RATNAM MEDICAL ACADEMY

AIIMS and NEET Study Material

CHAPTER 02 : BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION …... MRT

 Aristotle was the earliest to attempt a more scientific basis for classification of living organisms.
 Aristotle used simple morphological characters to classify plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
 Aristotle also divided animals into two groups, those which had red blood (Enaima) and those that
did not(Anaima).
Systems of classification
Two kingdom system:
 Two kingdom system was proposed by Linnaeus in 18 th century.
 The two kingdoms are –Animalia and Plantae.
 He proposed two kingdom system mainly on the basis of presence and absence of cell wall.
Merits :
 Classification of organisms into plants and animals was easily done and was easy to understand.
Demerits :
 Large number of organisms did not fall into either category.
 This system doesn’t distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
 This system doesn’t distinguish between photosynthetic and non photosynthetic organisms.
 This system doesn’t distinguish between unicellular and multicellular organisms.
Three kingdom system:
 Three kingdom system was proposed by Ernst Haeckel.
 All unicellular organisms were kept under kingdom Protista.
 The three kingdoms are Protista, Plantae and Animalia
 Fungi, Protozoan, algae, bacteria and slime moulds were kept under kingdom Protista.
Demerits
 This system doesn’t distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
 This system doesn’t distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.
Four kingdom system:
 Four kingdom system was proposed by Copeland.
 Copeland included Monera as fourth kingdom.
 The four kingdoms are Monera, protista, plantae, animalia.
 Copeland originally called this kingdom as Mychota.
 The term Monera was coined by Daughrty and Allen.
 Monera includes all prokaryotic organisms’ eubacteria, cyanobacteria and archebacteria.
Demerits
 This system doesn’t distinguish between autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.
 This system doesn’t considered body organization.
 This system is not a phylogenetic system.
Five kingdom system:
 Five kingdom system was proposed by R.H.Whittaker in 1969.
 R.H.Whittaker gave kingdom level importance to fungi.
 The five kingdoms are Monera, protista, plantae, mycota and animalia.
 The main criteria for classification used by Whittaker include:
 Cell structure: prokaryotic/eukaryotic.
 Body organization: cellular/multicellular/tissue level / organ level / organ systems level.
 Mode of nutrition -autotrophic/heterotrophic.
 Mode of Reproduction- asexual/sexual.
 Phylogenetic relationships: evolutionary relationship( Primitive to Advanced)
Monera gave rise protista and from protista plants animals and fungi arose in different directions
 Kingdom monera includes all prokaryotes like Bacteria, BGA.
 Kingdom protista includes unicellular, eukaryotic organisms

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  Kingdom Fungi includes multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms with chitin cell walls
 Kingdom plantae includes multicellular, eukaryotic, Autotrophic organisms with cellulosic cell walls
 Kingdom Animalia includes multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms without cell walls
Demerits
 Microorganisms were spread into three kingdoms Monera, protista, Fungi.
 Algae are found in three kingdoms Monera, Protista and Plantae.
 Monera and protista includes both autotrophs and heterotrophs
Character Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Eukaryotic
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

Present
Noncellulosic
Cell wall (without Present
(Polysaccharide Present in some Absent
cellulose) with (cellulose)
+ amino acid)
chitin
Nuclear
Absent Present Present Present Present
membrane
Body Multiceullar/ Tissue/organ/
Cellular Cellular Tissue/organ
organisation loose tissue organ system
Autotrophic
(chemosynthetic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
and (Photosynthetic Heterotrophic (Holozoic
Mode of photosynthetic) ) (Saprophytic/ Autotrophic /
nutrition and and Parasitic) (Photosynthetic) Saprophytic
Heterotrophic Heterotrophic etc.)
(saprophytic/
parasitic)
Cellular
Present Present Present Present Present
organization
Membrane
bound Absent Present Present Present Present
organelles
Plasma
Present Present Present Present Present
membrane
Present Present (Both Present (Both Present (Both Present (Both
Ribosomes
(Only 70S) 70S and 80S) 70S and 80S) 70S and 80S) 70S and 80S)
Six kingdom system:
 Six kingdom system was proposed by Carl Woes.
 The six kingdoms are Archebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
 Carl Woes six kingdoms into three domains basing on 16 S r RNA genes.
 These three domains are 1. Archae 2. Bacteria 3. Ekarya.
 Archae includes only one kingdom-Archebacteria
 Bacteria includes only one kingdom Eubacteria
 Eukarya includes four kingdoms protista,fungi,plantae and Animalia
 All three domains believed to be originated from a common ancestor Progenote.
 Domain is category higher than kingdom.
KINGDOM: MONERA
 Monera is a Greek word which means simple
 Term monera was coined by Daugherty and Allen .
 Monera include most primitive forms of life.
 Copeland first grouped all prokaryotes under monera
 Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera.
 They are the most abundant micro-organisms.Bacteria occur almost everywhere.

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  They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very few
other life forms can survive.
 Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites.
 They include Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Cynobacteria, Actinomycetes, Mycoplasma,
 Their size ranges from 0.1 to 5.0 microns
 All monerans might have originated from a common ancestor progenote
 All monerans have prokaryotic organization
Archebacteria
 These are primitive most living organisms and oldest living fossils.
 These bacteria can survive most adverse environmental conditions.
 These are chemo-organotrophic, anaerobic, decomposers and mineralize.
 Cell wall is lacks peptidoglycans and made up of proteins and non cellulose polysaccharides.
 Cell wall contains pseudo murines.
 As cell membrane contains branched chain of lipids these can survive adverse conditions.
o Archebacteria are 3 types 1. Methanophiles 2.Halophiles 3.Thermoacidophiles
Methanophiles
 Methane producing bacteria live in marshy areas.
 These are obligate anaerobes, Gram negativee bacteria.
 They are the major source of methane in the atmosphere.
 These are used in the production of biogas or gobergas.
 They live endozoically in the ruminant animals and helps in cellulose digestion.
Examples: Methanococcus, Methanobacillus, Methanobacter,
Halophiles
 They live in extreme salty areas
 Facultative anaerobes, chemo organotrophic, Gram -Ve bacteria.
 Majority of them are coccoid forms and grow in high saline conditions.
 As sap vacuoles are absent they can’t get plasmolyzed even in high saline water.
 They maintain high osmotic con. of NaCl in the cells to protect from osmosis.
 These bacteria get lyses if the internal NaCl concentration falls below 10%.
 Examples: Halobacterium, Halococcus.
Thermoacidophiles:
 Facultative anaerobes, chemo organotrophic, Gram-Ve bacteria.
 They can tolerate high acidity and high temp. Ph even below 2: temp. Even 80 0 C.
 They oxidize sulphur to sulphuric acid in aerobic conditions.
 Examples: Thermoplasma, Thermoproteus
Eubacteria: Eubacteria include Bacteria and blue green algae
Bacteria:
 Leeuwenhoek first observed bacteria and called them as animalcules.
 Ehrenberg called them as bacteria.
 Louis Pasteur is considered as the father of microbiology.
 Leeuwenhoek is considered as the father of bacteriology.
 Robert Koch postulated germ theory of diseases.
Size and shape
 Smallest bacterium is Dilister pneumosentis.
 Largest rod shaped bacterium is Epulopscium fishelsoni
 Largest spherical shaped bacteria is Thiomargarita namibeances.
 Bacteria are categorized into 4 basic types based on their shape
1. Cocci 2.bacilli 3.spirilli 4.vibrios.
 Cocci : spherical, non motile, non flagellated bacteria.
 Bacilli: Rod shaped bacteria most common type of bacteria.
 Spiralli : Helical, elongated, flagellated occurs singly, having 1-5 spirals.
 Vibrios : shows less than one twist or turn.
Other types of bacteria:
 Stalked bacteria: body of the bacterium shows stalk: Caulobacterium.

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  Budding bacteria: body of the bacterium shows swollen at places: Rhodomicrobium.
 Actinomycetes bacteria: unicellular, branched, filamentous aseptate bacteria. Corynebacterium,
Actinomycetes, Streptomycetes,
 Pleomorphic or polymorphic bacteria: bacteria change their shape according environmental
conditions and nutrients available. Acetobacter
Locomotion in bacteria:
 All cocci bacteria are non motile .All spiral bacteria are motile.
 Some bacillus forms are motile.
 Atrichous: Bacteria without flagella: Pasteurella, Lactobacillus.
 Monotrichous: Bacteria with a single flagellum: Vibrio
 Lophotrichous: Bacteria with group of flagella at one end: Spirillum
 Amphitrichous: Bacteria with single or tuft of flagella at each end: Nitrasomonas
 Peritrichous: Bacteria with many flagella through out the surface: E.coli
Cell structure
 Bacterial cell structure is very simple but they are complex in behavior.
 They show extensive metabolic diversity.
 Cells have single envelope system
 Envelope comprises of three layers, glycocalyx, cell wall, plasma membrane.
 Glycocalyx is the outermost layer, covered by mucilage sheath and made up of non cellulose
polysaccharides.
 If glycocalyx is present as a loose layer it is called slime layer.
 If glycocalyx is present as a tight layer it is called capsule.
 Cell wall contains peptidoglycon/Mucopeptides/ murines
 Infoldings or inner invaginations of plasma membrane are called mesosomes.
 Mesosomes help to increase surface area of the cell membrane, contain respiratory enzymes,help in
cell division
 Membrane bound cell organelle are absent.
 Genetic material is said to be naked it is called genophore or necleoid
 DNA is not associated with histone proteins. Hence it is said to be naked.
 Definite nucleus and nucleolus are absent.
 Nucleoid contains only single double stranded DNA like a chromosome –prochomosome.
 Region of cytoplasm where genetic material is present is called nucleoid.
 Plasmids are Small, extra chromosomal, double stranded, naked DNA molecules.
 Sap vacuoles are absent instead gas vacuoles may present in some aquatic forms.
 Gas vacuoles are first appeared in blue green algae.
 Flagella when present, are unistranded and made-up of flagellin protein.
 Cytopalsmic movement cyclosis is absent. Cytoskeleton is also absent.
 Ribosomes are 70 S types, often present as polysomes or polyribosome.
 Photoautotrophic forms contain chomatophores (unilamellar thylakoid)
 Respiratory enzymes are associated with plasma membrane.
Gram staining technique
 This technique was developed by Christian Gram.
 Technique is differential staining process that differentiate bacteria into Gram Ve+ & Gram Ve-
 Differential staining is due to cell wall composition (lipid content) and thickness.
 Cell wall of Gram Ve- is thin but rich in lipid content.
 Cell wall of Gram Ve+ is thick but poor in lipid content.
 Staining:bacterial smear →air drying→ crystal violet →water wash→ Iodine→ Alcohol/acetone.
 All bacteria will be stained, but GramVe+ retains pink color when washed with Alcohol/acetone.
Nutrition in bacteria
 Basing on source of energy and carbon, these are classified into 1.autotrophs 2.heterotrophs.
 Photoautotrophs: Energy form sunlight: carbon from CO2. Chromatium Chlorobium,
 Chemoautotrophs: Energy form inorganic: carbon from CO2. Nitrasomonas, Nitrococcus
 Photoheterotrophs: Energy form sunlight: carbon from organic compounds. Rhodospirillum
Rhodopseudomonas, Rhodomicrobium.

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  Chemoheterotrophs: Energy and carbon from organic compounds. They are saprophytes, symbionts
and Parasites
 Saprophytes: Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus ramosus, Lactobacillus
 Symbionts ; Rhizobium, Frankia
 Parasites; Vibrio cholera (Cholera)Salmonella(typhoid) Clostridiu(tetanus) and Xanthomonas (citrus
canker)
Reproduction in bacteria:
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission and endospores.
 As there no multiplication of cells, true sexual reproduction is absent in bacteria.
 This method of reproduction is known as parasexuality or genetic recombination.
 There is no gamete formation, fusion of gametes, and meiosis.
 Sexual reproduction takes place by primitive mode of DNA transfer
 Sexual reproduction takes place by conjugation ,transformation and transduction
 Conjugation was discovered by Lederberg and Tatum in E.coli.
 Transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another bacterium by the direct cell to cell contact
is called conjugation
 Transformation was discovered by Griffith in Streptococcus pneumoniae.
 The uptake of DNA from surrounding medium and conversion of one type of bacterium into another
type of bacterium is called transformation
 Transduction was discovered by Lederberg and Zinder in Salmonella tiphymurium.
 Transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another bacterium by bacteriophages is called
transduction .
Cynobacteria
 These are also called blue green algae, cyanophyceae, myxophyaceae, oxyphotobacteria.
 Copeland (4 kingdom) and R.H.Whittaker (5kingdom) kept BGA under Monera.
 Cyanobacteria found in terrestrial and aquatic habitat, they are mainly fresh water forms.
 Red colour of the red sea is de to Trichodesmium erythraeuum.
 Members of BGA show oxygenic photosynthesis and aerobic respiration.
 They do not have true nucleus and chloroplasts.
 They do not have flagella, Chl.b, mesosomes, meiosis and sexual reproduction.
 Membrane bound cell organelle are absent. Ribosome is of 70S type.
 They occur as symbionts with all groups of plant kingdom.
 In association with fungi they form lichens.
 Nostoc shows symbiotic association with Anthoceros (Bryophyte).
 Anabaena azolle shows symbiotic association with Azolla (Pteridophyte).
 Nostoc and Anabaena shows symbiotic association with Cycas (Gymnosperm).
 BGA when shows endozoic association with protozoan’s they are called Cynella.
 They may be unicellular example: Spirulina.
 They may be Colonial example: Microcystis,
 They may be Filamentous example: Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Anabaena,
 Filament with mucilage sheath is present in Nostoc and Anabaena.
 A single cell of Spirulina coiled like a filament.
 Filaments that do not contain heterocysts are called homocystous. Ex. Oscillatoria.
 Filaments that contain heterocysts are heterocystous. Ex. Nostoc, Anabaena.
 Cell of cyanobacteria shoes typical prokaryotic organization.
 Cell wall is made up of peptidoglycons.
 They do not have true nucleus, nucleolus and chloroplasts.
 Protoplasm of the BGA is divided in to Centroplasm and chromoplasm.
 Central colour less Centroplasm contains chromatin material.
 Peripheral coloured Chromoplasm contains colour pigments.
 Membrane bound cell organelle are absent. Ribosome is of 70S type.
 Only BGA of monera contains photosynthetic lamellae called thylakoids.
 Thylakoids are unilamellated and contain Chl.a, β carotinoid, and xanthophylls and Phycocyanin
 Reserve food materials are stored in the form of cyanophycian granules (rich in proteins).

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  True sexual reproduction is absent, BGA reproduces by asexual methods.
 Unicellular forms undergo binary fission, it is a amitotic division.
 Filamentous forms undergo fragmentation.
 Short segments of filament detached at the region of heterocysts are called Hormogonia.
 Thick walled resting spores with reserve food materials akinetes also helps in reproduction.

Mycoplasma
 Discovered by Nocard and Roux form pleural fluid of bovine cattle.
 They do not have cell wall hence they are highly pleomorphic.
 They can survive without oxygen.
 They are also known as “Bacteria with their coats off”.
 These are unicellular smallest, simplest, non motile, free living prokaryotes.
 Their size ranges from 0.1 -0.3 microns and they can pass through bacterial filters.
 These are gram negative and not sensitive to penicillin and lysozyme (wall dissolving antibiotic).
 These are sensitive to streptomycin and erythromycin (metabolic inhibitors).
 These are also called PPLO or millicutes or jokers of the plant kingdom.
 They are smallest disease causing agents in plants, animals, and humans.
 Plant diseases -Witchs broom, little leaf of Brinjal, Bunchy top of Papaya, Big bud of tomato.
 Animal diseases-pleuropneumonia in cattle, Agalactia in sheep and goat,
 Human diseases- infertility in man, primary atypical pneumonia (PAP),mycoplasmal urethritis .
Actinomycetes
 Term actinomycetes was coined by Hartz.
 Common names are actinobacteria, Ray fungi, Mycelia bacteria, or mycobacteria.
 They are unicellular, filamentous, aseptate, branched, resembling fungi.
 They are connecting link between the bacteria and fungi
 These filamentous bacteria form radiating colonies on medium hence called actinomycetes.
 Cell wall contains peptidoglycons and Mycolic acid (fatty acid).
 Examples : Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Frankia, Streptomtcetes, Actinomycetes,
 Streptomycetes is the source of more than 40 antibiotics.