JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES

AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE

Theoretical Knowledge Manual
NAVIGATION 1

PPL COURSE
CPL COURSE
ATPL COURSE
Chapter 1 - General Navigation
Chapter 2 - Direction
Chapter 3 - The Computer Part 1
Chapter 4 - The Vector Triangle
Chapter 5 - The Computer Part 2
Chapter 6 - The Computer Part 3
Chapter 7 - The Computer Part 4
Chapter 8 - Topographical Maps
Chapter 9 - Pilot Navigation
Chapter 10 - Wind Components
Chapter 11 - Convergency and Conversion Angles
Chapter 12 - Departure
Chapter 13 - Scale
Chapter 14 - Charts
Chapter 15 - Lambert’s Conformal Chart
Chapter 16 - Mercator’s Projection
Chapter 17 - Fuel Calculations
Chapter 18 - Time
Chapter 19 - Relative Velocity
Chapter 20 - (CP) (PNR) (PNA)
Chapter 21 - The Polar Stereographic
Chapter 22 - The Polar Stereographic & Transverse Mercator
Chapter 23 - Gridded Charts
Chapter 24 - Plotting
CHAPTER 25 - MAGNETISM
CHAPTER 26 - GYROSCOPES
CHAPTER 27 - T
CHAPTER 28 - REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS
CHAPTER 29 - FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CHAPTER 30 - AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 31 - REFERENCE SYSTEM
CHAPTER 32 - INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO - DIRECTION

CHAPTER THREE - THE COMPUTER, PART ONE

CHAPTER FOUR - THE VECTOR TRIANGLE

CHAPTER FIVE - THE COMPUTER, PART TWO

CHAPTER SIX - THE COMPUTER PART THREE

CHAPTER SEVEN - THE COMPUTER, PART FOUR

CHAPTER EIGHT - TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

CHAPTER NINE - PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE

CHAPTER TEN - WIND COMPONENTS

CHAPTER ELEVEN - CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE

CHAPTER TWELVE - DEPARTURE

CHAPTER THIRTEEN - SCALE

CHAPTER FOURTEEN - CHARTS

CHAPTER FIFTEEN - CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS 1/MERCATOR CHARTS

CHAPTER SIXTEEN - LAMBERTS CONFORMAL CHART

CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - FUEL CALCULATIONS

CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - TIME

CHAPTER NINETEEN - RELATIVE VELOCITY

CHAPTER TWENTY - CP and PNR

CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC

CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC AND TRANSVERSE

MERCATOR

CHAPTER TWENTY THREE - GRIDDED CHARTS

CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR - PLOTTING

CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE - MAGNETISM

CHAPTER TWENTY SEX - GYROSCOPES

CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN - T

CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT - REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS

CHAPTER TWENTY NINE - FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

CHAPTER THIRTY - AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) SYSTEMS

CHAPTER THIRTY ONE - REFERENCE SYSTEM

CHAPTER THIRTY TWO - INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

 JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE
Theoretical Knowledge Manual
NAVIGATION 1
060 061 GENERAL NAVIGATION
PPL COURSE
CPL COURSE
ATPL COURSE
Chapter 1 - General Navigation
Chapter 2 - Direction
Chapter 3 - The Computer Part 1
Chapter 4 - The Vector Triangle
Chapter 5 - The Computer Part 2
Chapter 6 - The Computer Part 3
Chapter 7 - The Computer Part 4
Chapter 8 - Topographical Maps
Chapter 9 - Pilot Navigation
Chapter 10 - Wind Components
Chapter 11 - Convergency and Conversion Angles
Chapter 12 - Departure
Chapter 13 - Scale
Chapter 14 - Charts
Chapter 15 - Lambert’s Conformal Chart
Chapter 16 - Mercator’s Projection
Chapter 17 - Fuel Calculations
Chapter 18 - Time
Chapter 19 - Relative Velocity
Chapter 20 - (CP) (PNR) (PNA)
Chapter 21 - The Polar Stereographic
Chapter 22 - The Polar Stereographic & Transverse Mercator
Chapter 23 - Gridded Charts
Chapter 24 - Plotting
CHAPTER 25 - MAGNETISM
CHAPTER 26 - GYROSCOPES
CHAPTER 27 - THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS
CHAPTER 28 - REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS
CHAPTER 29 - FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CHAPTER 30 - AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) SYSTEMS
CHAPTER 31 - REFERENCE SYSTEM
CHAPTER 32 - INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION

1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM 1-2
1.2 THE EARTH’S ORBIT 1 - 2
1.3 THE POLES 1-2
 1.4 THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH. 1 - 3
1.5 BASIC DIRECTION ON THE EARTH 1 - 3
1.6 SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM / TRUE DIRECTION. 1 - 5
1.7 POSITION ON THE EARTH -POSITION REFERENCE SYSTEMS 1 - 6
1.8 CIRCLES ON THE EARTH 1 - 7
1.9 LATITUDE. 1-10
1.10 LONGITUDE. 1-12
1.11 POSITIONS IN LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 1-14
1.12 CHANGE OF LATITUDE / DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE 1-15
1.13 CHANGE OF LONGITUDE/ DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE 1-15
1.14 CONVERGENCY. 1-16
1.15 RHUMB LINE. 1-17
1.16 GREAT CIRCLE DIRECTION 1-19
1.17 DISTANCE ON THE EARTH. 1-20
1.18 CONVERSION FACTORS 1-22
1.19 GREAT CIRCLE DISTANCES 1-22
1.20 GREAT CIRCLE VERTICES 1 - 29
1.21 CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS 1-32
CHAPTER TWO - DIRECTION
2.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................2-2
2.2 THE EARTH'S POLES.............................................2-2
2.3 ANGLE OF DIP...................................................2-2
2.4 MAGNETIC NORTH ..............................................2-3
2.5 MAGNETIC DIRECTION ..........................................2-3
2.6 VARIATION.....................................................2-3
2.7 ISOGONALS.....................................................2-4
2.8 VARIATION.....................................................2-5
2.9 DEVIATION .....................................................2-6
2.10 DEFINITIONS ...................................................2-8
CHAPTER THREE - THE COMPUTER, PART ONE
3.1 USE OF THE CIRCULAR SLIDE RULE...............................3-2
3.2 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION.................................3-2
3.3 TIME, SPEED AND DISTANCE CALCULATIONS.....................3-6
3.4 CONVERSION OF UNITS.........................................3-7
3.5 MILES AND KILOMETRES.........................................3-7
3.6 GALLONS, IMPERIAL AND U.S....................................3-8
3.7 METRES, YARDS AND FEET.......................................3-8
3.8 VOLUME TO WEIGHT............................................3-9
3.9 COMPUTATION OF TAS, TRUE ALTITUDE, DENSITY ALTITUDE.....3-9
NAVIGATIONAL GENERAL QUESTIONS.................................3-11
CHAPTER FOUR - THE VECTOR TRIANGLE
4.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................4-2
4.2 VECTORS.......................................................4-2
4.3 THE THREE VELOCITY VECTORS..................................4-3
4.4 SYMBOLS.......................................................4-4
4.5 THE SIX ELEMENTS OF THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES.............4-6
4.6 SUMMARY......................................................4-8
CHAPTER FIVE - THE COMPUTER, PART TWO
5.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................5-2
5.2 USE OF THE COMPUTER TO DETERMINE TRACK AND GROUND SPEED………………..5-4
CHAPTER SIX - THE COMPUTER PART THREE
 6.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................6-2
6.2 COMPUTATION OF WIND VELOCITY ..............................6-2
CHAPTER SEVEN - THE COMPUTER, PART FOUR
7.1 COMPUTING HEADING AND GROUND SPEED.......................7-2
NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS.....................................7-5
NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS.....................................7-7
NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS.....................................7-9
NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS....................................7-12
CHAPTER EIGHT - TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS
8.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................8-2
8.2 RELIEF ( TERRAIN) ..............................................8-2
8.3 OTHER FEATURES...............................................8-3
8.4 SCALE..........................................................8-3
8.5 MAP READING ..................................................8-4
8.6 VISUAL CHECK POINTS..........................................8-5
8.7 SELECTING VISUAL CHECK POINTS...............................8-5
8.8 SOME TYPICAL VISUAL CHECKPOINTS............................8-6
8.9 SOME VISUAL NAVIGATION HAZARDS............................8-7
8.10 NAVIGATION TECHNIQUES 8-8
8.11 LOST PROCEDURE...............................................8-9
8.12 CHART SYMBOLS ...............................................8-10
CHAPTER NINE - PILOT NAVIGATION - 1:60 RULE
9.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................9-2
9.2 BASIC 1:60 RULE .................................................9-2
9.3 1:60 RULE - MATHEMATICAL APPROACH...........................9-6
9.4 TRACKING PROBLEMS USING 1:60 RULE ...........................9-7
9.5 OPTION 1 -ALTER HEADING ( A/H) DIRECT TO TURNING POINT ......9-10
9.6 OPTION 2 -DOUBLE TRACK ERROR METHOD.......................9-12
9.7 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE 1:60 RULE..........................9-14
9.7.1 Height on a Glide slope ......................................9-15
9.7.2 Rate of Descent(ROD) .......................................9-17
9.7.2.1 Change of speed on a glideslope ........................9-18
9.7.3 Slopes ....................................................9-20
9.7.4 VOR/DME Problems ........................................9-21
9.8 USE OF THE CRP5 FOR 1:60 PROBLEMS ............................9-22
9.9 THE CLOSING ANGLE METHOD..................................9-25
9.11 REVISION OF ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL (ETA).................9-28
QUESTIONS.....................................................9-32
ANSWERS………… 9-36
CHAPTER TEN - WIND COMPONENTS
10.1 INTRODUCTION................................................10-2
10.2 CROSSWIND COMPONENTS......................................10-2
10.3 DETERMINING THE CROSSWIND VALUE BY DRAWING TO SCALE. . . 10 - 3
10.4 SIMPLE COMPUTER SOLUTIONS.................................10-4
10.5 FINDING THE WIND VELOCITY (WV).............................10-5
PILOT NAVIGATION/WIND COMPONENTS - EXAMPLES...................10-8
CHAPTER ELEVEN - CONVERGENCY AND CONVERSION ANGLE
11.1 INTRODUCTION................................................11-2
11.2 CONVERGENCY................................................11-2
11.3 CONVERSION ANGLE...........................................11-4
EARTH CONVERGENCY ONE QUESTIONS ...............................11-6
 EARTH CONVERGENCY TWO QUESTIONS...............................11-7
CONVERGENCY & CA QUESTIONS......................................11-8
CHAPTER TWELVE - DEPARTURE
12.1 A DEFINITION..................................................12-2
NAVIGATION GENERAL QUESTIONS....................................12-6
CHAPTER THIRTEEN - SCALE
13.1 SCALE PROBLEMS..............................................13-2
CHART SCALE QUESTIONS NUMBER ONE...............................13-8
CHAPTER FOURTEEN - CHARTS
14.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................14-2
14.2 MAPS/CHARTS? .................................................14-2
14.3 CHART PROJECTIONS - GENERAL.................................14-2
14.4 TYPES OF PROJECTION ..........................................14-3
14.5 AZIMUTHAL/PLANE PROJECTIONS................................14-3
14.6 CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS.....................................14-5
14.7 CONICAL PROJECTIONS..........................................14-6
14.8 PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL CHART ................................14-8
14.9 ORTHOMORPHISM/CONFORMALITY ..............................14-8
14.10 ICAO REQUIREMENTS ..........................................14-11
QUESTIONS ..........................................................14-12
ANSWERS……..14-13
CHAPTER FIFTEEN - CYLINDRICAL PROJECTIONS 1/MERCATOR CHARTS
15.1 INTRODUCTION................................................15-2
15.2 MERCATOR’S PROJECTION - GENERAL...........................15-3
15.3 MERCATOR CHARTS - BASIC PROPERTIES........................15-5
15.4 MERCATOR CHARTS - SCALE...................................15-11
15.4.1 CORRECT SCALE .......................................15-14
15.4.2 SCALE FACTOR.........................................15-14
15.4.3 SCALE EXPANSION FORMULA ...........................15-15
15.4.4 AREA OF “CONSTANT” SCALE ...........................15-20
15.5 MERCATOR CHARTS - PLOTTING ...............................15-20
15.6 CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS - MERCATOR GENERAL............15-28
15.7 CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS - MERCATOR SCALE...............15-32
15.8 CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS - MERCATOR PLOTTING ...........15-36
CHAPTER SIXTEEN - LAMBERTS CONFORMAL CHART
16.1 THE DERIVATION OF THE LAMBERT'S CHART.....................16-2
16.2 LAMBERT'S CONICAL ORTHOMORPHIC PROJECTION..............16-3
16.3 THE STANDARD SCALE.........................................16-4
16.4 PROPERTIES....................................................16-4
16.5 THE ADVANTAGES OF A LAMBERT'S CHART......................16-6
16.6 THE DISADVANTAGES OF THE LAMBERT'S CHART................16-6
16.7 STRAIGHT LINE TRACKS ON A LAMBERT CHART.................16-8
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - FUEL CALCULATIONS
17.1 INTRODUCTION................................................17-2
17.2 CONVERSION FACTORS .....................................17-2
17.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY.............................................17-2
17.4 GROUND RANGE CALCULATIONS ...............................17-3
17.5 MAXIMUM RANGE CALCULATIONS..............................17-4
17.6 MOST ECONOMICAL FLIGHT LEVEL .............................17-4
FUEL WORKSHEET 1 ................................................17-6
FUEL WORK SHEET 2..................................................17-8
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - TIME
18.1 TIME GENERAL ................................................ 18-2
18.2 TIME BASICS................................................... 18-2
18.3 SOLAR SYSTEM-PLANETARY ORBITS-KEPLER’SLAWS.......... 18-2
18.4 THE SEASONS.................................................. 18-4
18.5 MEASUREMENT OF DAYS AND YEARS........................... 18-8
18.6 LOCAL MEAN TIME............................................ 18-13
18.7 UNIVERSAL CO-ORDINATED TIME (UTC)........................ 18-15
18.8 LOCAL MEAN TIME/UTC PROBLEMS............................ 18-16
18.9 ZONE TIME (ZT)............................................... 18-18
18.10 STANDARD TIME.............................................. 18-20
18.11 SUMMARY.................................................... 18-27
18.12 SUNRISE AND SUNSET......................................... 18-27
18.13 SUNRISE AND SUNSET TABLES - METHODOLOGY................ 18-30
18.14 TWILIGHT .................................................... 18-32
CONSOLIDATION QUESTIONS - TIME THEORY ....................18-38
CONSOLIDATION CALCULATIONS 1 ............................ 18-39
CONSOLIDATION CALCULATIONS 2............................. 18-40
CONSOLIDATION CALCULATIONS 3............................. 18-41
ANSWERS TO TIME QUESTIONS………18-43
CHAPTER NINETEEN - RELATIVE VELOCITY
19.1 RELATIVE VELOCITY...........................................19-2
19.2 BODIES ON PARALLEL TRACKS..................................19-2
19.3 OVERTAKING..................................................19-2
19.4 MEETING.......................................................19-4
19.5 TIMING BY SPEED ADJUSTMENT.................................19-5
CHAPTER TWENTY - CP and PNR
20.1 INTRODUCTION................................................20-2
20.2 CRITICAL POINT (CP) ...........................................20-3
20.3 POINT OF NO RETURN (PNR).....................................20-5
20.4 RADIUS OF ACTION.............................................20-8
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
21.1 INTRODUCTION................................................21-2
21.2 POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC GRATICULE............................21-2
21.3 SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC.......21-5
NAVIGATION GENERAL ...............................................21-6
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - THE POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC AND TRANSVERSE
MERCATOR
22.1 TRANSVERSE MERCATOR.......................................22-2
22.2 A SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES OF THE TRANSVERSE MERCATOR. ... 22 - 4
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE - GRIDDED CHARTS
23.1 INTRODUCTION................................................23-2
23.2 POLAR GRIDS...................................................23-3
23.3 GYRO STEERING................................................23-5
23.4 MAGNETIC STEERING...........................................23-5
23.5 PLOTTING BEARINGS ON A GRIDDED CHART USING GRIVATION. . . 23 - 6
NAVIGATION - GRID NAVIGATION .....................................23-8
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR - PLOTTING
24.1 INTRODUCTION................................................24-2
24.2 GENERAL.....................................................24-2
24.3 EQUIPMENT...................................................24-2
 24.4 DEFINITIONS, ABBREVIATIONS, SYMBOLS........................24-2
24.5 SYMBOL.......................................................24-6
24.6 THE TRACK PLOT...............................................24-7
24.7 FIXING POSITION...............................................24-9
24.8 VISUAL OBSERVATIONS........................................24-10
24.9 POSITION LINES...............................................24-11
24.10 RADIO OBSERVATIONS ........................................24-11
24.11 RADAR OBSERVATIONS.......................................24-12
24.12 SUMMARY....................................................24-13
24.13 PLOTTING OF RADIO BEARINGS.................................24-13
24.14 TYPES OF RADIO BEARINGS....................................24-13
24.15 TRANSFERRING POSITION LINES................................24-15
24.16 METHODS OF FIXING..........................................24-15
24.17 SUMMARY....................................................24-19
24.18 CLIMB AND DESCENT .........................................24-19
24.19 LAMBERT CHART - MID-MERIDIAN METHOD ....................24-22
24.23 CLIMB AND DESCENT .........................................24-26
24.24 LAMBERT CHART - MID-MERIDIAN METHOD ....................24-29
24.25 THE AIR PLOT ............. .......24-30
24.26 FINDING A DR POSITION ....................24-30
24.27 FINDING A WIND VELOCITY ....................24-33
24.28 CALCULATING A REQUIRED HEADING ....................24-33
CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE - MAGNETISM
25.1 THE MAGNET..................................................25-2
25.2 MAGNETIC FIELD ..............................................25-2
25.3 POLES OF A MAGNET...........................................25-2
25.4 RED AND BLUE POLES..........................................25-3
25.5 ATTRACTION AND REPULSION RULES............................25-3
25.6 METHODS OF MAGNETISATION .................................25-4
25.7 METHODS OF DEMAGNETISATION...............................25-5
25.8 MAGNETIC AND NON-MAGNETIC MATERIALS....................25-6
25.9 HARD IRON AND SOFT IRON ....................................25-6
25.10 TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM .....................................25-7
25.11 MAGNETIC VARIATION.........................................25-7
25.12 MAGNETIC DIP.................................................25-8
25.13 FIELD STRENGTH...............................................25-9
25.14 DIRECTIVE FORCE..............................................25-9
25.16 REGULAR CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM......................25-10
25.19 UNPREDICTABLE CHANGES IN EARTH MAGNETISM...............25-10
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM QUESTIONS ...............................25-11
CHAPTER TWENTY SEX - GYROSCOPES
26.1 INTRODUCTION................................................26-2
26.2 THE GYROSCOPE...............................................26-2
26.3 GIMBAL RINGS................................................26-2
26.4 THE FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF A GYROSCOPE..............26-3
26.5 FACTORS AFFECTING RIGIDITY .................................26-5
26.6 PRECESSION RATE .............................................26-6
26.7 WANDER ......................................................26-6
26.8 TIED GYROS ...................................................26-7
26.9 RATE GYROS...................................................26-8
26.10 SUMMARY.....................................................26-8
 26.11 THE APPLICATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF A GYRO...............26-9
26.12 SUCTION AND ELECTRIC GYROS ................................26-9
26.13 SUCTION AND ELECTRIC TYPES - COMPARISON .................26-10
GYROS QUESTIONS ..................................................26-12
CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN - THE DIRECT INDICATING COMPASS
27.1 THE MAGNETIC COMPASS.......................................27-2
27.2 DIRECT INDICATING MAGNETIC COMPASS.......................27-2
27.3 THE VERTICAL CARD COMPASS................................27-3
27.4 THE GRID RING COMPASS.......................................27-3
27.5 COMPASS REQUIREMENTS......................................27-4
27.6 HO RIZONT ALIT Y...............................................27-4
27.7 SENSITIVITY..................................................27-5
27.8 APERIODICITY.................................................27-5
27.9 THE COMPASS LIQUID..........................................27-6
27.10 SERVICEABILITY CHECKS.......................................27-6
27.11 DAMPING AND PIVOT FRICTION TESTS...........................27-7
27.12 DEVIATION.....................................................27-7
27.13 ACCELERATION AND TURNING ERRORS..........................27-8
27.14 ERRORS CAUSED BY LINEAR ACCELERATION.....................27-9
27.15 SUMMARY OF ACCELERATION ERRORS.........................27-11
27.16 TURNING ERRORS.............................................27-12
27.17 TURNING ERRORS - LIQUID SWIRL..............................27-16
27.18 SUMMARY OF TURNING ERRORS..............................27-16
DIRECT READING MAGNETIC COMPASSES QUESTIONS .................27-19
CHAPTER TWENTY EIGHT - REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS
28.1 INTRODUCTION................................................28-2
28.2 THE DETECTOR UNIT...........................................28-2
28.3 DETECTOR UNIT................................................28-4
28.4 GYRO UNIT ....................................................28-5
28.5 AMPLIFIER UNIT................................................28-6
28.6 CORRECTOR CONTROL BOX.....................................28-7
28.7 MANUAL SYNCHRONISATION...................................28-7
28.8 REPEATER SYSTEMS............................................28-7
28.9 ADVANTAGES OF REMOTE INDICATING COMPASSES..............28-9
28.10 CORRECTIONS OF COEFFICIENTS (SPERRY CLIA COMPASS)........28-10
28.11 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION.....................................28-11
REMOTE INDICATING COMPASS QUESTIONS...........................28-14
CHAPTER TWENTY NINE - FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
29.1 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION ......................................29-2
29.2 CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT (CDU).............................29-3
29.3 DATA BASE....................................................29-4
29.4 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - INITIAL ACTIONS..................29-4
29.5 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES -
CLIMB VERTICAL NAVIGATION (VNAV)..........................29-6
29.6 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES -
CRUISE LATERAL NAVIGATION (LNAV)..........................29-7
29.7 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - DESCENT.........................29-7
29.8 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - ACCURACY.......................29-7
29.9 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES - CONTROL AND DISPLAY UNIT......29-8
CHAPTER THIRTY - AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) SYSTEMS
30.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................30-2
 30.2 BENEFITS OF RNAV ............................................30-2
30.3 TYPES AND LEVELS OF RNAV...................................30-2
30.4 A SIMPLE RNAV SYSTEM .......................................30-3
30.5 OPERATION OF A SIMPLE RNAV SYSTEM.........................30-4
30.6 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF A SIMPLE RNAV SYSTEM ...........30-6
30.7 LIMITATIONS AND ACCURACY OF SIMPLE RNAV SYSTEMS........30-7
30.8 LEVEL 4 RNAV SYSTEMS .......................................30-8
30.9 PRE-FLIGHT....................................................30-10
30.10 CLIMB........................................................30-13
30.11 CRUISE.......................................................30-14
30.12 DESCENT.....................................................30-14
30.13 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - TWIN IRS...........................30-15
30.14 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION - TRIPLE IRS .........................30-15
CHAPTER THIRTY ONE - REFERENCE SYSTEM
31.1 INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM..................................31-2
31.2 INERTIAL NAVIGATION.........................................31-2
31.3 INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT.....................................31-3
31.4 INERTIAL INFORMATION........................................31-3
31.5 THE PRIMARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION.......................31-4
31.6 THE LASER GYRO...............................................31-4
31.7 PRINCIPLES OF LASER GYROS AND IRS...........................31-4
31.8 CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION................................31-4
31.9 LIMITATIONS AND ACCURACY..................................31-6
31.10 PLATFORM / STRAP DOWN PRINCIPLES...........................31-6
31.11 PLATFORM ALIGNMENT....................................... 31-7
31.12 ADVANTAGES................................................. 31-7
CHAPTER THIRTY TWO - INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
32.1 INTRODUCTION................................................32-2
32.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INS.......................................32-3
32.3 ACCELEROMETER AND INTEGRATORS...........................32-3
32.4 ACCELEROMETERS.............................................32-4
32.5 GRAVITY EFFECTS ON ACCELEROMETER.........................32-7
32.6 THE INTEGRATING GYROSCOPE.................................32-7
32.32 THE PLATFORM................................................32-9
32.8 EARTH ORIENTATION..........................................32-11
32.9 APPARENT WANDER...........................................32-11
32.10 ALIGNMENT OF THE SYSTEM...................................32-14
32.11 SCHULER PERIOD..............................................32-16
32.12 ERRORS OF INS................................................32-17
32.13 BOUNDED ERRORS.............................................32-17
32.14 UNBOUNDED ERRORS..........................................32-17
32.15 INHERENT ERRORS............................................32-17
32.16 INS CONTROL AND DISPLAY PANELS............................32-18
32.17 LED DISPLAY..................................................32-21
32.18 MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC SYSTEM CHECKS....................32-26
32.19 RADIAL ERROR RATES.........................................32-26
INERTIAL NAVIGATIONAL SYSTEMS QUESTIONS.......................32-28
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