UNIT 3

FORMATION OF IONIC AND METALLIC

BONDS
3.1. EXPLANATIONS OF WHY ATOMS OF ELEMENTS FORM BONDS
Atoms form chemical bonds in order to make their outermost electron shells more stable. A chemical bond
maximizes the stability of the atoms that form it. For example:
♦ An ionic bond forms when atoms transfer their valence electrons to form oppositely charged ions (cations
which have lost and anions which have gained) which then bind together and become because of
electrostatic forces hence making the involved atoms get the highest possible stability.
♦ A Covalent bonds form when sharing electrons results in the highest stability.
At the simplest level, atoms combine to attain the stability like that of noble gases or to complete the octet or to
have a complete outermost shell.

3.2. IONIC BONDING

3.2.1. DEFINITION

Ionic bonding means an electrostatic force of attraction which exits between oppositely charged ions. These ions
are formed when a metal atom loses and a nonmetal gains one or more electron.

Metals have one, two, or three electrons in their main energy levels, so the easiest way for them to attain the
electron structure of a noble gas is to lose their outer electrons. Non-metals have many electrons in their valance
shell, so that the easiest way for them to attain the electron structure of a noble gas is to gain electrons.

Typical ionic compounds are formed when metals in group 1 or group 2 react with non-metals in group 16 or
group 17.

3.2.2. IONIC BOND FORMATION

In ionic bonding, electrons are transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of positive and
negative ions. The electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative ions hold the compound together.

Let us look at how sodium and chlorine bond to form sodium chloride.
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▪ A sodium atom loses its single valence electron to achieve the octet configuration and becomes a
positively charged ion; a cation.
▪ A chlorine atom gains the electron given by sodium atom to achieve the octet configuration and
becomes a negatively charged ion; an anion.
▪ Once the ions have been formed, they immediately attract electrostatically and join to form an ionic
compound. The ions are held together by an ionic bond.

Note: An ionic bond is formed when there is a large electronegativity difference between the elements
participating in the bond. The greater the difference, the stronger the attraction between the positive ion
(cation) and negative ion (anion).

3.3.3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

The bonding and structure of ionic compounds can be used to explain several physical properties of ionic
compounds.

1. Ionic compounds form crystals

Ionic compounds form crystal lattices rather than amorphous solids. Although molecular compounds
form crystals, they frequently take other forms but molecular crystals typically are softer than ionic
crystals. At an atomic level, an ionic crystal is a regular structure, with the cation and anion
alternating with each other and forming a three dimensional structure based largely on the smaller ion
evenly filling in the gaps between the larger ion. The following shows the crystal formed by sodium
and chloride ions (the table salt, NaCl, crystal).
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2. Ionic compounds have high melting points and high boiling points
High temperatures are required to overcome the strong electrostatic attractions between the positive and negative
ions in ionic compounds. Therefore, a lot of energy is required to melt and boil ionic compounds. . The table
below shows the melting and boiling points of some ionic compounds.

3. Ionic compounds have higher enthalpies of fusion and vaporization than molecular compounds Just
as ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points, they usually have enthalpies of fusion and vaporization
that may be 10 to 100 times higher than those of most molecular compounds due to the strong electrostatic forces
they contain. The enthalpy of fusion is the heat required to change one mole of a solid into a liquid under
constant pressure. The enthalpy of vaporization is the heat required to change one mole of a liquid into a vapor
under constant pressure.

4. Ionic compounds are hard and brittle

Ionic crystals are hard because the positive and negative ions are strongly attracted to each other and difficult
to separate, however, they are brittle.
When a stress is applied to the ionic lattice, they break easily. This is because when a stress is applied ions of
similar charges lineup and repel immediately, hence breaking the crystal.

5. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or dissolved in water

For a substance to conduct electricity, it must contain mobile particles capable of carrying charge. Solid ionic
 compounds do not conduct electricity because the ions (charged particles) are locked into a rigid lattice or array
(three-dimension network). The ions cannot move out of the lattice, so the solid cannot conduct electricity. In the
molten and aqueous states, the ions are free and thus, the substance conducts electricity.

3.3.4. THE FACTORS WHICH AFFECT THE MELTING POINT

The factors which affect the melting point of an ionic compound are:
1. The charge on the ions
In general, the greater the charge, the greater the electrostatic attraction, the stronger the ionic bond and the
higher the melting point.
The table below compares the melting point and ion charges for sodium chloride and magnesium oxide.
Ionic compound Melting Point (oC) Cation charge Anion charge

NaCl 801 +1 -1

MgO 2800 +2 -2

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MgO has a higher melting point than NaCl because 2 electrons are transferred from magnesium to oxygen to
form Mg2+ and O2- while only 1 electron is transferred from sodium to chlorine to form Na1+ and Cl1-.

2. The size of the ions

Smaller ions can be more closely packed together than larger ions and so, the electrostatic attractions are
greater making the ionic bond stronger and the melting point higher.
The melting point of Group IA (alkali) metal fluorides is compared to the ionic radius of the cation in the table
below.
Ionic compound Melting Point (oC) Cation Radius (pm)

NaF 992 99

KF 857 136

RbF 775 148

CsF 683 169

As the cations size increases down Group I from Na+to Cs+, the melting points of the fluorides decrease.

3.3.5. THE CONCEPT OF LATTICE ENERGY AND THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
MAGNITUDE OF THE LATTICE ENERGY

The shape of ionic solids depends upon the size of constituent ions. Overall, all ionic compounds make a crystal
shape where ions are held together into a crystal lattice which is an arrangement of alternating ions held together
by opposite charges. A crystal consists of matter that is formed from an ordered arrangement of atoms,
molecules, or ions. The lattice that forms extends out in three-dimensions. Because there are repeated units,
crystals have recognizable structures. Large crystals display flat regions (faces) and well-defined angles. For
example,
► NaCl is Face centered Cubic
 ► CsCl is Body Centered Cubic

The factor which determines the strength of these crystals is called lattice energy. As the lattice energy increases,
the strength and stability of the crystal lattice increases too.

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(a) Lattice Energy Definition

Lattice energy is the energy released during the formation of a solid ionic compound from its constituent
gaseous ions. In other words, the energy used to decompose the ionic solid into its constituent cation and
anion is called lattice energy. For example, in the formation of sodium chloride from sodium ion and chloride
ion in gaseous state, energy of 787.3 kj/mol is released, which is known as the lattice energy of sodium chloride.
The same amount of energy will be used to decomposition of this ionic solid into its constituent ions. Na+(g) +
Cl -(g) → NaCl(s) ����= -787.3 kJ/mol

As the magnitude of lattice energy increases, it becomes difficult for ions to get separated from the ionic lattice
which provides stability to the crystal lattice.
The attraction force between two opposite charges depends upon their charges and the distance between them.
Therefore,
�� F = force of attraction
�� q & q = charges on ions r = distance
F= ������ �� 1 2
between ions
Where :
Hence the strength of the ionic bond in lattice or lattice is directly proportional to the charges on the ions and
inversely on the distance between the centers of the ions in crystal lattice. « The high charge on ions and their
small size increase the magnitude of lattice energy ».

For example:
In an alkali halide of the same alkali metal, as the size of halide ion increases from fluoride to iodide
 ion, the lattice energy decreases.
K+ 821 715 682 649
Similarly, in a group from top to bottom, as the size
Rb+ 785 689 660 630
of the alkali metal increases, the lattice energy
decreases. Cs+ 740 659 631 604
- - -
F Cl Br I

Li+ 1036 853 807 757

Na+ 923 787 747 704

(b) The Factors that Influence the Magnitude of the Lattice Energy

Lattice energy mainly depends upon the charge of ions and inter-ionic distance in a crystal lattice. Therefore,
these two factors determine the trend of lattice energy.

► Charge on ions
As the charge on oppositely charged ions increases, the electrostatic force of attraction increases between them
which results in high lattice energy. Therefore, an ionic solid with divalent ions have much larger lattice energies
compare to solids with monovalent ions. For example, the lattice energy for sodium chloride (NaCl) is 786 kJ/mol
whereas for magnesium oxide (MgO), it is 3800 kJ/mol.

► Radius or size of ion

As the ionic radius decreases, ions get closer to each other increasing the strength of the attractions as well as the
lattice energy of ionic solid. The similar trend can be observed in alkali halide. Overall as we go down in a group,
ionic radius increases and lattice energy decrease. In a period from left to right as the charge on ion increases,
lattice increases.

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3.4. METALLIC BONDING
3.4.1. DEFINITION

A metallic bond is defined as the electrostatic attractions among the cations and the delocalized valence
electrons type of a metal. In contrast, covalent and ionic bonds form between two discrete atoms. Metallic
bonding is the main type of chemical bond that forms between metal atoms (pure metals and alloys and some
metalloids). A metal is a lattice of positive metal 'ions' in a 'sea' of delocalized electrons.
 Metallic bonding is formed when the metal atoms lose their valence electrons and contribute them to the sea of
delocalized electrons. Consequently, electrostatic forces are generated among the metal cations produced and the
delocalized electrons.

3.4.2. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

The strength of metallic bonding is governed by three factors namely number of delocalized electrons, cation size
and charge on the cation.
a) As the number of delocalized electrons increases, the particles in the metallic lattice increases hence
making the magnitude of electrostatic forces greater. When the number of particles in attraction increases
the electrostatic forces generated are much greater. So, for instance, the metallic bond in aluminium is
stronger than that in sodium because in aluminium we have three delocalized electrons while in sodium
we have one.
b) When the cation size increases, the electrostatic forces among the cations and the delocalized electrons
become weaker because the particles to not get too much closer to generate strong attraction. For example,
Sodium has stronger metallic bonding than cesium because the cation size in cesium is bigger.
c) As the cation charge increases the electrostatic forces become stronger. When the charge is bigger the force
��
of attraction between particles becomes stronger, F = ������
��
�� . So, One way of explaining why Mg has a
stronger metallic bonding than aluminium is to use the charge on cation which is bigger for Mg
than for Na.

3.4.3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

Because electrons are delocalized around positively charged nuclei, metallic bonding explains many properties of
metals.

1. Electrical Conductivity
Most metals are excellent electrical conductors because the electrons in the electron sea are free to move and
carry charge. For example, electric wires in our homes are made of aluminium and copper. They are good
conductor of electricity.

2. Thermal Conductivity
Metals conduct heat because the free electrons can transfer energy away from the heat source and because
vibrations of atoms move through a solid metal as a wave. This is the reason why they are used to make cooking
utensils and water boilers.

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3. Ductility
Metals can be drawn into wires because local bonds between atoms can be easily broken and reformed. Single
atoms or entire sheets of them can slide past each other and reform bonds, because the electrons are everywhere.
Wires are mainly made from copper, aluminium, iron and magnesium.
 4. Malleability
Metals can be changed into sheets, again because bonds between atoms readily break and reform. The binding
force between metals is non-directional, so drawing or shaping a metal is less likely to fracture it. Electrons in a
crystal may be replaced by others. Further, because the electrons are free to move away from each other, working
a metal does not force together like-charge ions, which could fracture a crystal through the strong repulsion. Gold
and Silver metals are the most malleable metals. They can be hammered into very fine sheets. Thin aluminium
foils are widely used for safe wrapping of medicines, chocolates and food material.

5. Metallic Luster
Metals tend to be shiny or display metallic luster. They are opaque once a certain minimum thickness is
achieved. The electron sea reflects photons off the smooth surface therefore there is an upper frequency limit to
the light that can be reflected. Silver is a very good reflector. It reflects about 90% of the light falling on it. All
modern mirrors contain a thin coating of metals. Due to their shiny appearance they can be used in jewelry and
decorations.

6. Sonority
Metals are generally sonorous. That is, they make a ringing sound when struck. Therefore, they are used for
making bells. Metal wires are used in musical instruments.

7. Strength
Metals such as iron are very strong. Therefore, it is widely used in the construction of buildings, bridges, railway
lines, carriages, vehicles and machinery.

8. Hardness
Metals are mostly harder to cut. Their hardness varies from one metal to another. Some metals like sodium,
potassium and magnesium are easy to cut.

Note: The strong attraction between atoms in metallic bonds makes metals strong and gives them high density,
high melting point, high boiling point, and low volatility. There are exceptions. For example, mercury is a liquid
under ordinary conditions and has a high vapor pressure. In fact, all the metals in the zinc group (Zn, Cd, Hg)
are relatively volatile.

END UNIT ASSESSMENT

1. The diagrams below represent the structures of iodine, sodium and sodium iodide.

ABC

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(a) (i) Identify which of the structures (A, B and C) correspond to iodine, sodium and sodium
iodide.

(ii) State the type of bonding in each structure.

 (b) (i) Sodium and sodium iodide can both conduct electricity when molten, but only sodium can
conduct electricity when solid. Explain this difference in conductivity in terms of the
structures of sodium and sodium iodide.

(ii) Explain the high volatility of iodine compared to sodium and sodium iodide.

2. With reference to the structure and bonding in metals, explain why metals are good conductors of
heat and electricity.

3. (a) Which one between NaCl and KCl has a higher lattice energy? Explain your answer

(b) Which one between Na2O and MgO has a higher lattice energy? Explain your

answer

4. With reference to the structure and bonding in metals, explain why metals are ductile and
malleable.

5. (a) Describe the bonding in aluminium metal.

(b) Explain the physical properties of aluminium which make it suitable for being used to make
electric cables, saucepans and aircraft bodies.

6. Ionic compounds break when hammered but metals do not. Explain this observation.

7. Describe how an ionic bond is formed between Mg and Chlorine. Use diagrams to support your
answer.

8. (a) Which one between NaCl and AlCl 3 has a higher melting point? Explain (b) Which one

between MgBr2 and BaBr2 has a higher boiling point? Explain 9. Explain why molten ionic

compounds conduct electric current while the do not in the solid state.

10. Put the metallic elements of period three in a decreasing order of their melting points and provide
relevant explanations.

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