Vol. 37, N o .
3 Transactions, American GeophysicaljUnion
Abstract—A graphical procedure is described for rapid calculation of discordant uranium-
lead ages resulting from multiple episodes of uranium-lead fractionation. A proof of the validity
of this graphical procedure is given. The graphical procedure is extended to permit the cal­
culation of the effect of the presence of primary radiogenic lead and of constant loss of inter­
mediate daughter products.
Introduction—The element uranium has two
238
long-lived isotopes, U and U , the final decay
2 0 6
products of which are P b and P b , respectively.
Measurement of the uranium concentration and
the concentration of radiogenic P b and P b
in a chemical system (such as a mineral) containing
uranium permits the calculation of two uranium-
lead ages, the U ^ - P b 2 0 6
age, T i and the U ^ - P b
age, T calculated from the equations of radio­
2
active decay
1 /p 206b
1 /Pb
I n this discussion it will b e convenient to
2 0 6
designate the U ^ - P b decay b y superscript or
subscript 1, and the I P ^ - P b decay by the sub­
script 2. Thus, equations (1) become
T 2
where the X's are the decay constants, and D and
P refer to the daughter and p a r e n t concentrations,
respectively.
Where these two ages are found to be equal to
one another, the ages are said to be 'concordant.*
W h e n they are unequal, they are said to be 'dis­
1
cordant.
These two calculated ages will be equal to one
another and to t h e true age of the mineral if the
following assumptions are fulfilled: (a) There have
been no gains or losses of uranium or lead during
the tune since t h e formation of the system, (b)
T h e r e have been no gains or losses of intermediate
members of the radioactive decay scheme, for
example, radon, or ionium, (c) Proper corrections
have been made for the initial concentration of
Pb 2 0 6 2 0 7
and P b . (d) T h e chemical analyses have
been properly performed and the correct decay
constants Xi and Xs have been used. When these
hm 1*51
Discordant Uranium-Lead Ages, I
GEORGE W . WETHERILL
assumptions have been fulfilled, the ages will be
235
concordant; when they are not fulfilled, the age*
2 0 7
will be either discordant or 'accidentally' con­
cordant.
2 0 6 2 0 7
These papers will discuss discordance and
accidental concordance arising from failure of
assumptions (a), (b), and (c), which may be con­
2 0 7
sidered 'intrinsic discordance' as opposed to
'technical' discordance resulting from failure d
assumption (d).
I n this first paper a graphical scheme will be
) a)
presented for the calculation of the effects of failure
of assumption (a) a t discreet episodes in the
2 0 7
\ history of the mineral, and a discussion will be
given of the effects of failure of assumptions (b)
and (c), within the framework of this graphical
method. I n a subsequent publication this graphical
207 procedure will be applied to problems of geo-
chronology, namely, the interpretation of regu­
larities in a group of discordant ages such as those
b y Ahrens [1955] as well as the inference of the true
+1
age of a group of oogenetic minerals giving dis­
( L A )
cordant ages, even when no regularities are present.
+1 This graphical scheme will make use of a diagram
206 238
(Fig. 1) in which the mole ratio P b / ! ! (A/Pi)
is plotted as the ordinate and the mole ratio
2 0 7 3 5
P b / ! ? (D2/P2) as the abscissa. In the case of
concordant ages, for every age 7*0 = T\ = T« there
will correspond unique values of D1/P1 and A/ft
denned b y t h e equations
1
— = e ^x
Pi
(2)
1
P2
0 0
T h e locus of these values for 0 < r < is the
0
curve marked 'concordia' on Figure 1.
Description of the graphical procedure--The
procedure will be described without proof. The
proof of its validity is found in the following
section. Consider a sample of uranium mineral (or
more generally a chemical system containing
uranium) having a true age r . If the assumptions
0
320
 DISCORDANT URANIUM-LEAD AGES 321

other hand, i of the uranium were lost, R = f, ±

and li = f L i .
From the procedure given above, it is seen t h a t
regardless of how much uranium or lead is lost
during this episode, the resulting point (Q{) will lie
on this straight line. From the coordinates of the
point (Di/P hD2/P2) found by this procedure,
the discordant uranium-lead ages can be calcu­
^^^^^^ lated by use of E q . (2). Thus the effect of a single
episode of uranium-lead fractionation has been
determined.
CONCORDIA For the special case R = 1, t h a t is, no frac­
x

tionation, the result is t h a t the point Q char­ t

acterizing the mineral remains on the curve 'Con­

cordia' at r . If, on the other hand, all the lead
0

2 D /P
2
were lost at r , perhaps due to a remineralization
x

with exclusion of lead, then Ri = 0 and h « 0

FIG. 1-D/P diagram illustrating the graphica* and the point characterizing the sample will lie
-ocedure for calculating the uranium-lead ages re-
?jung from a given history of uranium-lead frac- on the curve 'concordia' at t± . I n this case the age
!

i -NATION.
of the sample can be considered more properly to
be n .
a), (b), (c), and (d) are valid, the point char­ For the case of multiple episodes of uranium-
acteristic of this mineral sample will lie on con- lead fractionation, the resulting point Q can be n

cadia at r . If the mineral has lost lead or uranium found by extension of this same procedure. Assume
G

or gained uranium during a geologically brief a second fractionation R* occurred a t a later time
episode at a time n years ago, the position of the r . T h e effect of this is found by the following
2

paint (Qi) characteristic of this mineral m a y be procedure: (1) D r a w a straight line between the
found by the following procedure: (1) D r a w a point Qi (found b y the above procedure for the
straight line passing through the point on the first fractionation) and the point r on concordia.2

carve 'concordia' corresponding to a true age r 0

(2) Defining the length of the straight segment
and that corresponding to a true age TJ . (2) Qt2 = L , the desired point Q will lie a t a distance
2 2

Defining the length of the straight segment T TI =

0
h = R2L2 from T 2 on concordia. For a third frac­
It, measure off a distance along this segment of tionation a t r , the procedure is repeated with
3

length h - RiLi from n . Ri is the ratio b y which Q r = £ and k = RzLs giving point Q . For the
2 z 3 z

Dt/?i and D2/P2 changed a t time r\. T h a t is case of n fractionations, the procedure is repeated
n times, finally resulting in a point Q . From the
n

R\ = (D/P)immediately after l o s s / coordinates of this point, the discordant ages

Ti and T2 can be calculated. These are the ages
(D/P) immediately before loss
t h a t would be measured for a mineral with a true
Tie end of this segment is the desired p o i n t Qi. age tq that has undergone n fractionations R{,
Is the case of lead loss, it is assumed t h a t R is the (i « 1,2, • • • n) a t times n in the past.
same for both the lead isotopes, t h a t is, t h a t the This construction is illustrated by the following
kid which is lost has the same isotopic composi­ example, illustrated by Figure 2. Consider a
tion as the total lead which was present in the uranium mineral having a true age of 1350 million
total lead which was present in the mineral. This years. 900 million years ago the uranium and lead
is not a very severe restriction for lead loss, b u t within this mineral were partially separated. A t
it must be noted t h a t lead addition will n o t in this time 17 pet of the lead within the mineral
general fulfill this condition, and therefore the was lost, while a t the same time 50 pet of the
graphical procedure has been limited to losses of uranium was lost. As a consequence of this frac­
lead or uranium or additions of uranium. This case tionation, the ratios Di/P\ and D2/P2 change by a
wkre R is unequal for Di/Pi and D2/P2 is dis­ factor 1.65 and R\ = 1.65. I n recent times (es­
cussed in the section on Extensions of the graphical sentially zero million years ago) a second frac­
ptmdure. For example, if half the lead were lost tionation occurred, resulting in the loss of 27 pet
with no loss of uranium, the Ri = J. If, on the of the lead present in the mineral, with a loss of
322 GEORGE W. WETHERILL
FIG. 2 - D / P diagram illustrating a numerical example
of the graphical procedure
only one per cent of the uranium. Hence R — 2
0.74.
Following t h e graphical procedure described
above, a straight line is drawn through the points
900 and 1350 on t h e curve 'concordia.' T h e point
Qi is found by measuring t h e separation of these
two points and measuring off a distance 1.65 times
this separation along this line from the point 900.
Q is found by drawing a similar line between 0
2 and T is t h e true age of the mineral. (An equation
and Qi, and measuring off the proper distance
from 0. This distance is 0.74 times the distance
between 0 and Q±.
Since this hypothetical mineral underwent two
fractionations, it is characterized by the point Q . 2
From the coordinates of this point {DJPx = 0.214,
and D2/P2 » 2.64) the ages T = 1260 m y a n d
x in (4) t h a t a gain of parent represented by a
T « 1330 m y are calculated from ( l a ) . An exact
2 function Gp will have exactly the same effect os
analytic calculation of this example gives T\ —
1250 and T « 1330 m y. T h e accuracy of this
2 —Gp . I t will therefore be impossible to distinguish
graphical procedure depends only on the care with
which the construction is made.
T h e effect of a continuous process can be ap­
proximated by graphically calculating the con­
tinuous process as a sum of episodic fractionations
with the interval between episodes small.
Proof of the graphical procedure—The graphical
procedure outlined above will be proved to be
correct b y showing t h a t the coordinates of t h e
resulting point Qn corresponds to the coordinates
D1/P1 and D2/P2 which would be found by an
analytic calculation of the effect of n fractionations
Ri{i — 1, 2, • • • n) at times r\ in the past. I n the
following discussion the symbol t will be used t o
indicate time increasing in the usual sense and
having the value zero a t the time of mineralization.
T h e symbol n will be used to indicate the time of
an event measured back from the present.
This analytic expression will be obtained b-
solution of the equations of radioactive deal
generalized to include the effects of gains or loss©
of parent and daughter isotopes. These are
f =-XP + G p P
(3)
dD
- \P + GD D
dt
where P and D refer to the concentrations ^
parent and radiogenic daughter isotopes, X is the
decay constant = hi 2/half-life, G and G® are P
arbitrary functions of times representing gains
( G > 0) or losses (G < 0) of parent and daughter
isotopes, respectively. These equations may be
solved b y elementary methods with the result
D
- Ae F ( r o ) r
dt (4)
f
Jo
where
\t + (G - Gp) dt,
D
0
essentially t h e same as (4) has also been derived
b y F . Wickman and his discussion of it will be
published in the report of t h e Pennsylvania State
University Conference on Nuclear Geophysics,
September, 1955).
I t m a y be seen b y inspection of the form of F
the ratio D/P as a loss of daughter with Gd =
between loss of parent a n d gain of daughter m
between gain of parent and loss of daughter by the
effect on t h e ratio D/P. Without any loss of
generality t h e expression (Gd — G ) can be re­ P
placed b y an arbitrary function of time G, which
will represent the n e t effect of gains or losses of
parent and daughter. I n this work where 'loss of
daughter' is used, it will b e understood that the
possibility of gain of p a r e n t is also implied, and
similarly for loss of parent.
By assuming different forms of G , the effects of
different kinds of fractionation processes can be
calculated. For the case of n episodic fractionation
a t times r - , i = 1, • • • n the function G will be
t
given by
G - Y^a d[t - (T(5) - n)] { 0
 DISCORDANT URANIUM-LEAD AGES 323

, _ __ , ) l is the Dirac 5-function

r then
1949] defined by

(!) immediately after loss (13)

f
JLa
8(x) = 1 a > 0
(6)
(?)immediately before loss
Thus the 5-function can be visualized as a or in accordance with the definition of Ri
.gactioa which is zero everywhere except in the a
Ri - e i (14)
samediate neighborhood of one point. Similarly,
£ will be zero except a t the moments n . T h e (The proof of (14) h a s been materially simplified
jScuIties of mathematical rigor associated with as a result of a suggestion b y G. Wasserburg.)
thease of (6) can be resolved in the usual way b y
replacing the 5-function b y a gaussian a n d taking Eq. (7) can now be rewritten as
if standard deviation to be arbitrarily small.
1 Xr
Iks the fractionation can be thought of as taking § - 2 [ e ^ " - J"*] ft + (e * - 1) (15)
place over a period of time which is geologically
short, for example, a million years. This is the general expression for the ratio Z>/P
By substitution of G (5) into (4) and integration, resulting from the decay of parent in a mineral of
true age TO which has undergone n fractionations,
aoe obtains
Ri a t times t% . For a uranium mineral there will
be two such expressions, one giving DJP\ and t h e
d I _ fiXry] + e \r n _ j ()
?

other D2/P2 •
Using this general expression, the graphical
The differential equations (3) can be combined procedure will be proved by induction, (a) I t will
a the form first be shown that t h e point {DJPi, D2/P2) found
b y t h e graphical procedure agrees with the result
i(2)-x + (£) W + w <s, of t h e analytic calculation for the case'?* = 1.
(b) I t then will be shown t h a t if the construction is
valid for n — m, it will also be valid for n = m + 1.
Demonstration of (a) and (b) above will prove
+ G+ \ (9) the construction valid for any number of frac­
dt
tionations.
This equation will be integrated over a short Regarding (a), b y substituting n = 1 into (15)
period of time (2e) including one of the episodes r * . we obtain

- JRI^ * - e
1 0 XlTl
] + e X l T l
- 1
(16)
D<
+ Sai5(j{ - ( T O - n)) dt
Jn~(Ti+c) JT2
TO— (,T{—e)

(10) These are the parametric equations for the

r—
0 (r --fe)
t
locus of points representing minerals having a
true age T and which underwent a fractionation
0

Ri a t a time n in the past. According to t h e

graphical construction, this locus should b e a
k
7^r Z f = = X
^ + a - - f 2eX (11) straight line passing through T and n on the curve 0
t

'concordia.'
T h a t it passes through T can be seen b y letting
0

as e-> 0 the parameter R\ « 1, then

El « >iro . 1
(?) (12)
Pi
(17)
i / after loss

(!)—-
\ - t / before loss
P " 2
1
324 GEORGE W. WETHERILL

which are the coordinates of r on the curve 'con­ 0

nates
5
cordia as given by (2). n m m
Similarly when the parameter ft = 0 -i = S [^i-i - n /J,
^i y—I T—i

Pi ' m j7i
(18)
= 2 [e X l T
' - ' - e " > ] n Ri + x
- n

i J= l XESJ

and similarly
which are the coordinates of n on concordia. By D 0
m m

differentiating each of (16) with respect to the - ? = S [ ^ ' ' - ' - e ^>1 n « i + (eVn _ j x

parameter Ri and dividing, we obtain the slope -t 2 y=i IBBJ Y

of the locus which according to ( 1 5 ) are the coordinates of a

point Q which has undergone m fractionation?
fn

Ri at times n . T h u s the locus of a point which has

i ) (19) undergone m + 1 fractions ft at times r - } pass
through this point. For t h e case R = 0, we get
do'
m+1

the point

which is independent of ft, t h a t is of the position

of the point on the locus. T h e slope is therefore t h e and
same at all points on the locus, t h a t is the line is
straight. 5? = e x R
2 M + 1 _ ^ T H A T I S ? T H E P O I N T O I I

According to the graphical construction, the

distance along this line (Z) between n on concordia concordia
and the point characterizing a mineral which under­ By differentiating (23) with respect to JR ATVI MFL

went a fractionation Ri at t\ is given by k — RiLi taking their ratio we obtain

where L is the length of the segment r o n . T h e
x

length can be found by use of the coordinates of r 0

and r i on concordia from equations (17) and (18)

and the Pythogorean theorem to be
2 x T
Z i = [* i o - e V i ] 2
+ [eVo - e V i ] 2
(20) m m
- e X l T
' ] I I ft + ( e X l T
-
B y using (16) and (18) and the Pythogorean y=l *=y
m m
theorem we obtain similarly
- e X2T
' ] I I ft + (e ™ XsT

y=i i=y
2 2 2 2
/ x == ft [eVo ] + ft [*Vo (21)
(26

and by comparing (20) and (21) we obtain which is independent of R i. Thus the locus c; m+

points corresponding to minerals which hixt

k = RiLi thus completing the proof f or n = 1. (22) undergone varying fractionations R +\ at tk.- m

r i is a straight line passing through Q ar.„

m + m

Regarding (b) if it. is assumed t h a t the graphical r + i on concordia, as given by the graphical pro­
m

construction is valid for n — m, it will now be cedure.

shown t h a t it is valid for n = m + 1. T h e distance Z + i between Q and r^+i on m m

T h e coordinates of a point which has undergone concordia will be (by use of the Pythogorean
n — m + 1 fractionations will be theorem)
7 V m+l

I=l
E >1 I I
XlT
m+l
ft X R
4- ( E I - + I - 1) {s m

i^ '- i r 1
- * XiTy
]n
m

ft
m+l m+l y-i *=y
~ - 2 - e * q n ft + ( e
x T X2T 1
-+ - l) + (e^lTm _ 1) - (^!T M + 1 A
J 2 y=i T»y

(23) + \ 2 t^ " ' 27 3 -1

- e X2Tj
i n ft

For the case ftnfi = 1, t h a t is, no fractionation [y«i I-y

a t stage (m 4- 1) the point will have the coordi­ + ( X R _ 1 )- - 1)1 (27)

E 2 M
 DISCORDANT URANIUM-LEAD AGES 325

Meeting terms decay constant X for the growth of daughter being

less than the decay constant X for the decay of
n Ri[ parent (3).
2 :1 =
m+l . , > Therefore, (3) can be replaced b y
•m+l

dP

I
= - \P +G P P
dt
(28) (30)
dD
= \A(t)P + GD D
m + l dt
He distance L+i between r on t h e curve m+1

CONCORDIA' and the point characteristic of a mineral where A(t) represents the fraction of intermediate
fir-ch has undergone m + l fractionations Ri at decay product which is retained.
limes TJ will be These equations can be integrated to give
pro
7

A { t ) e
dt (31)
P Jo
Jo
m+l "12

{ n ft (29)
I t may be expected t h a t A will be different for
the two decay systems, U and U . 238 235

S For the case of constant loss of intermediate

;=1 i-i J
By comparison of (28) and (29) decay product the function A can be taken outside
2 2
the integral. In this case the value of D/P will be
P i m+ — R +iL +l
m m
decreased by a factor A. For combined multiple
Tms the locus of points characteristic of minerals fractionation and constant intermediate product
which have undergone m fractionations Ri a t loss, the resulting values of D i / P i and D2/P2 can
times Ti and an additional fractionation R i a t m +
be found by first applying the graphical procedure
time r i will be a straight line passing through
m+
and finally multiplying DJPi by A i , and D2/P2
the point Q and the point r i on concordia.
m m+
by A .2

For a given fractionation R +i, the distance of the

m
Presence of primary radiogenic lead—Eq. (3) can
point from r + i on concordia will be equal to
m
be generalized to include the effects of primary
WWi where Lm+i is the distance from Q to m
radiogenic lead with the result
T»FI on concordia. By hypothesis the point Q m

(which represents the point characteristic of

minerals which have undergone m fractionations
li i = 1, 2. • • • m at times n) is given correctly
}
where (D/P) is the initial radiogenic daughter to
Q

by the graphical procedure. I t has been shown parent ratio.

ibove that the analytical calculation is in agree­ For the case of multiple episodic fractionations
ment with the graphical procedure for finding
f^i from Q . Therefore, the point Q m + i found by
m Xr Xr Xr
(^) i [e ^ - eq IL R + (e « - 1)
{
tk analytical calculation will be the same point
tod by the graphical procedure, thus completing
+ (33)
the proof.
Extensions of the graphical procedure—In the
a *
FOREGOING discussion a procedure has been demon­ which differs from (15) only in the last term.
strated for graphically calculating the discordant Therefore, the effect of primary radiogenic daugh­
uranium-LEAD ages which will result when a mineral ter can be found b y applying the graphical pro­
undergoes a series of episodes of uranium-lead cedure and finally adding the term
fractionation (failure of assumption a). A brief
iiscussion WILL now be given of the calculation of
the effects of failure of assumptions (b), and (c)
as well as the effect of unequal fractionation of
(D.'-S* § t0 Md
K (34)

M 207
?F and Pb . B y a proof along the lines of t h a t in Proof of the
loss of intermediate decay products—For the graphical procedure, it can also be shown t h a t the
equilibrium case (implicit in (1)) the loss of an graphical calculation is valid for the case of
intermediate decay product is equivalent to the primary radiogenic daughter if the starting point
326 GEORGE W. WETHERILL
for the graphical procedure is taken to the co­
ordinates of r on concordia augmented by
0
(!)/"
2U
The effect of unequal fractionation of Pb and
m
Pb —As a consequence of an earlier process of
uranium-lead fractionation, the uranium in a
mineral m a y b e displaced from the lead. T h e
radiogenic lead resulting from the decay of this
uranium will then be in the vicinity of the uranium
and the two lead isotopes will not be homogeneously
distributed within the mineral. Any subsequent
fractionation might then cause A / f t and D2/P2
to change by different factors.
I n this case it can be shown t h a t the points
Qm+i resulting from varying amounts of fractiona­
tion of this type will not lie on a straight line
between Q and T +i on concordia b u t will lie on a
m in
curved line between these two points. T h e co­
ordinate D1/P1 for Qm+i will be
(^lfm + l - 1) +
(cMrm+i i } ( 3 5 )
- - ]
where R'm+i is the factor by which Di/P i§ 1
changed. A similar expression will give (ZX p.
for Qm-f 1 •
Concluding remarks—A graphical procedure has
been demonstrated for calculating the effects ct
failure of assumptions (a), (b), and (c). By use of
this procedure the discordant ages resulting from a
given history can b e calculated uniquely. How­
ever, if the discordant ages are given, it is not
possible to infer the history uniquely. This graph-
ical procedure will be found useful, however, fe
inferring the possible histories of a given geological
unit and in some cases the probable history. These
applications and their limitations will be discussed
in a subsequent publication.
REFERENCES
AHRENS, L. H., The convergent lead ages of the oldest
monazites and uraninites, Geockim. et Cosmockiv.
Acta, 7, 294, 1955.
DIRAC, P. M. J-, The principles of quantum me­
chanics, 3rd ed., p. 5 8 , Oxford University PRESS,
1949.
Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie
Hon of Washington, Washington 15, D. C.
(Communicated manuscript received February %
1956; open for formal discussion until November I,
1956.)