 23.04 = 4.82 . Use a = 23.04:
p 1
23 ≈ (23 − 23.04) + 4.8 ≈ 4.796.
2 × 4.8
Example 2.4.2. Estimate sin(31◦ ) using linear approximation.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 45

Solution. 31◦ = 30◦ + 1◦ = π/6 + π/180 (radian), and it is known that sin(π/6) = 1/2.
¯ p
Let y = sin x. Then d y/d x = cos x and (d y/d x)¯x=π/6 = 3/2. The tangent line at x = π/6:
p ³
3 π´ 1
y= x− + .
2 6 2
Therefore, p h³ p
³ππ ´ 3 π π ´ πi 1 3π 1
◦
sin(31 ) = sin + ≈ + − + = + .
6 180 2 6 180 6 2 360 2

2.4.2 Connected Rate of Change

Recall the parameterized equations: Suppose x = x(t ) and y = y(t ). Then

d y d y/d t dy dy dx
= or equivalently = · .
d x d x/d t dt dx dt

This relation can be illustrated using the following diagram:

t
dx dy dy dx
= ·
dt dt dx dt

dy
dx
x y

Example 2.4.3. The area of an equilateral triangle is increasing at a rate of 1 cm2 /s. What is the
rate of change of its side when the perimeter is 12 cm?
¯
Solution. Let x be the length of a side of the equilateral triangle. We need to find (d x/d t )¯x=4 .
Let A be the area of the equilateral triangle. It is given that d A/d t = 1 cm2 /s.

60◦ x

By area formula of triangle (Theorem 1.1.7),

p p
1 ◦ 3 2 dA 3
A = · x · x · sin(60 ) = x ⇒ = x cm.
2 4 dx 2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 46

t
dx d A d A dx
= ·
dt dt dx dt

dA
dx
x A

Hence, Ãp !
dx d A d A 3 2
= ÷ = 1÷ x = p cm/s.
dt dt dx 2 3x
¯ p p
Therefore, (d x/d t )¯x=4 = 2/( 3 · 4) = 3/6 cm/s.

Example 2.4.4. Air is being pumped into a spherical balloon at a constant rate of 100 cm3 /s.
How fast is the radius increasing when the radius is 25 cm?
¯
Solution. Let r be the radius of the balloon. We shall find (d r /d t )¯r =25 .
Let V be the volume of the balloon. It is given that dV /d t = 100 cm3 /s.

4π 3 dV
V= r ⇒ = 4πr 2 cm2 .
3 dr

t
dr dV dV d r
= ·
dt dt dr dt

dV
dr
r V

Hence,
d r dV dV 25
= ÷ = 100 ÷ 4πr 2 = 2 cm/s.
dt dt dr πr
Therefore, (d r /d t )¯r =25 = 25/(π · 252 ) = 1/(25π) ≈ 0.0127 cm/s.
¯

Example 2.4.5. If two resistors with resistances R 1 and R 2 are connected in parallel, then the
total resistance R is given by 1/R = 1/R 1 + 1/R 2 :

R1

R2
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 47

Suppose R 1 increases at 0.3 Ω/s and R 2 increases at 0.2 Ω/s. Find the rate of change of R when
R 1 = 80 Ω and R 2 = 100 Ω.

Solution. We shall find (d R/d t )|(R1,R2 )=(80,100) . It is given that d R 1/d t = 0.3 Ω/s, d R 2 /d t = 0.2 Ω/s.
Differentiate the Ohm’s law 1/R = 1/R 1 + 1/R 2 with respect to t to get

d R/d t d R 1 /d t d R 2 /d t d R R 2 d R1 R 2 d R2
− = − − ⇒ = 2 + 2 .
R2 R 12 R 22 dt R1 d t R2 d t

At R 1 = 80 Ω and R 2 = 100 Ω,

1 1 400
R= = = Ω.
1/R 1 + 1/R 2 1/80 + 1/100 9

Hence,
(400/9)2 (400/9)2
¯
d R ¯¯
= · 0.3 + · 0.2 ≈ 0.132 Ω/s.
d t (R1 ,R2 )=(80,100)
¯ 802 1002

2.4.3 Optimization Problems

In application, we shall always find the best solution among all the feasible solutions, such as

◦ Find the shortest path.

◦ Find the largest area or volume.
◦ Minimize the cost, and maximize the profit.

These are known to be optimization problems.

The following is the procedure to solve optimization problem:

(i) Understand the problem.

(ii) Introduce a variable for each of the given parameter, e.g., x, y, r, h, t , . . . .
(iii) Find the relations among all the variables.
(iv) Write the expression to be maximize/minimize in one variable, so that the problem is re-
duced to “find the maximum or the minimum of a function y = f (x)”.
(v) Find the stationary points of f by solving the equation f ′ (x) = 0.
(vi) Determine whether f has a maximum or a minimum value at each of the stationary points
using the 1st or 2nd derivative test.

Example 2.4.6. A farmer has 2400 m of fencing and wants to fence off a rectangular field that
borders a straight river. He needs no fence along the river. What are the dimensions of the field
that has the largest area?
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 48

x A = Area x

Solution. Let the two sides of the field be x and y. Then 2x + y = 2400 (x > 0, y > 0).
We shall maximize the area of the field:

A = x y = x(2400 − 2x) = 2400x − 2x 2 .

d A/d x = 2400 − 4x = 0 ⇒ x = 600 is the stationary point.

Since (d 2 A/d x 2 )¯x=600 = −4 < 0, by the 2nd derivative test, at x = 600 m (and y = 1200 m), the
¯

area of the field A has the maximum value 2400 · 600 − 2 · 6002 = 720 000 m2 .

Example 2.4.7. A conical container with capacity 18π cm3 is to be manufactured to have the
smallest slant height. Find the radius and the height of such a container.

h
ℓ

Solution. Let r be the radius, h be the height, and ℓ be the slant height of the cone. It is given
that the volume of the cone
18π = V = (π/3)r 2 h.
Then r 2 h = 54. We shall minimize the slant height
p p
ℓ = r 2 + h 2 = 54/h + h 2 (h > 0).

Equivalently, we can minimize its square

f (h) = ℓ2 = 54/h + h 2 (h > 0).

f ′ (h) = −54/h 2 + 2h = 0 ⇒ 2h 3 = 54 ⇒ h = 3 is the stationary point.

Since f ′′ (h) = 108/h 3 + 2, f ′′ (3) = 108/33 + 2 > 0. By the 2nd derivative test, f (h) = ℓ2 has a
p p
minimum value at h = 3. Equivalently, at h = 3 cm and r = 54/h = 3 2 cm, the slant height ℓ
of the cone has the minimum value.
CHAPTER 2. DERIVATIVE AND ITS APPLICATIONS 49

Example 2.4.8. A rectangle is to be fitted between the x-axis and the curve y = 8x − x 2 . Find the
largest possible area of the rectangle.
y

A y

O x1 x2 8 x

Proof. Suppose the rectangle is placed from x1 to x2 on the x-axis, and its height is y. Then
x1 , x2 (x1 < x2 ) are the roots to the equation y = 8x − x 2 , i.e.,

x 2 − 8x + y = 0.
p p
So x1 = (8 − 64 − 4y)/2 and x2 = (8 + 64 − 4y)/2. Hence, the area of the rectangle is
p p
A = y(x2 − x1 ) = y 64 − 4y = 2y 16 − y (0 < y < 16).

Maximizing A is equivalent to maximizing A 2 :

f (y) = A 2 = 4y 2 (16 − y) (0 < y < 16).

f ′ (y) = 128y − 12y 2 = 0 ⇒ y = 32/3 (y = 0 is rejected).

Since f ′′ (y) = 128 − 24y, f ′′ (32/3) = −128 < 0. By the 2nd derivative test, f (y) has the maxi-
mum value at y = 32/3. Equivalently, at y = 32/3, the rectangle has the largest area
p p
2(32/3) 16 − 32/3 = 256 3/9.

2.4.4 l’Hôpital’s Rule

This section shall be used as references for MA1505 Part II.

Theorem 2.4.9 (l’Hôpital’s Rule). If lim f (x) = lim g (x) = 0 (0/0 form) or lim | f (x)| = lim |g (x)| =
x→a x→a x→a x→a
∞ (∞/∞ form), then
lim [ f (x)/g (x)] = lim [ f ′ (x)/g ′ (x)],
x→a x→a
provided that lim [ f ′ (x)/g ′ (x)] is a real number or ±∞.
x→a

Example 2.4.10. Find lim (1 − cos x)/(x + x 2 ).

x→0

Solution. Note that lim (1 − cos x) = 1 − cos 0 = 0 and lim (x + x 2 ) = 0 + 02 = 0. Then

x→0 x→0

1 − cos x (1 − cos x)′ sin x sin 0

lim 2
= lim 2 ′
= lim = = 0.
x→0 x + x x→0 (x + x ) x→0 1 + 2x 1+2·0