Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compag

Review

Wireless sensor networks in agriculture through machine learning: A survey

Md Mohinur Rahaman, Md Azharuddin *
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Aliah University, Kolkata 700156, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This survey paper describes the concept of Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), Machine Learning (ML) and their
Wireless sensor networks applications on various fields of smart agriculture. Here we first define different types of WSNs which have direct
Agriculture impact on smart agriculture. The ML techniques are applied on data sets which are collected by sensor nodes
Machine learning
deployed on the agricultural field. We also discuss the challenges or problems of the sensors networks and the ML
Deep learning
techniques. We particularly focus on ML techniques and their uses to overcome the WSN’s challenges for agri­
culture. ML techniques are suitable for particular type (i.e. labelled/structured) of data sets to differentiate the
given objects. Furthermore, we also consider the concept of Deep Learning technique for the general type of data
sets that may be in vast amount. Finally, we discuss on various agricultural problems and previously used
different techniques applied for smart or precision agriculture. Our main target is that the agricultural system to
be smarter by using combination of different techniques, such as sensor networks, ML and deep learning. Finally
this survey paper also gives the idea to use IoT and deep learning in agricultural WSNs for next level.

1. Introduction
Technology is more important in smart farming and for precision of
agriculture in this era. The world’s population are steadily expanding,
therefore much food is necessary for such a huge population. The food
must be available at all the times and of high nutritional quality around
the globe, while natural ecosystem have to be protected through the use
of sustainable agricultural methods. To meets this difficulties, agricul­
tural ecosystem that are complex, multivariate and unpredictable must
be better comprehend by continuously monitoring, measuring and
analysing of variety of physical features and occurrences. This is easier
for analysing the big agricultural data using the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). ICT is utilised for both short-term
and long-term crop/farm management, as well as large-scale ecolog­
ical monitoring. Context scenario and location awareness also improves
existing management and decision/policy-making activities.
In this regard, One of the most capable technologies is WSN and on
the other hand, Machine Learning (ML). The WSN is built up of larger
number of sensor nodes that are installed on proposed field and collect
data before transmitting it the base station for post-processing. How­
ever, for the large number of sensor nodes required scalable and efficient
algorithms. It is important issues that the WSN evolves dynamically in
response to external factors or the system designer’s objectives (Kumar
et al., 2019). There are many problems for designing the WSN systems
such as, power problems, node fault, localization, object targeting etc.
and to overcome these problems, some techniques are also required.
After the fulfilment of all requirements for the designing WSN system on
the agricultural field, a massive volume of data which are related to the
field of study, are gathered for further process. This process includes the
information of farmers to produce the good health crop in smart/pre­
cision agriculture. Because of the very dynamic nature of WSNs, it may
be necessary to depreciate non-essential network redesigns; yet, tradi­
tional WSN approaches are written in a specific way, and as a result, the
network does not function well in a dynamic atmosphere.
Machine Learning, on the other hand, is a technique by which a
computer learns or improves without being expressly programmed as a
result of a study or practical experience (Kumar et al., 2019). Our
computing process is becoming more productive, dependable, and cost-
effective regards to ML. This ML algorithms act on the massive amounts
of data generated by sensor nodes of WSN, analysing this complicated
data automatically, swiftly, and more accurately. The three primary
types of ML are supervised learning, unsupervised learning, and rein­
forcement learning. The power of ML comes in its capacity to give a
generalised solution via an architecture that can learn to enhance its
activities. ML is important in a variety of sectors, including agriculture,
medicine, engineering, and computers, because of its unifying nature.
Recent advances in ML have been used to overcome a variety of prob­
lems in agricultural WSN (Alsheikh et al., 2014). By using ML techniques

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: azhar_ism@yahoo.in (M. Azharuddin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2022.106928
Received 20 December 2021; Received in revised form 29 March 2022; Accepted 31 March 2022
Available online 12 April 2022
0168-1699/© 2022 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

in agricultural WSN, the human activities or reprogram be limited rather
than the performance improvement. Besides the aforementioned tech­
niques, another techniques i.e. Deep Learning (DL) is also gives the
momentum of agricultural WSN. Where ML techniques are used in
structural data, but DL is used in both structural and non-structural data.
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a type of DL that belongs to the ML
computational discipline (Kamilaris and Prenafeta-Boldú, 2018). This
enables for greater learning capacities and, as a result, greater precise in
performance.
This study focuses on smart agriculture, with the goal of increasing
efficiency of different technologies like WSNs, ML and deep learning for
healthy production of different types of crops. In this survey paper, all
concepts are summarised in appropriate manner based on smart agri­
culture. Different problems arisen in WSNs for applying in agricultural
field and their solution through ML techniques are described in this
study. Also we discuss the challenges of ML in WSN on agricultural field.
Then we briefly provide the concept of deep learning and their classi­
fication techniques used in agricultural field with their accuracy. So, a
researcher can achieve overall idea of the above mentioned techniques
in smart agriculture by reading this survey paper.
1.1. Organigation of the paper
We organise this survey paper as follows. Section 2 states the defi­
nition and concept of WSN and also usefulness and relation with agri­
culture. In section 3, described different challenges in WSN and solution
of these challenges. ML in WSNs based on agriculture and their advan­
tages and challenges in agriculture are discussed in section 4. Different
techniques of ML for WSN challenges are briefly described in section 5.
Section 6 presents different types of ML techniques in tabular form. ML
in smart agriculture and their limitations in agriculture through WSNs
are discussed in section 7&8. Another advanced data science technology
i.e., deep learning in smart agriculture with their advantages and dis­
advantages are summarized in section 9. The most important part of this
survey paper is open research issues which we discuss in section 10.
Finally, in section 11, conclusions are formed. The organisation of this
study is portrayed in Fig. 1 for clarity.
2. Definition and concept of WSN
A WSN is a of dimensionally scattered and dedicated sensors (i.e.,
sensors that convert physical quantities to observable quantities) for
monitoring and reducing environmental variables and organising the
acquired data at a central location (Akyildiz et al., 2002; Mat et al.,

Sec 2.1: Types of WSN’s used in Agriculture

Sec 2: Definition and Concept of Sec 2.2: Usefulness of WSNs in Agriculture

WSN
Sec 2.3: Relation between WSN and
Agriculture

Sec 3: Problem or Challenges in Sec 3.1: The category of problems

WSNs
Sec 3.2: Solution for different problems

Sec 4.1: Advantages of ML in WSN

Sec 4: Machine Learning (ML) in
Agricultural WSNs
Sec 4.2: Usefulness of ML in WSN’s
challenges
Sec 5: ML techniques used in WSN’s
challenges

Sec 6: Comparison of ML
techniques

Sec 7: ML in smart agriculture

Sec 8: Limitation/challenges of ML
in agricultural WSNs

Sec 9.1: DL in agricultural field

Sec 9: Deep Learning (DL) in
smart agriculture through WSN Sec 9.2: Advantages and disadvantages of DL
in agriculture
Sec 10: Open Research Issues

Sec 11: Conclusion

Fig. 1. Organisation of this survey.

2
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
2015; Balamurali and Kathiravan, 2015; Nitesh et al., 2017; Nath et al.,
2019; Nitesh et al., 2018). Temperature, sounds, pollution levels, hu­
midity, wind, and others environmental factors are monitored by WSNs.
The purpose of a WSN is to gather data from the field of interest and
deliver it to the internet via a sink node. This sink node is more
important in the sense of useful information communication between
the remote field and internet. After that the manager node analyse,
process, mining and storage of data which are available in the internet.
This system is shown by the following Fig. 2.
2.1. Types of WSN’s used in agriculture
The WSN is commonly utilised to develop decision-making aids that
address a variety of real-world issues. Agricultural environment moni­
toring is one of the most fascinating topics with a growing demand for
decision support systems. It has grown in importance as a central and
protection tool, allowing for real-time system and control connection
with the physical world. A WSN system can collect information from a
variety of sources and analyse huge amount of data from the beginning
of monitoring and control of climatic conditions, air quality etc. Using
WSN sensors and CCTV cameras, the smart and intelligent WSN collects
and monitoring information about the outside conditions for agricul­
tural growth and within glasshouses (i.e., a glass structure in which
plants that require protection from the elements are grown). On the
basis of this concept, WSNs have two variants, a). Terrestrial Wireless
Sensor Networks (TWSN) and b). Wireless Underground Sensor Net­
works (WUSN), utilised exclusively in agricultural applications.
a) Terrestrial Wireless Sensor Networks (TWSN):
WSNs are networks of wirelessly connected, battery-powered sensors
that are usually set up for a specific application (Ojha et al., 2015). The
nodes of TWSNs are placed above the ground level. These powerful
sensor nodes gathering data from its surroundings with pinpoint accu­
racy. These nodes then create a network to accomplish the application
needs based on the detected data. All of these sensor nodes work
together for detection of moisture level of the soil, as well as the time
and length of irrigation scheduling on that particular area. So these
sensors are known as moisture sensors which is embedded in Wireless
Moisture Sensor Network (WMSN) (Mat et al., 2015), best use for pre­
cision agriculture (PA).
b) Wireless Underground Sensor Networks (WUSN):
Wireless Underground Sensor Network (WUSNs) is a subset of WSNs
that operate in underground. In this case sensors nodes are placed inside
soil. Here, higher frequencies are severely attenuated, whereas lower
frequencies can penetrate the soil (Ojha et al., 2015). Another thing is
that the network communication radius is limited, so it requires a larger
numbers of nodes for covering a big area. However, the sensor nodes
connected by wire can improve the network’s reachability by mandating
Mining
Storage
Processing
Analysis
Internet
Sink
Manager Node
Fig. 2. Wireless Sensor Network architecture.
3
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
fewer sensors. The sensors and wire could be protected to farming ac­
tivities in this arrangements.
2.2. Usefulness of WSNs in agriculture
Precision Agriculture(PA), is a set of technologies that enables
farmers transformation from traditional agriculture to computerised
information-based world where they can access and control factors
connected to their farms manually on a schedule, or automatically (Mat
et al., 2015; Balamurali and Kathiravan, 2015; Goel et al., 2018; Roy
et al., 2013; Sahitya et al., 2016).
In other words, “Precision farming or PA” is a term refers to a
collection of new technologies that are used to manage large-scale
commercial agriculture (Balamurali and Kathiravan, 2015; Mangla
et al., 2018). PA also refers to the use of technology to recommend
fertilisers, farming practises and crops to farmers (Xie et al., 2020). WSN
is particularly used for PA in glasshouse environment management (Mat
et al., 2015). WSN is also used in PA to monitor sugarcane crops by
measuring three parameters: temperature, soil PH, and soil conductivity
utilising IEEE ZigBee wireless communication (Balamurali and Kathir­
avan, 2015; Goel et al., 2018; Roy et al., 2013; de Oliveira et al., 2017;
Banđur et al., 2019). The temperature, soil moisture, and humidity are
monitoring on an ongoing basis by the system, and if they exceed the
required limit, a message is delivered to the farmer through GSM
network to take appropriate action. This is shown pictorially in Fig. 3.
Agriculture is a significant sector in many countries. Basically India
is one of the development country in which 15% GDP comes from
agriculture, therefore it is the vital source of Indian economy (Mann,
2018; Goel et al., 2018). According to World Bank figures, agriculture
employs more than a quarter of all people worldwide (World Bank,
2011). In terms of employment side, agriculture is an important part in
many developing countries like India where more than 50% people are
engaged in agriculture directly or indirectly (Mann, 2018; Padalalu
et al., 2017). However, in India, the notion of PA is not fully adopted,
and farmers continue to utilise conventional crop-growing methods that
do not produce high yields and are prone to failure, while ignoring the
better alternative of technology-based agriculture (Xie et al., 2020).
Being an important sector, the agriculture system should be smart and
reliable, so that it can stand with own features in this era. Thus, agri­
cultural research area has to be explored with technologies such as
WSNs and ML etc. to get maximum output using minimum resources
(Mat et al., 2015). For example, a timely delivery of nutritional and
water content in agriculture fields is one of the most critical factors for
growing healthy and productive crops (Garg et al., 2019). The ability of
the solutions integrated with sensors and devices to monitor in real time
has made this possible. The sensors are placed in crops fields, where they
repeatedly monitor the weather and the soil status and transfer these
Sensing Node
Sensor Field Sensor Nodes
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Remote user
Database & server
Farmer SMS alert
On ground Agricultural field with deployment
WSN node
Underground
WSN node
Fig. 3. A typical WSN deployed for Agricultural applications.
data to intelligent software that is either cloud-based or locally installed.
These programmes are responsible for making appropriate decision and
controlling devices such as sprinklers in order to maintain field condi­
tions in an automated manner. The following Table 1 shows the tech­
nologies are used in agriculture in different country.
Now in farmer’s hand have good and healthy crops and maximum
production by using WSNs and ML techniques. This will be value less for
them if they not sold their production in proper way and not get proper
cost. For this purpose another important activity in the agricultural
realm is the market sale of the grown items. This is depended on the food
supply chain which is made up with different types of companies. These
companies act as a mediators between the grower and the end-user
(Sinha et al., 2019). These mediators contribute for approximately
75% of overall supply chain net profit margins. A typical food supply
chain scenario is depicted in Fig. 4. The entire procedure can be broken
down into several transactions. Seeds and fertilisers essential for agri­
culture production are delivered to farmers by providers. Farmer’s
agricultural products must be sold in the open marketplace. They can
sell their goods directly to a local merchant or sell it to a market
designated as a distribution centres. Local traders operate as brokers,
bringing together fresh foods from various producers. They manage the
essential autos for transportation and sale the combined foods at dis­
tribution centres. Food products are obtained from the distribution
centres by retailers, who then sell them to end users.
In this regard WSNs and ML technology makes easier to farmer for
knowing suitable raw materials suppliers, local traders, retailer and
customer. WSN (connected to IoT) are the best enabling technology for
tackling different difficulties prevalent in present agricultural practises
due to the dynamic character of the agricultural industry (Hsu et al.,
2018; Khanna and Kaur, 2019; Jat et al., 2019; Muangprathub et al.,
2019; Vuran et al., 2018). Sensors combined with intelligent algorithms
provide the farmers smart advice for maintaining crops field status in
order to produce high-quality crops (Gubbi et al., 2013; Rajput et al.,
2019; Shahzadi et al., 2016).
On the above purposes farmers need sensory data i.e. the data ob­
tained from the sensors node which are deployed on the agricultural
field. Field and weather conditions is important part of good quality of
crops. Sensory data provide such type of information to the farmers and
they cultivate without any hesitation. On the other hand, understanding
soil nutrients, moisture content, weed density, and other elements that
influence crop production can aid in decreasing the usage of different
types of chemical products like fungicide, insecticides, and other
4
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Internet
Gateway node
adulterants, lowering the effect on the environment and enhancing
productivity (Shahzadi et al., 2016). “Meteorological sensors, photo­
metric sensors, water sensors, dendrometers, biological sensors, weed
seekers, Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR), optical cameras, photo­
synthesis sensors, soil respiration or moisture sensors, hygrometers, Leaf
Area Index (LAI) sensors”, and other sensors can be used to collect this
type of data (Shahzadi et al., 2016). Another key subject that can be
handled using sensors is machination tracing and monitoring. The eco­
nomic transport activity commodities to customers is referred to as lo­
gistics, and it is an important part of the food supply chain. There are
three types of machination sketch ability i.e., linear, centralised, and
distributed (Kassahun et al., 2014; Beulens et al., 2005).
From the above discussion, we understand the importance of sensory
data and this is only possible because of WSNs technologies. Now we
discuss some usefulness of salient features of WSNs.
1) The ability to make sound decisions: The nature of WSNs is that they
have several hops (Ojha et al., 2015). In a vast area, this function
improves the total network’s energy efficiency, extending the net­
work’s lifetime. Several sensor nodes collaborate to accomplish a
common purpose and make the ultimate conclusion using this
capability.
2) Topology arrangement that is dynamic: A sensor node spends the
majority of its time in ‘sleep mode’ to preserve battery power. These
decisions can be made collectively by the sensor nodes using topol­
ogy management approaches. The network architecture is config­
ured to keep the smallest number of nodes in active mode in order to
extend the life of the network.
3) Fault-tolerance: Sensor nodes have a high failure rate, which is a
typical issue when implementing WSNs (Ojha et al., 2015). In such
cases, unplanned node deployment may result in network segmen­
tation, affecting the network’s overall performance.
4) Context-awareness: The sensor nodes learn about the surrounding
context depend on the perceived physical and environmental fea­
tures information. The sensor nodes’ subsequent judgments are
context-aware (Ojha et al., 2015).
5) Scalability: WSN protocols are intended to work in any network
environment, regardless of its size or number of nodes. This capa­
bility unquestionably expands the utility of WSNs for a variety of
applications.
6) Node heterogeneity: WSNs are considered to be made up of identical
sensor-enabled gadgets (Ojha et al., 2015). However, the apparatus
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Table 1
Country wise technologies used in Agriculture.
Country Technologies used in agriculture
India • PA package i.e., “SPAD, LCC,
DSS, GIS, VRT, GPS,” etc. are
started to use in plots for
combined, crops on plantations,
crops with profit.
• Integrated PA techniques i.e.,
On-line sensor, image process­
ing, remote sensing (RS), yield
monitoring system, VRT, GPS,
etc are started to use in orga­
nized farming sector.
• In India, there are 17 Precision
Farming Development Centres
(PFDCs) spread around the
country. All these PFDCs mainly
concentrate on precision
irrigation water management.
• Object-oriented expert system
(TEAPEST) is applied in tea
fields and get 90% satisfactory
result.
• Radial basis function networks
(Modified TEAPEST), the
system applied in tea fields and
get 99.99% satisfactory result.
But there was testing error is
1%.
• Image processing is used in
wheat fields. There are two
machine algorithms methods i.
e., SVM and neural networks are
used for categorisation. The
SVM accuracy is 86.8%, while
neural networks accuracy is
94.5%.
• Neural networks with back-
propagation are deployed in
rice field for categorisation.
Morphological and colour char­
acteristics were considered
throughout the algorithm’s cre­
ation. Images were used to col­
lects nine morphological and six
colours features. The classifica­
tion dataset’s accuracy ranged
between 74% and 9%.
China • The most widely used
technology is tractor auto
guidance, which is used to
manage around 25% of
farmland.
Japan • In 2014, ground vehicles
sprayed around 22% of rice
fields, and large-scale UAV
plant protection reached 36%.
Turkey • Yield monitors are installed on
approximately 310 combine
harvesters. The farmers
purchased approximately 110
automatic steering assistance
systems. There are fewer than
20 variable rate appliers.
• Auto guiding systems based on
GNSS in the province of Adana.
Canada • 98% of farmers polled said they
used GPS direction, 84% said
they used at least one PA
system, 84% said they had a in
addition to yield tracking
capacity, 73% said they used
auto section management, and
75% stated that PA system
applied in agriculture in the
future.
Table 1 (continued )
Reference
(Mondal et al., 2009; Dugad
and Sudhakar, 2006; Mat
et al., 2015; Balamurali and
Kathiravan, 2015; Ghosh and
Samanta, 2003; Banerjee
et al., 2017; Punn and Bhalla,
2013; Shantaiya and Ansari,
2010; Mustafa et al., 2009)
(Verma, 2015)
(Liao, 2017)
(Akdemır, 2016; Say et al.,
2018; Erickson and Widmar,
2015)
(Steele, 2017; Ghosh and
Samanta, 2003)
5
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Country Technologies used in agriculture Reference
• Colour grading for lentil
harvests was done using
machine vision and various
approaches, including K-NN.
For grading crops, online neural
classifiers were applied, which
had a 90% accuracy rate.
United States • GPS direction with automatic (Velandia et al., 2016; Miller
control (83%), GPS action on et al., 2017)
sprayer section control (74%)
and GPS direction for manual
control (63%) were three well
known technologies; 82% of the
service provider suggest PA
services.
• Around 25% of groundnut farms
employed GPS soil monitoring
and more than 40% used
automatic function; variable
rate fertilization was used on
more farms in groundnut
production than in many other
crops, with over 20% of farms
using it.
• In a 2005 survey, 23% of cotton
growers employed GPS
direction; in a 2013 survey, 31%
used automatic control and 59%
used auto directing systems.
• Until the early 2000s, the use of
various PA techniques differed
by up to 22% across key field
crops. In the last ten years,
tractor direction has grown
rapidly than use of all key
agricultural crops at a variable
rate.
South Africa • There are now more than 600 (Mondal et al., 2009; Helm,
yield monitors, for lime 2005)
applications use of variable rate
is 224, 200 manual direction
systems, and 60 auto direction
systems.
• PA is expected to be used for
both agricultural plantations
and large farms in section of the
topics.
Malaysia • Rubber plantations receive site- (Mondal et al., 2009; Ghosh
specific fertiliser, whereas rice and Samanta, 2003; Rahman
fields do not. and Bala, 2010)
• The use of PA technology to oil
palm has begun.
• Fuzzy logic, which is
implemented in MATLAB and is
used to grade and classify
various fruits. SVM was used to
differentiate the various fruits,
fuzzy logic was utilised to level
them.
Indonesia • GIS (Geographic Information (Mondal et al., 2009)
System) technology is being
utilised to re-evaluate what kind
of agricultural land should be
utilised.
Europe • PA technologies and smart or (Mondal et al., 2009;
ISO-Bus facilitate equipment are Armağan, 2016; Fountas
used in fertilising and spraying et al., 2005; Reichardt et al.,
machine. 2009)
• PA was used mostly for data
gathering approach such as
GPS-based area evaluation and
soil sample by between 6.6%
and 11.0% questioned farmers.
• Nitrogen fertiliser application
sensors are employed in around
of 20% wheat fields.
(continued on next page)
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

Table 1 (continued ) yield, which farmer is best for specific conditions, detect infections, and
Country Technologies used in agriculture Reference manage machinery, among other things (Capello et al., 2016; Jha et al.,
2019). These system have been elaborated our idea about two things i.e.
• Around 60% of UK farmers now
utilised PA on their fields, albeit
WSNs and agriculture. These are discussed as follows:
this usually only means utilising
GPS tractor steering. • Irrigation control system: In order to maximise water utilisation in
Bangladesh • Artificial neural networks, the (Ghosh and Samanta, 2003; farming, modern agriculture requires a better irrigation management
model was used in jute fields Hernandez-Perez et al., 2004)
system (Ojha et al., 2015; Issad et al., 2019). In water-limited areas,
and accurately predict the
growth of jute crops. irrigated agriculture is more suitable than rain fed agriculture
France and • Artificial neural networks, the (Ghosh and Samanta, 2003; (Sengupta et al., 2021). Mismanagement of water resources can lead
Mexico model was used for dryness of Suganya et al., 2019) to more reliance on groundwater even in the rain abundant areas and
the fruits mango and cassava. also due to uneven distribution of rainfall. Particularly, India is
mainly dependent on the Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR),
are diverse in terms of processor and computation power, memory, and weaker summer monsoon can cause droughts. During such dry
sensing capability, transceiver unit, and mobility. periods, water abstracted from groundwater results in a reduction in
7) Tolerance for communication breakdowns in challenging environ­ groundwater levels and thereby can worsen the drought conditions
ments: Due to their vast area of uses in open agricultural contexts, (Sengupta et al., 2021). The alarming reduction of ground water
WSNs are exposed to extreme environmental conditions. The WSN level is another motivation for the requirement of an advanced sys­
protocol stack provides solutions for dealing with network commu­ tem. In this context, micro-irrigation techniques are cost-effective
nication failures caused by external factors. and water-usage efficient. However, micro-irrigation efficiency can
8) Autonomous operating mode: The autonomous operation mode be further improved based on the environmental and soil informa­
(Ojha et al., 2015) and adaptability of WSNs are essential features. tion. In this regard, WSNs and WMSNs are applied as the coordi­
This feature is particularly useful in agricultural applications because nating technology (Lichtenberg et al., 2015; Lorite et al., 2013;
it allows for both simple and advanced operation. Gutierrez et al., 2014; Mat et al., 2015; Sahitya et al., 2016). This
9) Information security: WSNs transmit unprocessed data concerning Moisture sensor measures the value of soil moisture and then con­
on-field conditions’ include access control methods (Ojha et al., verts this value from 0–5 V to 0–1023 (this indicates that whether the
2015) and anomaly detection to prevent accessing sensing data from soil is dry or moisture (Ngajieh et al, 2015), e.g., for 700 the soil is
users who are not logged in. dry). Then the moisture sensor sends out the converted value to the
Arduino (is a simple convenient and flexible software and hardware
open source electronics prototyping platform) (Ngajieh et al, 2015;
2.3. Relation between WSNs and agriculture Wang, 2017; Muangprathub et al., 2019). After getting the value of
moisture sensor Arduino checks these values according to the code
In above section, we have discussed about how can be used WSNs in and takes decision to give water or not. In this section water pre­
agricultural field and also discussed about usefulness of WSNs in agri­ diction algorithm is described in order get accurate result. Soil
culture. That means we get some advantages of using WSNs in agricul­ miniaturization is the important part of this management. Soil
ture in different ways. Our main aim is that the computer based Moisture sensor is deploy at the distance downward of 1 cm to 3 cm
optimization in agriculture. In order to optimise agriculture, farmers (Roy et al., 2013). Following is the equation used to calculate the soil
have enhanced their effectiveness and efficiency by establishing a WSN moisture of different soils (Foughali et al., 2018).
in the field. (Capello et al., 2016; Ndzi et al., 2014). Then for the farmers
some system which are more reliable to implement and easy to detect in Cap. = ∊r DA… (1).where Cap. is the capacitance, ∊r is the dielectric
agriculture and farming by using WSNs technology have included. WSN Constant of the material within the plates, A is the area of overlap of
can be used to track and manage elements that affect agricultural output plates and D is the distance between the plates.
and growth. They may also be used to figure out when the best time is to

Raw materials Farmer Local Traders Distribution Centre

Suppliers

Local Traders Distribution Centre

Customer Retailor
Different colours arrow
shows different distribution
stages in supply chain. Customer Retailor

Fig. 4. Food supply chain scenario.

6
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
• Surveillance of farming systems: Farming now employs a variety of
enhanced systems and devices. In this aspect, a better system for
managing these devices simplifies the overall operation and allows
farming to become more automated (Ojha et al., 2015). Furthermore,
such remote monitoring devices aid in the betterment of agricultural
land management. Additionally, the system’s performance can be
improved by including new data, such as satellite photos and
weather forecasts.
• Control of pests and diseases: Pesticides and fertilisers are used in a
controlled manner to improve crop quality while lowering farming
costs. However, in order to keep pesticide consumption under con­
trol, we must keep track of the likelihood and presence of pests in
crops. We will also need weather data like temperature, humidity,
and wind speed to estimate this. Over a field of interest, a WSN can
monitor and anticipate these events autonomously (Bhargava et al.,
2014). Naive Bayes Kernel Algorithm is used to forecast these events,
over the field with different types of input data by the probability
density function in paper (Pérez et al., 2009).
• Fertilizers used in a controlled manner: The usage of fertilisers has
an immediate effect on plant development and crop quality. The
usage of fertilisers in agriculture can be managed by keeping track of
the variations in soil nutrition’s such as Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous
(P), Potassium (K), and pH. As a result, soil nutrient equilibrium can
be attained, and crop production quality can be preserved. The
ability of mobile nodes to boost agricultural yield in a intelligent
system using “Precision Sprays” (Goncalves et al., 2015).
• Observation of cattle activity: Using WSN or Radio Frequency
Identifier (RFID) technology, a group of cattle ranging in a pasture
may be watched (Voulodimos et al., 2010). As a result, any cattle can
be monitored in real time. This device can also be used to track
whether or not livestock are approaching the vegetation fields.
• Surveillance of groundwater quality: Ground water quality has
deteriorated as a result of increased usage of fertilisers and pesti­
cides. Sensor nodes with wireless connectivity can be placed in the
water to help monitor the quality of the water.
• Observation of greenhouse gases: Agriculture and greenhouse
emissions are inextricably linked. Greenhouse gases contribute to
rising global temperatures, which has a direct influence on agricul­
ture (Issad et al., 2019). Greenhouse gas emissions, on the other
hand, are produced by a variety of agricultural sources. WSN and a
solar-powered system, i.e., Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs),
monitor and maintain some greenhouse gases such as CH4 and CO2
(Malaver et al., 2015; Mat et al., 2015).
• Monitoring of assets: The use of wireless technology in cultivation
devices opens up the prospect of remote asset monitoring (Misra and
Singh, 2012). From his home, a farmer can traces the whereabouts of
his cultivation mediums and irrigation devices.
• Remote diagnostics and control: Remote control and diagnostics of
cultivation devices such as pumps, lights, heaters, and valves in
machinery is now possible with the introduction of the internet of
things (Coates et al., 2013).
3. Problem or challenges in WSNs
In WSNs’ design, sensor node power and memory limits, topology
changes, communication connection failures, and decentralized
administration must all be considered. In other words, WSNs are sub­
jected to two types of defects, both of which have an impact on per­
formance. The first is a system fault, while the second is a data fault.
Some problems are discussed here.
3.1. The category of problems
3.1.1. Power problems
Due to limited power of WSNs (0.5 Ah i.e., how long it will last when
connected to the item it is powering, 1.2 V) (Akyildiz et al., 2002; de
7
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Oliveira et al., 2017), it is very crucial to properly utilise the power for
many applications such as the “nodes’ lifespan” is determined by their
battery power (Saad et al., 2018). The failure of a few nodes might result
in large topological changes, necessitating packet rerouting and network
reorganization. As a result, power saving and control become even more
important and researchers are concentrating on developing power-
aware protocols and algorithms for WSNs. In a sensor field, a sensor
node’s primary function is to detect events, fast data processing, and
then communicate the data. Therefore, usage of energy may be split into
three categories: sensing, communication, and data processing (Akyildiz
et al., 2002). The detecting strength varies depending on the applica­
tions. Irregular sensing may use less energy than continuous event
observing. It’s also true that listening to the channel consumes more
energy than sending (Chand and Kakria, 2015; Pathak et al., 2019). In
calculating energy expenditure, the complexity of event observation is
also important. Increased environment noise levels may create impor­
tant manipulation and complicate observation. When the sensor node is
in the detecting state, the following relationship exists between wireless
communication energy usage and communication distance: (Chen et al.,
2012).
E = kdn (2)
where ‘d’ represents the distance between the transmitting and receiving
nodes, and ‘n’ represents the signal reduction factor, which is generally
in the range of 2 to 4. Node ’a’ sends ’k’ bytes of data to node ’b’, which
is at ’d’ distant.
3.1.2. Node fault
Node faults are a regular occurrence in WSN methods (Akyildiz et al.,
2002; Xiong et al., 2015). In general, sensor nodes encounter two sorts of
failures that cause performance deterioration. The most common form is
a system fault, which causes individual node crashes, hardware failure
or broken connection, failure of communication, battery damage, loss of
packet, error in routing, or segmentation of network. The other kind is
data fault, in which nodes operate correctly except for their sensing
results, resulting in significant skewed or random mistakes such as de­
viation or sound. These defective nodes send inaccurate data to the
program, which might lead to erroneous conclusions.
Apart from that, WSNs are widely deployed in hostile environments
and are susceptible to failures at different levels. Fig. 5 shows a tiered
categorization of fault-prone components in a WSN. A defect that occurs
at any level of the system has the potential to spread to higher levels.
The following are some of the faults that can occur in sensor nodes:
(i) Node Faults, which indicates that nodes have a variety of hardware
and software components that can malfunction. (ii) Link Faults, which
refers to the fact that communication lines between nodes in WSNs are
highly volatile. Because the links between nodes are unstable, the
routing pathways are constantly changing. When radio interference
develops, the link between nodes becomes faulty (iii) Sink Faults are
caused by a device (sink) on a network level that captures all network
data and it should be sent to the backend system (Mannan and Rana,
2015).
3.1.3. Localization and objects targetting
The procedure of identifying the co-ordinates of geographical loca­
tion of nodes and equipment of network is known as localization.
Because maximum sensor network activities are generally depended on
location, sensor node position awareness is a critical skill. Using global
positioning system (GPS) device in every node is cost unfeasible in large-
scale systems. For certain applications, relative position measurement is
adequate. However, relative positions may be converted into perfects
ones by employing perfects positions for a limited number of nodes.
Extra evaluations based on distance, angle, or a combination of these
two can be utilized to improve the effectiveness of proximity-based
localisation. Various methods, such as RSSI (Received Signal Strength
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

Application
End- to-End Connection
Base Station

Software
Clock Sync. Aggregation Query

Hardwar
Backend Network Interface
Sink Wireless Sensor Network Interface
Power Supply CPU Memory

Path

Fault Propagation
Link
Networ

Softwar
Data Processing Routing MAC

Hardwa
Processing Unit Memory
Nod Sensors Network Interface

Battery Enclosure

Faults & attacks

Fig. 5. Fault classification and fault propagation.

Indication) (Hou et al., 2016; Saad et al., 2018), TOA (Time of Arrival),
and TDOA (Time Difference of Arrival) (Alsheikh et al., 2014; Luo, 2014;
Shen et al., 2008), can be used to get distance measurements.
3.2. Solution for different problems
3.2.1. Solution of power problems
The limited battery power of sensor nodes in WSNs is major issue,
therefore it is necessary to build a sensor node that is comprehensive,
intelligent, and long-term in order to enhance the node’s energy supply.
Some popular energy collection methods are discussed below.
3.2.1.1. The collection of vibration energy. Various factors can lead to
vibration in environment, so environmental vibration is ubiquitous,
such as hand taping on the table, the table vibration, the vibration ac­
celeration likely to be 0.02 g. We can collect energy using piezoelectric
effect of piezoelectric materials (Chen et al., 2012). Piezoelectric ma­
terial under the force will be deformed and produce the polarisation
charge. After transforming the charge into the voltage it can be stored
through the collection of the circuit (Chen et al., 2012), its principle is
shown in Fig. 6.
3.2.1.2. The collection of solar energy. Capacity of electric power, on the
current market has the highest conversion rate of solar battery. It is
about 25% using the single crystal silicon material (Chen et al., 2012).
Development of photoelectric technology is from the initial of silicon
manufacturing to particles deposited on the photosensitive substrate,
this new material can both work indoor or outdoor, light weight and
easy to install, and reduced effect by environmental temperature, it is
very suitable to provide power for small, remote sensor.
3.2.1.3. The collection of wind energy. The wind is available in envi­
ronment in everywhere. So the undeveloped wind energy is also a
research topic that the researcher dedicate, they must solve the two
problems of technical difficulty and manufacturing costs. Arlington
University of Texas use mature technology of piezoelectric and me­
chanical to solve the two problems well. Such a small generator manu­
facture using piezoelectric device, can be driven by 8–16 km/h wind
power, which can provide 50 mw of power to node of WSN (Chen et al.,
2012).
3.2.1.4. The localization techniques. Managing power consumption ex­
tends the life of a network and assesses the effectiveness of a localisation
technique (Saad et al., 2018). The average energy setup is a measure
used to evaluate the amount of power required throughout the locali­
zation techniques and mathematical equation for calculation is as in Eq.

8
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Piezoelectric Active
Element Switch
Self-Powered
Electronics
Fig. 6. The block diagram of vibration energy harvesting.
1 ∑N
Average Energy Setup = (IEi − AEi) (3)
N i=1
where IEi is the initial energy which is available on node i, AEi is the rest
energy which available on node i after setting the algorithm and N is the
number of unknown nodes.
3.2.1.5. Medium access control (MAC) protocol for energy efficiency. The
radio is well recognised to be a significant power consumer in a sensor
node. A MAC (Medium Access Control) protocol is used to operate the
radio (Forster, 2016). As a result, a good MAC protocol can significantly
extend the life of a sensor network, and vice versa. There are three
important characteristics for building a good MAC for this fact:
i. Increase throughput as much as possible
ii. Minimize the amount of time spent waiting and
iii. Conserve energy for WSNs, it must also be able to turn off
equipment so that nodes do not waste important energy.
3.2.2. Solution of fault tolarence for faulty node
Lower-level errors which interfere the network’s overall perfor­
mance are prevented from spreading into system breakdowns using fault
tolerance techniques (Mannan and Rana, 2015). It is the ability of a
system to continue providing its defined service despite component
failures (Akyildiz et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2014). The calculation of
fault tolerance (Fk(t)) of sensor node is calculated (Wang et al., 2014) by
using Poisson Distribution within the time period (0, t):
Fk (t) = e− λkt
(4)
where λ k is the failure rate of the sensor node k and t is the time period.
To solve the faulty nodes issues, we must first discover the problem
in the network, then recover or fix the issue using (i) Self-Diagnosis
(nodes can use self-diagnosis to identify potential failures) (Mannan
and Rana, 2015), (ii) Group Detection (Only if a reference value is
accessible can service failure due to wrongly generated values be
detected, and it is proposed to identify the defective nodes) (Bapu et al.,
2015) and (iii) Hierarchical Structure (a defect detection algorithm with
scalability is enabled by the definition of a detection tree. It is proposed
that the network architecture be used to transfer child node fault
detection results to parent nodes and then to the sink) (Bapu et al.,
2015). After the problem has been detected, we must recover the defect
using various fault recovery procedures which are discussed below.
3.2.2.1. Active replication in WSN. In the presence of active copies, fault
recovery is quite simple. Nonetheless, we provide some of these tech­
niques below for a more uniform survey: (i) Multipath Routing, which is
desired to avoid the splitting of a sensor network due to a single failed
node. To actively duplicate routing pathways, multipath routing can be
used (Bapu et al., 2015), (ii) Sensor Value Aggregation, which gua­
rantees that the resultant reading interval contains the proper sensor
9
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Storage
Rectifier
Buffer
Charging Circuit
reading of an area despite node failures (Mannan and Rana, 2015; Luo,
2014), (iii) Ignore Values from Faulty Nodes, which is as usual but
effective way to avoid propagating a single node’s failure to the whole
network. These are genetic data. These data are generating and applied
in that faulty nodes. The identification of the defective nodes is the most
difficult task in this instance.
3.2.2.2. Passive replication in WSN. When this is used in WSN, it implies
that the primary replicas receive and handle all requests. The backup
replicas are informed of the state of the primary replica as well as the
request details, as shown in Fig. 7(a), in order to ensure consistency
between copies. When utilizing passive replication to recover from a
problem, there are three key steps: fault detection, primary selection,
and service distribution.
The key parts here are node selection and service distribution. First,
to recover the network failure, then to pick the node and offer the
needed service to that node. In other situations, the service is already
installed on the nodes, and all that is necessary is as usual configuration
update to inform the node that it should be started. There are two major
approaches in service distribution: pre copy and code distribution (Bapu
et al., 2015).
3.2.3. Solution of localization and objects targetting
Localization algorithms are two types - Range Based (RB) and Range
Free (RF) (Yingxi et al., 2012; Saad et al., 2018). Range based (RB)
localization techniques are used for distance calculation whereas Range
free (RF) localization techniques are not used for distance calculation.
Distance-based localization algorithms must place the nodes according
to the observed distance and angle between reference nodes. This sort of
algorithm, such as the AOA (Angle of Arrival) algorithm, TOA (Time of
Arrival) algorithm, and TDOA (Time Difference of Arrival) algorithm,
uses the least squares principle, triangulation technique, and maximum
likelihood approach to compute the best predicted position of non-
reference nodes. The mathematical equations of these algorithms are
as follows.
Dij =(t2 – t1)*v.
And Dij =
(t4 − t1) − (t3 − t2)
*v (5)
2
where Dij represents that the distance between ith and jth nodes, radio
signal sent at t1 and received at t2, after that acoustic signal sent at t3 =
t1 + twait and received at t4 and v is the velocity of radio signal. The
mathematical form of TDOA algorithm is as follows:
Dij = (v1-v2)*(t4-t2-twait) (6)
The non-distance-based localization algorithms determine their po­
sition based on network connection and other details, as well as the
concern place between themselves and the referable nodes, without the
need to take measurement of distance. The centroid technique, the DV-
HOP algorithm, the Amorphous algorithm, and the APIT algorithm are
the examples of this sort of algorithm. A paradigm for node geometrical
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Fig. 7. Failure recovery in Passive replication mode and Active replication.
layout that is theoretical (Luo, 2014; Wang and Li, 2010), it increased
the precision of node localization and enabled the intended outcomes,
but showed significant inaccuracies in the localization of nodes at the
network’s edge. The main reason behind this is the reflection angles
connecting nodes to each anchor node are as little as possible. The
mathematical equation of DV-HOP algorithm is as follows.
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∑
(xi − xj)2 + (yi − yj)2
Ci = ∑ (7)
di
where Ci is the correction factor, it is determines the average hop length,
(xi,yi) and (xj,yj) are the location of anchor node and di is the distance
between ith node and anchor node (Wang and Li, 2010; Saad et al.,
2018).
The convex optimization technique didn’t need distance measure­
ments (Luo, 2014). This approach uses the anchor node’s convex pro­
gramming to identify the node’s location. It offers great position
accuracy when identifying node position, but it comes with drawbacks
like high algorithm complexity, a lot of processing, and a lot of network
power consumption. RSSI is another approach for determining node
locations. To determine the distance, this approach employed target
parameter for quantifying and related geometrical understanding (Luo,
2014). The precise solution for node localization was then obtained
through iteration refinement. Different types of localization algorithm
are discuss comparatively with range based and range free techniques in
tabular form in the following Table 2.
4. Machine learning (ML) in agricultural WSNs
Agriculture is the primary source of income for the majority of the
population in many countries like India, Bangladesh etc. In terms of
micronutrients, Indian soils are deficient. Soil health has been linked to
agricultural sustainability in recent years, and conserving soil fertility
has also been shown to boost existing crop yield levels. Agriculture re­
quires a decision support system in a number of aspects, including the
Table 2
Comparisons study of “Range Based (RB) and Range Free (RF)” techniques (Saad, 2018).
Algorithm Type Algorithm Accuracy
Range Based(RB) AOA Greater
TDOA Greater
RSSI Greater
Range Free(RF) Centroid Lower
APIT Moderate
DV-HOP Moderate
Amorphous Moderate
10
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
sort of crop to be grown (Prakash et al., 2018). As the water label is being
dropped day by day, water usage can be optimised to a considerable
extent by monitoring soil moisture. Soil moisture is advantageous for
crop production. Therefore, if we can accurately anticipate the soil
dampness exists in any area on agricultural field, the crop growth can be
improved. Farmers can learn about the optimal time to show and
cultivate crops, whether the soil infiltration is enough or not, and
whether sufficient water will be delivered to the crops plantations for
growth by understanding the soil moisture content. In the subject of
agriculture, data mining techniques are quite important. For example,
using multiple linear regression, data mining techniques have been
utilised to estimate tea yields in four locations (these are Cachar, North
Bank, South bank and Upper Assam) of Assam (Prakash et al., 2018).
Now a days, ML is considered one of the most advanced methods for
predicting unknown values.
Decisions may be made at the proper time/place and input at micro-
climatic levels using ML and WSN technology. Pest and disease losses are
more severe in semi-arid areas, where they inflict direct crop and yield
damage. Temperature, humidity, rainfall, leaf wetness, windspeed, and
soil nutrients are the key factors impacting pest and disease occurrence.
Data are becoming increasingly available from a variety of sources,
which can be used to gain information in the agriculture sector. Data
must be analysed and used for decision-making in order to predict
relevant information and comprehend trends. Computation techniques
must be devised to do appropriate labour and to compensate for farmer
requirements. When ML techniques are implemented, such data can be
used to make productive decisions.
ML is a technique that enhances or expands knowledge from a
research or experience without having to be explicitly programmed
(Kumar et al., 2019). Because of its compactness, cost-effectiveness, and
easy of deployment, the ML is the best propitious features for various
real life applications (Kumar et al., 2019). Recently WSN is applicable in
different real time fields like agriculture, medical science, defence and
weather forecasting etc. Here huge amount of data are collected by the
nodes and then ML techniques are used on this data, analyse these data
Scalability Cost Power Consumption
Complicate Costly Greater
Complicate Costly Greater
Complicate Reasonable Greater
Light Minimum Minimum
Light Minimum Greater
Light Minimum Greater
Light Minimum Greater
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
and finally predict the require results.
The field of ML is a subset of computer science that employs statis­
tical methods for enabling computers to “learn” from data without the
need for explicit programming (Kabara and Calle, 2012).
ML was also defined by Professor Tom.M.Mitchell is “A computer
program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class of tasks
T and performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in T, as measured
by P, improves with experience E” depending on the foregoing, the
following Fig. 8 represents the ML model.
ML is generally defined by designers who designed sensor network,
as a set of algorithmic tools that are used to develop projection models.
ML specialist, on the other hand, see it as a vast area with several subject
matter and design. Those who want to apply ML to WSNs can benefit
from understanding such concepts. ML techniques, when used in a va­
riety of WSN applications, offer a great deal of versatility. This section
discusses some of the theoretical principals and methodologies for
implementing ML in WSNs.
The structure of the model can be used to categorise existing ML
techniques. The three types of ML algorithms are supervised, unsuper­
vised, and reinforcement learning (Kumar et al., 2019; Ip et al., 2018;
Yau et al., 2015). Another sub categories are the semi supervised
learning and computational intelligence algorithms (Yau et al., 2015).
These are depicted here in Fig. 9.
In this article, we looked at different ML approaches that have been
used in WSNs.
A. Supervised Leaning: The purpose of supervised learning is to
forecast the worth of a result depend on a range of input measures. The
outcome metric might be either numerical or categorical. The learning is
done on a set of training examples. The learning is referred to as a
classification problem if the output is categorical. We want to know (a)
which options to live with and (b) which learning rule to adopt to
enhance training perfection for a classification task (Alsheikh et al.,
2014; Yau et al., 2015). Based on this learning rule, it has major roles on
different types of WSN challenges. These are localization, coverage
problem, anomaly and fault detection, data aggregation and synchro­
nization are solved by the supervised learning.
This learning is of two types which are regression and classification.
The classification techniques are based on different types of algorithms.
These are logic based such as decision tree and random forest, percep­
tion based such as ANN and deep learning, statistical learning based
such as Bayesian and SVM, and instant based learning such as KNN al­
gorithm. These are shortly describe here.
A.1. Regression: The regression method is one of the most effective
methods for predicting a value (P) depends on a set of data (X).
Regression is a simple ML technique that gives precise predictions with
the fewest possible errors. Linear regression’s mathematical notation
(Montgomery et al., 2012) is shown Eq.
P = q(x) + ∊ (8)
Here P is the predict value i.e. output, x indicates the independent
variables i.e. input, q(x) is function on x, and ∊ represents possible
random errors.
A.2. Decision trees (DT): It is a structural learning method included
in classification method of supervised learning. It consists set of ‘if-then’
rules to enhance the readability. This structural learning included
Task(T) Performance
(P)
Experience(E)
Fig. 8. Machine learning definition model.
11
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
learning tree or decision tree which have two types of nodes, one is
called leaf node i.e., finding results and another is called decision node i.
e., choice options. The major advantages of DT are more clear, decreases
uncertainty in decision making and allows for through analysis.
A.3. Random forest (RF): Another logic based classification algo­
rithm of supervised learning is random forest algorithm. This is a
collection of decision trees and every tree in forest has a different
categorization (Kumar et al., 2019). RF works in two category, one is to
create random classifier and another is to predict the result. For larger
datasets and heterogeneous data, RF performs well and missing numbers
are accurately predicted using this method.
A.4. Artificial neural network (ANN): ANN is a perception based
classification algorithm which is based on human neuron for classifying
data (Kumar et al., 2019; Haykin, 2010). This is made up of a large
number of neurons (processing units) that process data and deliver
correct outputs. Each ANN consists three layers, these are input layer,
one or many hidden layer(s) and output layer. The ANN is exceptionally
good at classifying complex and non-linear datasets.
A.5. Deep learning (DL): It is another type of perception based al­
gorithm which is used for classification and also a subcategory of ANN.
Details of this techniques are discussed in section 9 in this article.
A.6. Support vector machine (SVM): This is one type of statistical
learning model of classification method of supervised learning and used
to find an optimal support vectors to categorize the data. SVM uses
support vectors and coordinate of individual observation to provide the
best classification (Vapnik, 1999). Here support vectors means the
points which are used to find the borderline. SVM gives the best clas­
sification from the given set of data. As a result, the number of features
observed in the training data have no bearing on the model complexity
of an SVM. For this features, SVMs are most suited for learning tasks of
large data.
A.7. Bayesian: Another statistical learning of classification method
is Bayesian learning (Pérez et al., 2009). This learning discovers the links
between different data sets by using several statistical methods like “Chi-
square” test. A set of inputs x1, x2, x3, …, xn provide a label α the
probability of P(α/x1, x2,x3,…xn) will be maximize. Distinct probability
function for different variables of class nodes can be used with this
learning. Now, different type of problem of WSN can be solved by this
learning.
A.8. K-Nearest neighbour (KNN): It is the instance based learning
method in regression and classification model. The k-nearest training set
is used as feature space input. K-NN classifies data based on the distance
between training and test samples. It uses different distance method
such as “Euclidean distance”,” Hamming distance”, “Canberra distance”
function etc. (Kumar et al., 2019). This is used in WSN for anomaly
detection, fault detection and data aggregation approaches.
B. Semi Supervised Learning: Semi-supervised learning is a subset of
supervised learning tasks and approaches that make use of unlabelled
data for training data set and often small amount of labelled data. So the
semi-supervised learning works on data which is combination of both
labelled and unlabelled. Even when only a little amount of labelled data
is used, semi-supervised learning surpasses supervised learning
(Alsheikh et al., 2014; Yau et al., 2015). Semi-supervised learning has
two clear-cut goals that are to predict the labels on unlabelled data on
training set and predicting labels on future test data sets (Kumar et al.,
2019). Semi-supervised learning are basically two types, one is “Trans­
ductive” learning i.e., predicts the particular labels for a particular
unlabelled dataset and another is “Inductive” learning i.e., the best
predictor on future data.
C. Unsupervised Learning: Unsupervised learning is a method of
extracting inferences from datasets that contain only input data and no
labelled replies. Cluster analysis is the most prevalent unsupervised
learning technique, which is used to discover hidden patterns through
exploratory knowledge analysis or grouping in knowledge (Alsheikh
et al., 2014; Yau et al., 2015). There are two types of unsupervised
learning, one is clustering which include k-means, hierarchical and
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Supervised
Learning
Semi
Supervised
Machine
Learning
Techniques
Reinforcement
Learning
Fig. 9. Machine Learning Techniques.
fuzzy-c-means clustering and another is dimensionality reduction which
include singular value decomposition (SVD), principal component
analysis (PCA) and independent component analysis (ICA) (Kumar et al.,
2019). These are briefly discussed here.
C.1. k-means clustering: k-means algorithm can quickly generate a
particular number of clusters from the given dataset. Here ‘k’ represents
the number of clusters. At first, k number of random locations are
considered and all others points are situated in nearest centres. After
that all of the points in the dataset have been covered by clusters and
each cluster’s centroid is recalculated. In each iteration, the cluster’s
centroid shifts and the method is repeated until there are no more shifts
in the cluster’s centroid (Kumar et al., 2019).
C.2. Hierarchical clustering: this approach organises related objects
into clusters with a top-down or bottom-up order. In top-down hierar­
chical clustering, also called “divisive clustering” a big single division is
split recursively until one cluster of each observation is formed. Bottom-
up hierarchical clustering, also called “agglomerative clustering” allo­
cates each observation to a cluster using density function (Kumar et al.,
2019). There is no need for prior knowledge of the number of clusters
with the hierarchical clustering approach, and it is simple to execute.
C.3. Fuzzy-c-means clustering: Bezdex developed fuzzy-c-means
clustering, also known as soft clustering, in 1981, utilising fuzzy set
theory, which allocates the observation to one or more clusters (Peiz­
huang, 1983). Clusters are found using this technique based on simi­
larity measurements such as intensity, distance and connectedness. The
algorithm may be used for one or more similarity measures, depending
on the application or dataset.
C.4. Singular Value Decompositions (SVD): This is a dimensionality
reduction method that uses a matrix factorisation method. The term
“matrix factorisation” refers to the transformation of a matrix into a
product of matrices. The SVD can be effectively utilised to reduce that
data dimensionality of a given feature space. The ideal low-rank rep­
resentation of the data is guaranteed by SVD (Kumar et al., 2019). In
WSN, SVD is utilised to handle challenges such as routing and data
aggregation.
C.5. Principle Component Analysis (PCA): PCA is a dimensionality
reduction method that uses multivariate analysis to extract features
(Kumar et al., 2019). To reduce dimensionality, the PCA combines all of
the data and drops the least important data from the feature space. A
linear combination of observable variables (principle variables) is the
result of PCA. PCA is sometimes used in regression as well as to discover
anomalies in data.
C.5. Independent Component Analysis (ICA): ICA decomposes ob­
servations into additive sub-components and creates a new basis for data
representation (Kumar et al., 2019). The non-Gaussian observations are
the subcomponents in this case. ICA is a more powerful technique than
PCA, or to put it another way, it’s a more advanced variant of PCA. ICA,
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Unsupervised
Learning
Computationa
l Intelligence
unlike PCA, is capable removing higher order relationships. ICA looked
at data from a variety of sources, including web content, digital photo­
graphs, psychometric measures, corporate intelligence, and social
networking.
D. Reinforcement Learning: One of the intelligence algorithms is
reinforcement learning (RL). It is concerned with a situation in which a
person acts in order to obtain a reward. Q-learning, a well-known RL
technique, allocates a Q-value to each agent, which is updated on a
regular basis (Alsheikh et al., 2014; Yau et al., 2015). The computation
of total future reward is defined as the Q-value of action at the current
state. Total compensation in the future (i.e., the Q-value) of achieving
the action ‘at’ at a given state ‘st’ is computed using Eq.
Q(st+1,at+1) = Q(st,at) + Y{r(st,at) – Q(st,at)} (9)
where r (st, at) implies the immediate benefit of completing a task at ‘at’
a given state ‘st’, and Yis the learning rate, which defines how quickly
one learns (usually set to value between 0 and 1). In a distinguished
configuration like WSNs, this algorithm is simple to implement. It’s
worth noting that in the WSN routing problem, Q-learning has been
employed broadly and successfully (Arroyo-Valles et al., 2007). This
method visualized in the following Fig. 10.
E. Computational Intelligence Algorithms: The investigation of
processes that adjust to changes in the environment or promote intelli­
gent behaviour in complex and dynamical contexts is known as
computational intelligence (CI). These mechanisms provide paradigms
that may be taught or adapted to new situations, as well as generalise,
abstract, discover, and associate (Yau et al., 2015). CI is defined as a set
of process representations and intelligence tools that are capable of
immediately putting raw mathematical sensory perception into action,
delivering authentic and fast responses while exhibiting high fault
tolerance.
4.1. Advantages of ML IN WSN
Sensor nodes in WSN collect vast amount of data from required field,
and extracting valuable information from data is difficult without ML. It
also incorporates with “Internet of Things (IoT)”, “Cyber-Physical Sys­
tems (CPS)”, and “Machine-to-Machine communication (M2M)”
(Alsheikh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2019). Here we discuss some of
applications of ML in WSN.
• ML algorithms can simply use to manipulate the ideal number of
sensor nodes to cover a specific area.
• WSNs deployed in difficult environments benefit from energy har­
vesting because they are self-powered and have a long lifespan. The
ability of WSNs to predict the quantity of energy consumed to be
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Initial State(st) Taken Action(at)
Agent (e.g., sensor node)
New State(st+1) Achieved Reward r(at,st)
Fig. 10. Visualization of Q- Learning Method.
gathered within a specific time period is improved by using a ML
algorithm.
• Due to internal or external influences, sensor nodes may shift their
placement. With the use of ML techniques, accurate localisation is
smooth and quick.
• ML is utilised to distinguish between malfunctioning and regular
sensor nodes and increase the network’s efficiency.
• Routing data plays a critical function in extending the life of a
network. To improve the system’s performance, the sensor network’s
dynamic behaviour necessitates dynamic routing techniques.
• The network will experience transmission overhead if the complete
data is sent to the base station. At the sensor or cluster head level, ML
can also help to reduce data dimensionality.
The essence of ML can be summed up in the following two standard
definitions:
1) “The development of computer models for learning processes that
provide solutions to the problem of knowledge acquisition and
enhance the performance of developed systems” (Bapu et al., 2015).
2) “The adoption of computational methods for improving machine
performance by detecting and describing consistencies and patterns
in training data” (Bapu et al., 2015).
When these definitions are applied to WSNs, we can see that ML
holds the promise of using past data to improve sensor network per­
formance on specific tasks without the need for reprogramming. ML is
very useful in WSN purposes which are listed below:
• Sensor networks are commonly employed to keep track on quickly
changing environments. For example, soil degradation or sea tur­
bulence might cause a node’s location to shift. Sensor networks that
can alter and function well in such circumstances are ideal.
• WSNs can be used in exploratory applications to gather fresh infor­
mation about inaccessible or dangerous places (e.g., volcanic erup­
tion and waste water monitoring) (Alsheikh et al., 2014). System
designers may construct solutions that do not initially perform as
envisioned due to unforeseen behaviour patterns that may occur in
such circumstances. ML algorithms that can tune themselves to
freshly obtained knowledge are preferred by system designers.
• WSNs are typically used in complex contexts where researchers are
unable to create precise mathematical models to characterise the
system’s behaviour. Meanwhile, while some WSN actions may be
predicted using simple mathematical models, others may require the
employment of complicated algorithms to be completed (e.g., the
error in routing (Alsheikh et al., 2014). ML gives lower-complexity
estimations for the system design in similar situations.
• Designers of sensor networks frequently have access to vast amounts
of data, but they may be unable to derive useful alikeness from it. The
WSN application usually contains minimal data coverage standards
that must be met with limited sensor hardware resources in addition
to assuring communication and energy security (Alsheikh et al.,
2014). ML algorithms which is used to find relevant connections in
sense data and suggest better sensor placement for optimum data
analysis.
• With the purpose of enabling smarter decision-making and autono­
mous control, novel application and integration of WSNs have been
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
Environment
presented, such as in “Cyber Physical Systems (CPS)”, “Machine-to-
Machine (M2M)” communications, and “Internet of things (IoT)”
technologies (Mannan and Rana, 2015; Bapu et al., 2015). ML is
crucial in this case for extracting the many levels of abstraction
required to accomplish AI tasks with little human intervention
(Alsheikh et al., 2014).
4.2. Usefulness of ML IN WSN’s challenges
Node power and memory restrictions, topology changes, communi­
cation connection failures, and decentralised administration are all
factors to consider while designing WSNs in the agricultural area.
Various functional issues of WSNs have been effectively addressed using
ML paradigms, including energy mindful and real-time routing, query
processing, event detection, localization, node clustering and data ag­
gregation. We’ll look at how ML can be used to solve WSN problems in
this part.
4.2.1. Routing
Many challenging problems have occurred in routing of WSNs
because of the restricted energy generation, inadequate transmission
bandwidth, memory capacity, and CPU capacity of sensor node. In
WSNs, sensors are distributed at random across the environment, and
each node gathers data from its surroundings and sends it to the base
station for processing, as shown in Fig. 11.The goal of developing a
routing protocol is to lower energy consumption and extend network
lifetime. A sensor network can learn from its previous experiences with
the help of ML, make the most efficient route decisions, as well as to
adjust new conditions. The following are a few of the benefits:
• Having the ability to discover the most efficient routes for saving
energy and extending the lifetime of dynamically changing WSNs
(Kumar et al., 2019; Alsheikh et al., 2014).
• ML has numerous uses in WSNs, including efficient routing, reduced
communication overhead, and delay-awareness (Yau et al., 2015).
• Divide a general routing problem into smaller sub-routing problems
to make it less complicated. Nodes build graph structures in each
sub-problem by just considering their immediate surroundings,
resulting in cut-price, potent, and actual time routing.
• Using very easy computations tools and classifiers, meet QoS
(Quality of Service) standards in routing errors.
4.2.2. Clustering and data accumulation
The process of obtaining and combining information from sensor
nodes is known as data accumulation. The overhead in terms of
computing power, memory, communication, and computing units of
WSNs are all influenced by data accumulation. Data accumulation acts
as an effective part in WSNs since it slow down the amount of trans­
missions and communication overhead. The power consumption of the
sensor nodes is balanced by an effective data accumulation mechanism,
which extends the network lifetime (Ambigavathi and Sridharan, 2018;
Lin et al., 2019). In WSNs, Fig. 12 depicts data accumulation from
multiple sources to a base station using clusters. There may be some
malfunctioning nodes in this situation that need to be taken off the
internet. These malfunctioning nodes may produce inaccurate readings,
lowering the network’s overall accuracy. ML approaches primarily
improve the following aspects of node clustering and data accumulation:
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
Base Station
Gateway Sensor Node
Fig. 11. Example of Routing in WSNs.
Fig. 12. An example of data accumulation in a cluster design with source nodes, cluster members, and cluster head nodes.
• ML methods choose efficient data accumulation tasks in the network,
balancing the energy of the sensor nodes considerably.
• ML techniques aid in the data compression dimensionality at the
sensor node level, lowering network transmission cost. To minimise
data transmission delays, the reduction might be conducted at sensed
nodes or cluster heads.
• In the context of data accumulation, ML adapts to its surroundings
and works accordingly without having to reconfigure or
reprogrammed.
4.2.3. Event detection and query processing
Any large-scale sensor network must be able to recognise events and
handle queries. This necessitates the use of reliable event scheduling and
detection that requires little human interaction. WSN monitoring can be
divided into three categories: event-driven, continuous, and query-
driven (Ip et al., 2018). ML, at its most basic level, provides methods
for limiting query areas and evaluating event validity for effective
queries processing and detecting events procedures. The following ad­
vantages will emerge from this adoption:
• Learning algorithms allow for the creation of effective event detec­
tion techniques with minimal storage and computing needs. Addi­
tionally, they can use basic classifiers to evaluate the correctness of
such occurrences.
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
• ML makes it easier to build processing queries efficiently strategies
for WSNs, such as determining to look for a specific regionat while a
question is received without causing the entire network to be flooded
(Ip et al., 2018).
• By accomplishing effective duty cycles, ML enhances packet delivery
ratios (Kumar et al., 2019).
4.2.4. Localization and object targeting
In WSNs, localization is described as detecting a sensor node’s
physical/geographical location (Kumar et al., 2019). In other words, it is
the process of finding the node and component’s geographic coordinates
in a network (Ip et al., 2018). Identifying the location of the sensor node,
on the other hand, is a critical task. Sensor node locations can be
determined through manual assignment or the global positioning system
(GPS), with the exception of certain unique sensor nodes which are
known as “Anchor” nodes or “Beacon” nodes. Fig. 13 depicted these
types of localization. Contiguity-situated, ley-situated, angle and
distance-situated are different types of localization which are more
common (Kuriakose et al., 2014). Due to the fact that the majority of
sensor network functions rely on location (Ip et al., 2018), sensor nodes
location awareness are a crucial skill. After deployment, sensed nodes
may experience alterations in their placement. The following are some
of the advantages of utilising ML methods in the sensor node localization
process:
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin
D3
A3
(x3,y3)
D1 D2
A2
A1
(x1,y1) (x2,y2)
Fig. 13. Example of localization.
• Using only a few anchor points, convert relative node locations to
absolute ones. Distance estimations will no longer require the use of
range measurement devices.
• Guidance and object tracking systems can utilise ML was used to
partition the monitored locations into several clusters, with each
cluster representing a different location identifier (Ip et al., 2018).
• Because mobile sensor nodes in WSNs change positions dynamically,
identifying precise localisation in such an environment is more
contented, and it may be done quickly using ML approaches (Kumar
et al., 2019).
This Fig. 13 shows that three cluster domains namely D1, D2, D3 and
three anchor nodes namely A1(x1, y1), A2(x2, y2) and A3(x3,y3). These
three anchor nodes localized a node known as unknown node in the
intersection area of three cluster domain i.e., N(x,y). Now we can figure
out how far apart they are geographically of anchor node and unknown
node by the following formula. If geographic distance is Gd, then,
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
Gd = (Xi − X)2 + (Yj − Y)2 Unit, where i, j = 1, 2, 3 (10)
4.2.5. Medium access control (MAC)
The network lifetime of WSNs can be extended by designing energy-
efficient medium access control (MAC) protocols. The MAC layer’s main
responsibilities are addressing, data transmission, allocation of channel,
prediction of errors, and recognition of frame. It is known that data link
layer is the super set of MAC layer. As a result of the changing behaviour
of adding or removing (perhaps dying) sensor nodes, noisy data trans­
mission, and so on, creating energy efficient MAC protocols for WSNs is
difficult (Kumar et al., 2019; Kabara and Calle, 2012). The use of ML
techniques in the design of MAC layer protocols ensures energy potency
and minimises latency. The following are the advantages of ML-based
MAC protocol designs:
• Assists in reducing the added load of reconfiguring any network
nodes that have recently joined or died.
• Boosts the network’s self-learning efficiency and minimises end-to-
end latency.
4.2.6. Node fault detection
WSNs have been used in a wide range of applications, including se­
vere, hostile, and unmanned environments. That’s why different types of
fault like communication, battery, hardware, software and other things
are inefficient base stations and topological changes may occur in WSNs
(Zidi et al., 2017). Detecting a failure in a WSN is difficult for a variety of
reasons, including resource constraints, differences in atmosphere(for­
est, indoor), changes in positioning, and detection determinacy between
usual and error nodes (Mannan and Rana, 2015; Zidi et al., 2017). Some
benefits for using ML are summarised below:
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Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928
• Fault identification and categorization in a timely manner.
• Detects errors with greater precision.
4.2.7. Energy harvesting
Power of battery is most common sources of energy for sensor nodes,
and the network’s life span is determined by how much energy the
sensor nodes consume. The majority of WSN applications necessitate
network life spans ranging from months to years. We can either use a
techniques which save energy or provide energy collection technologies
for sensed nodes to extend the life span of WSNs. For energy efficiency,
different types of routing like sleep-scheduling, mobile sink, mobile
charger have been implemented. In WSNs, energy harvesting can be low
cost maintenance, long-durability, and own-powered. It provides
continuous power to sensor nodes from sources such as the energy of
radio waves, energy from the wind, energy or power from the solar,
thermal energy, mechanical energy, and vibrations. To locate efficient
energy harvesting or collection strategies for WSNs, several ML-based
algorithms have been used. The following are some advantages of ML-
based energy harvesting:
• WSNs’ performance in estimating how much energy to be gathered
within a time period is improved using a ML algorithm (Kosunalp,
2016).
• ML techniques lower the difficulty of computing of calculating the
quantity of energy harvested and balancing energy usage appropri­
ately (Kumar et al., 2019).
5. ML techniques used in WSN’s challenges
Different ML techniques are effectively handle these tasks which are
effect in crop production in PA. For handling these tasks through WSNs
technology, some challenges also faces which we discussed earlier. ML
techniques is reduced the hardness of WSNs challenges. In order to learn
more about data assimilation and feature recognition, these techniques
were used to higher pixels pictures and sensed data of plants. Identifi­
cation, classification, quantification, and prediction are some of the
processes in which ML technologies can be used (Shirahatti et al., 2018).
A few ML approaches are briefly explained here.
• Decision Tree Learning: A decision tree is a set of guidelines that can
be used to link particular chemical characteristics and/or descriptors
values to a specific interest zone (Shirahatti et al., 2018). It’s a
classification algorithm that iterates the input data through a
learning tree to predict data labels (Ip et al., 2018).
• Association Rule Learning: The approach of uncovering meaningful
relationships between variables in a large database is known as as­
sociation rule learning.
• Artificial Neural Network: Artificial neural networks, often familiar
as neural networks, are based on biological neural networks (Shir­
ahatti et al., 2018). This learning method could be built by cascading
chains of decision units that identify nonlinear and complicated
functions (Muhammed and Shaikh, 2017). As an example application
of neural networks in WSNs, a sensor node localization problem (i.e.,
determining node’s geographic area) (Ip et al., 2018).
• Support Vector Machines: SVMs (Support Vector Machines) are a
collection of related supervisory algorithms for classification and
regression. It’s a ML technique that uses labelled training samples to
learn how to identify data points (Ip et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2019).
• k-Nearest Neighbour: This supervised learning approach classifies a
data sample (referred to as a query point) using the labels (i.e.,
output values) of nearby data samples (Ip et al., 2018). The k-Nearest
Neighbour method is used to recognise patterns. k-Nearest Neigh­
bour is a simple classifier in ML approaches that achieves classifi­
cation by locating the query samples’ nearest neighbours and then
using those neighbours to calculate the query class. The k-Nearest
Neighbour learning method is a sort of lazy learning. Euclidean
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

distance (Shirahatti et al., 2018) is a widely used distance metric for Table 3
k- NN. The query processing subsystem is the most important use of ML techniques with advantages and disadvantages.
the k-nearest neighbour method in WSNs (Ip et al., 2018). Machine Advantages Disadvantages
Learning
6. Comparison of ML techniques technique

Decision Tree • Ability to choose the most • They are unstable.

The comparably discussion on different ML techniques is shown in Learning discriminatory • As time passes,
tabular form with advantages and disadvantages in Table 3. characteristics. calculations can become
• Ability to work with both exceedingly complicated.
continuous and discrete
7. ML in smart agriculture data.
• A DT method to handle the
Farmers must increase food production while using fewer resources. design difficulties of various
WSNs
They’ll have to use fewer water and fewer chemicals. Farmers aim to
Association Rule • Creates rules based on • Helps to find sequential
increase their yields while lowering their expenses, while consumers Learning comparable patterns found patterns.
want healthier food. As a result, the agricultural sector is on the lookout in data. • Makes use of mechanisms
for innovative goods, techniques, and technologies. Smart agriculture or • From data, it creates an for data collecting,
association relationship. integration, and integrity
PA can meet these many requirements (Padalalu et al., 2017). Data
checks.
collection and analysis are made possible by a set of technologies that Support Vector • Supervised Learning • Less over fitting and
work together to make smart agriculture. These modern technologies Machine Technique. handles noise.
produce enormous amounts of data when used together. Smart agri­ • Assists in classification and
culture is distinguished from traditional agriculture by its emphasis on forecasting.
• A SVM approach for
data collecting and decision-making. But these huge amount of data is
maximising a quadratic
meaningless because data can’t produce a new prediction result alone. function with linear
So, need a meaningful software to analyse these data and get proper constraints (Alsheikh,
result for the farmer. In this regard ML techniques are more intelligent 2014).
• Produces very accurate
than others. Because of the vast amount of heterogeneous and some­
classifiers.
times unstructured data, effective processing and analysis is an extra Clustering/ • To discover natural • Provides end user high
difficulty for ML. Another problem is integrating several data sources. Artificial groupings. level view of what is
The following are the important characteristics of ML in smart Neural • To generate hypotheses going in database.
agriculture: Network. based on data.
• To find a dependable data
organisation.
i. Large amounts of data necessitate the development of quick and • It may be used to solve a
efficient methods. variety of network problems
ii. Integrating variety of data sources and data types. The data sources with the same
may be sensor data, camera data, GPS data and these data in different model.
• It may simultaneously learn
form such as byte, binary, text, number, image and so on. many outputs and decision
boundaries (Alsheikh,
ML is primarily used in smart agriculture to manage soil and water 2014).
uses, monitor crop health, reduce and optimise natural resource uses, • Very efficient technique.
k-Nearest • Training data that is • Need to determine value
limit the application of contaminants (e.g., pesticides, herbicides),
Neighbour resistant to noise. of parameter of k.
improve production quality, and so on. The strategies for solving various • Useful if there is a lot of • Computation cost is high.
agricultural challenges using ML are explored in this section. training data.
• K-nearest neighbour does
• For Soil Moisture or Irrigation Problem: Water is necessary for the not need high
computational power
growth of plants. Water that is applied in excess or insufficiently has (Alsheikh, 2014).
a negative impact on its growth. In reality, irrigation that is insuffi­ Genetic • It takes less time to locate • It’s difficult for people to
cient or improperly constructed can cause a slew of issues. Salini­ Algorithm appropriate solutions. come up with effective
zation is more likely when there isn’t enough water. Over-irrigation • Coding genetic algorithm is heuristics.
easy. • They might not always
can lead to the spread of infections such as pseudomonas, amoeba
find the best answer to a
cysts, eel larvae and parasite eggs, as well as pollutants (drug resi­ given problem.
dues, biocides, and other chemicals) in crops (Lichtenberg et al., Association Rule • Creates rules based on • Helps to find sequential
2015; Lorite et al., 2013; Gutierrez et al., 2014; Coates et al., 2013; Learning comparable patterns found patterns.
Xie et al., 2017; Kokkonis et al., 2017; Samajpati et al., 2016). In in data. • Makes use of mechanisms
• From data, it creates an for data collecting,
order to determine crop demands according to climate and vegeta­ association relationship. integration, and integrity
tive cycles, many smart irrigation systems based on ML have been checks.
created, as shown in Table 4. A decision support system is required in
smart agriculture in different ways, such as the sort of crop to be
cultivated (Hemageetha, 2016). As a result, ML plays a critical role in arsenic to human body. The risk of arsenic to human health through food
assuring improved irrigation management by evaluating water usage causes cancer. So, it is to necessary to determine the relationship be­
utilising methodologies that include climatic aspects, crop charac­ tween arsenic and soil-crop-food and soil properties and need to eval­
teristics, and economic objectives for smart agriculture. uate lower effect of arsenic to human health. In such cases ML
algorithms, such as K-Nearest-Neighbours (KNN), Random Forest(RF)
Another major problem is that the arsenic in surface water which is etc. are used [156].
important part of irrigation system in agriculture [156]. Huge amount of
water is required for rice cultivation, so surface water is highly needed. • For Predicting Pest/Diseases: Predicting pest/diseases of crop is also
In such way, the soil-crop-food like rice, wheats, potato etc. are transfer vital in smart agriculture or PA. Disease attack reduces the growth of

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M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

Table 4 Table 5
Many intelligent irrigation system based on ML. ML methods for detecting and classifying diseases.
Intelligent system Used data Objectives Reference Methods Detecting and Precision/ Reference
classifying diseases Accuracy
Naive Bayes Weather predicting Estimation of the (Padalalu
algorithm sites and sensor data precise amount of et al., 2017; Image Apple scurf, Apple spot, 97% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
(humidity, soil water and Perea et al., Processing Apple spoilt, treated Singh et al., 2015; Wu
temperature, and soil suggestion of the 2019) and RF these disease by et al., 2021)
type (PH)) necessary extracting texture and
fertilizers colour features, merging
Decision Trees, Crop, Julian day, Prediction of the (Padalalu two or more
Genetic bank holiday, irrigation events et al., 2017; characteristics, and
Algorithm weekday, and Xie et al., classifying using a RF
climatic data are all 2017) classifier, and
variables to consider segmentation of the
(temperature, afflicted fruit using the
humidity, K-mean grouping
precipitation event) technique.
Support Vector Data on soil moisture Minimization of (Padalalu Image Leaf diseases on 95.7% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
Regression and cloudless irrigation cost et al., 2017; Processing different crops. Treated Padol and Yadav,
method, irradiance, as well as Kokkonis and Genetic these disease by pre- 2016; Applalanaidu
Irrigation numerical weather et al., 2017) Algorithm treatment of the picture, et al., 2021)
estimation (cloud cover, partition using the
algorithm and an humidity, and Genetic Algorithm.
optimization precipitation) and Image Grape leaf diseases: 88.99% (Ip et al., 2018;
model. solar energy. Processing Powdery mildew, Padalalu et al., 2017;
Fuzzy Neural Moisture sensors for Management of (Padalalu and SVM downy mildew. These Kaur et al., 2016;
Network the soil. irrigation et al., 2017; diseases are treated by Kamilaris and
algorithm Goldstein pre-treating the input Prenafeta-Boldú,
et al., 2018) image (i.e., resizing, 2018)
Gradient Boosted Meteorological The weekly (Padalalu thresholding, and
Regression Trees station data, actual irrigation plan et al., 2017; applying a Gaussian
(GBRT), Boosted irrigation records, prediction Samajpati filter), segmenting this
Trees Classifier historical sensor data et al., 2016) into three chunksby
(BTC) and linear using the K-means
regression algorithms, extracting
models structure and colon
features, and feeding
them by the SVM
plants/crop. Overall study about agriculture shows that quality and techniques.
Image Potato Late Blight (leaf 100% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
quantity of agricultural products may be reduced due to various
Processing disease). They treated Yao et al., 2009;
factors of pest attacks and plant diseases. Disease attack may reduce and ANN these diseases by Kamilaris and
the productivity plants from 10% to 95% (Shirahatti et al., 2018). stretching the Prenafeta-Boldú,
These diseases can be more easily identified by using ML approach as decorrelation, 2018)
compared to manual method. For this purpose agriculture intelligent converting to LAB
space, defining
monitoring system is required in the field. Moreover it should con­
characteristic vectors
sists of advanced sensor technology with add-on information pro­ which create groups i.e.,
cessing technology to get real time data from the field in accurate and “Fluffy C-mean (FCM)”,
quantitative manner to solve problem of plant diseases and pest converting clusters to a
related problems. With the help of WSN system decision can be made “Hue Saturation Value
(HSV)” image, and
at right time/place and input at micro-climatic levels (Wani et al., extracting inclination
2017). Crop losses due to pest and diseases are more considerable, in and antepositions ANN
particular, in semi-arid conditions where they cause direct damage to techniques.
crop and yield where temperature, humidity, rainfall, leaf wetness, Image Rice cover defect, rice 97.20% (Ip et al., 2018;
Processing bacterial leaf defect, Padalalu et al., 2017;
windspeed and soil nutrients are main parameters influencing the
and SVM rice snap. Treated these Jiang et al., 2019;
pest/diseases incidence. There is growing amount of data available disease by capturing an Kamilaris and
from many resources that can be used for gaining knowledge in image in a rice field Prenafeta-Boldú,
agriculture sector. In order to predict useful information as well as to using a camera, the 2018)
understand the trends, the data need to analysed and used for taking image is early-processed
and disjointed, after
decision where computation technique need to be designed to that the structure and
perform respective work and to substitute for farmer requirements. size descriptions are
Such data can be used for productive decision making where ML retrieved, and the
technique are applied. There are different methods in ML for classification of the
three diseases is
detecting and classifying diseases discussed in tabular form in
achieved using SVM
Table 5. based on these
• For Nitrogen Estimation: Another thing is that nitrogen estimation characteristics.
in smart agriculture or PA. It is important role to produce good INAR-SSD 5 apple leaf diseases. 78.80% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
quality and huge quantity of crop. Because it is intimately tied to the model and Treated these diseases Boniecki et al., 2015)
other by collecting of “26,377
photosynthetic process, gardeners believe nitrogen to be a significant models images of apple leaves”
mineral nutrient for plant growth and development (Chlingaryan and apply “INAR-SSD”
et al., 2018; Cao et al., 2017). Nitrogen, on the other hand, has a methods.
significant environmental and economic impact. As a result, several (continued on next page)

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M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

Table 5 (continued ) for Indian scenarios with respect the global challenges are listed below.
Methods Detecting and Precision/ Reference
classifying diseases Accuracy • Cost: For various applications in LMICs (Lower Middle Income
Neural Digital photographs of 95.48% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
Countries), the high cost of sensors and accompanying systems is a
Networks pests were used to Yu et al., 2019; serious issue (Ojha et al., 2015).
predict six different Applalanaidu et al., • Climate and soil variability: The most difficult aspect of building a
species of pests in an 2021) WSN-based agriculture system for India is the country’s diverse
apple crop.
climate and soil types. The application parameters must be fine-
DCNN Weed detection using 96% (Padalalu et al., 2017;
photos captured in Kukar et al., 2019; Wu tuned in order for it to work correctly in various places.
various locations and et al., 2021) • Average farmer’s needs: India has a far smaller average land holding
then resized. per farmer than the rest of the world. As a result, smaller, more
Random Prediction of pests – (Padalalu et al., 2017; tailored solutions are in high demand.
Forest, Time (population size and Kamilaris and
series dynamics) based on pest Prenafeta-Boldú,
• Overall strategy: For success in bringing automation to agriculture
analysis: data collection and 2018) and farming, an overall strategy must be developed, taking into ac­
handling of missing data count the segmented land structure and farmer requirements.
(using the k-nearest
neighbours technique).
9. Deep learning (DL) in smart agriculture through WSN

spectrometric experiments have been conducted to optimise nitrogen
fertilisation for various crops (Cao et al., 2017; Goron et al., 2017;
Quemada et al., 2014). There are two forms of plant nitrogen status
estimations: destructive and non-destructive. Chemical analysis,
which is connected with the Kjeldahl technique (Chlingaryan et al.,
2018; Vigneau et al., 2011), is the most prevalent form of destructive
measurement. It is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive. The
non-destructive method of optical remote sensing of plant nitrogen
status is based on canopy reflectance in the visible–NIR wavelengths
(400–900 nm) (Chlingaryan et al., 2018). Using remote sensing
technologies, many studies have been dedicated to non-destructive
monitoring of nitrogen status inferred in plants. That is, we have to
use the WSNs technology in agriculture field for collections of sig­
nificant volume of data. This is especially true when the data is
heterogeneous, meaning it is sensed by sensors with varying spatial,
temporal, and spectral modalities. ML is a new technique that can
help find patterns and rules in enormous amounts of data.
8. Limitation/challenges of ML in agricultural WSNs
In spites of lot of advantages, there are some limitations of using ML
in agricultural WSNs. That may be effect in agricultural system. Some
limitation are listed below.
• Because ML approaches involve learning from prior data, they do not
produce immediate precise predictions (Kumar et al., 2019). The
amount of historical data determines the system’s performance.
When data is large, the amount of energy required to process it is
equally large. In other words, there is a trade-off between the WSNs’
energy restrictions and the ML algorithm’s high computing com­
plexities (Alsheikh et al., 2014; Kumar et al., 2019). ML algorithms
must be executed centrally to solve this trade-off.
• Quality of data- One of the most serious difficulties in data pre-
processing and future extraction is obtaining acceptable data qual­
ity and data type (i.e. labelled/structured) for ML algorithms.
• Time consuming task- Another issue that ML models encounter is the
time it takes to acquire data, extract features, and retrieve data.
• No clear objective for formulating business problems- Because this
technology is still in its early stages, another major barrier for ML is
the lack of a clear purpose and well-defined goal for business
problems.
• It is challenging to validate the ML algorithm’s predictions in a real-
time situation (Kumar et al., 2019).
• It can be difficult to pinpoint a specific ML technique for dealing with
a problem with WSNs.
In other side, some problems in WSNs used in agriculture, especially
Deep learning (DL) is advanced image processing and data analysis
approach that has a lot of potential and promise. DL has lately entered in
the field of agriculture as a result of its success in other fields (Gebbers
and Adamchuk, 2010). As a result, the agricultural system becomes
more intelligent in terms of production, environmental effect, food se­
curity, and long-term viability (Kamilaris et al., 2017).
A significant growth in food production is required while maintain­
ing global availability and good nutritional quality while also protecting
natural ecosystems through the use of sustainable farming practises. The
complicate, multivariate, and inconsistent agricultural ecosystems
needs to be clarified by continuously reviewing, calibrating, and ana­
lysing many real characteristics and experience to meet these diffi­
culties. This entails analysing large amounts of agricultural data
acquired by photos captured by WSNs (Singh et al., 2016). In several
cases, images serve a complete view of agricultural landscapes and can
help with a range of issues. As a result, image analysis is an effective
study field in the agricultural arena, and inventive data accumulation
techniques are being applied in many agricultural applications for pic­
ture identification/classification, anomaly detection, and so on (Gebbers
and Adamchuk, 2010; LeCun et al., 2015). ML (“K-means, support vector
machines (SVM), and artificial neural networks (ANN)”) are most
prominent techniques for image analysis (LeCun et al., 2015).
Brief introduction to Deep Learning(DL) - Aside from the techniques
discussed above, deep learning (DL) (Schmidhuber, 2015) is a new one
that has lately gained traction. DL is a type of ML algorithm that is
comparable to ANN. DL extends traditional ML allows data to be rep­
resented in a hierarchical way via several layers of abstraction by adding
additional “depth” (complexity) to the model and altering the input
using various functions (Pan and Yang, 2009). Feature learning, or the
automatic extraction of features from raw data is a key advantage of DL,
incorporating elements from top levels of the hierarchical structure
being produced by the configuration of bottom level features (Schmid­
huber, 2015). Because of the more complicated models utilised in DL,
which allow huge parallelization (Sehgal et al., 2017), it can tackle more
complex problems exceptionally well and quickly.
DL models’ highly hierarchical structure and vast learning capacity
enable them to perform particularly well in classification and prediction,
while being adjustable and adaptive to a wide range of very complicated
(from a data analysis standpoint) challenges (Sehgal et al., 2017).
Although DL has gained prominence in scan-typed data applications (e.
g. video, photos), it may be applied to any type of data, including audio,
voice, and natural language, as well as weather data is an example of
continuous or point data (Song et al., 2016), soil chemistry (Demmers
et al., 2012), and demographic data (Namin et al., 2018). The Venn
Diagram in Fig. 14 depicts the link between Artificial Intelligence, Ma­
chine Learning, and Deep Learning.

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M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

9.1. DL in agricultural field
DL in agricultural field is a relatively new, current, and auspicious
approach that is gaining traction, while advances and applications of DL
in other fields suggest that it has a lot of potential. DL has been used to
solve a variety of agricultural problems with excellent outcomes. On
massive agricultural data in several fields of agriculture, DL models and
architectures were built, as well as data sources, classes, and labels. Data
early-processing and/or accretion were used. These models and fields
have applied on agriculture with problem description have been discuss
in Table 6.
ways (Gebbers and Adamchuk, 2010), they don’t generalise
beyond the “boundaries of the dataset’s expressiveness.”
iv. Data early-processing is sometimes an essential and time-
spending activity in computer vision, not just in DL, especially
when satellite or aerial photographs are elaborated (Gebbers and
Adamchuk, 2010).
v. Furthermore, existing datasets may not fully represent the prob­
lem they are attempting to solve (Demmers et al., 2012).
vi. Finally, there are few publicly available datasets which gathered
by researchers in the field of agriculture and also create new
datasets of photographs. It could take several times to complete.

9.2. Advantages and disadvantages of DL in agriculture 10. Open research issues

Advantages
i. In image processing, most significant advantages of DL is the
lowered need for feature engineering (FE) (i.e., FE is a time-
consuming and complicated technique that must be adjusted
every time the problem or dataset changes.) (Gebbers and
Adamchuk, 2010).
ii. DL models seems to generalize well.
iii. While DL is more time consuming than other standard algorithms
(e.g., SVM, RF), it has a high testing efficiency.
iv. DL is the ability to create duplicated data items to prepare the
model, which may then be used to address real-world problems.
Disadvantages:
i. A significant disadvantage and obstacle to using DL is the
requirement for huge datasets to be used as on input data for the
training method. There are hundreds of photos required for photo
based classification.
ii. Data interpretation is most important procedure in maximum
cases. So some activities are more difficult to complete and need
experts for interpretation of input photos. The expert recruitment
is also difficult.
iii. Another restriction is that while DL models can learn specific
problems exceptionally well, and even generalise in different
Different research issues are still now opened and required for
further research in agricultural WSNs through ML and DL approaches.
Some of issues are listed below.
• Agricultural Food Supply: Many of researcher’s works on food
supply chain which depends on different companies mediators for
the issue of agricultural foods placed in better places with better
prices which are encouraged to farmers. Now these mediators
contribute approximately 75% of overall supply chain. For further
research, it may be hike by using ML and DL techniques.
• Soil Moisture: It is most important issue on agriculture because of
water level is lowering day by day. Another reason is that farmers get
information about what could be the proper time of sowing and
cultivating the crops and whether infiltration of the soil is proper or
not. So, better crop yield prediction results can be achieved by
applying data mining techniques under different climatic scenario.
To have good prediction, in future, ML and DL along with soil
moisture, some more parameters such as soil temperature, soil pH
could be used in soil health monitoring for better cultivation.
• Irrigation: This is one of the most promising research issue in
agriculture. Recently many researchers work on irrigation manage­
ment through ML and DL for utilising water usages methodologies
like climatic aspects, crop characteristics and economic objectives.
On this regard optimum usages of water is also challenging issue.

Artificial Intelligence
The theory and development of computer
systems able to perform tasks normally
requiring human intelligence

Machine learning
Gives computers “the ability to learn
without being explicitly
programmed”

Deep Learning
Machine learning algorithms
with brain -like logical
structure of algorithms called
artificial neural network

Fig. 14. Differences of artificial intelligence, machine learning and deep learning.

19
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

Table 6 • Greenhouse Gases: Most of the researchers interested of this effect

DL application in agricultural field. in agricultural crops. WSN and a solar-powered system is already
Sl. Agricultural Area Problem Description DL Models Used/ used for monitor and maintain some greenhouse gases such as CH4
No. Classification Accuracy and CO2. The further research is required on this regard to maintain
01 Leaf Classification Classify leaves of CNN(94.55% accuracy ( and monitoring more greenhouse gases like N2O, O3 and water
different plant species Bose et al., 2020; Khattak vapour (H2O).
et al., 2021; Dangar et al., • Weather Forecast: Many works have been done on this issue. But
2021) + RF classifier weather is changing day by day due to global warming which affects
(93.8% accuracy (
Applalanaidu et al.,
the agricultural system. Sometimes farmers needs accurate weather
2021) (Jia et al., 2014), forecast which is very important for cultivation. For some specific
SVM classifier(95.7% cultivation it protects farmers from a huge loss of money. So, there is
accuracy (Liu et al., 2021) a need of more accurate and time to time weather forecast techniques
02 Leaf disease Plant diseases of various CaffeNet CNN (
for better agricultural system and minimum loss of farmers.
detection sorts have been isolated Krizhevsky et al., 2017)
from healthy leaves. • Weed Identification: Weed, in general, raises cultivation costs,
03 Plant disease 14 crop species and 26 AlexNet(95.5% accuracy lower crops yields, promote disease and depletes soil fertility. So,
detection illnesses must be (Liu et al., 2021), farmers need to remove weed from the agricultural land by using
identified (Gebbers and GoogleNet(99.35% labour and by using herbicides. But they faces different problems. To
Adamchuk, 2010). accuracy (Liu et al.,
2021), CNNs (Szegedy
prevent these issues, a combination of image processing and machine
et al., 2015; Douarre learning techniques have been used by autonomous sprayers. Many
et al., 2016) research works have been done on image processing for identifying
04 Crop type Wheat, maize, soybeans, CNN(94.55% accuracy ( weeds. One of the famous ML algorithm, CNN is used in weed
classification sunflower, and sugar Bose et al., 2020; Khattak
identification system. Other works on this issue is vegetable planta­
beet are all classified. et al., 2021; Dangar et al.,
2021) tion using DL and image processing, developed visual methods of
05 Plant recognition Recognize 7 various AlexNet CNN (Szegedy discriminating between vegetable and weed in novel and indirect
plant views: the whole et al., 2015) way and used a colour index to extract weeds from the background
plant, the branch, the under natural conditions. The further research is required for CNN to
flower, the fruit, the leaf,
overcome challenges in weed identification such as different lighting
the stem, and the scans (
Gebbers and Adamchuk, conditions, different growth stages of crop and weed and processing
2010). complex images. Another significant aspect of research is the
06 Plant phenology Using just visual data, AlexNet CNN (Szegedy improved accuracy in vegetable identification achieved by optimis­
recognition classify the phenological et al., 2015)
ing the DL model.
stages of various plant
species. • Aeroponics: To avoid many resources, such as soil, huge water,
07 Segmentation of Identify roots from the CNN with SVM for more time, expensive human labour and machinery, researchers
root and soil soil. classification(75% work on this interesting issue in agriculture for adequate food supply
accuracy (Katarya et al., and agricultural products. Researchers have implemented an auto­
2020) (Szegedy et al.,
mated aeroponic cultivation system using IoT based technology.
2017).
08 Crop yield Estimate corn yield of CNN(94.55% accuracy ( Another newly invented Aero-Hydroponic System (AHAS) aims to
estimation country U.S. (Gebbers Bose et al., 2020; Khattak add to the local food supply by utilising IoT techniques to boost
and Adamchuk, 2010) et al., 2021; Dangar et al., productivity. Still, an effective strategy is required to avoid various
2021)
sensitive effects such as inability to start water supply pumps,
09 Fruit counting Predict how many Modified Inception-
tomatoes are there in the ResNet(96% accuracy (
nutrient distribution lines, and automatic nozzle plugging from
image (Gebbers and Liu et al., 2021) CNN ( current planting techniques like aeroponics.
Adamchuk, 2010). Patel et al., 2019) • Drone Technology: This is a crucial aspect in PA systems for a va­
10 Crop/weed Using picture data to CNN(94.55% accuracy ( riety of applications including metrology, change detection, disaster
detection and identify sugar beet plants Bose et al., 2020; Khattak
migration, area estimation, smart irrigation, agricultural robots,
classification and weeds in the field ( et al., 2021; Dangar et al.,
Gebbers and Adamchuk, 2021) remote sensing, and mapping. Most of the researchers have recently
2010). established several models on these aspects for precise and smart
farming. However, future experiments could include the use of
wireless IoT technologies such as LoRA and SigFox, as well as rele­
Another critical concern is the minimal impact of arsenic (which is vant agriculture sensors for monitoring farm field climate conditions
found in ground water) on human health, which causes cancer. like wind speed and direction, soil temperature, CO2 concentrations,
• Predicting Pest and Diseases: Many researchers work on this issue. light intensity, barometric pressure, and rainfall.
Pest attack in plants ca be reduced by using different image pro­
cessing techniques through ML and DL. At present, pest attack in
11. Conclusion
plants reduces productivity of crops range from 10% − 95%. The
hike of lower limit of this range is the vital issue for further research
In this survey paper, we have discussed WSNs, ML and their appli­
using more intelligent monitoring system used in the agricultural
cations in agriculture. Firstly, we have focussed on different types of
field through ML and IoT.
WSNs, their use in agriculture and the relation of WSNs to agriculture.
• Nitrogen Estimation: It has an important role to produce good
We have also included the different types of technologies used in PA in
quality and large quantity of crops. Already several spectrometric
developed countries and food supply scenario of the smart farmer. The
experiments have been conducted to optimise nitrogen i.e.,
challenges of WSNs’ on agricultural field is major problem. For this, we
destructive and non-destructive methods. One is difficult, time-
have also discussed the solution of their challenges through ML and deep
consuming and expensive and another is depend on heterogeneous
learning techniques. Secondly, we have presented the concept of ML,
data. So, there is a need of efficient techniques for enormous amount
types of ML and their advantages in WSNs’ challenges. We’ve drawn
of data to optimise nitrogen fertilisation for various crops.
attention to different issues of WSNs addressed by ML such as routing,
clustering & data aggregation, event detection & query processing,

20
M. Mohinur Rahaman and M. Azharuddin Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 197 (2022) 106928

localization & object targeting, MAC layer, node fault detection and Dangar, S., Asoka, A., Mishra, V., 2021. Causes and implications of groundwater
depletion in India: a review. J. Hydrol. 126103.
energy harvesting. In addition, we have discussed different ML tech­
de Oliveira, KauêVinicius, et al., 2017. Wireless Sensor Network for Smart Agriculture
niques which are used to overcome the WSN’s challenges in tabular using ZigBee Protocol. 2017 IEEE First Summer School on Smart Cities (S3C). IEEE,
form. The different types of table or chart has summarised problem 2017.
solving of smart agriculture such as irrigation/miniaturization, detect­ Demmers, Theo GM, et al. “Simultaneous monitoring and control of pig growth and
ammonia emissions. The Ninth International Livestock Environment Symposium
ing pest/diseases and nitrogen estimation in the soil by ML techniques. (ILES IX). International Conference of Agricultural Engineering-CIGR-AgEng 2012:
Finally, we have discussed the limitations of ML techniques in agricul­ Agriculture and Engineering for a Healthier Life, Valencia, Spain, 8-12 July 2012.
ture, in the hopes that this survey paper will encourage many re­ CIGR-EurAgEng, 2012.
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Declaration of Competing Interest Foughali, K., Fathallah, K., Frihida, A., 2018. Using Cloud IOT for disease prevention in
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Fountas, Spyros, Pedersen, Søren Marcus, Blackmore, Simon, 2005. ICT in Precision
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