Tailieuchung Luanvan 2879

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO
TRƯỜNG…………………..
LUẬN VĂN
Ứng dụng bài toán nội suy

Lagrange và khai triển Tatlor
1
Mu. c Lu. c
Mo’. d̄â
ù . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 Các bài toán nô.i suy cô˙’ d̄iê˙’n 6

1.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.2 D - a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2 Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.2 D - a thú.c nô.i suy Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Bài toán nô.i suy Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 D - a thú.c nô.i suy Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.2 D - a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c nô.i suy 13

2.1 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a các công thú.c nô.i suy khác . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.2 Công thú.c nô.i suy Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2.3 Công thú.c nô.i suy Hermite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Bài tâ.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
.
3 Ú ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy d̄ê˙’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng và xâ´p xı̇’ hàm sô´ 38
.
3.1 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
.
3.1.1 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ theo các nút nô.i suy Lagrange . . . . . . . 38
.
3.1.2 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ theo các nút nô.i suy Chebyshev . . . . . . 41
3.2 Mô.t sô´ phu.o.ng pháp khác d̄ê˙’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.3 Xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´ theo d̄a thú.c nô.i suy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2
3.4 Bài tâ.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Kê´t luâ.n cu’a luâ.n văn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Tài liê.u tham kha’o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3
Mo’. d̄â
ù
Trong quá trı̀nh tı́nh toán, nhiê ` u khi ta câ ` n pha’i xác d̄i.nh giá tri. cu’a mô.t hàm
sô´ f (x) ta.i mô.t d̄iê’m tùy ý cho tru.ó.c, trong khi d̄ó d̄iê ` u kiê.n chı’ mó.i cho biê´t mô.t
sô´ giá tri. (rò.i ra.c) cu’a hàm sô´ và cu’a d̄a.o hàm hàm sô´ d̄êń câ´p nào d̄ó cu’a nó ta.i
mô.t sô´ d̄iê’m x1 , x2, · · · , xk cho tru.ó.c.
Vó.i nhũ.ng tru.ò.ng ho..p nhu. vâ.y, ngu.ò.i ta thu.ò.ng tı̀m cách xây du..ng mô.t hàm
sô´ P (x) da.ng d̄o.n gia’n ho.n, thu.ò.ng là các d̄a thú.c d̄a.i sô´, tho’a mãn các d̄iê ` u kiê.n
. .
d̄ã cho. Ngoài ra, ta.i nhũ ng giá tri. x ∈ R mà x không trùng vó i x1 , x2, · · · , xk , thı̀
P (x) ≈ f (x) (xâ´p xı’ theo mô.t d̄ô. chı́nh xác nào d̄ó).
Hàm sô´ P (x) d̄u.o..c xây du..ng theo cách vù.a mô ta’ trên d̄u.o..c go.i là hàm nô.i suy
cu’a f (x); các d̄iê’m x1 , x2, · · · , xk thu.ò.ng d̄u.o..c go.i là các nút nô.i suy và bài toán
xây du..ng hàm P (x) nhu. vâ.y d̄u.o..c go.i là Bài toán nô.i suy.
Su’. du.ng hàm (d̄a thú.c) nô.i suy P (x), ta dê˜ dàng tı́nh d̄u.o..c giá tri. tu.o.ng d̄ôí
chı́nh xác cu’a hàm sô´ f (x) ta.i x ∈ R tùy ý cho tru.ó.c. Tù. d̄ó, ta có thê’ tı́nh gâ `n
d̄úng giá tri. d̄a.o hàm và tı́ch phân cu’a nó trên R.
Các bài toán nô.i suy cô’ d̄iê’n ra d̄ò.i tù. râ´t só.m và d̄óng vai trò râ´t quan tro.ng
trong thu..c tê´. Do d̄ó, viê.c nghiên cú.u các bài toán nô.i suy là râ´t có ý nghı̃a.
.
O˙’ các tru.ò.ng phô’ thông, lý thuyê´t vê ` này không d̄u.o..c d̄ê
` vâń d̄ê ` câ.p, nhu.ng
nhũ.ng ú.ng du.ng so. câ´p cu’a nó cũng ”â’n hiê.n” không ı́t, chă’ng ha.n trong các
phu.o.ng trı̀nh d̄u.ò.ng hoă.c phu.o.ng trı̀nh mă.t bâ.c hai, trong các d̄ă’ng thú.c da.ng
phân thú.c và d̄ă.c biê.t là viê.c ú.ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange và khai triê’n
Taylor d̄ê’ gia’i mô.t sô´ bài toán khó trong các d̄ê ` thi ho.c sinh gio’i các câ´p.
Vı̀ vâ.y, viê.c hı̀nh thành mô.t chuyên d̄ê ` cho.n lo.c nhũ.ng vâń d̄ê ` co. ba’n nhâ´t vê `
các bài toán nô.i suy, du.ó.i góc d̄ô. toán phô’ thông, d̄ă.c biê.t là nhũ.ng ú.ng du.ng cu’a
nó trong quá trı̀nh gia’i mô.t sô´ da.ng toán khó là râ´t câ ` n thiê´t. Ho.n nũ.a, chuyên
` này cũng có thê’ làm tài liê.u tham kha’o cho các giáo viên gio’i và các sinh viên
d̄ê
nhũ.ng năm d̄â ` u cu’a bâ.c d̄a.i ho.c.
Ý tu o’ ng muôń thu..c hiê.n luâ.n văn này hı̀nh thành tru.ó.c khi cuôń sách chuyên
. .
kha’o [2] ra d̄ò.i. D - ây vù.a là mô.t thuâ.n lo..i vù.a là mô.t khó khăn cho nô˜ lu..c tı̀m kiê´m
4
nhũ.ng nét mó.i cho luâ.n văn cu’a tác gia’, vı̀ cuôń sách trên là mô.t tài liê.u râ´t quı́
giá, trong khi d̄ó hâ ` u nhu. chu.a có mô.t tài liê.u toán so. câ´p nào d̄ê
` câ.p d̄êń vâń d̄ê
`
này mô.t cách tro.n ve. n. Do d̄ó, luâ.n văn không quá d̄ê ` câ.p sâu vê
` lý thuyê´t mà cô´
găńg tı̀m kiê´m nhũ.ng ú.ng du.ng cu’a nó vào viê.c gia’i và sáng tác các bài tâ.p o’. phô’
thông, d̄ă.c biê.t là nhũ.ng ú.ng du.ng thu.ò.ng gă.p cu’a công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange và
khai triê’n Taylor.
Luâ.n văn dày 56 trang, gô ` m các phâ ` n Mu.c lu.c, Mo’. d̄â ` u, ba chu.o.ng nô.i dung,
kê´t luâ.n và tài liê.u tham kha’o:
Chu.o.ng 1: Các bài toán nô.i suy cô’ d̄iê’n.

Nô.i dung chu.o.ng này trı̀nh bày mô.t cách co. ba’n nhâ´t vê ` các bài toán nô.i suy
cô’ d̄iê’n, d̄ó là Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange, Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor, Bài toán nô.i suy
Newton và Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite.
Chu.o.ng 2: Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu’a công thú.c nô.i suy.
D- ây là mô.t trong nhũ.ng nô.i dung tro.ng tâm cu’a luâ.n văn. Vó.i tâ ` m quan tro.ng
o’ phô’ thông, công thú c nô.i suy Lagrange và nhũ ng ú ng du.ng cu’a nó d̄u.o..c d̄ê
. . . . ` câ.p
thành mô.t phâ . . . . . .
` n riêng trong chu o ng này vó i nhũ ng phu o ng pháp gia’i toán khá d̄a
da.ng và mô.t sô´ lu.o..ng bài tâ.p d̄ê
` xuâ´t khá phong phú. Nhiê ` u d̄ă’ng thú.c du.ó.i da.ng
phân thú.c có nguô ` n gôć tù. công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange d̄ã d̄u.o..c luâ.n văn phát
hiê.n. Nhiê ` u bài toán thi cho.n ho.c sinh gio’i quôć gia và quôć tê´ d̄ã d̄u.o..c gia’i bă` ng
cách áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy này. Phâ ` n còn la.i cu’a chu.o.ng trı̀nh bày mô.t sô´
ú.ng du.ng cu’a các công thú.c nô.i suy còn la.i. Mô.t sô´ bài tâ.p dành cho ba.n d̄o.c cũng
d̄u.o..c gió.i thiê.u o’. phâ
` n cuôí chu.o.ng.
.
Chu.o.ng 3: Ú ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy d̄ê’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng và xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´.
Chu.o.ng này tách riêng mô.t ú.ng du.ng cu’a các công thú.c nô.i suy d̄ê’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng
và xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´. Mô.t sô´ da.ng toán khó o’. phô’ thông liên quan d̄êń vâń d̄ê ` này
. . .
` câ.p, trong d̄ó có nhũ ng bài trong các d̄ê
d̄ã d̄u o. c d̄ê ` thi cho.n ho.c sinh gio’i quôć
gia và quôć tê´. Mô.t sô´ phâ . .
` n cu’a luâ.n văn d̄ã d̄u o. c d̄ăng ta’i trong các ky’ yêú hô.i
nghi. chuyên ngành, chă’ng ha.n [1].
Luâ.n văn d̄u.o..c hoàn thành nhò. su.. hu.ó.ng dâñ khoa ho.c và nhiê.t tı̀nh cu’a Tiêń
sỹ Tri.nh D - ào Chiêń - Ngu.ò.i Thâ ` y râ´t nghiêm khăć và tâ.n tâm trong công viê.c,
truyê` n d̄a.t nhiê` u kiêń thú.c quı́ báu cũng nhu. kinh nghiê.m nghiên cú.u khoa ho.c
trong suô´t thò.i gian nghiên cú.u d̄ê ` tài. Chı́nh vı̀ vâ.y mà tác gia’ luôn to’ lòng biê´t
. .
o n chân thành và sâu săć d̄ôí vó i Thâ` y giáo hu.ó.ng dâñ - Tiêń sỹ Tri.nh D
- ào Chiêń.
5
Nhân d̄ây, tác gia’ xin d̄u.o..c bày to’ lòng biê´t o.n chân thành d̄êń: Ban Giám
Hiê.u, Phòng d̄ào ta.o D - a.i ho.c, Khoa toán cu’a tru.ò.ng D
- a.i ho.c và sau D - a.i ho.c Qui
.
Nho n, cùng quı́ thâ . .
` y cô giáo d̄ã tham gia gia’ng da.y và hu ó ng dâñ khoa ho.c cho
ló.p cao ho.c toán khóa 8. UBND tı’ nh, So’. giáo du.c và d̄ào ta.o tı’ nh Gia Lai, Ban
Giám Hiê.u tru.ò.ng THPT Ia Grai d̄ã cho tác gia’ co. hô.i ho.c tâ.p, cùng vó.i quı́ thâ `y
. .
cô giáo cu’a nhà tru ò ng d̄ã d̄ô.ng viên, se’ chia công viê.c và ta.o mo.i d̄iê ` u kiê.n thuâ.n
lo..i d̄ê’ tác gia’ nghiên cú.u và hoàn thành luâ.n văn này.
Trong quá trı̀nh hoàn thành luâ.n văn, tác gia’ còn nhâ.n d̄u.o..c su.. quan tâm d̄ô.ng
viên cu’a các ba.n d̄ô ` ng nghiê.p, các anh chi. em trong các ló.p cao ho.c khóa VII, VIII,
XIX cu’a tru.ò.ng D - a.i ho.c Qui Nho.n. Tác gia’ xin chân thành ca’m o.n tâ´t ca’ nhũ.ng
su.. quan tâm d̄ô.ng viên d̄ó.
- ê’ hoàn thành luâ.n văn này, tác gia’ d̄ã tâ.p trung râ´t cao d̄ô. trong hoc tâ.p và
D
nghiên cú.u khoa ho.c, cũng nhu. râ´t câ’n thâ.n trong nhân chê´ ba’n. Trong d̄ó ı́t nhiê ù
ha.n chê´ vê ` thò.i gian cũng nhu. trı̀nh d̄ô. hiê’u biê´t nên trong quá trı̀nh thu..c hiê.n
không thê’ tránh kho’i nhũ.ng thiêú sót, tác gia’ râ´t mong nhâ.n d̄u.o..c su.. chı’ ba’o cu’a
quı́ thâ ` y cô và nhũ.ng góp ý cu’a ba.n d̄o.c d̄ê’ luâ.n văn d̄u.o..c hoàn thiê.n ho.n.
Quy Nho.n, tháng ... năm 2008

Tác gia’
6
Chu.o.ng 1
Các bài toán nô.i suy cô˙’ d̄iê˙’n
Trong chu.o.ng này, luâ.n văn d̄ê

` câ.p mô.t sô´ bài toán nô.i suy cô’ d̄iê’n sẽ su’. du.ng
o’. các chu.o.ng sau, d̄ó là: Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange, Bai toán nô.i suy Taylor, Bài
toán nô.i suy Newton và Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite. Lò.i gia’i cho các bài toán này là
các d̄a thú.c nô.i suy tu.o.ng ú.ng mà chú.ng minh chi tiê´t d̄ã d̄u.o..c trı̀nh bày trong [2]
1.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange

1.1.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange
Cho các sô´ thu..c xi , ai, vó.i xi 6= xj , vó.i mo.i i 6= j, i, j = 1, 2, · · · , N. Hãy xác
d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c L(x) có bâ.c degL(x) ≤ N − 1 và tho’a các d̄iê ` u kiê.n
L(xi ) = ai , ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , N
1.1.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange

D
Ký hiê.u
Y
N
x − xj
Li (x) = ; i = 1, 2, · · · , N.
j=1,j6=i
xi − xj
Khi d̄ó, d̄a thú.c
X
N
L(x) = ai Li (x)
i=1
là d̄a thú.c duy nhâ´t tho’a mãn d̄iê` u kiê.n cu’a bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange và ta go.i
d̄a thú.c này là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange.
7
1.2 Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor

1.2.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor
Cho các sô´ thu..c x0 , ai, vó.i i = 0, 1, · · · , N − 1. Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c T (x) có
bâ.c degT (x) ≤ N − 1 và tho’a mãn các d̄iê ` u kiê.n
T i (x0) = ai , ∀i = 0, 1, · · · , N − 1.
1.2.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Taylor

D
- a thú.c
D
X
N −1
ai
T (x) = (x − x0 )i
i=0
i!
là d̄a thú.c duy nhâ´t tho’a mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n cu’a bài toán nô.i suy Taylor và go.i d̄a thú.c
này là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Taylor.
1.3 Bài toán nô.i suy Newton

1.3.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Newton
Cho các sô´ thu..c xi , ai, vó.i i = 1, 2, · · · , N. Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c N (x) có bâ.c
degN (x) ≤ N − 1 và tho’a mãn các d̄iê ` u kiê.n
N i−1 (xi ) = ai , ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , N.
1.3.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Newton

D
Ký hiê.u
Z x Z tZ t1 Z ti−2
i
R (x1, x2 , · · · , xi , x) = ··· dti−1 ...dt2.dt1.dt; i = 1, 2, · · · , N.
x1 x2 x3 xi
khi d̄ó, d̄a thú.c

X
N
N (x) = aiRi−1 (x1, x2 , ..., xi−1, x)
i=1
= a1 + a2 R(x1 , x) + a3 R2 (x1, x2, x) + · · · + aN RN −1 (x1, · · · , xN −1, x)

` u kiê.n cu’a bài toán nô.i suy Newton và ta go.i d̄a
thú.c này là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Newton
8
Nhâ.n xét 1.1. Vó.i xi = x0 , vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , N, thı̀

Ri (x0 , x1, · · · , xi−1, x) = Ri x0, · · · , x0, x
| {z }
`n
i lâ
Z x Z t Z t1 Z ti−2
= ··· dti−1 ...dt2.dt1.dt
x0 x0 x0 x0
(x − x0 )i
= ; vó.i i = 1, 2, · · · , N
i!
Khi d̄ó
X
N

N (x) = aiRi x0, · · · , x0, x =
| {z }
i=1
`n
i lâ

= a0 + a1 R(x0 , x) + a2 R2 (x0, x0 , x) + · · · + aN −1 RN −1 x0, · · · , x0, x
| {z }
`n
N −1 lâ
2 N −1
(x − x0) (x − x0)
= a0 + a1 (x − x0 ) + a2 + · · · + aN −1
2 (N − 1)!
X
N −1
(x − x0)i
= ai ≡ T (x).
i=0
i!
Vâ.y, vó.i xi 6= x0, ; ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , N, thı̀ d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Newton chı́nh là d̄a thú.c
nô.i suy Taylor.
1.4 Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite

1.4.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite
Cho các sô´ thu..c xi , aki , i = 1, 2, · · · , n; k = 0, 1, · · · , pi − 1 và xi 6= xj , vó.i
mo.i i 6= j, trong d̄ó p1 + p2 + · · · + pn = N . Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c H(x) có bâ.c
degH(x) ≤ N − 1 và tho’a mãn các d̄iê ` u kiê.n
H (k) (xi ) = aki , ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , n; ∀k = 0, 1, · · · , pi − 1
1.4.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite

D
Ký hiê.u
Y
n
W (x) = (x − xj )pj ;
j=1
9
W (x) Yn
Wi (x) = p
= (x − xj )pj ; i = 1, 2, · · · , n
(x − xi ) i
j=1,j6=i
Go.i d̄oa.n khai triê’n Taylor d̄êń câ´p thú. pi − 1 − k, vó.i k = 0, 1, · · · , l; l =

1
0, 1, · · · , pi − 1, ta.i x = xi cu’a hàm sô´ (i = 1, 2, · · · , n) là
Wi (x)
( )(pi −1−k) pi −1−k
" #(l)
1 X 1 (x − xi )l
T = .
Wi (x) l=0
Wi (x) l!
(x=xi ) (x=xi )
khi d̄ó, d̄a thú.c
n pX
( )(pi −1−k)
X i −1
(x − xi )k 1
H(x) = aki Wi (x)T .
i=1 k=0
k! Wi (x)
(x=xi )

` u kiê.n cu’a bài toán nô.i suy Hermite và ta go.i d̄a
thú.c này là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite.
Nhâ.n xét 1.2.
Vó.i n = 1, thı̀ i = 1 và p1 = N . Khi d̄ó, ta có
W (x) = (x − x1)N ;
W (x)
W1 (x) = = 1.
(x − x1)N
Do d̄ó, d̄oa.n khai triê’n
( )(N −1−k)
1 n o(N −1−k)
T =T 1 = 1.
W1 (x) (x=x1 )
(x=x1 )
Khi d̄ó, ta có

X
N −1
(x − x1)k
H(x) = ak1 ≡ T (x).
k=0
k!
Vâ.y, vó.i n = 1, thı̀ d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite chı́nh là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Taylor.
Nhâ.n xét 1.3.
Vó.i k = 0, thı̀ pi = 1, vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , n. Khi d̄ó
p1 + p2 + · · · + pn = N,
10
hay n = N . Do d̄ó, ta có

X
N
W (x) = (x − xj );
j=1
Y
N
Wi (x) = (x − xj ), i = 1, 2, · · · , N.
j=1,j6=i
khi d̄ó, d̄oa.n khai triê’n Taylor

( )0
1 1 1
T = = , i = 1, 2, · · · , N.
Wi (x) Wi (xi ) Q
N
(x=xi ) (xi − xj )
j=1,j6=i
Vâ.y, ta có
X
N Y
N
x − xj
H(x) = a0i ≡ L(x).
i=1
xi − xj
j=1,j6=i
Vâ.y, vó.i k = 0, thı̀ d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite chı́nh là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange.
Trong tru.ò.ng ho..p tô’ng quát, viê.c biê’u diêñ d̄a thú.c Hermite khá phú.c ta.p. Du.ó.i
d̄ây là mô.t vài tru.ò.ng ho..p riêng d̄o.n gia’n khác cu’a d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite, khi
` u kiê.n chı’ chú.a d̄a.o hàm bâ.c nhâ´t.
hê. d̄iê
Nhâ.n xét 1.4.
Nêú pi = 2, vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , n, thı̀ khi d̄ó k = 0 hoă.c k = 1.

+ Vó.i k = 0, ta có
( )(pi −1−k) ( )(1) 1 h
1 1 X 1 i(l) (x − xi )l
T =T =
Wi (x) Wi (x) Wi (x) (x=xi ) l!
(x=xi ) (x=xi ) l=0
0
1 Wi (xi )
= − (x − xi )
Wi (xi ) Wi2(xi )
!
1 Wi0 (xi )
= 1− (x − xi ) , vó.i i = 1, 2, · · · , n.
Wi (xi ) Wi (xi)
+ Vó.i k = 1, ta có
( )(pi −1−k) ( )(0) 0 h
1 1 X 1 i(l) (x − xi )l
T =T =
Wi (x) Wi (x) l=0
Wi (x) (x=xi ) l!
(x=xi ) (x=xi )
0
1 Wi (xi ) 1
= − (x − xi ) = .
Wi (xi ) Wi2(xi ) Wi (xi )
11
Khi d̄ó, ta có

( )(pi −1−k)
X
n X
1
(x − xi )k 1
H(x) = aki Wi (x)T
i=1 k=0
k! Wi (x)
(x=xi )
( ) (1) ( )(0) !
Xn
1 1
= a0i Wi (x)T +a1i(x − xi)Wi (x)T
i=1
W i (x) Wi (x)
(x=xi ) (x=xi )
!
Xn
1 Wi0(xi ) 1
= Wi (x) a0i 1− (x − xi ) +a1i(x − xi)
i=1
Wi (xi ) Wi (xi ) Wi (xi)
!
Xn
Wi (x) Wi0(xi )
= a0i 1 − (x − xi) +a1i(x − xi )
i=1
Wi (xi ) Wi (xi )
!
Xn
Wi (x) Wi0(xi )
= a0i − a0i − a1i (x − xi ) .
i=1
Wi (xi ) Wi (xi )
` n bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange, ta d̄ã biê´t ră` ng

Ngoài ra, trong phâ
X
n
x − xj
Li (x) = ; i = 1, 2, · · · , n
xi − xj
j=1,j6=i
và 
1, khi i = j
Li (xj ) =
0, khi i 6= j.
Do d̄ó
Li (xi ) ≡ 1, ∀i = 1, n.
Vâ.y
Wi (x) Yn
(x − xj )2
= 2
= L2i (x); i = 1, n.
Wi (xi ) j=1,j6=i (xi − xj )
- a.o hàm theo x hai vê´ cu’a d̄ă’ng thú.c trên, ta d̄u.o..c
D
Wi0(x)
= 2Li (x)L0i (x) = 2L0i (xi ).
Wi (xi )
Do d̄ó, d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite trong tru.ò.ng ho..p này có da.ng
!
Xn
2 0
H(x) = Li (x) a0i − 2a0i Li (xi ) − a1i (x − xi ) .
i=1
Du.ó.i d̄ây là mô.t vài minh ho.a cho viê.c vâ.n du.ng các công thú.c nô.i suy (do tác
gia’ sáng tác)
12
Bài toán 1.1. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c 4, tho’a mãn các d̄iê
` u kiê.n sau:
0
P (−1) = 3a + 1 (a > 0) ; P (0) = 0;
P 00(1) = 4(3 + a); P (3) (−2) = −48;
P (4)(2008) = 24.
Chú.ng minh ră` ng:
Q(x) = P (x) + P 0 (x) + P 00 (x) + P (3)(x) + P (4)(x) > 0. ∀x ∈ R.
Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor (vó.i N = 3), ta tı̀m d̄u.o..c
P (x) = x4 + 2ax2 + a (a > 0)
Suy ra:
P 0 (x) = 4x3 + 4ax ;

P 00 (x) = 12x2 + 4a ;
P (3)(x) = 24x ;
P (4)(x) = 24 .
Do d̄ó:
Q(x) = (x2 + 2x)2 + 2a(x + 1)2 + 3a + 8(x2 + 3x + 3) > 0, ∀x ∈ R
Bài toán 1.2. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c n, tho’a mãn:
P (2007) < 0; −P 0 (2007) ≤ 0, P 00(2007) ≤ 0, · · · , (−1)n P (n) ≤ 0;
P (2008) > 0, P 0 (2008) ≥ 0, P 00(2008) ≥ 0, · · · , P (n) (2008) ≥ 0.

Chú.ng minh ră
` ng các nghiê.m thu..c cu’a P (x) thuô.c (2007; 2008).
Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor, ta có:

P 0 (b) P 00(b) P (n) (b)
P (x) = P (b) + (x − b) + (x − b)2 + · · · + (x − b)n , vó.i b = 2008.
1! 2! n!
Do d̄ó, Nêú x ≥ b thı̀ P (x) không có nghiê.m x ≥ b.
Vó.i a = 2007, áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor, ta có
−P 0(a) P 00 (a) (−1)n P (n) (a)
P (x) = P (a) + (a − x) + (a − x)2 + · · · + (a − x)n .
1! 2! n!
Do d̄ó, nêú x < a thı̀ P (x) không có nghiê.m x ≤ a.
Vâ.y các nghiê.m pha’i thuô.c (2007; 2008).
13
Chu.o.ng 2
Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c

nô.i suy
Chu.o.ng này trı̀nh bày mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu’a các công thú.c nô.i suy, trong d̄ó d̄ê
`
câ.p sâu ho.n d̄ôí vó.i công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, công thú.c có nhiê` u ú.ng du.ng d̄ê’
gia’i mô.t sô´ bài toán khó o’. hê. phô’ thông chuyên toán.
` ú.ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy trong u.ó.c lu.o..ng và xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´ là hai
Vâń d̄ê
nô.i dung quan tro.ng và tu.o.ng d̄ôí khó, vó.i nhũ.ng kỹ thuâ.t chú.ng minh khá phú.c
ta.p, d̄u.o..c trı̀nh bày o’. chu.o.ng sau.
2.1 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c nô.i suy La-
grange
2.1.1 Công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange
- i.nh nghı̃a 2.1. Cho n sô´ x1 , x2, · · · , xn phân biê.t và n sô´ a1, a2, · · · , an tùy ý.
D
` n ta.i duy nhâ´t mô.t d̄a thú.c P (x) vó.i bâ.c không vu.o..t quá n − 1, tho’a mãn
Thê´ thı̀ tô
P (xj ) = aj ; ∀j = 1, 2, · · · , n. (2.1)
- a thú.c có da.ng

D
X
n Y
n
x − xi
aj (2.2)
j=1
xj − xi
i=1,ı6=j
- a thú.c (2.2) d̄u.o..c go.i là d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange hoă.c công thú.c nô.i suy
D
Lagrange. Các sô´ x1 , x2, · · · , xn d̄u.o..c go.i là các nút nô.i suy.
14
+ Vó.i n = 2, d̄a thú.c d̄ó là

x − x2 x − x1
P (x) = a1 + a2 . (2.3)
x1 − x2 x2 − x1
Ký hiê.u degP (x) là bâ.c cu’a P (x). Thê´ thı̀
degP (x) ≤ 1 và P (x1 ) = a1 ; P (x2) = a2.
+ Vó.i n = 3, d̄a thú.c d̄ó là
(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) (x − x3 )(x − x1) (x − x1)(x − x2)

P (x) = a1 + a2 + a3 . (2.4)
(x1 − x2 )(x1 − x3) (x2 − x3 )(x2 − x1) (x3 − x1)(x3 − x2)
Rõ ràng degP (x) ≤ 2 và P (x1) = a1, P (x2 ) = a2 ), P (x3) = a3.
(?) Tù. công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, ta có
- i.nh nghı̃a 2.2. Cho n sô´ x1 , x2, · · · , xn phân biê.t. Thê´ thı̀ mo.i d̄a thú.c P (x) vó.i
D
bâ.c không vu.o..t quá n − 1 d̄ê
` u có thê viê´t du.ó.i da.ng
X
n Y
n
x − xi
P (x) = P (xj ) . (2.5)
j=1 i=1,i6=j
xj − xi
Nhâ.n xét 2.1. (Ý nghı̃a hı̀nh ho.c)
- a thú.c (2.3) và (2.4) khá quen thuô.c trong chu.o.ng trı̀nh toán phô’ thông. Ta
D
thu’. d̄i tı̀m ý nghı̃a hı̀nh ho.c cu’a chúng, chă’ng ha.n (2.4).
Gia’ su’. ră` ng, trên mă.t phă’ng to.a d̄ô. Oxy cho 3 d̄iê’m A(x1; y1), B(x2; y2), C(x2; y2),
vó.i x1, x2 .x3 khác nhau tù.ng d̄ôi mô.t.
Thê´ thı̀, theo (2.1) và (2.2) tô ` n ta.i duy nhâ´t mô.t d̄u.ò.ng cong y = P (x), trong
d̄ó là d̄a thú.c vó.i degP (x) ≤ 2, tho’a mãn
P (x1) = y1 (nghı̃a là d̄u.ò.ng cong qua d̄iê’m A);
P (x2) = y2 (nghı̃a là d̄u.ò.ng cong qua d̄iê’m B);

P (x3 ) = y3 (nghı̃a là d̄u.ò.ng cong qua d̄iê’m C).
Ho.n nũ.a, d̄u.ò.ng cong còn có phu.o.ng trı̀nh cu. thê’ là y = P (x), tròn d̄ó P (x) có
da.ng (2.4) và các hê. sô´ aj chı́nh là yj , j = 1, 2, 3.
+ Vó.i degP (x) = 2, d̄ô ` thi. y = P (x) là parabol d̄i qua 3 d̄iê’m A, B, C.
.
+ Vó i degP (x) = 1, d̄ô ` thi. y = P (x) là d̄u.ò.ng thă’ng d̄i qua 3 d̄iê’m A, B, C,
không cùng phu.o.ng vó.i tru.c hoành.
15
+ Vó.i degP (x) = 0, d̄ô ` thi. y = P (x) là d̄u.ò.ng thă’ng d̄i qua 3 d̄iê’m A, B, C,
cùng phu.o.ng vó.i tru.c hoành.
Vó.i các minh ho.a trên ta thâý ră` ng, công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange chı́nh là ”các
gôć” cu’a mô.t sô´ phu.o.ng trı̀nh d̄u.ò.ng cong (hoă.c d̄u.ò.ng thă’ng) d̄i qua các d̄iê’m
cho tru.ó.c trong mă.t phă’ng to.a d̄ô..
- ó là ”cái gôć” nhı̀n du.ó.i góc d̄ô. hı̀nh ho.c.
D
Du.ó.i d̄ây, vó.i mô.t góc nhı̀n khác, công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange còn là ”cái gôć” cu’a
` u hê´t các d̄ô
hâ ` ng nhâ´t thú.c da.ng phân thú.c.
Nhâ.n xét 2.2.
Vó.i d̄a thú.c P (x) có degP (x) ≤ n − 1 cho tru.ó.c, các sô´ aj trong (2.2) d̄u.o..c thay
bo’.i P (xj ), vó.i j = 1, 2, · · · , n.
Bây giò. ta thu’. d̄i tı̀m mô.t ú.ng du.ng cu’a (2.5).
Gia’ su’. x1 , x2, · · · , xn là n sô´ thu..c phân biê.t, n ≥ 2. Xét d̄a thú.c
Y
n
P (x) = xn − (x − xi ). (2.6)
i=1
- a thú.c này d̄u.o..c khai triê’n du.ó.i da.ng

D
P (x) = S1 xn−1 − S2 xn−2 + S3 xn−3 − · · · + (−1)n+1 Sn , (2.7)
trong d̄ó
S 1 = x1 + x2 + · · · + xn ;
S2 = x1x2 + x1x3 + · · · + xn−1 xn ;
(2.8)
···
S n = x1 x2 · · · xn
Bo’.i (2.7), ta thâý ră` ng degP (x) ≤ n − 1.

Ngoài ra, tù. da.ng (2.6), ta có
P (xj ) = xnj ; ∀j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , n}.
Tù. d̄ó, áp du.ng (2.5), ta có
X
n Y
n
x − xi
xnj (2.9)
j=1
xj − xi
i=1,i6=j
16
Dê˜ thâý ră` ng vê´ pha’i cu’a (2.9) là d̄a thú.c có hê. sô´ d̄ú.ng tru.ó.c xn−1 là
X
n
xnj
Qn . (2.10)
j=1 i=1,i6=j (xj − xi )
Bo’.i (2.7), (2.8), (2.9), (2.10), ta có

X
n
xnj Xn
Qn = xj . (2.11)
j=1 i=1,i6=j (xj − xi ) j=1
- ă’ng thú.c (2.11) là mô.t d̄ă’ng thú.c liên quan d̄êń phân thú.c, thu.ò.ng gă.p trong
D
chu.o.ng trı̀nh toán phô’ thông.
Ta thu’. minh ho.a mô.t vài tru.ò.ng ho..p riêng cu’a công thú.c (2.11).
+ Vó.i n = 2, ta có
x21 x22
+ = x1 + x2
x1 − x2 x2 − x1
hay
x21 − x22
= x1 + x2 (2.12)
x1 − x2
Ta thâý ră` ng, d̄ă’ng thú.c (2.12) chı́nh là mô.t d̄ă’ng thú.c quen thuô.c.
+ Vó.i n = 3, ta có
x31 x32 x33

+ + = x1 +x2 +x3 . (2.13)
(x1 − x2 )(x1 − x3) (x2 − x3)(x2 − x1 ) (x3 − x1)(x3 − x2)
Tù. d̄ă’ng thú.c (2.13), có thê’ sáng tác thành mô.t sô´ bài tâ.p, chă’ng ha.n
Vı́ du. 2.1. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng vó.i 3 sô´ nguyên bâ´t kỳ khác nhau tù.ng d̄ôi mô.t, sô´
sau d̄ây cũng là mô.t sô´ nguyên:
a3 b3 c3
+ + .
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
Vı́ du. 2.2. Phân tı́ch d̄a thú.c sau thành nhân tu’.:
x3 y + y 3 z + z 3x − x3z − y 3x − z 3 y.
Theo hu.ó.ng trên, có thê’ sáng tác d̄u.o..c khá nhiê` u bài tâ.p phong phú. Ngoài
ra, ta còn có thê’ so sánh S2, S3 , ..., Sn o’. hai vê´ cu’a (2.5) d̄ê’ tı̀m thêm nhũ.ng d̄ă’ng
thú.c khác. Sô´ d̄ă’ng thú.c tı̀m d̄u.o..c sẽ phong phú thêm lên nêú ta tiê´p tu.c xét
nhũ.ng d̄a thú.c khác, vó.i degP (x) 6 n − 1.
17
Bây giò., ta tiê´p tu.c tı̀m kiê´m thêm các d̄ă’ng thú.c theo mô.t hu.ó.ng khác.
Vó.i n sô´ phân biê.t x1, x2 , ..., xn, xét d̄a thú.c:
Y
n
ω(x) = (x − xi ).
i=1
Rõ ràng degω(x) = n.

Thê´ thı̀
0
X
n Y
n
ω (x) = (x − xi ),
j=1 i=1,i6=j
vó.i degω (x) = n − 1.

0
Vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, ta có
0
Y
n
ω (xj ) = (xj − xi ).
i=1,i6=j
Bây giò., vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, ta xét hàm
ω(x) Y
n
x − xi
ωj (x) = 0 = . (2.14)
(x − xj )ω (xj ) xj − xi
i=1,i6=j
Nhâ.n xét ră` ng, vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, (2.10) là mô.t d̄a thú.c và degωj (x) =
n − 1. D- a thú.c này có tı́nh châ´t
ωj (xk ) = 0, vó.i k 6= j;
ωj (xk ) = 1, vó.i k = j.
Bây giò., nêú d̄a thú.c P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + .. + a1 x + a0, an 6= 0, có n
nghiê.m thu..c phân biê.t x1 , x2, ..., xn, thı̀ P (x) = an ω(x).
Do d̄ó, vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, ta có
0 0
P (xj ) = an ω (xj )
hay
0
0 P (xj )
ω (xj ) = .
an
Vâ.y, vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, (2.10) còn viê´t d̄u.o..c du.ó.i da.ng
an ω(x) Yn
x − xi
ωj (x) = 0 = . (2.15)
(x − xj )P (xj ) i=1,i6=j xj − xi
Bây giò., ta hãy tı̀m mô.t ú.ng du.ng cu’a (2.15) d̄ê’ ta.o ra nhũ.ng d̄ă’ng thú.c mó.i.
Tro’. la.i vó.i d̄a thú.c P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + .. + a1x + a0 , an 6= 0, n ≥ 2, có
18
n nghiê.m thu..c phân biê.t x1, x2 , ..., xn.

Vó.i n giá tri. phân biê.t x1 , x2, ..., xn, áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange d̄ôí
vó.i d̄a thú.c f (x) = xk , k 6 n − 1, ta có
X
n
k
x = xkj ωj (x)
j=1
Bo’.i (2.15), ta có

Qn
X
n
xkj ω(x) Xn
xkj i=1,i6=j (x − xi )
k
x = = an .
j=1
(x − xj )ω 0 (xj ) j=1
0
P (xj )
Biê’u thú.c cuôí cùng là mô.t d̄a thú.c có hê. sô´ cu’a xn−1 là
X
n
xkj
an .
j=1
P 0 (xj )
So sánh các hê. sô´ cu’a d̄a thú.c xk , ta d̄u.o..c các d̄ă’ng thú.c sau:
X
n
xkj
= 0, ∀k ∈ {0, 1, 2, ..., n − 2}; (2.16)
j=1
P 0 (xj )
X
n
xkj 1
0 = , vó.i k = n − 1. (2.17)
j=1
P (xj ) an
2.1.2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng

` n tro.ng tâm cu’a phâ
Phâ ` n này tâ.p trung vào viê.c áp du.ng mô.t cách khá linh
.
hoa.t công thú c nô.i suy Lagrange d̄ê’ gia’i mô.t sô´ bài toán khó, trong d̄ó có các d̄ê
`
. . .
thi cho.n ho.c sinh gio’i trong nu ó c, khu vu. c và quôć tê´.
Bài toán 2.1. Xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c bâ.c hai nhâ.n giá tri. bă
` ng 3; 1; 7, ta.i x bă
` ng −1;
. . .
0; 3 tu o ng ú ng.
Gia’i. Ta có x1 = −1, x2 = 0, x3 = 3 và f (x1 ) = 3, f(x2 ) = 1, f(x3 ) = 7.

Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange vó.i n = 3, ta có:
(x − 0)(x − 3) (x − 3)(x + 1)
f (x) = f (−1) + f (0)
(−1 − 0)(−1 − 3) (0 − 3)(0 + 1)
(x + 1)(x − 0)
+f (3) = x2 − x + 1.
(3 + 1)(3 − 0)
19
Bài toán 2.2. Cho a1 , a2, ..., an là n sô´ khác nhau. Chú.ng minh ră
` ng nêú d̄a thú.c
f (x) có bâ.c không ló.n ho.n n − 2, thı̀:
f (a1 ) f (an )
T = + ... + = 0.
(a1 − a2)(a1 − a3)...(a1 − an ) (an − a1)(an − a2)...(an − an−1 )
Gia’i. Theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange thı̀, mo.i d̄a thú.c f (x) có bâ.c không ló.n
ho.n n − 1 d̄ê
` u viê´t d̄u.o..c du.ó.i da.ng:
(x − a2 )(x − a3 )...(x − an ) (x − a1)(x − a3)...(x − an )
f (x) = f (a1 ) + f (a2 )
(a1 − a2)(a1 − a3)...(a1 − an ) (a2 − a1)(a2 − a3)...(a2 − an )
(x − a1 )(x − a2)...(x − an )
+... + f (an ) .
(an − a1)(an − a2 )...(an − an−1 )
Hê. sô´ cu’a xn−1 o’. vê´ trái bă` ng 0, còn hê. sô´ cu’a xn−1 o’. vê´ pha’i là:
f (a1 ) f (an )
T = + ... + .
(a1 − a2)(a1 − a3)...(a1 − an ) (an − a1)(an − a2)...(an − an−1 )
` u pha’i chú.ng minh.
Suy ra d̄iê
Bài toán 2.3. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng nêú d̄a thú.c bâ.c hai nhâ.n giá tri. nguyên ta.i ba
giá tri. nguyên liên tiê´p cu’a biêń sô´ x, thı̀ d̄a thú.c nhâ.n giá tri. nguyên ta.i mo.i x
nguyên.
Gia’i. Gia’ su’. f (k − 1), f (k), f (k + 1) là nhũ.ng sô´ nguyên vó.i k nguyên.
Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange cho d̄a thú.c bâ.c hai f (x) vó.i ba sô´ nguyên
k − 1, k, k + 1, ta có
(x − k)(x − k − 1) (x − k + 1)(x − k − 1)
f (x) = f (k − 1) + f (k)
2 −1
(x − k)(x − k + 1)
+f (k + 1) .
2
- ă.t m = x − k, ta có
D
(m(m − 1) m(m + 1)
f (x) = f (k − 1) + f (k)(m2 − 1) + f (k + 1) .
2 2
Vı̀ tı́ch hai sô´ nguyên liên tiê´p chia hê´t cho 2, nên f (x) nguyên vó.i mo.i x
nguyên.
Bài toán 2.4. Cho a1, a2, ..., an là n sô´ khác nhau. Go.i Ai (i = 1, 2, ..., n) là
` n du. trong phép chia d̄a thú.c f (x) cho x − ai. Hãy tı̀m phâ
phâ ` n du. r(x) trong phép
chia f (x) cho (x − a1 )(x − a2 )...(x − an ).
20
Gia’i. Go.i q(x) là thu.o.ng và r(x) là phâ

` n du. trong phép chia f (x) cho
(x − a1)(x − a2 )...(x − an )
Ta có
f (x) = (x − a1 )(x − a2)...(x − an ).q(x) + r(x),
trong d̄ó deg r(x) < n.
D- ă.t x = ai (i = 1, 2, ..., n) và d̄ê’ ý ră` ng Ai = f (ai ). Thê´ thı̀, ta có r(ai ) = Ai
(i = 1, 2, ..., n).
Nhu. vâ.y, ta biê´t d̄u.o..c các giá tri. cu’a d̄a thú.c r(x) có bâ.c nho’ ho.n n ta.i n d̄iê’m
khác nhau a1, a2, ..., an. Do d̄ó, áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, ta có:
(x − a2 )(x − a3 )...(x − an ) (x − a1)(x − a3 )...(x − an )
r(x) = A1 + A2
(a1 − a2)(a1 − a3)...(a1 − an ) (a2 − a1)(a2 − a3 )...(a2 − an )
(x − a1 )(x − a2 )...(x − an−1 ) Xn Y x − aj

+... + An = Ai .
(an − a1)(an − a2)...(an − an−1 ) i=1
ai − aj
j=1,j6=i
Bài toán 2.5. (Vô d̄i.ch Châu Á Thái Bı̀nh Du.o.ng, 2001)
Trong mă.t phă’ ng vó.i hê. tru.c to.a d̄ô. vuông góc, mô.t d̄iê’m d̄u.o..c go.i là d̄iê’m
hôñ ho..p nêú mô.t trong hai thành phâ ` n to.a d̄ô. cu’a d̄iê’m d̄ó là sô´ hũ.u tı’ , thành
phâ` n kia là sô´ vô tı’ . Tı̀m tâ´t ca’ các d̄a thú.c có hê. sô´ thu..c sao cho d̄ô
` thi. cu’a mô˜i
. . .
d̄a thú c d̄ó không chú a bâ´t kỳ d̄iê’m hôñ ho. p nào ca’.
Gia’i. Các d̄a thú.c câ ` n tı̀m là các d̄a thú.c bâ.c 1 vó.i hê. sô´ hũ.u tı’ .
Thâ.t vâ.y, tù. công thú.c nôi. suy Lagrange, ta có kê´t qua’ sau d̄ây: Nêú d̄a thú.c f (x)
tho’a mãn d̄iê ` u kiê.n f (r) ∈ Q vó.i mo.i r ∈ Q thı̀ tâ´t ca’ các hê. sô´ cu’a f (x) d̄ê ` u là
sô´ hũ.u tı’ .
` n ta.i r ∈ Q d̄ê’ f (r) vô tı’ . Nhu.
Vı̀ vâ.y, nêú d̄a thúc có mô.t hê. sô´ vô tı’ thı̀ sẽ tô
` thi. cu’a d̄a thú.c này pha’i chú.a ı́t nhâ´t mô.t d̄iê’m hôñ ho..p.
thê´, d̄ô
Dê˜ dàng thâý ră` ng các d̄a thú.c bâ.c 0 (khi d̄ó, nó d̄u.o..c biê’u diêñ bă` ng d̄u.ò.ng
thă’ng song song vó.i tru.c hoành) d̄ê ` u có chú.a nhũ.ng d̄iê’m hôñ ho..p.
Cũng dê˜ thâý ră` ng các d̄a thú.c bâ.c 1 vó.i hê. sô´ hũ.u tı’ (khi d̄ó, nó d̄u.o..c biê’u
diêñ bă` ng mô.t d̄u.ò.ng thă’ng có hê. sô´ góc là sô´ hũ.u tı’ ) thı̀ không chú.a bâ´t kỳ d̄iê’m
hôñ ho..p nào.
Tiê´p theo, xét d̄a thú.c có bâ.c n ≥ 2 có hê. sô´ ai ∈ Q
f (x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + an xn .

21
Không mâ´t tı́nh tô’ng quát, có thê’ gia’ su’. ră` ng f (x) có các hê. sô´ nguyên, bo’.i
vı̀ hai tâ.p ho..p nghiê.m cu’a hai phu.o.ng trı̀nh f (x) = r và af (x) = ar trùng nhau,
vó.i a là sô´ nguyên (r là sô´ hũ.u tı’ ). Ho.n nũ.a, nêú ta kı́ hiê.u
x
n−1
g(x) = an f
an
thı̀ g(x) là d̄a thú.c vó.i các hê. sô´ nguyên, trong d̄ó hê. sô´ d̄â
` u tiên cu’a nó bă` ng 1.
Phu.o.ng trı̀nh f (x) = r có mô.t nghiê.m vô tı’ nêú và chı’ nêú phu.o.ng trı̀nh
g(x) = an−1 ..
n r có mô . t nghiê.m vô tı’ , cũng thê´, nêú và chı’ nêú phu o ng trı̀nh
f (x) − f (0) = r − f (0)
có mô.t nghiê.m vô tı’ .

Tóm la.i là, không mâ´t tı́nh tô’ng quát, ta có thê’ gia’ su’. ră` ng f (x) có các hê. sô´
nguyên, vó.i an = 1, a0 = 0.
Bây giò., go.i r là sô´ nguyên tô´ d̄u’ ló.n d̄ê’ cho
r > max {f (1), x1 , x2 , ..., xk},
vó i {x1, x2 , ..., xk} là tâ.p tâ´t ca’ các nghiê.m thu..c cu’a phu.o.ng trı̀nh f (x) − x = 0.
.
Khi d̄ó f (1) < r < f(r). Vı̀ thê´, theo d̄i.nh lý giá tri. trung gian, tô ` n ta.i ı́t nhâ´t
mô.t sô´ s ∈ (1, r) sao cho
f (s) − r = 0.
Gia’ su’. s ∈ Q, ta viê´t s = p/q, vó.i p, q là hai sô´ nguyên tô´ cùng nhau. Thay
vào d̄ă’ng thú.c trên, dê˜ dàng suy ra q = 1, d̄iê ` u này có nghı̃a s là mô.t sô´ nguyên.
Tù. d̄âý suy ra r | s, vô lý, vı̀ ta có s ∈ (1, r).
Mâu thuâñ này chú.ng to’ ră` ng s là sô´ vô tı’ , nói cách khác, d̄ô
` thi. cu’a f (x) d̄i
qua mô.t ”d̄iê’m hôñ ho..p”.
Bài toán 2.6. Tı̀m tâ´t ca’ các că.p d̄a thú.c P (x) và Q(x) có bâ.c ba vó.i các hê. sô´
thu..c tho’a mãn 4 d̄iê
` u kiê.n:
a) Ca’ hai d̄a thú.c nhâ.n giá tri. 0 hoă.c 1 ta.i các d̄iê’m x = 1, 2, 3, 4;
b) Nêú P (1) = 0 hoă.c P (2) = 1, thı̀ Q(1) = Q(3) = 1;
c) Nêú P (2) = 0 hoă.c P (4) = 0, thı̀ Q(2) = Q(4) = 0;
d) Nêú P (3) = 1 hoă.c P (4) = 1, thı̀ Q(1) = 0.
Gia’i. Gia’ su’. kı́ hiê.u ak = P (k), bk = Q(k), vó.i k = 1, 2, 3, 4, còn P (x) và Q(x)
là các d̄a thú.c tho’a mãn d̄ê` bài. Khi d̄ó, các sô´ có bôń chũ. sô´ a1a2a3 a4 và b1b2 b3b4
không thê’ bă` ng sô´ nào trong các sô´ 0000, 0110, 1001, 1111, vı̀ các d̄a thú.c P (x)
và Q(x) có bâ.c 3. Mă.t khác, sô´ a1 a2a3a4 không thê’ có da.ng 0a21a4 , 0a2 a31, a1 11a4
22
hay a11a3 1, vı̀ nêú không thı̀ tù. các d̄iê

` u kiê.n b) và d) ta có b1 = 1 và b1 = 0, vô lı́.
. ` u kiê.n bài toán tho’a mãn vó.i và chı’ vó.i
` u kiê.n c) ta thâý d̄iê
Tù d̄ó, theo d̄iê
7 că.p sô´ (a1 a2a3a4 ; b1b2b3 b4) là (0100;1010), (1000;0010), (1000;1000), (1000;1010),
(1010;0010), (1011;0010) và (1100;1010).
Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, ta thay mô˜i sô´ c1 c2c3 c4 tu.o.ng ú.ng vào
các d̄a thú.c R(x), tho’a mãn các d̄ă’ng thú.c P (k) = c1, vó.i k = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Khi d̄ó ta nhâ.n d̄u.o..c 6 d̄a thú.c tu.o.ng ú.ng sau
R1 (x) =(−1/2)x3 + (7/2)x2 − 7x + 4;

R2 (x) =(1/2)x3 − 4x2 + (19/2)x − 6;
R3 (x) =(−1/6)x3 + (3/2)x2 − (13/3)x + 4;
R4 (x) =(−2/3)x3 + 5x2 − (34/3)x + 8;
R5 (x) =(−1/2)x3 + 4x2 − (19/2)x + 7;
R6 (x) =(1/3)x3 − (5/2)x2 + (31/6)x − 2.
Nhu. vâ.y, că.p d̄a thú.c (P (x); Q(x)) trùng vó.i mô.t trong các că.p (R2 (x); R4 (x)),
(R3 (x); R1(x)), (R3 (x); R3 (x)), (R3(x); R4 (x)), (R1 (x); R1(x)), (R5 (x); R1(x)), (R6 (x); R4 (x)).
Bài toán 2.7. (Vô d̄i.ch Mỹ - 1975)

1
- a thú.c P (x) bâ.c n tho’a mãn các d̄ă’ ng thú.c P (k) =
D , vó.i k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n.
k
Cn+1
Tı́nh P (n + 1).
Gia’i. Vó.i 1 6 i 6 n, áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, ta có
Q
X n
1 Yx−i X
n
i6=k (x − i)
P (x) = k
= k
Cn+1
k=0
k−i
i6=k
Cn+1 (−1)n−k (n − k)!k!
k=0
X
n
n+1−k Y
= (−1)n−k (x − i).
k=0
(n + 1)! i6=k
Suy ra
X
n
+1−k Y Xn
n−k n
P (n + 1) = (−1) (n + 1 − i) = (−1)n−k .
k=0
(n + 1)! i6=k k=0
Do d̄ó P (n + 1) = 0 nêú n le’ và P (n + 1) = 1 nêú n chăñ.
Bài toán 2.8. Gia’ su’. d̄a thú.c c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + ... + cn xn có giá tri. hũ.u tı’ khi x
hũ.u tı’ . Chú.ng minh ră
` ng, tâ´t ca’ các hê. sô´ c0, c1 , c2 , ..., cn là nhũ.ng sô´ hũ.u tı’ .
23
Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange vó.i ak = k (k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n), ta có
(−1)n f (0) (−1)n−1 f (1)

f (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)...(x − n) + x(x − 2)...(x − n)
n! 1!(n − 1)!
(−1)n−2 f (2)
+ x(x − 1)(x − 3)...(x − n).
2!(n − 2)!
Theo gia’ thiê´t, f(0), f(1),..., f(n) là nhũ.ng sô´ hũ.u tı’ . Vı̀ vâ.y, khai triê’n vê´ pha’i
cu’a d̄ă’ng thú.c trên, ta thâý ră` ng các hê. sô´ cu’a các lũy thù.a cu’a x d̄ê ` u là nhũ.ng
sô´ hũ.u tı’ . D
- ò̂ng nhâ´t d̄a thú.c o’. hai vê´, suy ra các sô´ c0 , c1, c2 + ... + cn , là nhũ.ng
sô´ hũ.u tı’ .
Lu.u ý: Cũng có thê’ áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange ta.i n + 1 d̄iê’m ak
(k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n) hũ.u tı’ tùy ý và khác nhau, thı̀ cũng d̄i d̄êń kê´t qua’ trên. Do d̄ó,
ta có kê´t qua’ sau:
Nêú d̄a thú.c có bâ.c không quá n và có giá tri. hũ.u tı’ ta.i n + 1 d̄iê’m hũ.u tı’ khác
nhau thı̀ các hê. sô´ cu’a d̄a thú.c cũng là sô´ hũ.u tı’ .
Bài toán 2.9. Cho p là mô.t sô´ nguyên tô´ và P (x) ∈ Z[x] là d̄a thú.c bâ.c s tho’a
` u kiê.n
mãn các d̄iê
1) P (0) = 0, P (1) = 1.
2) P (n) hoă.c chia hê´t cho p hoă.c có sô´ du. bă
` ng 1, vó.i mo.i n ∈ Z + .
Chú.ng minh ră` ng: s ≥ p − 1.
Gia’i. Gia’ su’. ngu.o..c la.i, s 6 p − 2. Khi d̄ó, theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, ta có
Q
p−2 Q
p−2
p−2 (x − j) p−2 (x − j)
X j=0;j6=k X j=0;j6=k
P (x) = P (k) = P (k) .
Q
p−2 k!(−1)p−k (p − k − 2)!
k=0 (k − j) k=0
j=0;j6=k
Cho x = p − 1, ta thu d̄u.o..c
Q
p−2
p−2 (p − 1 − j) p−2
X j=0;j6=k
X
P (p − 1) = P (k) = P (k)(−1)p−k Cp−1
k
.
k=0
k!(−1)p−k (p − k − 2)! k=0
k
Theo gia’ thiê´t thı̀ p nguyên tô´, nên Cp−1 ≡ (−1)k (mod p). Do d̄ó
p−2
X
p
P (p − 1) = (−1) P (k)(modp).
k=0
24
Nêú p = 2, thı̀ 1 = P (1) = (−1)2 P (0) (mod p), vô lý.

Nêú p ≥ 3, thı̀ p le’ và vı̀ vâ.y
p−2
X
P (p − 1) = − P (k)(modp).
k=0
Tù. d̄ây suy ra
s = P (0) + P (1) + ... + P (p − 2) + P (p − 1) = 0(modp).
Mă.t khác, do gia’ thiê´t 2) thı̀ s = k (mod p) vó.i 0 6 n 6 p − 1 và P (n) = 1

(mod p) nên 1 6 s 6 p − 1, tú.c là s 6= 0 (mod p), mâu thuâñ vó.i kê´t luâ.n trên.
` u gia’ thiê´t s 6 p − 2 là sai. Ta có d̄iê
Vâ.y d̄iê
Bài toán 2.10. Tı̀m tâ´t ca’ các d̄a thú.c P (x) có bâ.c nho’ ho.n n (n ≥ 2) và thoa’
` u kiê.n
mãn d̄iê
Xn
(−1)n−k−1 Cnk P (k) = 0.
k=0
Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange vó.i các nút nô.i suy xk = k ta có, mo.i
d̄a thú.c P (x) có bâ.c nho’ ho.n n d̄ê
` u có da.ng
X
n−1
(x − x0 )...(x − xk−1 )(x − xk+1 )...(x − xn−1 )
P (x) = P (xk )
(xk − x0)...(xk − xk−1 )(xk − xk+1 )...(xk − xn−1 )
k=0
nên ta có
X
n−1
(x − 0)...(x − (k − 1))(x − (k + 1))...(x − (n − 1))
P (x) = P (xk ) .
(k − 0)...(k − (k − 1))(k − (k + 1))...(k − (n − 1))
k=0
Do d̄ó
X
n−1
(n − 0)...(n − k + 1)(n − k − 1)...1 X
n−1
P (n) = P (xk ) n−k−1
= (−1)n−k−1 .Cnk P (k)
k=0
k!(−1) (n − k − 1)! k=0
Suy ra
X
n
(−1)n−k−1 Cnk P (k) = 0.
k=0
Vâ.y các d̄a thú.c câ

` n tı̀m có da.ng
X
n−1 Y
n−1
x − xi X
n−1 Y x − xi
n−1
P (x) = P (xk ) = ak vó.i ak ∈ R.
k −i k−i
k=0 i=0,i6=k k=0 i=0,i6=k
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Bài toán 2.11. Cho sô´ tu.. nhiên s và dãy các d̄a thú.c Pn (x) có bâ.c không vu.o..t s.
` ng hàm sô´ g(x) xác d̄i.nh trong (0; 1) và thoa’ mãn d̄iê
Gia’ thiê´t ră ` u kiê.n
1
| g(x) − Pn (x) |< ; ∀x ∈ (0; 1); n = 1, 2, ...
n
Chú.ng minh ră ` n ta.i d̄a thú.c Q(x) bâ.c không vu.o..t s trùng vó.i g(x)
` ng khi d̄ó tô
trong (0; 1).
Gia’i. Cho.n các sô´ a0, a1, a2, ..., as d̄ôi mô.t khác nhau mô.t cách tuỳ ý trong (0; 1).
Khi d̄ó, theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange thı̀
X s Ys
x − aj
Pn (x) = Pn (ai ) .
i=0 j=0;j6=i
ai − aj
- ă.t
D
X
s Y
s
x − aj
Pn (ai ) = Q(x),
i=0 j=0;j6=i
ai − aj
thı̀ Q(x) là d̄a thú.c có bâ.c không vu.o..t quá s. Theo gia’ thiê´t thı̀
lim Pn (ai) = g(ai ).

n→∞
Do d̄ó
Q(x) = lim Pn (x) = g(x).
n→∞
Bài toán 2.12. Cho n sô´ nguyên du.o.ng d̄ôi mô.t khác nhau x1, x2 , ..., xn. Go.i
0
pj = P (xj ), trong d̄ó
Yn
P (x) = (x − xj ).
j=1
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng dãy (uk ) xác d̄i.nh theo công thú.c
X
n
xk i
uk =
i=1
pi
là mô.t dãy sô´ nguyên.
Gia’i. Theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange thı̀ vó.i d̄a thú.c f (x) = xk , k ∈ N , ta có
X
n X
n
ω(x)
f (x) = f (xi )ωi (x) = xki
i=1 i=1
(x − xi )ω 0 (xi)
26
X
n Xn Yn
ω(x) xki
= xki = (x − xj )
i=1
(x − xi )P 0 (xi ) i=1
P 0 xi j=1;j6=i
nhâ.n giá tri. bă` ng xki ta.i xi và hê. sô´ ú.ng vó.i lũy thù.a xn−1 bă` ng uk .
Do P (x) ≡ xk , nên
uk = 0, nêú k = 0, 1, ..., n − 2;
uk = 1, nêú k = n − 1.
Vâ.y các sô´ u1, ..., un−1 nguyên.
Xét k ≥ n.
Gia’ thiê´t ră` ng các sô´ nguyên b1, b2 , ..., bn d̄u.o..c xác d̄i.nh theo hê.
ak−1
1 ak−1 ak−1
+ 2 + ... + n = b1;
p1 p2 pn
ak−2
1 a k−2
a k−2
+ 2 + ... + n = b2;
p1 p2 pn
......
ak−n
1 ak−n ak−n
+ 2 + ... + n = bn .
p1 p2 pn
. `
Khi d̄ó, ta chú ng minh ră ng sô´
ak1 ak2 ak
b0 = + + ... + n
p1 p2 pn
là mô.t sô´ nguyên và nhu. vâ.y, theo gia’ thiê´t quy na.p, ta có ngay d̄iê
` u pha’i chú.ng
minh. Thâ.t vâ.y, gia’ su’.
Y
n
P (x) = (x − xj ) = xn + c1 xn−1 + ... + cn .
j=1
- i.nh lý Viét thı̀ các ci nguyên và

Theo D
X
n
xnj =− ci an−i
i .
i=1
Nhân dòng thú. j cu’a hê. d̄ã gia’ thiê´t o’. trên vó.i cj , j = 1, 2, ..., n và cô.ng la.i, ta thu
d̄u.o..c
X n Xn X n
ak−i
j
X n
ak−n
j
Xn
ci bi = ci = ci an−i
j
i=1 i=1 j=1
p j j=1
p j i=1
X
n
ak−n
j
=− anj = −b0 .
j=1
pj

Vâ.y sô´ b0 là nguyên. Ta có d̄iê
27
Bài toán 2.13. 1) Cho d̄a thú.c f (x) có bâ.c n vó.i các hê. sô´ thu..c và hê. sô´ bâ.c cao
` ng a. Gia’ su’. f (x) có n nghiê.m phân biê.t x1 , x2, ..., xn khác 0. Chú.ng minh
nhâ´t bă
` ng
ră
(−1)n−1 X 1 X
n n
1
= 2 0
.
ax1x2...xn k=1 xk k=1
x k f (x k)
` n ta.i hay không mô.t d̄a thú.c f (x) bâ.c n le’ vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t
2) Có tô
a = 1 mà f (x) có n nghiê.m phân biê.t x1 , x2, ..., xn khác 0 thoa’ mãn
1 1 1 1
0
+ 0
+ ... + 0
+ = 0?
x1 f (x1) x2 f (x2) xn f (xn ) x1x2 ...xn
Gia’i. 1) Ta viê´t f (x) du.ó.i da.ng
Y
n
f (x) = a (x − xk ).
k=1
- ă.t f (x) = (x − xk )fk (x). Thê´ thı̀

D
Y
n
fk (x) = a (x − xi ); k = 1, 2, ..., n
i=1,i6=k
và !
X
n
x1x2 ...xn
n−1
fk (x) = ax −a xi xn−2 + ... + (−1)n−1 a .
xk
i=1,i6=k
Ta có
f 0 (x) = fk (x) + (x − xk )fk0 (x),
f 0 (xk ) = fk (xk ),
fk (xj ) = 0; k 6= j.
Xét d̄a thú.c
Xn
fk (x)
P (x) := − 1.
i=1
fk (x k )
Ta thâý bâ.c cu’a d̄a thú.c P (x) nho’ ho.n n và P (x1) = P (x2 ) = ... = P (xn ) = 0
nên P (x) ≡ 0. Hê. sô´ tu.. do trong khai triê’n P (x) là
X
n
x1x2...xn
0 = a0 = (−1)n−1 a − 1.
i=1
xk f 0 (xk )
Do d̄ó
(−1)n−1 X 1
n
= 0 (x )
.
ax1x2...xn i=1
x k f k
28
Xét hê. sô´ bâ.c nhâ´t cu’a P (x), ta có

!
X
n
1 X
n
1
2 0
=0
i=1
xk f (xk ) i=1,j=1
xi
hay
X
n
1 X n
1 X 1
n
= .
i=1
x2k f 0 (xk ) i=1
x k f 0 (x )
k i=1
x k
Tù. các d̄ă’ng thú.c cuôí cùng d̄ã chú.ng minh trên, ta suy ra d̄iê ` u pha’i chú.ng minh.
2) Gia’ su’. tô
` n ta.i d̄a thú.c f (x) bâ.c n le’ vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t a = 1 mà f (x)
có n nghiê.m thu..c phân biê.t x1, x2, ..., xn khác 0 và thoa’ mãn
1 1 1 1
0
+ 0
+ ... + 0
+ = 0.
x1f (x1 ) x2f (x2 ) xn f (xn ) x1x2 ...xn
Theo câu trên thı̀

X
n
1 1
0
= .
i=1
xk f (xk ) x1 x2...xn
Tù. d̄ó, dâñ d̄êń d̄iê
` u vô lı́ sau
2
= 0.
x1x2 ...xn
` n ta.i d̄a thú.c thoa’ mãn d̄iê
Vâ.y không tô ` u kiê.n bài ra.
2.2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a các công thú.c nô.i suy
khác
2.2.1 Công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor
Công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor cho ta công thú.c d̄o.n gia’n và cũng râ´t tô’ng quát d̄ê’
` n chı́nh cu’a hàm sô´. Do d̄ó, d̄ê’ tı̀m gió.i ha.n, ngu.ò.i ta thu.ò.ng dùng
xác d̄i.nh phâ
công thú.c khai triê’n Taylor tó.i mô.t câ´p nào d̄ó. Du.ó.i d̄ây là mô.t sô´ vı́ du. minh ho.a.
Bài toán 2.14. Tı́nh gió.i ha.n

√
sin(sin x) − x 3 1 − x2
lim .
x→0 x5
29
Gia’i. Vı̀ mâ˜u sô´ là d̄a thú.c x5 nên ta câ

` n khai triê’n tu’. sô´ thành d̄a thú.c Taylor
vó.i d̄ô. chı́nh xác d̄êń 0(x5 ) khi x → 0.
Vı̀ sin x ≈ x khi x → 0 nên o(x5 ) = o(sin5 x) khi x → 0.
Theo công thú.c Taylor, ta có
x3 x5
sin x = x − + + o(x5 )
6 120
và
sin3 x sin5 x
sin sin x = sin x − + + o(sin5 x), x → 0.
6 120
Khi d̄ó
x3 x5
sin3 x = [(x − + + o(x5)]3 =
6 120
= [x + α(x)]3 = x3 + 3x3 α(x) + 3xα2 (x) + α3 (x),
trong d̄ó
x3 x5 x3
α(x) = − + + o(x5) ≈ − .
6 120 6
Suy ra
x6 x9
xα2 (x) ≈ = o(x5 ), α3 (x) ≈ − = o(x5 ) khi x → 0.
36 216
Do d̄ó
1
sin3 x = x3 − x5 + 0(x5 ) khi x → 0.
2
.
Tiê´p theo, ta sẽ chú ng minh ră` ng
sin5 x = x5 + 0(x5 ), x → 0.
Thâ.t vâ.y, vı̀

x3
α(x) ≈ − khi x → 0
6
nên
sin5 x = x5 + o(x5), x → 0.
Nhu. vâ.y, khi x → 0 ta có
x3 x5
sin(sin x) = x − + + o(x5 ).
3 10
Tu.o.ng tu..
√ 1 1
x 1 − x2 = x(1 − x2 − x4 + o(x4 )) =
3
3 9
1 1
= x − x3 − x5 + o(x5), x → 0.
3 9
30
Do d̄ó
√ 19
sin(sin x) − x 1 − x2 = x5 + o(x5 ).
3
90
Vâ.y nên
19 0(x5 ) 19
lim f (x) = lim( + 5
)= .
x→0 x→0 90 x 90
Bài toán 2.15. Tı́nh gió.i ha.n
3
lim (cos(x.ex) − ln(1 − x) − x)cot x .
x→0
Gia’i. Gió.i ha.n câ

` n tı̀m có da.ng 1∞ . Ta có
3 lim cot x3 ln f (x)
lim(cos(x.ex) − ln(1 − x) − x)cot x = ex→0
x→0
vó.i
f (x) = cos(x.ex) − ln(1 − x) − x.
` n tı́nh
Ta câ
lim cot x3 ln[cos(x.ex) − ln(1 − x) − x].
x→0
- ê’ ý ră` ng
D
1 1
cot x3 = 3
= 3 , x → 0.
tan x x + 0(x3)
Do d̄ó ta câ ` n pha’i khai triê’n hàm [f (x) − 1] theo công thú.c Taylor tu.o.ng d̄u.o.ng
vó.i 0(x3 ) bă` ng cách su’. du.ng các khai triê’n sau
xex = x + x2 + 0(x2 ), x → 0,
t2
cos t = 1 − + 0(t3 ), t → 0.
2!
Suy ra
cos xex = 1 − x22 − x3 + 0(x3 ), x → 0,
x2 x3
− ln(1 − x) = x + + + 0(x3 ), x → 0.
2 3
Ta thu du.o..c
2
f (x) − 1 = − x3 + 0(x3 ), x → 0
3
và
− 23 x3 + 0(x3 ) 2
lim 3 3
=− .
x→0 x + 0(x ) 3
Vâ.y
3 2
lim(cos(x.ex) − ln(1 − x) − x)cot x = e− 3 .
x→0
Mô.t ú.ng du.ng khá quan tro.ng cu’a công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor là viê.c xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´.
` này sẽ d̄u.o..c trı̀nh bày o’. chu.o.ng sau.
Vâń d̄ê
31
2.2.2 Công thú.c nô.i suy Newton

Bài toán 2.16. Cho 3 bô. sô´ thu..c (x1; a1), (x2; a2 ), (x3; a3). Tı̀m d̄a thú.c N (x) vó.i
` u kiê.n
degN (x) ≤ 2 và tho’a mãn d̄iê
N (x1 ) = a1 , N 0 (x2 ) = a2, N 00 (x3) = a3
Gia’i.Cách 1: (Theo cách gia’i tô’ng quát)

Có duy nhâ´t d̄a thú.c sau d̄ây tho’a mãn
N (x) = a1 + a2 R(x1 , x) + a3 R2 (x1, x2, x),
trong d̄ó Z x x

R(x1 , x) = dt = t = x − x1;
x1 x1
Z x Z t Z x Z t Z x
2
R (x1, x2, x) = dt1 .dt = dt1 dt = (t − x2 )dt =
x1 x2 x1 x2 x1
(t − x2)2 x x − x2 ) 2 x1 − x2 ) 2
x1
= − .
2 2 2
Vâ.y
x − x2 ) 2 x1 − x2 ) 2
N (x) = a1 + a2(x − x1) + a3 − .
2 2
Cách 2 (Cách thông thu.ò.ng o’. phô’ thông)
- a thú.c có da.ng
D
N (x) = ax2 + bx + c; a, b, c ∈ R.
Vó.i các d̄iê
` u kiê.n d̄ã cho, ta d̄u.o..c hê. 3 phu.o.ng trı̀nh vó.i 3 â’n a.b.c. Gia’i hê. này,
ta tı̀m d̄u.o..c a, b, c. Suy ra d̄a thú.c N (x) câ ` n tı̀m nhu. trên.
Bài toán 2.17. Cho (n + 1) că.p sô´ (xj , yj ) (j = 0, . . . , n). Vó.i i 6= k ta d̄i.nh nghı̃a
yi − yk
[xi , xk ] = ([xi, xk ] d̄u.o..c go.i là sai phân tách bâ.c nhâ´t);
xi − xk
[xi+p , . . . , xi+1 ] − [xi+p−1 , . . . , xi ]
[xi+p, xi+p−1 , . . . , xi+1 , xi ] =
xi+p − xi
([xi+p , xi+p−1 , . . . , xi+1 , xi] d̄u.o..c go.i là sai phân tách bâ.c p).
Cho x0 < x1 < . . . < xn và cho hàm sô´ y(x) là hàm kha’ vi liên tu.c d̄êń bâ.c n thoa’
` u kiê.n y(xj ) = yj (j = 0, 1, . . . , n). Chú.ng minh
mãn d̄iê ` ng
ră
y (n)(x∗ )
[xn , xn−1 , . . . , x0 ] = ,
n!
vó.i x∗ là mô.t d̄iê’m nào d̄ó trong (x0, xn ).
32
Gia’i.
Su’. du.ng phu.o.ng pháp quy na.p và d̄i.nh lý Rolle ta có ngay kê´t qu’a câ
` n chú.ng minh.
Bài toán 2.18. Chú.ng minh ră

` ng d̄a thú.c
Pn (x) = y0 + [x1, x0 ](x − x0) + [x2, x1, x0 ](x − x0)(x − x1)

(2.18)
+ . . . + [xn, xn−1 , . . . , x0](x − x0 )(x − x1 ) . . . (x − xn )
thoa’ mãn các hê. thú.c

Pn (xj ) = yj ∀j ∈ {0, . . . , n}.
Gia’i . Công thú.c (2.18) d̄u.o..c kiê’m tra tru..c tiê´p bă` ng viê.c su’. du.ng d̄i.nh nghı̃a các
sai phân tách.
Nhâ.n xét 2.3. Công thú.c (2.18) cũng chı́nh là mô.t cách viê´t khác cu’a d̄a thú.c
nô.i suy Newton d̄ã d̄u.o..c trı̀nh bày trong phâ
` n các bài toán nô.i suy.
2.2.3 Công thú.c nô.i suy Hermite

Nhâ.n xét 2.4. Trong bài toán nô.i suy Hermite, nêú n = 2 thı̀ i = 1 hoă.c i = 2.
Gia’ su’. p1 = 1 và p2 = 3. Thê´ thı̀ p1 + p2 = 4 = N .
Khi d̄ó
+ Nêú i = 1, thı̀ k = 0, 1, . . . , P1 − 1. Vâ.y k = 0.
+ Nêú i = 2, thı̀ k = 0, 1, . . . , P2 − 1. Vâ.y k = 0, k = 1, k = 2.
Bây giò., gia’ su’.

a01 = 1, a02 = a12 = a22 = 0.
Ta có bài tâ.p sau
Bài toán 2.19. Cho hai sô´ thu..c x1 6= x2 . Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c H(x) có bâ.c
` u kiê.n
degH(x) ≤ 3 và tho’a mãn các d̄iê
H(x1 ) = 1, H(x2 ) = H 0 (x2) = H 00(x2) = 0.
Gia’i (Theo cách gia’i tô’ng quát)

Ta có
W1(x) = (x − x2 )p2 = (x − x2)3 .
Do d̄ó (0)
1 1 1
T = =
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) W1(x1 ) (x1 − x2)3
33
Vâ.y, ta có
(0) 3
1 3 1 x − x2
H(x) = W1 (x)T = (x − x2 ) = .
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) (x1 − x2)3 x1 − x2
Mô.t cách tô’ng quát, ta có bài toán du.ó.i d̄ây vó.i cách gia’i gâ
` n gũi vó.i chu.o.ng trı̀nh
phô’ thông.
Bài toán 2.20. Cho hai sô´ phân biê.t x0 và x1. Tı̀m tâ´t ca’ các d̄a thú.c P (x) vó.i
degP (x) ≤ n (n ∈ N∗) tho’a mãn các d̄iê
` u kiê.n
P (x0 ) = 1
P ( k)(x1) = 0, k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}.
Gia’i. Theo gia’ thiê´t thı̀ P (x) có nghiê.m x = x1 bô.i n nên
P (x) = a(x − x1)n .
Tù. gia’ thiê´t P (x0) = 1, suy ra

1
1 = a(x0 − x1)n ⇔ a = .
(x0 − x1)n
Tù. d̄ó suy ra

(x − x1)n
P (x) = .
(x0 − x1)n
Nhâ.n xét 2.5. Trong bài toán nô.i suy Hermite, nêú n = 2 thı̀ i = 1 hoă.c i = 2.
Gia’ su’. p1 = 2 và p2 = 3. Thê´ thı̀ p1 + p2 = 5 = N . Khi d̄ó
+ Nêú i = 1, thı̀ k = 0, 1, . . . , P1 − 1. Vâ.y k = 0, k = 1.
+ Nêú i = 2, thı̀ k = 0, 1, . . . , P2 − 1. Vâ.y k = 0, k = 1, k = 2.
Bây giò., gia’ su’.
a01 = a11 = 1, a02 = a12 = a22 = 0.
Ta d̄u.o..c bài tâ.p sau
Bài toán 2.21. Cho hai sô´ thu..c x1 6= x2 . Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄a thú.c H(x) có bâ.c
` u kiê.n
degH(x) ≤ 4 và tho’a mãn các d̄iê

H(x ) = H 0 (x ) = 1
1 1
H(x2 ) = H 0 (x2) = H 00(x2) = 0.
34
Gia’i (Theo cách gia’i tô’ng quát)

Ta có
W1(x) = (x − x2 )p2 = (x − x2)3 .
Do d̄ó
(1) 1
X (l)
1 1 (x − x1)l
T =
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) W1(x1 ) (x=x1 ) l!
l=0
(l)
1 1
= + (x − x1 )
W1 (x) W1 (x) (x=x1 )
1 3(x1 − x2 )2
= − (x − x1)
(x1 − x2)3 (x1 − x2 )6
1 3(x1 − x2 )
= 3
−
(x1 − x2) (x1 − x2 )4
Ngoài ra, ta có
(0)
1 1 1
T = = .
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) W1(x) (x1 − x2)3
Vâ.y, ta có
(1) (0)
1 1
H(x) = W1 (x)T +(x − x1 )W1(x)T
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) W1 (x) (x=x1 )
(1) (0) !
1 1
= W1 (x) T +(x − x1)T
W1 (x) (x=x1 ) W1 (x) (x=x1 )
!
1 3(x 1 − x 2 ) x − x 1
= (x − x2 )3 − +
(x1 − x2 )3 (x1 − x2)4 (x1 − x2)3
(x1 − x2) − 3(x1 − x2) + (x1 − x2)(x − x1)
= (x − x2 )3
(x1 − x2 )4

(x − x2 )3 (x1 − x2) − 3(x1 − x2) + (x1 − x2 )(x − x1 )
=
(x1 − x2 )4

(x − x2 )3 (x1 − x2 − 3)(x − x1) + (x1 − x2)
=
(x1 − x2 )4
Mô.t cách tô’ng quát, ta cũng có bài toán du.ó.i d̄ây, vó.i cách gia’i gâ
` n gũi vó.i chu.o.ng
trı̀nh toán phô’ thông.
Bài toán 2.22. Cho hai sô´ phân biê.t x0 và x1. Tı̀m tâ´t ca’ các d̄a thú.c P (x) vó.i
degP (x) ≤ n + 1 (n ∈ N∗ ) tho’a mãn các d̄iê
` u kiê.n
P (x0 ) = 1, P 0 (x0 ) = 1,
35
P ( k)(x1) = 0, k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1}.
Gia’i. Theo gia’ thiê´t thı̀ P (x) có nghiê.m x = x1 bô.i n nên
P (x) = (x − x1)n (ax + b).
Ta có
P 0 (x) = a(x − x1)n + n(ax + b)(x − x1 )n−1 .
Tù. gia’ thiê´t P (x0) = 1, suy ra
1 = (x0 − x1)n (ax0 + b)
và
1 = a(x0 − x1 )n + n(ax0 + b)(x0 − x1 )n−1 .
Vâ.y ta nhâ.n d̄u.o..c hê. phu.o.ng trı̀nh tuyêń tı́nh â’n a, b


 x0 a + b = 1
,
x0 − x1 ) n

(x0 − x1)n a + n(x0 − x1)n−1 (x0a + b) = 1.
x0 − x1 − n (x0 − x1 )(1 − x0) + nx0

Gia’i hê. này, ta thu d̄u.o..c a = và b =
(x0 − x1)n+1 (x0 − x1)n+1
. ` n tı̀m có da.ng
Vâ.y d̄a thú c câ
!
n (x0 − x1 − n)x + (x0 − x1 )(1 − x0 ) + nx0
P (x) = (x − x1)
x0 − x1 )n+1
2.3 Bài tâ.p

Bài tâ.p 2.1. Phân tı́ch phân thú.c sau thành tô’ng các phân thú.c d̄o.n gia’n:
x2
1) ;
(x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
1
2) .
(x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)(x − 4)
Bài tâ.p 2.2. Chú.ng minh ră
` ng vó.i mo.i sô´ thu..c a, ta có
√ √ √ √ √ √
(a − 3)(a − 5)(a − 7) (a − 2)(a − 5)(a − 7)
√ √ √ √ √ √ + √ √ √ √ √ √
( 2 − 3)( 2 − 5)( 2 − 7) ( 3 − 2)( 3 − 5)( 3 − 7)
√ √ √ √ √ √
(a − 2)(a − 3)(a − 7) (a − 2)(a − 3)(a − 5)
+ √ √ √ √ √ √ + √ √ √ √ √ √ ≡ 1.
( 5 − 2)( 5 − 3)( 5 − 7) ( 7 − 2)( 7 − 3)( 7 − 5)
36
Bài tâ.p 2.3. Cho các sô´ a, b, c khác nhau tù.ng d̄ôi mô.t. Chú.ng minh ră
` ng vó.i mo.i
sô´ thu..c x, ta có
(x − b)(x − c) (x − c)(x − a) (x − a)(x − b)
a2 + b2 + c2 ≡ x2 .
(a − b)(a − c) (b − c)(b − a) (c − a)(c − b)
Bài tâ.p 2.4. Tı́nh tô’ng:
cos 1o cos 2o
S= +
(cos 1o − cos 2o )(cos 1o − cos 3o ) (cos 2o − cos 2o )(cos 2o − cos 3o )
cos 3o
+
(cos 3o − cos 1o )(cos 3o − cos 2o )
- ă.t
Bài tâ.p 2.5. Cho x1 , x2, . . . , xm là m giá tri. tuỳ ý d̄ôi mô.t khác nhau. D
xn1 xn2
Sn = +
(x1 − x2 )(x1 − x3) . . . (x1 − xm ) (x2 − x1)(x2 − x3) . . . (x2 − xm )
xnm
+··· + .
(xm − x1 )(xm − x2 ) . . . (xm − xm−1 )
Chú.ng minh ră` ng
a) Sn = 0 nêú 0 ≤ n < m − 1,
b) Sm−1 = 1,
` ng tô’ng các tı́ch, mô˜i tı́ch có k + 1 thù.a sô´ (giôńg nhau hoă.c khác
c) Sm+k bă
nhau) lâý trong các sô´ x1, x2, ..., xm.
Bài tâ.p 2.6. Chú.ng minh d̄ă’ ng thú.c sau
X
2n+1
(−1)m 22n+1
= (−1)n .
m=0
(2n + 1 − 2m)!(2n + 1 − m)! ((2n + 1)!)2
Bài tâ.p 2.7. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) = a0 xn + a1xn−1 + ... + an−1 x + an tho’a mãn d̄iê
ù
kiê.n
| P (x) |6 1; ∀x ∈ [−1; 1].
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng
| a0 + a1x + ... + an xn |6 2n−1 ; ∀x ∈ [−1; 1].

Bài tâ.p 2.8. Cho sô´ nguyên tô´ p và dãy sô´ nguyên rj , trong d̄ó
1 6 r1 6 r2 6 ... 6 rm 6 p − 1,
` u kiê.n
tho’a mãn d̄iê
rj = 1 (mod p) ; j = 1, 2, ..., m.
.
Chú ng minh ră ` ng vó.i mo.i x nguyên ta d̄ê
` u có
xm − 1 = (x − r1 )(x − r2 )...(x − rm ) (mod p).
37
Bài tâ.p 2.9. Cho p là mô.t sô´ nguyên tô´ và p(x) ∈ Z[x] là d̄a thú.c bâ.c s tho’a mãn
` u kiê.n:
các d̄iê
1. P (0) = 0, P (1) = 1.
2. P (n) hoă.c chia hê´t cho p hoă.c có sô´ du. bă
` ng 1 vó.i mo.i n ∈ Z∗ .
Chú.ng minh ră ` ng s ≥ p − 1.
Bài tâ.p 2.10. Cho n sô´ nguyên du.o.ng d̄ôi mô.t khác nhau x1, x2 , · · · , xn . Go.i
pj = P (xj ) vó.i
Yn
P (x) = (x − xj )
j=1
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng dãy {uk } xác d̄i.nh theo công thú.c
X
n
xk i
uk =
i=1
pi
là mô.t dãy sô´ nguyên.

38
Chu.o.ng 3
.
Ú ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy d̄ê˙’
u.ó.c lu.o..ng và xâ´p xı̇’ hàm sô´
Mô.t trong nhũ.ng ú.ng du.ng quan tro.ng cu’a các công thú.c nô.i suy là u.ó.c lu.o..ng
và xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´. D- ây là mô.t nô.i dung quan tro.ng trong lý thuyê´t hàm. Nhũ.ng
tru.ò.ng ho..p nho’ cu’a vâń d̄ê
` này d̄ã tro’. thành nhũ.ng bài toán khó o’. phô’ thông và
thu.ò.ng xuâ´t hiê.n trong các kỳ thi ho.c sinh gio’i quôć gia và quôć tê´,
Trong pha.m vi cu’a chu.o.ng trı̀nh phô’ thông chuyên toán, chu.o.ng này sẽ d̄ê ` câ.p
d̄êń các ú.ng du.ng nêu trên
.
3.1 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´
.
3.1.1 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ theo các nút nô.i suy Lagrange
Bài toán 3.1. Cho tam thú.c bâ.c hai f (x) = ax2 + bx + c tho’a mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n:
| f (x) |6 1, khi | x |6 1.
. ` ng vó.i mo.i M ≥ 1, ta có:
Chú ng minh ră
| f (x) |6 2M 2 − 1, khi | x |6 M.
Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange vó.i n = 2, x1 = 1, x2 = 0, x3 = −1, ta
có
x2 + x 2 x2 − x
f (x) = f (1) − f (0)(x − 1) + f (−1) .
2 2
Vı̀ | f (x) |6 1, | f (0) |6 1, | f (−1) |6 1, nên
x2 + x x2 − x
f (x) =| f (1) | . | | + | f (0) | . | x2 − 1 | + | f (−1) | . | |.
2 2
39
x2 + x x2 − x
6| |+| | + | x2 − 1 |= 2x2 − 1 6 2M 2 − 1.
2 2
Suy ra d̄iê
Bài toán 3.2. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c không vu.o..t quá 2n và thoa’ mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n
| P (k) |6 1; ∀k ∈ {−n, −n + 1, ..., n − 1, n}.
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng
| P (x) |6 4n ; ∀x ∈ {−n; n}.
Gia’i. Theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange thı̀

Xn Y n
x−j
P (x) = P (k) .
k=−n j=−n;j6=k
k−j
Suy ra
n
X Y
n
x−j
| P (x) |6 | P (k) | | | .
k=−n j=−n;j6=k
k−j
Ta có
Y
n
x−j (2n)!
| |6 .
j=−n;j6=k
k−j (n + k)!(n − k)!
Suy ra
X
n
(2n)! X 2n
(2n)!
| P (x) |6 = = 22n .
k=−n
(n + k)!(n − k)! k=0 k!(2n − k)!
Bài toán 3.3. Cho d̄a thú.c f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e tho’a mãn d̄iê ` u kiê.n
.
| f (x) |6 1 khi | x |6 1. Chú ng minh ră . . .
` ng vó i mo.i M > 1 cho tru ó c ta d̄ê
` u có
32 4 32 2
| f (x) |6 M − M + 1, khi | x |6 M.
3 3
1 1
Gia’i. Theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange vó.i x1 = −1, x2 = − , x3 = 0, x4 =
2 2
và x5 = 1, thı̀
1 1
f (x) = f (−1)ω1 (x) + f − ω2 (x) + f (0)ω3 (x) + f ω4 (x) + f (1)ω5 (x).
2 2
Tù. d̄ây suy ra
2 1 8 1 1
| f (x) |6 | f (−1) | . | (x2 − x) x2 − | + | f − | . | (x2 − 1) x2 − x |
3 4 3 2 2
40

1 8 1 1 2
2 2 2
+4 | f (0) | . | (x − 1) x − |+ |f | . | x − x (x − 1) |
4 3 2 2
2 1
+ | f (1) | . | (x2 + x) x2 − |
3 4
2 1 8 1
6 | (x2 − x) x2 − | + | (x2 − 1) x2 − x |
3 4 3 2
1 8 1
+4 | (x2 − 1) x2 − | + | x2 − x (x2 − 1) |
4 3 2
2 1
+ | (x2 + x) x2 − |
3 4
32 32 32 32
= x4 − x2 + 1 6 M 4 − M 2 + 1.
3 3 3 3
Bài toán 3.4. Gia’ su’. cho tru.ó.c các sô´ nguyên x0 < x1 < ... < xn . Chú.ng minh
` ng giũ.a các giá tri. cu’a d̄a thú.c xn + a1xn−1 + ... + an ta.i các d̄iê’m x0, x1, ..., xn
ră
n!
luôn tı̀m d̄u.o..c mô.t sô´ mà giá tri. tuyê.t d̄ôí cu’a nó không bé ho.n n .
2
Gia’i. Vó.i 0 6 i 6 n, áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, d̄a thú.c xn + a1xn−1 +
... + an có thê’ biê’u diêñ d̄u.o..c du.ó.i da.ng
n Y
X x − xi
P (x) = P (xj ).
j=0
x j − xi
i6=j
Gia’ thiê´t ră` ng khă’ng d̄i.nh cu’a bài toán không d̄úng, nghı̃a là
n!
| P (xj ) |< n , vó.i j = 0, 1, ..., n.
2
Khi d̄ó, hê. sô´ cao nhâ´t cu’a P (x) bă` ng tô’ng các hê. sô´ cao nhâ´t trong các tı́ch
Y x − xi
,
xj − xi
i6=j
có mô-d̄un không vu.o..t quá

X
n Y 1 Xn
n! Y 1 Xn
n! 1
| P (xj ) |< n
6 n
Q
j=0
xj − xi j=0
2 | xj − xi | j=0
2 i<j (j − i)
i6=j i6=j
1 X 1 X j
n n
n!
= = C = 1,
2n j=0 j!(n − j)! 2n j=0 n

mâu thuâñ. Suy ra d̄iê
41
Bài toán 3.5. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c 6 2n thoa’ mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n
|P (k)| 6 1, k = −n, −(n − 1), . . . , 0, 1, . . . , n.
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng
|P (x)| 6 2n ∀x ∈ [−n, n].
Gia’i.
Theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange thı̀
X
n Y x−j
P (x) = P (k) .
k−j
k=−n j6=k
Vı̀ |P (k)| 6 1 vó.i k ∈ {−n, −(n − 1), . . . , 0, 1, . . . , n} nên

X
n Y |x − j|
|P (x)| 6 |P (k)|
k=−n j6=k
|k − j|
Xn Y
|x − j|
≤ .
k=−n j6=k
|k − j|
Nhâ.n xét ră` ng vó.i x ∈ [−n, n] thı̀

Y
|x − j| 6 (2n)!
j6=k
và vı̀ vâ.y

Y |x − j| (2n)!
6 .
j6=k
|k − j| (k + n)!(n − k)!
Do d̄ó
X
n
(2n)! X (2n)!
2n
|P (x)| 6 = = 22n .
(k + n)!(n − k)! (k + n)!(n − k)!
k=−n k=0
.
3.1.2 U ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´ theo các nút nô.i suy Chebyshev
- a thú.c Chebyshev
3.1.2.1 D
- .inh nghı̃a 3.1. Các d̄a thú.c Tn (x) (n ∈ N) d̄u.o..c xác d̄i.nh nhu. sau
D

 T (x) = 1; T (x) = x,
0 1
 Tn+1 (x) = 2xTn (x) − Tn−1 (x) ∀n > 1
d̄u.o..c go.i là các d̄a thú.c Chebyshev (loa.i 1).

42
- .inh nghı̃a 3.2. Các d̄a thú.c Un (x) (n ∈ N) xác d̄i.nh nhu. sau
D

 U (x) = 0; U (x) = 1,
0 1
 Un+1 (x) = 2xUn (x) − Un−1 (x) ∀n > 1
d̄u.o..c go.i là các d̄a thú.c Chebyshev (loa.i 2).
3.1.2.2 Tı́nh châ´t cu’a các d̄a thú.c Tn (x)
Tı́nh châ´t 3.1. Tn (x) = cos(n arccos x) vó.i mo.i x ∈ [−1, 1]
` ng 2n−1 và là hàm

Tı́nh châ´t 3.2. Tn (x) ∈ Z[x] bâ.c n có hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t bă
chăñ khi n chăñ; là hàm le’ khi n le’.
Tı́nh châ´t 3.3. Tn (x) có d̄úng n nghiê.m phân biê.t trên [-1, 1 ] là
2k + 1
xk = cos π (k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1).
2n
kπ
Tı́nh châ´t 3.4. |Tn (x)| 6 1 ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] và |Tn (x)| = 1 khi x = cos , k ∈ Z.
n
Tı́nh châ´t 3.5. D - a thú.c T ∗(x) = 21−n Tn (x) là d̄a thú.c bâ.c n vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao
` ng 1 và có d̄ô. lê.ch so vó.i 0 trên [−1, 1] là nho’ nhâ´t trong tâ´t ca’ các d̄a thú.c
nhâ´t bă
bâ.c n vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t bă
` ng 1.
3.1.2.3 Tı́nh châ´t cu’a d̄a thú.c Un (x)

sin(n arccos x) .
Tı́nh châ´t 3.6. Un (x) = √ vó i mo.i x ∈ (−1, 1).
1 − x2
1 0 sin nt
Tı́nh châ´t 3.7. Un (x) = Tn (x) = , cos t = x, d̄a thú.c bâ.c n − 1 có hê. sô´
n sin t
` ng 2n−1
bâ.c cao nhâ´t bă và là hàm chăñ khi n le’; là hàm le’ khi n chăñ.
Tı́nh châ´t 3.8. Tn (x) có d̄úng n nghiê.m phân biê.t trên [-1, 1 ] là
2k + 1
xk = cos π (k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1).
2n
Tı́nh châ´t 3.9. |Un (x)| 6 n ∀x ∈ [−1, 1] và |Tn0 (x)| 6 n2 ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Du.ó.i d̄ây là mô.t sô´ bài toán áp du.ng.

43
Bài toán 3.6. Cho d̄a thú.c Pn−1 (x) bâ.c 6 n − 1 vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t a0, tho’a
` u kiê.n
mãn d̄iê
√
1 − x2|Pn−1 (x)| 6 1, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng
|a0| 6 2n−1 .
Gia’i . Ta viê´t d̄a thú.c d̄ã cho du.ó.i da.ng nô.i suy Lagrange theo các nút nô.i suy
2j − 1
xj = cos π là các nghiê.m cu’a d̄a thú.c Chebyshev Tn (x)
2n
1X
n q Tn (x)
j−1
Pn−1 (x) = (−1) 1 − x2j Pn−1 (xj ) .
n j=1 x − xj
Suy ra
2n−1 X q
a0 = n(−1)j−1 1 − x2j P (xj ).
n j=1
Vâ.y nên
2n−1 X q 2n−1

|a0| 6 2
n 1 − xj P (xj ) 6 n = 2n−1 .
n j=1 n
Bài toán 3.7. Cho d̄a thú.c Pn−1 (x) bâ.c 6 n − 1 vó.i hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t a0, tho’a
` u kiê.n
mãn d̄iê
√
1 − x2|Pn−1 (x)| 6 1, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng khi d̄ó
|Pn−1 (x)| 6 n, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Gia’i.
Vó.i các xj d̄u.o..c cho.n nhu. o’. bài toán trên thı̀ do hàm sô´ cos x nghi.ch biêń trong
(0, π) nên ta có
−1 < xn < xn−1 < . . . < x2 < x1 < 1.
Nêú x1 < x < 1 thı̀
1X n q
|Tn (x)|

|Pn−1 (x) 6 1 − x2j Pn−1 (xj )|
n j=1 |x − xj |
1 X Tn (x)
n
6 (3.1)
n j=1 (x − xj )
(do x − xj > 0 và Tn (x) có dâú không d̄ô’i trên (x1, 1]).
44
Mă.t khác thı̀

Y
n
n−1
Tn (x) = 2 (x − xj ),
j=1
nên ta có
Q
n
(x − xj )
X
n
j=1 Xn
Tn (x)
Tn0 (x) =2 n−1
= . (3.2)
(x − xk ) j=1
x − xj
k=1
Mà
|Tn (x)|
= |Un (x)| 6 n,
n
nên tù. (3.1) và (3.2) suy ra
|Pn−1 (x)| 6 n ∀x ∈ (x1, 1].
Hoàn toàn tu.o.ng tu.., ta cũng có
|Pn−1 (x)| 6 n ∀x ∈ [−1, xn ).
Xét xn 6 x 6 x1. Khi d̄ó ta có

√ q
π
1 − x > 1 − x21 = sin(arc cos x1 ) = sin .
2
2n
Do
sin x 2
1> >
x π
nên
π π 2 1
sin > =
2n 2n n n
và
√ 1 1
1 − x2 > ⇒ |Pn−1 (x)| 6 = n.
n 1
n
Tóm la.i ta d̄ã chú ng minh d̄u o. c ră ng |Pn−1 (x)| 6 n vó.i mo.i x ∈ [−1, 1].
. . . `
Bài toán 3.8. Cho d̄a thú.c lu.o..ng giác
P (t) = a1 sin t + a2 sin 2t + . . . + an sin(nt)
` u kiê.n
thoa’ mãn d̄iê
|P (t)| 6 1 ∀t ∈ R \ {. . . , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, . . .}.
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng
P (t)

6 n ∀t ∈ R \ {. . . , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, . . .}.
sin t
45
Gia’i.
P (t)
Nhâ.n xét ră` ng = Pn−1 (cos t) vó.i Pn−1 (x) là d̄a thú.c da.ng (??). - ă.t
D
sin t
cos t = x. Khi dó |x| 6 1 và
√
P (t) = sin tPn−1 (cos t) = 1 − x2Pn−1 (x).
Nhâ.n xét ră` ng P (x) tho’a mãn các d̄iê

` u kiê.n cu’a bài toán ??, nên
|Pn−1 (x)| 6 n ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Do d̄ó P (t)

6 n ∀t ∈ R \ {. . . , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, . . .}.
sin t
Bài toán 3.9. Cho d̄a thú.c lu.o..ng giác
X
n
P (x) = (aj cos jx + bj sin jx)
j=0
` u kiê.n |P (x)| 6 1 vó.i mo.i x ∈ R.

Chú.ng minh ră ` ng |P 0 (x)| 6 n vó.i mo.i x ∈ R.
Gia’i.
Cho tru.ó.c x0 tuỳ ý. Do
cos(x0 − x) − cos(x0 + x) = 2 sin x0 sin x,
sin(x0 + x) − sin(x0 − x) = 2 cos x0 sin x

nên
P (x0 + x) + P (x0 − x) X
n
g(x) = = cj sin jx.
2 j=0
Suy ra
P 0 (x0 + x) − P 0 (x0 − x)
g 0 (x) =
2
0 0
và g (0) = P (x0 ). Ta chú ng minh ră` ng |g 0(0)| 6 n. Thâ.t vâ.y, g(x) là d̄a thú.c
.
lu.o..ng giác chú.a thuâ` n hàm sô´ sin nhu. trong Bài toán 3.8 và
P (x + x) + P (x − x) |P (x + x)| + |P (x − x)|
0 0 0 0
|g(x)| = 6 6 1,
2 2
nên theo kê´t qu’a cu’a Bài toán 3.8, thı̀
g(x)

6 n ∀x 6∈ {. . . , −2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, . . .}. (3.3)
sin x
46
Nhu.ng g(0) = 0 và

g(x) − g(0) x

. 6n
x−0 sin x
g(x) − g(0) x
nên khi x → 0 thı̀ do → g 0 (0) và → 1 ta thu d̄u.o..c |g 0 (0)| 6 n.
x−0 sin x
Tù. d̄ó ta có |P (x0)| 6 n. Nhu.ng x0 d̄u.o..c cho.n tuỳ ý nên suy ra |P (x)| 6 n vó.i
mo.i x ∈ R.
Bài toán 3.10. Cho d̄a thú.c
Pn (x) = a0xn + a1 xn−1 + . . . + an
` u kiê.n
|Pn (x)| 6 1, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng khi d̄ó
|Pn0 (x)| 6 n2 , ∀x ∈ [−1, 1]. (3.4)
Gia’i.
- ă.t x = cos α. Khi d̄ó theo gia’ thiê´t thı̀ |Pn (cos α)| 6 1. Mà Pn (cos α) có da.ng
D
X
n
Pn (cos α) = (aj cos jα + bj sin jα)
j=0
nên ta có thê’ áp du.ng kê´t qua’ cu’a bài toán 3.9. Ta d̄u.o..c
√ P 0 (x)

| sin α.Pn (cos α)| 6 1 ⇒ 1 − x n 6 1.
0 2
n
Pn0 (x)
Cũng theo bài toán 3.8 thı̀ ta có | | 6 n. Suy ra
n
|Pn0 (x)| 6 n2 .
Nhâ.n xét 3.1. Du..a vào kê´t qua’ cu’a Bài toán 3.10, sau khi áp du.ng liên tiê´p kê´t
qua’ cu’a d̄i.nh lý này, ta sẽ thu d̄u.o..c kê´t qua’ sau:
Nêú d̄a thú.c P (x) thoa’ mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n
|Pn (x)| 6 1, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1],
thı̀
|P (k) (x)| 6 [n(n − 1)(n − 2) . . . (n − k + 1)]2, ∀x ∈ [−1, 1].
47
3.2 Mô.t sô´ phu.o.ng pháp khác d̄ê˙’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng

hàm sô´
Bài toán 3.11. Cho a1, a2 , . . . , an 1à các sô´ thu..c > 0 và không d̄ô
` ng thò.i bă
` ng 0.
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng phu.o.ng trı̀nh
xn − a1xn−1 − . . . − an−1 x − an = 0 (3.5)
có d̄úng mô.t nghiê.m du.o.ng duy nhâ´t.
Gia’i. Do x > 0 nên

a1 a2 an
(6) ⇔ 1 = + 2 + · · · + n = f (x).
x x x
Nhâ.n xét ră` ng f (x) liên tu.c trên (0, +∞) và f (x) nghi.ch biêń trong khoa’ng
(0, +∞) nên tô` n ta.i duy nhâ´t R > 0 sao cho f (R) = 1.
Bài toán 3.12. Cho a1, a2 , . . . , an 1à các sô´ thu..c > 0 và không d̄ô
` ng thò.i bă
` ng 0.
. . . . .
Gia’ su’ R là nghiê.m du o ng cu’a phu o ng trı̀nh (3.5) và
X
n X
n
A= aj ; B = jaj .
j=1 j=1
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng khi d̄ó
AA 6 RB .
Gia’i.
a Pn
- ă.t cj = j . Suy ra cj > 0 và
D cj = 1. Do hàm sô´ y = − ln x lõm trong khoa’ng
A j=1
(0, +∞) nên theo bâ´t d̄ă’ng thú.c Jenxen thı̀
Xn A Xn
A Xn
aj
cj − ln j > − ln( cj j = − ln
j=1
R j=1
R j=1
Rj
= − ln f (R) = − ln 1 = 0.
Suy ra
X
n
(cj ln Rj − cj ln A) > 0
j=1
và
X
n X
n
(ln A) cj 6 (ln R) jcj
j=1 j=1
48
hay
1 X 1 X
n n
aj
aj (ln A) 6 jaj (ln R) (do cj = ; A > 0).
A j=1 A j=1 A
Vâ.y nên
ln(AA ) 6 ln(RB ) ⇒ AA 6 RB .
Bài toán 3.13. Cho dãy các d̄a thú.c {Pn (x)}(n = 0, 1, 2, . . .) xác d̄i.nh nhu. sau
1
P0 (x) = 0, Pn+1 (x) = Pn (x) + (x − Pn2 (x)) (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
2
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng vó.i mo.i x ∈ [0, 1] và vó.i mo.i n ∈ N, ta luôn có
√ 2
06 x − Pn (x) 6 . (3.6)
n+1
Gia’i.
Ta chú.ng minh bă` ng phu.o.ng pháp quy na.p ră` ng
√
0 6 Pn (x) 6 x. (3.7)
Thâ.t vâ.y, vó.i n = 1 thı̀

x √
P1 (x) = ⇒ 0 6 P1 (x) 6 x ∀x ∈ [0, 1].
2
Gia’ su’. (3.7) d̄úng d̄êń n. Xét hàm sô´
1
f (t) = t + (x − t2 ), t ∈ [0, 1].
2
Ta có f 0 (t) = 1 − t > 0. Suy ra f (t) d̄ô
` ng biêń trên [0,1].
Mă.t khác thı̀
√
0 6 t = Pn (x) 6 x 6 1
nên
√ √
Pn+1 (x) = f (Pn (x)) 6 f ( x) = x.
Do
Pn2 (x) 6 x (⇔ x − Pn2 (x) > 0)
nên
Pn+1 (x) > Pn (x) > 0.
Vâ.y (3.7) d̄úng vó.i n + 1.
49
Ta chú.ng minh bâ´t d̄ă’ng thú.c

√ 2
x 6 Pn (x) 6 . (3.8)
n+1
Thâ.t vâ.y, ta có
h √
√ √ x + Pn−1 (x) i
x − Pn (x) = [ x − Pn−1 (x)] 1 −
2
h √ i
√ x
6 [ x − Pn−1 (x)] 1 − ( do Pn−1 (x) > 0)
2
h √ i
√ x 2
6 [ x − Pn−2 (x)] 1 −
2
............
h √ i √ i
√ x n √ h x n
6 [ x − P0 (x)] 1 − = x 1− .
2 2
√
- ă.t t = x ∈ [0, 1]. Theo bâ´t d̄ă’ng thú.c giũ.a trung bı̀nh cô.ng và trung bı̀nh
D
nhân thı̀
n t
t n 2 hn t n i 2 h 2 t + n(1 − 2 ) in+1
t 1− = t 1− 6 =
2 n 2 2 n n+1
2 n n+1 2 n n 2
= ( ) = ( ) < .
n n+1 n+1 n+1 n+1
- ây chı́nh là bâ´t d̄ă’ng thú.c (3.8).
D
Bài toán 3.14. Cho d̄a thú.c f (x) vó.i deg f = n và f (x) > 0 vó.i mo.i x ∈ R.
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng
Xn
f (k) (x) > 0. (3.9)
k=0
Gia’i.
- ă.t
D
X
n
f (k) (x) = g(x).
k=0
Suy ra
g(x) = f (x) + g 0 (x).
Do f (x) > 0 vó.i mo.i x ∈ R, nên suy ra n chăñ và hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t cu’a f (x)
là du.o.ng. Nêú f (x) là hàm hă` ng thı̀ g(x) ≡ 0 và (3.9) d̄úng. Nêú n > 1
thı̀ deg f = deg g và các hê. sô´ chı́nh cu’a f (x) và g(x) bă` ng nhau. Suy ra deg
50
g(x) là chăñ và hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t cu’a g(x) là du.o.ng. Vâ.y tô
` n ta.i x0 ∈ R d̄ê’
g(x0 ) = minx∈R g(x). Nhu.ng g(x0 ) = f (x0 ) + g 0 (x0) và g 0 (x0) = 0, nên
min g(x) = g(x0 ) = f (x0) > 0.

x∈R
Tù. d̄ó suy ra g(x) > 0 vó.i mo.i x ∈ R và ta thu d̄u.o..c (3.9).
3.3 Xâ´p xı’ hàm sô´ theo d̄a thú.c nô.i suy
Trong sô´ các hàm sô´ biêń sô´ thu..c thı̀ d̄a thú.c d̄u.o..c coi là hàm sô´ có da.ng d̄o.n
gia’n nhâ´t vê` nhiê ` u phu.o.ng diê.n nhâ´t là vê ` mă.t tı́nh toán. Bo’.i vâ.y, mô.t vâń d̄ê`
. .
d̄u o. c chúng ta quan tâm nhiê ` u ho n ca’ là bài toán xâ´p xı’ mô.t hàm cho tru ó c bo’.i
. . .
mô.t d̄a thú.c, d̄ă.c biê.t là tı̀m d̄iê ` n và d̄u’) d̄ê’ mô.t hàm sô´ cho tru.ó.c có
` u kiê.n (câ
thê’ xâ´p xı’ d̄u.o..c bo’.i mô.t d̄a thú.c.
Gia’ su’. hàm sô´ f (x) d̄u.o..c xâ´p xı’ bo’.i d̄a thú.c Pn (x) (Pn (x) là d̄a thú.c d̄a.i sô´
hoă.c d̄a thú.c lu.o..ng giác hoă.c là các d̄a thú.c da.ng d̄ă.c biê.t khác). Go.i R[f, P, n] =
|f (x) − Pn (x)| là d̄ô. lê.ch cu’a phép xâ´p xı’ . Ta câ ` n xác d̄i.nh P (x) và xác d̄i.nh n
sao cho R[f, P, n] là nho’ nhâ´t trên mô.t d̄oa.n [a, b] cho tru.ó.c. Khi d̄ó Pn (x) d̄u.o..c
go.i là d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ tô´t nhâ´t cu’a f (x) trên d̄oa.n [a, b] d̄ó và d̄u.o..c ký hiê.u là
f (x) ≈ Pn (x).
Nêú hàm sô´ f (x) kha’ vi (n + 1) lâ ` n thı̀ có thê’ su’. du.ng công thú.c khai triê’n
Taylor ta.i x = 0
X n
f (k) (0) k
f (x) = x + R(x, n)
k=0
k!
vó.i phâ
` n du. R(x, n) = o(xn ).
Nhu. vâ.y
X
n
f (k) (0)
f (x) ≈ Pn (x) = xk .
k!
k=0
Tuy nhiên ló.p các hàm kha’ vi (n + 1) lâ ` n dùng d̄ê’ xâ´p xı’ bo’.i d̄a thú.c là quá
√
he. p, không bao d̄u.o..c nhiê ` u ló.p hàm sô´ liên tu.c quen biê´t nhu. hàm sô´ f (x) = 3 x,
x ∈ [−1, 1]. D - ôí vó.i các hàm sô´ liên tu.c trên [a, b] ta vâñ có các d̄i.nh lý tu.o.ng tu..
` xâ´p xı’ chúng bo’.i d̄a thú.c.
vê
Trong phâ` n này, ta sẽ d̄ê` câ.p d̄êń hai vâń d̄ê` sau:
Mô.t là xây du. ng các d̄a thú c xâ´p xı’ thông qua các công thú.c nô.i suy và hai là xây
. .
du..ng công thú.c tı́nh d̄ô. lê.ch sai sô´ d̄ôí vó.i các xâ´p xı’ d̄ó.
51
Bài toán 3.15. Cho hàm sô´ f (x) và cho tâ.p ho..p Ω gô ` m n + 1 d̄iê’m phân biê.t xj
(x0 < x1 < · · · < xn ) trong tâ.p xác d̄i.nh cu’a hàm sô´ f (x).
Hãy tı̀m mô.t d̄a thú.c Pn (x), bâ.c không quá n sao cho
P (xj ) = f (xj ) (j = 0, . . . , n).
` n tı̀m chı́nh là mô.t d̄a thú.c d̄u.o..c xác d̄i.nh bo’.i công thú.c
Gia’i . Dê˜ thâý Pn (x) câ
nô.i suy Lagrange. D - ó là d̄a thú.c bâ.c 6 n. Ngoài ra, do |f (x) − Pn (x)| = 0 vó.i mo.i
x ∈ Ω nên Pn (x) còn là d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ tô´t nhâ´t cu’a f (x) trên tâ.p Ω d̄ó.
Bài toán 3.16. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng d̄a thú.c Pn (x) nêu trong Bài toán 3.15 là duy
nhâ´t trong sô´ các d̄a thú.c bâ.c 6 n.
Gia’i .
Do max |f (x) − Pn (x)| = 0 nên nêú tô ` n ta.i d̄a thú.c Qn (x) là xâ´p xı’ tô´t nhâ´t cu’a
x∈X
f (x) trên Ω thı̀ cũng pha’i có f (x) = Qn (x) vó.i mo.i x ∈ Ω.
Hai d̄a thú.c Pn (x) và Qn (x) có bâ.c 6 n và nhâ.n các giá tri. trùng nhau ta.i n + 1
d̄iê’m khác nhau nên chúng d̄ô
` ng nhâ´t bă` ng nhau, d̄iê` u pha’i chú.ng minh.
Bài toán 3.17. Chú.ng minh ră

` ng nêú d̄a thú.c Pn (x) trong Bài toán 3.15 có da.ng
X
n
Pn (x) = ak xk ,
k=0
thı̀ các hê. sô´ ak d̄u.o..c xác d̄i.nh mô.t cách duy nhâ´t tù. hê. phu.o.ng trı̀nh
X
n
ak xkj = f (xj ), j = 0, . . . , n. (3.10)
k=0
Gia’i .
Gia’i hê. phu.o.ng trı̀nh tuyêń tı́nh (3.10) vó.i d̄i.nh thú.c cu’a hê. khác 0 (dê˜ dàng kiê’m
` u này bă` ng phu.o.ng pháp quy na.p), ta suy ra hê. (3.10) có nghiê.m duy nhâ´t.
tra d̄iê
` u kiê.n
Bài toán 3.18. Cho (n + 1) bô. ba sô´ (xj , yj , dj ) (j = 0, . . . , n) thoa’ mãn d̄iê
x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn .
Tı̀m d̄a thú.c Pm (x) bâ.c m (m 6 2n + 1) sao cho
Pm (xj ) = yj ; Pm0 (xj ) = dj , ∀j ∈ {0, . . . , n}. (3.11)

52
Gia’i.
- ă.t
D
X
n
Pm (x) = [yj + (x − xj )(αj yj + βj dj ]wj2(x). (3.12)
j=0
trong d̄ó wj (x) là d̄a thú.c bâ.c 2n d̄u.o..c d̄i.nh nghı̃a nhu. sau

1 khi i = j
wj (xi ) = vó.i i, j ∈ {0, . . . , n}.
0 khi i = 6 j
Ta có
0
βj = 1, αj = −2wj (xj ). (3.13)
Vâ.y d̄a thú.c câ
` n tı̀m có da.ng (3.12) vó.i các sô´ αj , βj xác d̄i.nh theo (3.13).
Bài toán 3.19. Cho y(x) là hàm sô´ kha’ vi liên tu.c (n + 1) lâ` n trong khoa’ng (0, 1).
Go.i Pn (x) là d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ cu’a y(x) xác d̄i.nh theo công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange
trên tâ.p
X = {xj | j = 0, . . . , n} ⊆ (0, 1).
Hãy xác d̄i.nh d̄ô. lê.ch sai sô´
Rn+1 (x) := |y(x) − Pn (x)|
trên tâ.p {(0, 1) \ X}.
Gia’i . Cho.n x ∈ [0, 1], x 6= xj (j = 0, 1, . . . , n) và d̄ă.t

y(x) − Pn (x)
= c. (3.14)
(x − x0)(x − x1) . . . (x − xn )
Xét hàm sô´
f (t) = y(t) − Pn (t) − c(t − x0 )(t − x1) · · · (t − xn ).
Rõ ràng f (t) có các nghiê.m x0, x1, . . . , xn . Ngoài ra, ta cũng có f (x) = 0. Suy
ra f (t) có ı́t nhâ´t n + 2 nghiê.m ∈ (0, 1).
Do d̄ó theo d̄i.nh lý Rolle, d̄a.o hàm bâ.c (n + 1) cu’a nó có ı́t nhâ´t mô.t nghiê.m
x∗ ∈ (0, 1):
f (n+1) (x∗ ) = y (n+1) (x∗) − c(n + 1)! = 0.
Theo (3.14) ta d̄u.o..c
1
Rn+1 (x) = y(x) − Pn (x) = y (n+1)(x∗ )(x − x0 )(x − x1 ) . . . (x − xn ).
n + 1)!
53
Suy ra
1
y(x) = Pn (x) + y (n+1)(x∗ )w(x)
(n + 1)!
vó.i w(x) = (x − x0 )(x − x1) . . . (x − xn ) và
1
|Rn+1 (x)| = |y(x) − Pn (x)| = M|(x − x0 )(x − x1 ) . . . (x − xn )|
n + 1)!
vó.i
M= sup |y (n+1) (x)|.
x∈(0,1)\X
Bài toán 3.20. Cho d̄oa.n I ⊂ R và cho M = sup{|f 00(x)|; x ∈ I}. Gia’ su’. ta d̄ã
xâ´p xı’ d̄u.o..c f (x) bo’.i d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ bâ.c nhâ´t xác d̄i.nh theo công thú.c nô.i suy
Lagrange.
Hãy xác d̄i.nh giá tri. ló.n nhâ´t cu’a d̄ô. lê.ch sai sô´ trong phép xâ´p xı’ trên.
Gia’i.
Theo kê´t qua’ cu’a bài toán 3.20, ta có
M
|Rn+1 (x)| 6 |(x − x0 )(x − x1 ) . . . (x − xn )|.
(n + 1)!
Do d̄ó, vó.i n = 1 thı̀

M
|R2(x)| 6 |(x − x0)(x − x1)|
2!
M (x − x0 + x1 − x)2 M
6 = (x1 − x0 )2.
2 4 8
Nhâ.n xét 3.2. Tù. d̄ánh giá
M
|Rn+1 (x)| 6 |w(x)|,
(n + 1)!
ta có nhâ.n xét sau d̄ây.

- ê’ thu d̄u.o..c d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ có d̄ô.
D lê.ch sai sô´ nho’ nhâ´t ta có thê’ su’. du.ng mô.t
trong các cách hoă.c là tăng bâ.c xâ´p xı’ n, hoă.c phân bô´ la.i (cho.n) xj trên I cho tôí
u.u ho.n hoă.c tı̀m cách gia’m d̄a.i lu.o..ng |w(x)|.
54
3.4 Bài tâ.p

Bài tâ.p 3.1. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng vó.i mo.i d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c n vó.i hê. sô´ thu..c và có
` ng 1, ta d̄ê
hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t bă ` u có
1
max |P (x)| − min |P (x)| ≥ .
−1≤x≤1 −1≤x≤1 2n−1
1
Dâú d̄ă’ ng thú.c xa’y ra khi P (x) = Tn∗(x) = Tn (x).
2n−1
Bài tâ.p 3.2. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng vó.i mo.i d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c n vó.i hê. sô´ thu..c và có
` ng 1, ta d̄ê
hê. sô´ bâ.c cao nhâ´t bă ` u có
(b − a)n
max |P (x)| − min |P (x)| ≥ .
a≤x≤b a≤x≤b 22n−1
Khi nào dâú d̄ă’ ng thú.c xa’y ra .
Bài tâ.p 3.3. Gia’ su’. P (x) ∈ Pn là d̄a thú.c bâ.c n cu’a hàm sô´ f (x) trên d̄oa.n [a; b]
tú.c là P (xi ) = f (xi ) (i = 1, n), xi ∈ [a; b]. Tı̀m u.ó.c lu.o..ng tô´t nhâ´t cu’a phép nô.i
suy.
Bài tâ.p 3.4. Xác d̄i.nh a, b ∈ R d̄ê’ giá tri. ló.n nhâ´t cu’a hàm sô´ f (x) = |x2 + ax + b|
trên d̄oa.n [−1; 1] là nho’ nhâ´t.
Bài tâ.p 3.5. Chú.ng minh ră ` ng trong ló.p các d̄a thú.c bâ.c 4 vó.i hê. sô´ cao nhâ´t
1
` ng 1 thı̀ d̄a thú.c T4∗(x) = x4 − x2 + là d̄a thú.c có d̄ô. lê.ch vó.i 0 nho’ nhâ´t trên
bă
8
d̄oa.n [−1; 1].
Bài tâ.p 3.6. Cho n + 1 sô´ nguyên d̄ôi mô.t khác nhau x0, x1 , · · · , xn . Xét các d̄a
thú.c da.ng
P (x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1x + a0
Chú.ng minh ră
` ng
n!
max |P (xj )| ≥
j∈{0,1,···,n} 2n
Bài tâ.p 3.7. Cho d̄a thú.c P (x) bâ.c không vu.o..t quá 2n và tho’a mãn d̄iê
` u kiê.n
|P (x) ≤ 1, ∀k ∈ {−n, −n + 1, · · · , n − 1, n}
Chú.ng minh ră

` ng
|P (x)| ≤ 4n , ∀x ∈ [−n; n].
55
Bài tâ.p 3.8. Cho (n + 1) că.p sô´ (xj ; yj ) (j = 0, n). Vó.i i 6= k, ta d̄i.nh nghı̃a
yi − yk
[xi , xk ] = ([xi, xk ] d̄u.o..c go.i là sai phân tách bâ.c nhâ´t).
xi − xk
[xi+p, · · · , xi+1 ] − [xi+p−1 , · · · , xi ]
[xi+p , xi+p−1 , · · · , xi+1 , xi ] = ([xi+p, xi+p−1 , · · · , xi+1 , xi]
xi+p − xi
d̄u.o..c go.i là sai phân tách bâ.c p).
Cho x0 < x1 < · · · < xn và cho hàm sô´ y(x) là hàm sô´ kha’ vi liên tu.c d̄êń bâ.c n
tho’a mãn d̄iê ` u kiê.n y(xj ) = yj , (j = 0, n). Chú.ng minh ră ` ng
y (n) (x∗)
xn , xn−1 , · · · , x0] =
n!
Vó.i x∗ là mô.t d̄iê’m nào d̄ó thuô.c (x0, xn ).
Bài tâ.p 3.9. Chú.ng minh ră

` ng d̄a thú.c
Pn (x) = y0 +[x1, x0](x−x0)+[x2, x1 , x0](x−x0)(x−x1)+· · ·+[xn , xn−1 , · · · , x0](x−x0)(x−x1) · · · (x−
tho’a mãn các hê. thú.c Pn (xj ) = yj , ∀j ∈ {0, 1, · · · , n}.
Bài tâ.p 3.10. (Bâ´t d̄ă’ ng thú.c Bernsteine)

Chú.ng minh ră` ng vó.i mo.i x ∈ R và vó.i mo.i n ∈ N∗ ta luôn có
X
n
n
Cnk (k − nx)2 xk (1 − x)n−k ≤ .
k=0
4
- .inh lý Weierstrass)

Bài tâ.p 3.11. (D
Cho f (x) là hàm sô´ liên tu.c trên d̄oa.n [0; 1]. Khi d̄ó d̄a thú.c
X
n
k
Bn∗ (x) = f ( )Cnk xk (1 − x)n−k
n
k=0
là d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ tô´t nhâ´t cu’a f (x) trên [0; 1]. (Bn∗ (x) go.i là d̄a thú.c Bernsteine
trên d̄oa.n [0; 1]).
- .inh lý Weierstrass mo’. rô.ng)

Bài tâ.p 3.12. (D
Cho f (x) là hàm sô´ liên tu.c trên d̄oa.n [a; b]. Khi d̄ó d̄a thú.c
X
n
k (x − a)k (b − x)n−k
Bn (x) = f ( )Cnk
n (b − a)n
k=0
là d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ tô´t nhâ´t cu’a f (x) trên [a; b]. (Bn (x) go.i là d̄a thú.c Bernsteine
trên d̄oa.n [a; b]).
56
Kê´t luâ.n cu’a luâ.n văn
Luâ.n văn trı̀nh bày hê. thôńg mô.t sô´ nô.i dung chı́nh sau:
1. Nêu kê´t qua’ cu’a các bài toán nô.i suy là các d̄a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, Taylor,
Newton, Hermite d̄ê’ ú.ng du.ng vào viê.c gia’i các bài toán phô’ thông.
.
2. Ú ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange d̄ê’ tı̀m d̄u.o..c ba’n châ´t cu’a hâ ` u hê´t các
` ng nhâ´t thú c da.ng phân thú c và áp du.ng mô.t cách khá linh hoa.t công thú.c này
d̄ô . .
` thi ho.c sinh gio’i trong nu.ó.c, khu
d̄ê’ gia’i mô.t sô´ bài toán khó, trong d̄ó có các d̄ê
vu..c và quôć tê´.
3. Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu’a các công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor, nô.i suy Newton, nô.i suy
Hermite .
.
4. Ú ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange và các tı́nh châ´t cu’a d̄a thú.c Chebyshev
d̄ê’ u.ó.c lu.o..ng hàm sô´.
5. Xây du..ng các d̄a thú.c xâ´p xı’ thông qua các công thú.c nô.i suy và xây du..ng
công thú.c tı́nh d̄ô. lê.ch sai sô´ d̄ôí vó.i các xâ´p xı’ d̄ó.
57
TÀI LIÊ ˙’
. U THAM KHAO
[1] Tri.nh D - ào Chiêń-Huỳnh Minh Thuâ.n, 2007, Ky’ yêú”Mô.t sô´ chuyên d̄ê` toán
ho.c hê. THPT, Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange, NXB Tru.ò.ng D
- a.i
ho.c Khoa ho.c Tu.. nhiên - D - HQG Hà Nô.i.
[2] Nguyêñ Văn Mâ.u, 2007, Các bài toán nô.i suy và ú.ng du.ng, NXB Giáo du.c.
- a thú.c d̄a.i sô´ và phân thú.c hũ.u tı’ , NXB Giáo du.c.
[3] Nguyêñ Văn Mâ.u, 2001, D
[4] Lê Hoành Phò, 2003, Chuyên kha’o d̄a thú.c, NXB D
- HQG TP Hô
` Chı́ Minh.

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BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

Ứng dụng bài toán nội suy

1 Các bài toán nô.i suy cô˙’ d̄iê˙’n 6

2 Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c nô.i suy 13

3.4 Bài tâ.p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Chu.o.ng 1: Các bài toán nô.i suy cô’ d̄iê’n.

Quy Nho.n, tháng ... năm 2008

Các bài toán nô.i suy cô˙’ d̄iê˙’n

Trong chu.o.ng này, luâ.n văn d̄ê

1.1 Bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange

1.1.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Lagrange

1.2 Bài toán nô.i suy Taylor

1.2.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Taylor

1.3 Bài toán nô.i suy Newton

1.3.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Newton

khi d̄ó, d̄a thú.c

= a1 + a2 R(x1 , x) + a3 R2 (x1, x2, x) + · · · + aN RN −1 (x1, · · · , xN −1, x)

Nhâ.n xét 1.1. Vó.i xi = x0 , vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , N, thı̀

1.4 Bài toán nô.i suy Hermite

H (k) (xi ) = aki , ∀i = 1, 2, · · · , n; ∀k = 0, 1, · · · , pi − 1

1.4.2 - a thú.c nô.i suy Hermite

Go.i d̄oa.n khai triê’n Taylor d̄ê´n câ´p thú. pi − 1 − k, vó.i k = 0, 1, · · · , l; l =

khi d̄ó, d̄a thú.c

là d̄a thú.c duy nhâ´t tho’a mãn d̄iê

Nhâ.n xét 1.2.

Vó.i n = 1, thı̀ i = 1 và p1 = N . Khi d̄ó, ta có

Khi d̄ó, ta có

Nhâ.n xét 1.3.

Vó.i k = 0, thı̀ pi = 1, vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , n. Khi d̄ó

hay n = N . Do d̄ó, ta có

khi d̄ó, d̄oa.n khai triê’n Taylor

Nhâ.n xét 1.4.

Nê´u pi = 2, vó.i mo.i i = 1, 2, · · · , n, thı̀ khi d̄ó k = 0 hoă.c k = 1.

Khi d̄ó, ta có

` n bài toán nô.i suy Lagrange, ta d̄ã biê´t ră` ng

Q(x) = P (x) + P 0 (x) + P 00 (x) + P (3)(x) + P (4)(x) > 0. ∀x ∈ R.

P (x) = x4 + 2ax2 + a (a > 0)

P 0 (x) = 4x3 + 4ax ;

Q(x) = (x2 + 2x)2 + 2a(x + 1)2 + 3a + 8(x2 + 3x + 3) > 0, ∀x ∈ R

P (2007) < 0; −P 0 (2007) ≤ 0, P 00(2007) ≤ 0, · · · , (−1)n P (n) ≤ 0;

P (2008) > 0, P 0 (2008) ≥ 0, P 00(2008) ≥ 0, · · · , P (n) (2008) ≥ 0.

Gia’i. Áp du.ng công thú.c nô.i suy Taylor, ta có:

Mô.t sô´ ú.ng du.ng cu̇’a công thú.c

- a thú.c có da.ng

+ Vó.i n = 2, d̄a thú.c d̄ó là

degP (x) ≤ 1 và P (x1 ) = a1 ; P (x2) = a2.

+ Vó.i n = 3, d̄a thú.c d̄ó là

(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) (x − x3 )(x − x1) (x − x1)(x − x2)

Nhâ.n xét 2.1. (Ý nghı̃a hı̀nh ho.c)

P (x1) = y1 (nghı̃a là d̄u.ò.ng cong qua d̄iê’m A);

P (x2) = y2 (nghı̃a là d̄u.ò.ng cong qua d̄iê’m B);

Nhâ.n xét 2.2.

- a thú.c này d̄u.o..c khai triê’n du.ó.i da.ng

P (x) = S1 xn−1 − S2 xn−2 + S3 xn−3 − · · · + (−1)n+1 Sn , (2.7)

Bo’.i (2.7), ta thâ´y ră` ng degP (x) ≤ n − 1.

P (xj ) = xnj ; ∀j ∈ {1, 2, · · · , n}.

Tù. d̄ó, áp du.ng (2.5), ta có

Bo’.i (2.7), (2.8), (2.9), (2.10), ta có

x31 x32 x33

Rõ ràng degω(x) = n.

vó.i degω (x) = n − 1.

Vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, ta có

Bây giò., vó.i mô˜i j ∈ {1, 2, ..., n}, ta xét hàm