Creatuvffiy rtra

trrugurueerzrug

IDesrtgru

A Study for

The Fellowship of Engineering

by Richard Chaplin, University of Reading

)
t
 Report N' FE 4

THE FELLOWSHIP OF ENGINEERING

The Education and Training of Chartered Engineers fbr the 21st Century

Creativity in Engineering Design

the Educational Function

A study undertaken for The Fellowship of Engineering

by C.Richard Chaplin
MA PhD CEng MIMechE
Department of Engineering
University of Reading

November 7989
@ C. R. Chaplin 1989

A11 rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of

this publication to be made without written permission.

First edition published in Great Britain in November 1989 by:

The Fellowship of Engineering

2 Little Smith Street,
Westminster,
London SW1P 3DL

Printed and bound in Great Britain by

The University of Reading

ISBN 1, 871634 06 7

(ii)
- -
 SUMMARY

This study was commissioned by the Education, Training and

Competence to Practise Committee of The Fellowship of
Engineering as a part of a broad initiative concerned with
stimulating debate on The Education and Training of Chartered
Engineers for the 21.st Century. The primary objective of the study
was to identify ways by which the creative design ability of young
engineers can be enhanced.

The approach adopted was to review the processes of engineering

design which entail creative thinking, from a methodology view
point, in terms of current teaching practice and as carried out by
active designers in industry. Observations relating to the creative
design processes published in the 1950's and 1960's have been
found to provide an informative insight to the mental processes
of successful designers to-day. This insight coupled with
observations regarding the tendency for children to develop
intellectual abilities which have been described as either
convergent or divergent, leads not only to the identification of the
naturally talented designer as a sort of controlled schizophrenic,
but also to identification of the essential mental controls which
lead to successful application of formalised methods. It has also
led to a clarification of the different psychological attributes
required by effective designers as opposed to scientists.

A further outcome of the study has been to identify different

levels of creative thinking which take place during the design
process. Essentiall/, these can be separated into conceptual and
detail design. The education of engineers in the UK tends to be
fairly good as regards the former, but tends to leave the latter
rather more to chance. Somewhat the opposite seems to be the
case in the educational systems operating in some countries which
are our industrial rivals. This is clearly an area where British
Industry could benefit from some changes in undergraduate
teaching. The options have been explored and some
recommendations made but there is, of course, no easy remedy.

(iii)
- -
 ACKNOWLED GEMENTS

The author is grateful to all those who have contributed to the

study. Particular thanks are due to those who have participated in
the discussion phase, freely giving not only their time, but also the
wisdom of their knowledge and experience. A list of these
contributors is appended to the report.

A special debt of gratitude is due to Prof. ]. Black, CBE, F Eng, who

first persuaded the author to become involved in the study and
has provided continuing support and guidance throughout.

(iv)
- -
 CONTENTS

Section page
1. Introduction 1

1.1 Background to Study 1

7.2 The Development of Design Teaching in the UK 1

1.3 The Design Process - an Overview 2

2 Creative Thinking in Engineering Design 5

2.1, The Psychology of Creative Thought 5

2.2 Formalised Techniques for Creative Thinking 11

2.3 The Common Features of Formal Techniques 77

3 The Creative Process in Practice 79

3.1 Selection of Individuals for Discussion 19

3.2 Outcome of Discussions 20

3.3 The Use of Formal Techniques 23

3.4 Correlation between Theory and Practice 23

4 A Review of Current Design Teaching Methods 25

4.L Formal Teaching 25

4.2 Projects 26

4.3 Other Types of Exercise 27

4.4 Educational Objectives and Effectiveness of Current Methods 28

5 The Perceived Shortcomings and Omissions of Current Teachins 30

6 Discussion of the Creative Design Role & Engineering Students 31

7 The Options for Creativity Enhancement 32

7.1. The Educational Objectives 32

7.2 Current Methods 32

7.3 Novel Methods JJ

8 Conclusions 35

9 Recommendations 3B

10 References 42

Appendix A: Contributors to Study

-(v)-
1, INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to Study
The overall objective of this study was to identify the educational
methods by which we can most effectively develop and enhance the
creative potential of the young design engineer. The need for such a
study was highlighted in the SPRU report on 'Training and
Circumstances of Engineers in the 21st. Century', and subsequently
sponsored through the Education, Training and Competence to Practise
Committee of The Fellowship of Engineering.
At the outset of this study it was envisaged that the u'ork would divide
into a number of steps which, though interactive to some degree,
would be more or less sequential:
(i) to review the psychology of creativity as it is related to
the engineeering design processi
(ii) through discussions with designers and design
managers in industry, to collect information relating to
their own interpretations of the creative function of the
design engineer, and also what they felt were the
shortfalls or omissions in the relevant parts of
undergraduate teaching programmes;
(iii) through discussions with those involved in design
education at various levels, to identify the spectrum of
relevant current methods and the areas which people
felt were being neglected;
(iv) from the information collected, to distil a set of
educational objectives in terms of the knowledge and
skills necessary to become an effective and creative
designer engineer; and,
(v) to recommend teaching/training procedures through
which to introduce students to the tools of creative
stimulation and effective engineering design.

1.2 The Development of Design Teaching in the UK

Any component of engineering education must, if it is to justify the
description of engineering, be of value in design. And in the limit the
justification of all that circuit analysis, strength of materials, fluid
dynamics, etc. is to analyse, detail and quantify a design.
In civil engineering, largely because of the very nature of this discipline
in which virtually every structure is a prototype, design work, at least at

-1-
the detailed level, has formed part of the undergraduate curriculum for
a long time. However design at the broader, more conceptual, level has
been a comparatively late addition to the teaching of this and all the
other engineering disciplines (Holgate (1986)). As already remarked,
the detailed analytical tools have always been a part (or even the
whole) of the British engineering degree course. However it is probably
only since the mid sixties that engineering students have been given
not only the opportunity to test their design skills (other than on
paper), but also some instruction in the methodology'of the design
process (Dunn (1968)). We have certainly moved far from the fear
expressed by Schrader (1972) of "scientists with engineering degrees".
Since project work started to become part of the engineering degree
curriculum in the early sixties (Hayes and Tobias (196$) the project has
become the primary vehicle by which the undergraduate engineer
experiences design. Over the years the final year design project has
assumed increasing importance to the point where it has become a
specific requirement (Levy, 1983)) and the subject of much debate. In
many areas design teaching has moved towards satisfying the shortfalls
identified by Finniston (1980). There have been numerous reports
advocating the integration of design teaching into engineering courses
(Moulton ('1,976), Corfield (1.979), Black (1986)) with a general
movement towards Moulton's objective that:
"Design should be a thread running through all the normal
engineering degree courses".
A great deal has been written on the subject of engineering design and
design teaching. Indeed it may be a matter of concern that design has
shown a tendency to become a subject in its own right. The nature of
this concern, as expressed by McKay (1982), is that in effect there is a
thread of design running through all engineering; but separate the
design from the engineering and it looses relevance and has a tendency
to become an esoteric introspective philosophy and an end in itself.

1.3 The Design Process - an Overview

The now considerable literature on the subject of engineering design
includes many useful sources on the models, methods and strategies
available to the design engineer which are applicable over a range of
disciplines and to a variety of problems (see for example: Alger and
Hayes (1964), Dixon (1966), Jones (7970), Pugh and Morley (1988), Cross
1 The term design methodology is perhaps unfortunate in that it seems to imply an
ivory tower remoteness from the real practice of design in industry. However there
is no alternative for describing the functional mcchanics of the design process.

-2-
(1989), etc). A review of the literature shows a fair degree of consensus
regarding the general sequence of events that takes place between the
twinkle in the designer's eye and the customer parting with his money.
All authors on the subject are compelled to begin with a flow chart, a
block diagram or a three dimensional model of the design process and
while this report is not a treatise on engineering design methods it is
necessary to maintain this tradition and an appropriate diagram is
therefore presented in Figure 1. The details of the model are not
important here, but the general pattern and features which are
common to all such diagrams are of considerable interest in the context
of this study.

recognise & define problem -

write specification - market analysis

- establish constraints

propose alternative solutions

select optimum scheme

design details

buying - costing - quality - production - prototype

sizing & selecting components

production
Figure 1: The design process

This study is concerned with the creative thinking which is necessary

for effective design. We need a model of design to try to identify at
what stages and in what way the designer (or perhaps more
appropriately, the design team) needs to call upon his creative reserves.
All such models of the design process can be seen to have a number of
common elements:
(i) the process is divided into a series of separate steps;

-3-
 (ii) there is provision for returning to an earlier stage;
(iii) the process moves from problem to solution in steps
and not as a smooth progression.
There is a need for creative thought at different stages throughout the
process, just as there is a need for analysis and decision making at
different stages. One of the important observations confirmed by this
study is that the segregation of these stages is essential, and the whole
process of design can be seen in terms of cycling between creative
thought, analysis and decision making. This cycle, illustrated in
Figure 2, can be seen in terms of expansion followed by contraction.

creative slmthesis
1
expansion

v\
/
,/

analysis
\ contraction

decision making

Figure 2: The design cycle

The outcome of each stage of creative thinking is a range of

alternatives, which are carefully analysed before making an objective
selection. Whilst it has long been recognised that creativity, analysis
and to some extent decision making require different mental attitudes,
the discussion presented below will show that this has had far reaching
consequences on the past selection of engineering students almost to
the extent of positive exclusion of creative talent, and furthermore that
a full recognition of these important distinctions can lead to a
significant improvement in design capability. It is also apparent that
the procedures invoked by the majority of the formalised approaches to
creativity, maieutics as they are called by French (1988), can be explained
in these terms. Explanation leads to better understanding, and that
better understanding leads to more effective use.
A secondary observation, which emerges from a consideration of the
creative role of the design engineer, is that the nature of that creative
role changes as the process moves from outline towards detail, from
concept to embodiment. As pointed out by Pugh and Morley (1988)
there are of course also varying demands for innovation between
designs and for different parts of a design. But in general, the resources
upon which the designer must draw change distinctly as any given
design develops, and this leads to some significant conclusions in
terms of curriculum recommendations.

_-4-
2 CREATIVE THINKING IN ENGINEERING DESIGN
2|1, The Psychology of Creative Thought
The psychological processes by which the human mind generates new
ideas have been a topic which has naturally attracted considerable
attention over the years. The literature related to the subject ranges
from "An Essay on Original Genius" by W. Duff (1767) to articles in the
colour supplements of Sunday newspapers claiming that brain power
can be enhanced by eating a special diet of seafood and muesli with no
smoking and drinking (Cannon (1988)), and an improvement in
creative power may be attained by directing thought processes to the
right hand side of the brain (Askwith (1988)).
The question of the physical location of different classes of thought
processes, in terms of left and right cerebral hemispheres, is a very
interesting one which is described lucidly by Ornstein and
Thompson (1985) and reviewed in more detail by Le Doux (1983).
Although the discoveries of asymmetry have led to some rather
exaggerated claims, it is undoubtedly a fact that different cognitive
processes take place in different regions of the cerebellum. Of particular
interest here is the observation that visuo-spatial perception is
essentially a right hemisphere function, while mathematical and to
some extent verbal processes are left hemisphere functions. An
aptitude for visuo-spatial perception is clearly of considerable
importance in engineering design, but to what extent this might be
linked to creative functions is not clear. What may be of more
relevance however is the tendency for individuals to develop some
cognitive skills to higher degrees than others thus utilizing the
functions of the left hemisphere rather more than the right. This issue
of what might be described as mental specialisation will be given
further consideration below.
At a rather more practical level quite a lot has been written about
creative processes in the Arts, Science and Technology. Perhaps the
most useful source here has been Osborn's work (1953): "Applied
Imagination. Principies and Procedures of Creative Problem-Solving".
Osborn's development of brainstorming and description of routes to
idea formation, as well as factors which can inhibit idea formation, are
both illuminating and comprehensive. Consideration of inhibiting
factors is particularly important.
Osborn states that:
"Our thinking mind is mainly two-fold:
(i) a judicial mind which analyses, compares and chooses;
and,

-5-
 (ii) a creative mind which visualises, foresees and generates
ideas."
The basic argument which he develops is that while everyone
throughout their everyday life has to exercise judgement and decision
making, the opportunities for creativity tend to dwindle as we grow
older. So unless a conscious effort is maintained to sustain and
stimulate creative faculties, they tend to atrophy as we age, while our
critical analytical faculties continue to develop with use. Coupled with
this is the observation that creative thought is inhibited by the kind of
attitude that frequently accompanies analysis and judgement. These
inhibiting factors are particularly apparent in groups, which explains
why the mental climate which must be encouraged for successful
brainstorming is defined as: positive, uncritical, stimulating, optimistic,
self confident etc. Furthermore what goes for group creativity also
seems to apply to individual creativity. In simple terms during the
processes of. ideation a critical, analytical attitude has a negative effect.
Criticism and analysis are of course essential parts of the overall process
of innovative design. Many writers on the subject identify four stages
(Broadbent (7966), Alger and Hays (796D):
(i) preparation;
(ii) incubation;
(iii) illumination; and,
(iv) verification.
In these the creative element is concentrated in the second phase, being
terminated by illumination (which may be that 'flash of inspiration'),
but is preceded by an analytical phase involving collection and analysis
of information, and foiiowed by further analysis and critical
judgement. The description of illumination is however somewhat
inappropriate to design problems being more appropriate to the
research scientist who is searching for the single correct explanation for
some observed phenomenon; the design engineer is always looking for
a range of alternative solutions.
The incubation phase, also termed withdrawal (Dixon (1,966)) or
speculation (Gordon (1,961,)), is the creative core. Poincar6 (791,4)
describes this part of the process when applied to mathematical
discovery as a series of trial combinations taking place essentially at a
sub-conscious level guided by an emotional sensibility. Osborn (1953)
is more concerned with the menial processes of ideation and identifies
association of ideas as the basis of idea finding. He defines various
forms of association and analogy, and also describes the frame of mind
that an individual, or group, needs to develop to be receptive to

-6-
association. In this context it is possible to generalise to the extent that
a positive attitude is essential so that any thoughts, attitudes or voiced
opinion which is not positive, or at least voiced in a positive way, will
be counter-productive. These limitations are further illustrated by
Osborn's analysis of the factors which tend to inhibit creativity:
(i) The exercise of judgement and criticism -
If a colleague says: "That will never work" as a response
to an idea, then the originator of the idea, who
presumably thought it had some merit, will be quite
discouraged from making further contributions.
However thick-skinned people might appear to be,
there is always a reaction to criticism, especially in
public. Conversely praise and encouragement will have
a beneficial stimulating effect.
(ii) Previous habits -
This is the need to get out of the rut, to break the mould
and in this way avoiding preconceptions and prejudice.
(iii) Self-discouragement -
"I will never be able to..." is no way to start.Note
however that the opposite is not an arrogant egotism,
but rather an open minded (i.e. receptive)
self-confidence.
(iv) Timidity -
Creative thinking does require a certain courage, a
boldness or even a taste for risk and adventure, and in
this search for the novel idea (association) an
uninhibited yet controlled attitude is productive.
Bruner (1,962) who defines the creative act as one that produces
"effective surprise", also describes it as "the resultant of combinatorial
activity", which brings us yet again to ihe creative incubation process as
one that involves a way of thinking that is essentially associatiae. And
Tony Buzan in his highly successful book "lJse Your Head" (7974)
advocates an "organic", associative method for the creative
development of ideas.
Gordon's work on Synectics 0,967) provides further illumination on
the mechanics of creative problem solving by groups. Gordon's recipe
for creative innovation has been used successfully by others (Parker
(1985)) and for its creative core depends on various forms of analogy
not unlike Osborn's association.

-7 -
Of particular interest here are the fundamental hypotheses stated by
Gordon:
Synectics theory holds that:
(i) creative efficiency in people can be markedly increased
if they understand the psychological processes by which
they operate;
(ii) in creative processes the emotional component is more
important than the intellectual, the irrational more
important than the rational; and,
(iii) it is these emotional, irrational
elements which can and
must be understood in order to increase the probability
of success in a problem-solving situation.
As already noted Poincar6 (7974) has referred to an emotional
sensibility, and Gordon places considerable emphasis on the need, as an
essential part of the creative synectics process, for members of the group
to develop an emotional understanding for features of a problem.
Dixon (7966) in discussing the characteristics of inventive people, refers
to ]ung's work on psychological types which includes a
judging-perceptiae scale. Dixon identifies the perceptiae person as
being the more innovative since he is more receptive, or sensitive, to
experience, and therefore, when confronted with a new problem, in a
position to have more to draw upon. He also suggests various actions
as a means to improve perceptiveness, and therefore inventiveness.
Included amongst these is the advice to avoid the habit of judgement
which is said to interfere with observation. But the effectiveness of this
advice has more to do with Osborn's observations about the directly
inhibiting influence of a critical attitude.
The work by Hudson (1966) describing a psychological study of clever
schoolboys is of considerable relevance here. Hudson identifies two
types: the conaerger and the diverger. His work also implies that there
was a tendency in the boys he studied for them to be either one or the
other, and although he does describe an all-rounder, this type accounts
for no more than 407o of the total. In other words as children grow
and develop, and determined to a significant extent by their emotional
environment, they become either conaergers or dioergers.
The characteristics, capabilities and inclinations which Hudson
attributes to these two types seem far more closely tied to creative and
innovative ability than Jung's judging-perceptiae scale, especially
when examined against Osborn's "Principles and Procedures of
Creative Problem-Solving" (1953). Basically the difference between
Hudson's two types is that the converger is good at the conventional

-8-
I.Q. test with the single correct answer arrived at by deduction, while
the diverger is good at the open ended kind of test (e.g. how many uses
can you think of for a brick, paper clip, barrel etc.?). The two types
showed a strong correlation with academic subject preference; the
diverger for the Arts, and the converger for the Sciencesl.
The converger likes logical rational argument. He concentrates on
impersonal things, is cautious about expressing feelings and tends to be
defensive.
The diverger is essentially the antithesis of the converger. He prefers
people to things, being more at home with the human side of culture,
and avoiding things which are technical and practical. He is eager to
express emotion but is uneasy with precise argument.
The diverger is therefore very much attuned to associafioe thinking
while the converger is happier with analytical, logical deductive
thinking.
These two ways of thinking about problems are different. It also seems
that children (or at least intelligent boys) tend to develop aptitudes for
one or the other, and those who develop an aptitude for logical
deductive thought tend to make an academic choice for mathematics
and the sciences, while those with an aptitude for associative thinking
opt for the arts.
Fludson's work seems to point clearly to an acceptance of the diverger
as the naturally creative individual, and this is most certainly an
attractive proposition which accords with the associatiae thinking
theory. However Hudson himself expresses particular caution on just
this point:
"My own belief is that original work will come from convergers
and divergers alike; and that the convergence and divergence of
an individual will determine not whether he is original but, if he
is original, the field and style in which his originality will
manifest itself."
Hudson then ascribes an individual's aptitude for original work to
other aspects of his character, listing qualities which show strong
parallels with those derived from Osborn's work:
(i) persistence;
(ii) self-confidence;

It is interesting and perhaps significant to speculate that Hudson might have found
his study rather more difficult had it not been for the early specialisation still very
much the norm in British secondary schools.

-9-
 (iii) aggression;
(iv) risk-seeking;
(v) rebelliousness and sexuality; and,
(vi) nympholepsy (or yearning for the unattainable).
These observations are consistent with the arguments already
advanced, but with the qualification that the convergers and the
divergers given, or having developed, the necessary attitudes and
qualities, will be likely to succeed in differing fields. The difference is
that convergers will be creative in fields where original work can be
accomplished through analysis and deduction, while creative work that
requires the kind of associative approach detailed above needs
divergent thinking. This it seems is an important distinction which in
broad terms identifies a vital difference between scientific research and
engineering design (at least at the conceptual level). Scientific research
can be advanced largely through the deductive analytical approach;
engineering design has a far greater need for the associative form of
creative thought.
The importance attributed by a number of writers and also by designers
(Gordon (1961,) and see below), to emotional involvement with a
problem lends even further support to the divergent nature of the
creative, conceptual phase of engineering design. Cross (1989) has
described the process of design as fluctuating between divergence and
convergence in terms of thinking style. In Section 1 above, design was
described in similar terms, cycling from a creative phase, through an
analytical phase, to a decision making phase and so back to the creative.
Each creative phase results in an expansion of alternatives, which are
analysed before selection.
It is clear that if an associative approach is needed for the creative bits,
then these must be kept quite separate from the other phases where the
analysis and judgement would quench the creative spark. This leads us
to another important observation that the designer, who will be
involved at each stage, needs to be able to think about the design in
different ways at different stages of the process. He must play a
different role as the requirements change from creativity to analysis, to
decision making, and back to creativity. Any confusion of the roles,
particularly confusing judgement with synthesis, will be counter-
productive. Ullman et al. (1988), although defining them in a different
terminology, have also noted these conflicting roles of the designer.
A reasonable deduction is that the natural designer has a subconscious
talent to change his way of thinking when he changes roles. The

-10-
designer without this natural talent must develop the ability to controi
and change his thinking styles.
As Smalley (1989) has also noted the selection procedure whereby
children at school in the UK find their way into the engineering
profession is such that the divergers, those with the natural talent for
associative creative thinking, become attracted to the arts subjects, so
giving up the mathematics and physical sciences that the universities
and polytechnics demand for admission to study engineering. Those
that do find their way to engineering degree courses are largely
convergers or Hudson's all-rounders.
At first sight it might appear that the all-rounder is just what is
required for a design engineer, but the all-rounder is just that: neither
converger or diverger, a bit of both. What is needed to become a
natural designer is an individual who is both, but not at the same time;
he must be able to flip from converger to diverger at will, as a kind of
controlled schizophrenic.

2.2 Formalised Techniques for Creative Thinking

Numerous formalised or systematic techniques have been described
which are intended to stimulate creative design. Various detailed
descriptions of the available methods and the types of problem to
which they are best suited have been published and they are only
summarised here. Further information can be found in: Alger and
Hays (7964), Dixon (7966), Jones (7970), Cross (1.979), and two Open
University publications - Crickmay ('1972), and Cross and Roy (7975).
There are of course many systematic methods appropriate to the design
process as a whole. Many of these operate on a basis of procedural
questionnaires, checklists, charts or matrices, and include such
methods as FDM - Fundamental Design Method (Matchett (1968)),
PABLA - Problem Analysis by the Logical Approach Method (Latham
(1,965)), AIDA - Analysis of Interconnected Design Ideas (Morgan
(7967)), VDI2227 - Systematic Approach to the Design of Technical
Systems and Products (VDI (1,987)) and QFD - Quality Function
Deployment (Jebb (1989)). However the methods which concern us
here are those which are primarily directed at the creative idea forming
phase of the design process.
(i) Brainstorming
Brainstorming (formalised initially by Osborn (1953)) is
a problem solving activity undertaken by a multi-
disciplinary group. The group meet specifically to

-11 -
 generate ideas aimed at solving the stated problem.
They work within a framework of rules:
criticism is banned;
quantity of ideas is more important than quality;
credit is shared by the group.
The group also needs a secretary to record the flow of
ideas as they evolve so that notes of the meeting can be
circulated subsequently for further thoughts and, only at
this stage, critical comment and analysis.
The principle of brainstorming is that the thought
association process will be more effective in terms of
generating originai ideas when it is free to operate
between individuals with differing backgrounds. The
rules are intended to foster a creative climate.

[The next four methods listed are not formal in the sense thai
brainstorming is. They are ways of thinking about problems
intended, essentially, to break a set pattern through providing a
novel viewpoint.l

(ii) Inversion
lnaersion implies a re-orientation of the problem (or
solution): inside out, upside down, back to front. It
implies changing relative velocities: making the
normally moving part stationary, making a part that
normally rotates move in a straight line, etc.
Borrowing an example from Dixon (7966), inaersion
can be illustrated by thinking about the problem of
extracting walnuts from their shells. The conventional
approach is to break in from outside, which tends to
break up the nut: inverting the problem would mean
thinking about how to get the walnut out from inside
the sheli i.e. breaking out, not in.

(iii) smpelhy
Empathy is a positive way of forcing a divergent
approach to a problem which requires trying to think
about the problem on an emotional plane with a

-'12 -
 personal involvement. Returning to the walnut
example, empathy requires imagining what it feels like
to be a walnut - sitting inside a cold dry shell - in the
dark - wanting to get out and feeling claustrophobic.
The answer is of course to push out; in technical terms
using compressed air introduced through a small hole.l
The subtlety of this method is that through requiring
the designer to take an emotional involvement,
provided he "plays the game", he is almost tricked into
a divergent associative thought pattern.

(iv) Fantasy
Fantasy is similar to empathy in the sense that it is an
indirect way of getting the designer to think about a
problem in a creative manner. The procedure involves
fantasizing about solutions to a problem. In effect this
tends to imply suspending, temporarily, any
inconvenient laws of physics as a means to thinking
about the problem from a novel viewpoint. The kind
of components which might be incorporated into a
fantasy solution would be magic carpets or sky hooks.
The similarity with empathy is that the suspension of
constraints is much the saure as banning criticism, thus
encouraging the creative attitude, but an attempt to
develop a physical realisation of the fantasfic solution
may prove a route to a feasible design.

(v) Analogy
One of the most fruitful sources of ideas when tackling
design problems is of course to look for solutions to
analogous problems. Analogy with nature has provided
a source for many technical innovations from tunnel
boring machinery to "Velcro" fasteners. D'Arcy
Thompson (7977) and more recently French (1988)
provide many examples.

Given that the majority of engineering students are convergers who are unhappy
about expressing emotions, it is not surprising that they are very reluctant to join in
empathy exercises. They find it rather embarrassing and like adolescents at a
party do not want to join in the game/ even when they see those already playing are
having fun.

-13-
(vi) lynectics
The synectics approach developed by Gordon (1961) is in
some ways similar to brainstorming but is rather more
stylized and more sophisticated. The similarities
concern the involvement of an interactive, multi-
disciplinary group. But the process is far more
structured and some of the group members have
specific roles: there is a naoigator who oversees
proceedings suggesting strategies and tactics, there is
also a customer to answer questions about the problem
and there may also be technical specialists drafted in for
particular problems.
The assault on the problem is structured recognising the
following sequence:
la detachmenf - in which the problem is investigated
with a remote perspective;
lb inaolvemerzf - the problem is now contemplated
from a more intimate perspective, deliberately
seeking a personal, even emotional involvement,
using empathy to develop a deeper understanding;
2 det'ermenf - this is a recognition of the point at
which solutions begin to develop, where there is a
need to hold back from adopting the first, and to
continue the search for alternatives;
3 speculation - a\ exhaustive search for alternatives
with specific strategies all based on anallgy;
4 autonomy of object - this is the phrase used by
Gordon to describe the stage in the design process
at which what is perceived to be the optimum
alternative is identified and thenceforth almost
takes over.
Gordon describes the first part as "making the strange
familiar", by which he means developing a detailed
understanding of the problem. The speculation phase,
he describes as "making the familiar strange", by which
he means looking at the problem from different
(distorted) viewpoints to provide a stimulus to novel
ideas.

-14_
 The four synectic mechanisms which are identified for
this part of the procedure are described by Gordon as
different forms of analogy:
personal analogy;
essentially empathy as described above but more in
the form of "What does it feel like to be the piston
in a petrol engine, the mooring rope of a North
Sea oil rig, or the blade of a wind turbine ?"

direct analogy;
analogy as described above but particularly with
nature.
symbolic analogy;
requires an objective impersonal image which,
while technically inaccurate, symbolises the
problem in an aesthetically pleasing manner.

fantasy analogy;
much as in the fantasy method above.
Another important part of the synectics approach is that
the group discussions are recorded and can be played
back to the group not only so that they can see what
might be added, but also as a means by which to
understand better how they interact and how the ideas
have been stimulated. This is seen as an essential part
of the group training process.

(vii) Morphological Creativity

This is essentially a systematic search for novel
combinations. A problem is analysed in terms of sub-
problems and alternative solutions identified for each
of these. The range of combinations can then be
examined for useful solutions to the overall problem.
This optimal combination approach is very much the
heart of the VDI method for product design now
embodied in a VDI Design Handbook (VDI (1987)) and
which is described in great detail by Pahl and Beitz
(7977). Following an initial planning phase which
includes clarification of the overall objectives and
elaboration of the specification, the Pahl and Beitz

-15-
 approach consists of at least three cycles of expansion
and contraction: conceptual design, embodiment design,
and detail design.
The conceptual design phase requires a functional
analysis of the product which leads to identification of a
set of sub-functions. Alternative means or principles to
satisfy each sub-function are then sought, and from a
range of feasible combinations one variant is chosen.
Different concept variants of the selected combination
may then be considered before moving on to the nexf
phase.
Embodiment design then looks at alternative forms for
each of the identified sub-assemblies, and again
alternative combinations are assessed before
determining the final layout. The last phase entails the
detail design of the various components and sub-
assemblies.
The Pahl and Beitz procedure is highly structured and
provides a fairly clear indication of the role which the
designer (or design team) is to play at each step. The
advice given for the "discovery of product ideas" is
somewhat weighted towards the use of analytical
discursive methods, but a comprehensive set of
intuitive (associative) techniques is also given.

(viii)Lateral Thinking
Edward de Bono's highly popular books on lateral
thinking (de Bono (7967)) are based on the concept that
when a logical deductive approach to solving a
particular problem is blocked, the way forward is
sideways, or if you cannot win, then cheat. The
philosophy of lateral thinking is realiy that of switching
from deductive, convergent thinking to associative,
divergent thinking.
Lateral thinking is not prescriptive or structured in the
way that synectics is. It is really more of a philosophy
than a method, but as a technique it deserves inclusion
here particularly because of the implied recognition of
two fundamentally different ways of thinking about
problems.

-16-
 Perhaps the most important message of lateral thinking
is that it is something of an acquired skill: the more one
practises it the easier it becomes. Although not stated,
the message is really directed at the conaerger, for he
really stands to benefit most from recognizing that there
is a way of tackling a problem different from the
deductive, vertical approach.

2.3 The Common Features of Formal Techniques

In section 2.1 a review of the literature on creatiaity leads us to
conclude that there are essentially two ways of thinking when trying to
solve problems: associative and deductive (or analytical). During their
formative years children tend to veer towards being either convergers
or divergers, and due to the applicability of the different styles to
different academic fields, this polarization tends to influence their
choice of specialisation. Since study of mathematics and the physical
sciences is the conventional route into engineering, it is not surprising
that engineers tend to be convergers and therefore while suited to
analysis and judgement, are at a disadvantage when, as at certain
critical stages of the design process, there is a need for associative
creative thinking.
In section 2.2 a range of techniques was considered which have been
found to stimulate creativity, and which in some cases have special
relevance to the generation of original ideas in engineering design.
These creative tools, or maieutics as French (1988) calls them, exhibit
common features which can be explained in terms of the requirements
for stimulating associative thinking, whilst temporarily restraining any
tendency to critical analysis and judgement.
Where these tools entail detailed procedures, their function is to
stimulate some particular pattern of association (some of the more
extreme procedures not detailed above even entail a totally random
input such as using a word selected randomly from a dictionary, or the
first clue that can be solved in a crossword). In the case of group
methods, like brainstorming and synectics, there is the further
potential of an idea expressed by one individual triggering a response
from another group member, but when working in a group even more
effort must be put into maintaining the sometimes fragile creative
mental environment.
An essential pre-requisite for creative engineering design is knowledge;
the formulation of ideas which can help towards the solution of a
design problem can only be on the basis of input information. This
information falls into two categories: that which is specific to the

-17 -
problem (determined through the initial analytical investigations), and
that which is to play a role in the creative, associative, thought process.
This knowledge may become specifically relevant in a technical sense,
or, of more importance here, may function as an associative trigger in
the creative design process which has no apparent logical association to
the technical problem. While Dixon (7966) stressed the role of
perceptive observation in connection with creative ability, Osborn
(1953) expressed the view that almost any activity that provided a large
input of information to be stored away for future reference was
valuable. He maintained that, rather as in the recommendations for
brainstorming, the need is for quantity not quality.
This issue of quantity not quality is one which is frequently
emphasized, and normally defended in terms of an argument that a
silly idea may in turn generate a good idea. However while the
potential value of any idea or memory to an illogical association cannot
be denied, there are two good reasons for the quantity not quality rule.
In the first place such a ruling should prevent the design team member
having to make a value judgement before pronouncing his idea (so
maintaining the creative, rather than critical, frame of mind). And
secondly, when seeking novel solutions one is trying to form idea
associations which others have not previously made (ie. original), so
arry qazy or unorthodox idea may provide a route to a feasible original
solution.
It is necessary to make a significant observation regarding these tools
which, as part of the process of "making the familiar strange", are
formulated to encourage associative and unorthodox thinking. For the
classic converger, who has grown up with an uneasiness about
expressing emotion and who will be in a majority in most
undergraduate engineering courses, these methods will seem
unpalatable, potentially embarrassing and perhaps even stupid. This is
a natural reaction, and since a sense of optimistic confidence is needed
for creative thought, the converger, who is the type most likely to
benefit from using such methods, must overcome this antipathy. This
is best achieved by first understanding the need and then treating it as a
game, rather than, as some advocates of such methods seem to
demand, a new religion demanding undying faith.
These creative tools are necessary and work because of the changing
roles of the designer at different stages of the process, in particular the
cyclic changes in the way the designer must think. The need to
differentiate the creative role from analysis and decision making is
greatest. But the tools will only work if used with confidence, both self-
confidence and a belief (if only transitory) that the method is effective.

-18-
3 THE CREATIVE PROCESS IN PRACTICE
3.L Obiectives and the Selection of Individuals for Discussion
The aims of this part of the study were to try to investigate the views,
attitudes and experience of designers and design managers in industry,
and interpret the findings in relation to what is known about creative
processes in engineering design, and relevant aspects of the education
of engineering students.
As far as the management of design was concerned, the objectives were
to investigate the ways in which managers set about stimulating their
designers to be innovative, and collect views on how and in what ways
the education of engineers might be improved in this context.
With designers the objectives were somewhat more complex, the
investigation concentrating on different aspects of the designer's
creative role. Discussions focused on the following areas:
(i) approach to creative design (individual, group etc.);
(ii) problem solving policy (identified steps, formal tactics
etc.);
(iii) influence of education and upbringing;
(iv) use made of education and other sources of skills and
knowledge.
It was decided at an early stage that, in view of the intimate nature of
the information which was soughtl, and the expected variation in their
patterns, the discussions should be on a personal, preferably one to one,
basis, and they should only be loosely structured. In particular a
questionnaire was thought to be too constraining and therefore
inappropriate.
At the outset it was the intention to seek discussions with designers
and design managers with personal experience of design in industry. It
was considered that in the majority of cases these should be individuals
currently involved in an active capacity with design on a day to day
basis. It was also intended to talk to individuals from across the full
spectrum of the engineering industry, from domestic products to heavy
industrial, from software engineering to production engineering, from
the large corporation to the individual consultant, and from "hi-tech"
to those less dependent on the latest advances.
1 It became apparent from the first of these discussions that the process of probing the
designer's personal involvement and the influence of his education and upbringing
could easily become emotionally charged. With the discussion taking on the
characteristics of psychoanalysis, it could become both intense and exhausting.
This did not happen when thcre werc more than two pcoplc involved.

-19-
The final set of individuals whio have participated, though perhaps
somewhat less numerically than would be considered necessary to
cover the full spectrum, was considered sufficient to arrive at useful
conclusions because the input to the study showed a high degree of
compatibility with projections from previous work. Appendix A lists
all individuals contacted during the course of the study.

3.2 Outcome of Discussions

The outcome of the discussions with the broad range of individuals
contacted is given in point form belorv, annotated to highlight the
correlation with the points made in section 2 above.l The comments
are not necessarily mutually compatible, emanating as they do from
individuals working in very different situations, but in many cases
very similar observations were made by different people.
1 Product design is a creative art form requiring
sensitivity and intellect. Translation of the design into
a communicable form is part of the creative process.
The creative designer often has a kangaroo/grasshopper/
butterfly mind.
[implying an associative process - not logical and
deductivel
2 Creative design stimulated by interest, curiosity
- the
designer should be inquisitive (How does that work?
How is that made?).
3 Creativity in the design process is needed not only at the
conceptual stage, but right through to the detailing
level.

[ttris is an important point which seems to have been ovcrlooked and

creativity at the detail level requires a different attitude of mind]

4 The designer needs to have a mental inventory of

soiutions/devices/components which forms a working
resource during the embodiment phase and where
originality at a detail level is sought.
5 The designer needs to be aware of the historical
development of his subject to see the current problem
in perspective and as a source of ideas.

1 It has been considered inappropriate to indicate the sources of each of these

observations; the contributions of all those who have participated are gratefully
acknowledged.

-20-
 Engineers lack breadth of knowledge - students should
make a study of a nontechnical, artistic subject: painting
or music.
[stimulating divergence and broadening the knowledge base]

Effective, creative design is only possible from the basis

of an emotional commitment/involvement. The
designer must be fascinated by his job and see it as an
intellectual challenge.
[empathy, determination and self confidence]

8 Emphasis on team approach.

9 Need to foster creative team environment:
encouragement and praise;
realistic timescales to avoid excess pressure;
require minimum number of alternatives;
provision of a well designed work environment;
negative attitudes outlawed;
beware of "blocks" to creative thinking;
interactive group discussion needs a navigator;
provision of ample "black board" space, not only to
communicate ideas but also to log progress and act
as a prompt;

where team members have different seniority

within the company, it is essential that all
understand that in team discussions they are on an
equai footing - no one should feel inhibited - this
can require careful management.
[all very much in line with findings above in scction 2]

10 The designer should be familiar with materials at a

tactile level, and have a quantitative feel for
magnitudes.
[involvement at an intimate level]
77 An ability to visualize things in three dimensions is
important and should be coupled with a well developed
sketching ability. Designs should be drawn/sketched to
scale at an early stage. A tangible model could serve a
useful function.

-27 -
 [sketching was seen as a design medium as much as a means of
communication - although somc maintain (Elliott (1989)) that the
graphics presentation of a full 3D modellcr supplants the need for a
model some designers insist on the value of a physical model]

12 The designer approaches his solution by steps, with

alternating phases of expanding alternatives most of
which are subsequently excluded.
1.3 The initial analysis of requirements, and particularly
the preparation of the specification, is an important part
of the process which should be given full weight in
teaching design.
74 Differentiate between ueatiaity and innoaation which
entails carrying ideas through into something that
works and makes a profit.
[this was more by way of advice to the design teacher rathcr than
the designer himself]

15 In searching for novel competitive solutions, at the

outset a problem should be dissected into functional
components - improvements will then come about
through an understanding of the underlying physical
relationships. Every effort should be made to develop
such an analysis in a parametric form that can be
represented graphically to provide further insight.
lthis is part of "preparation" but also similar to the function
structure analysis advocated by Pahl and Beitz(1977) though in some
ways goes deepcr]

76 When a designer gets stuck with a problem that requires

originality in its solution, the necessary creative design
inspiration may only come after taking fairly radical
steps to help overcome the barrier. This could include
some form of "shock tactics" or a temporary change in
environment.
[ttris is again compatible rvith brcaking away from the analytica!
deductive approach]

17 Creative design work seems to come more easily with a

touch of humour and possibly vulgarity.
fthis is also seen as a movc towards encouraging the right thinking
style - but may have a deeper more direct applicability in that
humour is frequently dcpendcnt on illogical association]

1",
 18 Analysis of the competition as a stimulant to further
development, perhaps in combination with other ideas.
[ttris is equivalent to incremental creatiaity a technique which is
appropriate to products that are fairly static in terms of overall
concept - the method was not considered a creative technique in the
same sense as the other methods included in the list in section 2.2]

79 When tackling a stubborn design problem it is

frequently helpful to set the problem aside, give it a
chance to incubate, let the mind work on it as a
background task, and then bring the problem to the
foreground now and then to check on progress.
ltfris is a very interesting remark made in slightly different ways by
several people and has some justification in terms of giving free
association dominance over logical deduction - but the mechanism of
subconscious problem solving has to be something of an enigma]

Many designers claim to have inspiration come to them

in the middle of the night, or when day dreaming.
[very much the same as background problem solving as in 19]

3.3 The use of Formal Techniques

Most of the designers and design managers that were involved in the
discussions claimed not to be using any type of formal design
methodology, at least not of the sort that would be recognised by those
that write and lecture on the subject. The few exceptions who did
subscribe to any kind of technique said that they used brainstorming on
occasions, but did not set any great store by it.
But all those involved in these discussions have an established record
of successful design: these are all talented, inventive, creative people.
Quite clearly they have, each in their own way, evolved informal
strategies for satisfying the need for creativity in design. The
discussions have given some insight to the underlying principles of
these informal strategies. They vary according to the personalities and
professional sphere of the individuals concerned, but can, to a
significant extent, be explained in terms of the generalized view of
design methodologies and creativity expressed in section 2.

3,4 Correlation between Theory and Praciice

With regard to the overall structure of the observed approaches to
design problem solving, there is a close correspondence both to the

-23-
steps observed by other investigators, and also to those which comprise
the typical design method. Most designers gave considerable emphasis
to the first phase of. preparation requiring a detailed analysis of the
problem leading to a complete specification and, perhaps more
importantly, an intimate understanding of the problem.l The phase to
follow this was one requiring a degree of creative thought leading to an
overall design concept, but the number of iterations and steps on the
way are dependent on the field and scale of the problem.
These informal strategies also imply a recognition of the need to
separate analytical, creative, and decision making phases, not just for
management convenience but because failure to make the distinction
interferes with the effectiveness of the process. It was particularly
evident from the discussions with senior designers and design
managers that they all recognized the need to stimulate their designers
by providing the right environment both physically and mentally.
Motivation and praise for work well done were given high priority as
was the need for the design team to appreciate the responsibility of
their role in the organization. Continuing broad education and
availability of up to date information on components, materials,
manufacturing methods etc. were all stressed as part of the essential
environment. This availability and familiarity with the latest technical
information (almost to the extent of being immersed in it) was seen as
particularly important when seeking creativity at the detail level.

It is interesting that a senior design managcr in the USA has attributed the greater
part of the design problems in his organization to a failurc . to start from a
comprehensive project deftnition (Costcllo (1989)).

-24-
4 A REVIEW OF CURRENT DESIGN TEACHING METHODS
4.1 Formal Teaching
One of the influences of the Finniston inquiry (Finniston (1.980)), as
interpreted by the Engineering Council (7984), has been that all
engineering degree courses in the UK, which either have been, or are
seeking to become, accredited by one of the professional institutions,
include a significant proportion of design teaching. The design is not
always, as Moulton (1976) recommended, "running like a thread
through all the normal degree courses" but is incorporated in various
forms.
One of the difficulties with the current British accreditation system
whereby the specialist institutions need to be able to identify various
syllabus components, is that it does tend to lead to
compartmentalization. One tends to find for example, rather than the
more desirable "What does the design engineer need to know about
materials?" that engineering students are taught Materials Science
"Isn't the inside of an atom interestingT" and Design, including
-
materials selection, as separate subjects.
-
The basic introduction to design methods and terminology is given in
most degree courses through formal lectures. These invariably begin
from some formal definition and block diagram model of The Design
Process, and will generally progress to describe some examples of
"procedural" creativity, notably brainstorming and in many cases some
examples of analogy and the morphological, functional structure
approach as typified in the Pahl and Beitz (7977) systematic method.
In section 3 a need for a creative approach to design at the detail level
(embodiment) was identified. The whole armoury of analytical
methods and procedures, to which the greater part of most degree
courses are devoted, is naturally of high relevance to this phase of
design, but creative activity must precede the analysis. The
requirements at this stage are for a knowledge of alternatives from
which to select and combine. In mechanical engineering this might be
covered to a degree by lectures on "machine elements" and
manufacturing processes, in electronics under the heading of "device
technology" and in civil engineering would require a knowledge of
available sections, materials and construction techniques. Formal
lectures have been employed to get over some of this type of
information, but when presented in this way it can become almost an
inventory, and concentration is hard to maintain. Students are
therefore frequently left to their own devices to acquire this knowledge.
Project work and case studies can provide a stimulus, but

-25-
manufacturers' catalogues, trade magazines and telephone access to the
outside world must be readily available.
4.2 Proiects
Engineering degree courses of all disciplines require that the student
gain first hand experience of design. This is normally achieved
through some form of project activity, and projects have over the past
twenty five years become an essential syllabus component.
All sorts and kinds of projects are used in engineering degrees, and in a
well planned course the project structure will have been carefully
thought out to satisfy specific educational objectives (Allison and
Benson (1983)). Projects can vary considerably in scale and duration,
but perhaps more significantly in the type of design experience
provided for the student, and the opportunities offered for creative
design work at different levels. Most courses include project work
requiring creativity at both the conceptual and detail levels, but it is
apparent that at the detail level the effectiveness of the learning process
is limited if designs are not followed through into hardware.
With regard to the student's opportunity to exercise and develop
creative talent, a great deal depends on the structure adopted and
controls exercised. Open ended design projects which do not require
the manufacture of hardware provide the greatest opportunities at the
conceptual level of creativity but, even where the problem has been
derived from industry, the absence of contact with experienced
management and a harsh practical reality can tend towards unrealistic
designs. Of course this may actually be a real advantage as far as the
exercise and development of creative thinking are concerned.
The question of group working is one which has been given quite a lot
of thought, and not just by the educators: the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers (7987) have even gone so far as to prescribe that final year
projects should be on an individual basis. Design projects that involve
work mostly at a detail level (for example the design of a structural
component for a specified duty) seem not to suffer through being
performed by individuals (there are also the advantages of weak
partners being unable to avoid the task, and more positively the "all
my own work" stimulus). However with the more open ended design
problem, requiring substantial creative input at the conceptual stage,
learning to interact creatively as a member of a team is seen by many in
both education and industry as an essential part of the engineer's
education. When this issue was raised with designers and design
managers in industry expressions of horror were frequently voiced at
the prospect of the student's major final year design project being
performed on an individual basis. Carter et al. (1980) also identified

-26-
developing experience of group design work as an important
educational objective of project work.
The role of the project supervisor is inevitably crucial in the student's
experience of creative design. The intensive demands made on
specialist teaching staff (i.e. those with appropriate design experience
and training) for project supervision, generally result in the duties
being fairly widely distributed within a department. Consequently
supervisors are often unfamiliar with any systematic design methods,
and often see the objectives of the project in technical terms rather than
as a vehicle for design education.l This last point is one which can
seriously devalue the potential advantages of projects involving
industrial participation when an engineer from industry is directly
involved in supervision, and rather than counselling and advising,
manages and directs.
The essential features of the design project are that the student has the
opportunity to seek practical solutions to real problems over an
extended time-scale. The project provides the vehicle for the student to
practise design, and it is a part of the responsibility of the supervisor to
provide guidance on the way in which a problem is tackled, as well as
technical backup.

4.3 Other Types of Exercise

There are other approaches currently employed in guiding students
into developing their creative design ability. These tend to be in the
form of case studies of one sort or another.
For centuries the medical profession has used a "master - pupil"
relationship as an essential component in the training of doctors. The
specialist walks the wards followed in the time honoured fashion by a
retinue of disciples. To some extent in years gone by u similar
procedure was followed by young men wishing to enter the
engineering profession, who would be indentured to a senior engineer,
or perhaps start from more humble beginnings with a trade
apprenticeship. The direct equivalent is not available in a
conventional degree course but something of the master - pupil
relationship can be obtained through case studies. A variety of teaching
methods which come into this category are in use which have a
relevance to creative design.
I This can become a particular problem where projects are closely related to the
academic supervisor's own research interests. Such a course can bc adopted to excite
the interest of the supervisor in student projccts, and that of the student in research,
both of which may be thought worthy, but this does lead to the supervisor having
a vested interest in fulfilling the technical, rather than educatlonal, objectives.

-27 -
This can be a particularly effective method of covering some of the
detail information where a lecturer with sufficient experience of
design, can cover the field of information more or less through
anecdotes, preferably drawn from his own experience. External
lecturers from industry are frequently used in much the same way but
cannot be expected to be constrained to conform to the restrictions of a
heavily compressed syllabus.
A version of the master - pupil approach is the "extended design case
study" (Chaplin (1982)) in which students study a specific artifact over
an extended period of time, identifying the functional relationships
and design decisions that have been made. This sort of exercise must
include a visit from the designer or members of the design team, which
provides the essential meeting between the "master" and "pupil",
though specific technical, analytical, support can be provided from the
academic side. The scheme ideally includes a visit to the place of
manufacture or construction. It also provides ample opportunity to
demonstrate how creative design work (which need not necessarily be
innovative) can influence the reliability and robustness of a design, as
well as the profitability of the whole organization.
Another form of case study, or mini design project, can be used to great
effect, but demands dedicated staff support. This entails developing
designs for a series of fairly open ended problems through to full
concept stage. Such exercises can be performed on a weekly basis with
submissions involving a full analysis of the problem, with quantitative
assessments where appropriate, and details (generaily in the form of
sketches) of the solution concept. One of the advantages of this
technique is the very considerable demands made on both creative and
analytical ability, with the resulting opportunities for the student to
identify and separate his different roles. Also, if run on a weekly basis,
a sufficient number of design cases can be worked through providing
the student with the time, through experimentation, consciously to
develop and improve his methodology. The disadvantages of such an
exercise are in terms of demands on staff time, particularly in
providing feedback to the student within a time-scale that is useful.

4.4 Educational Objectives and Effectiveness of Current Methods

The overall educational objectives of the design related activities of the
majority of engineering degree courses can be broadly summarised in
terms of giving the student:
(i) an overview of design methods; and,
(ii) experience of design at various levels;

-28-
the former being achieved largely through formal teaching, the latter
through projects and case studies.
It is clear that the teaching of design to undergraduate engineers in the
UK has progressed by leaps and bounds over the past twenty five years.
Where previously the subject was given nominal coverage, it now has
priority, and the quality of some of the student design work that can be
seen at many institutions is outstanding.
But what of creativity? Have the students who are graduating been
trained to use their talents to greatest benefit? A number inevitably
have that natural ability, but many more do not. In some the creative
thought mechanisms have become dormant, or may never have
developed, and while many students undoubtedly benefit considerably
from what they are taught about design methods, there seems little
evidence of the enhancement of creative ability being identified as a
specific objective with design teaching and project work structured for
its attainment.
Osborn (1953) in the foreword to the third edition of his work on
Applied Imagination described tests that had demonstrated how
instruction and practice in creative thinking could result in significant
improvements in ideation. The creative capability of the British
graduate engineer is high, and certainly higher than some years ago,
but further improvement is undoubtedly possible.

-29-
5 THE PERCEIVED SHORTCOMINGS AND OMISSIONS OF
CURRENT TEACHING
This section will attempt to identify shortcomings and omissions in
those aspects of engineering design teaching which relate to creativity.
Such judgements must needs be highly subjective and involve
generalisations which are hard to defend other than in that they are
necessary in moving towards recommendations. It is inevitable that
the observations will not be universally applicable, and by the same
token nor will the recommendations in section 9; indeed some of the
recommendations are based on teaching methods currently in use.
The skills and knowledge which have been identified as necessary to
the creative aspects of the development of effective designs include:
(i) an understanding of the associative processes of creative
thought, in particular what can stimulate and what can
inhibiU
(ii) thus the need to differentiate and separate different
phases of the process and the roles of the designer;
(iii) knowledge of creative tools;
(iv) experience, obtained under guidance, of the use of
creative tools in developing solutions to specific
problems;
(v) ability to visualise in three dimensions; and,
(vi) an accumulation of detailed factual information on
components and alternative solutions to specific
problems (the tricks of the trade?), and an awareness of
the value and use of such information in optimal detail
selection.
From this list the elements which are currently not addressed, or
broadly speaking given inadequate coverage/ are (i), (ii) and (iv). The
other topics, (iii), 1v; and (vi), are addressed in most courses but a
somewhat more extensive treatment and incorporation into a more
integrated scheme of creative design teaching couid be beneficial.
One aspect not mentioned here is the influence on
creative
requirements of the increasing use of computers in design. The impact
of more available and better CAD, whether as three dimensional
modeller or expert system, is not considered likely to change the
fundamental creative role of the designer. It may of course reduce the
level of analytical capability required which may open the way for the
more dioergent thinker to become a design engineer.

-30-
6 DISCUSSION OF THE CREATIVE DESIGN ROLE &
ENGINEERING STUDENTS
In section 2 above it was noted that those who had developed as
diaergers were more likely to have a natural talent for associative
creative thinking. But Hudson's (1966) observations showed that there
was a strong tendency for schoolboys who had developed from an early
age into convergers or divergers, to have greater success in the
deductive sciences or associative arts, respectively. Whilst still at
school this success naturally influenced their choice of subject
specialisation, consequently restricting their options for degree courses,
because of the entry requirements. The outcome has been that the early
specialisation process at secondary schools effectively selects out those
pupils with natural creative talents into subject streams largely
debarred from engineering. So the majority of students who register
for degree courses in engineering (the future professional design
engineers) are therefore unlikely to have naturally creative minds.
However these are the very students most likely to benefit from
positive instruction in creative thinking methods. But what would
seems to be a serious loss to the profession of children in possession of
especially suited talents, is an issue that clearly needs addressing.
Such methods must emphasize the different mental approaches
required of the designer and their natural conflict. It would seem that
talented designers have a natural ability to recognize subconsciously
these different needs and control their mental approach accordingly.
Design education for those lacking this talent should include some
form of training to develop this controlled "schizophrenia" the
-
ability to switch mental approach from analytical and deductive to
associative and creative, as the need arises to match the designer's
changing role.
To achieve greatest effect design education should also include an
appreciation of the different levels (or stages) of the design process at
which inspiration and innovation are required, with particular
emphasis given to the contrasting demands at the conceptual and detail
levels. Creative design at these two extremes entails different attitudes,
different inputs and different resources.

-31 -
7 THE OPTIONS FOR CREATIVITY ENHANCEMENT
7.1 The Educational Objectives
The overall objective stated at the beginning of this report was to
identify the educational methods by which we can most effectively
develop and enhance the creative potential of the young engineer. In
the context of design and in terms of more specific educational
objectives this can now be seen in terms of a need for the graduate
engineer:
(i) to be aware of the broad structure of the design process,
recognizing that different scales and classes of design
task require different models;
(ii) to understand the different roles of the designer at
of the process, and so to appreciate the
different stages
need to adopt a mental approach appropriate to each
phase, differentiating specifically between the creative,
the analytical and the decision making roles;
(iii) to have a working knowledge of a range of formal
techniques for stimulating creative thinking in design,
appreciating under what circumstances they might be
helpful and understanding their basic principles;
(iv) to have practised using a range of creative techniques in
seeking solutions to realistic problems, under guidance,
and, wherever appropriate, as a member of a group;
(v). to have a well developed ability to sketch and perceive
concepts in three dimensions; and,
(vi) to be aware of the need to be familiar with the available
"components" of engineering solutions, and to have
begun to develop such a mental knowledge base.
The extent to which these objectives are currently attained in
engineering courses varies considerably, though none of the courses
seen during this study satisfies all of them, particularly the supervised
trial of creative techniques. Teaching methods currently in use can
largely cover the requirements with only minor changes, but new
approaches may be found more effective in some respects.

7.2 Current Methods

The primary teaching method used in higher education is the formal
lecture, and this is considered perfectly adequate here for the
communication of basic knowledge relating to the structure of the

-32-
design process, the roles of the designer, the formal procedures
available to assist in the generation of ideas, and the basic psychology of
creative, associative thinking. Lectures may also provide a means of
imparting knowledge of the components and processes that are
relevant at the detail design stage, but a course of lectures with a
catalogue for the text book is unlikely to score top marks for
entertainment value. One alternative method has been developed to
cover machine elements for mechanical engineers: this approach is
what might be called anecdotal, using design examples from the
lecturer's own experience to illustrate the principles and problems of
selecting and sizing components and assemblies.
The need to have first hand experience of creative design is met
through project work and to some extent case studies. But while the
typical project provides the opportunity, expert guidance of the creative
work is exceptional. Supervisors are generally expert in the technical
field of the project and probably unfamiliar with modern structured
approaches to design. Provision should be made to guide students
through the use of whatever formal creative tools are appropriate to
the problem. To be most effective and also to prepare the student for
the situation most likely to be found in industry, it is essential that this
kind of exercise is performed in groups.

7.3 Novel Methods

Novelty is of course a quality that one must be cautious to claim
especially in a report on this subject. Two suggestions are offered here
for ways of achieving two of the objectives identified above, which are
not so much novel as variations on well tried themes:
(i) Creative tutorial groups
To develop any expertise in using creative tools,
extended practice with some degree of guidance has
been found necessary (Gordon (1961) and Parker (7975)).
In an undergraduate course this is probably best
achieved working with small groups (eight would
probably be a maximum) making the students do the
work but with methods as directed. Different types of
problem would be selected for each session and the
participants would write up notes summarising the
proceedings and outcome. This kind of activity should
not substitute, but be in addition to, more extended
work on projects described above.

-33-
 (ii) Derail data assigyeniq
One approach to getting students to assimilate
information on components and design elements is to
give them the task of collecting it. Members of a class,
as individuals or small groups would be charged with
collecting information which they would then have to
present to their fellows. Ideally the tasks should include
developing some historical perspective as well as the
latest information. Sources for this kind of information
are widespread but students should be introduced to
collections such as Chironis (1965) for mechanisms,
Greenwood (1.959) for a wealth of ideas (if a little
outdated), the ESDU data sheets, and the whole galaxy
of catalogues and data sheets issued by manufacturers
and suppliers.
Both of these types of exercise could benefit from some industrial
involvement, but only from people who fully understand the
educational objectives. In the first case the industrial role would be
that of customer and perhaps source of expertise, in the second the role
would be the "gatekeeper" pointing the students towards the sources of
information more than supplying it directly.

-34-
8 CONCLUSIONS
1 Creative thinking (the formation of original ideas or
original combinations of ideas) is essential to effective
and competitive design.
2 The nature or style of creative thinking varies through
the design process; a different kind of creative thinking
being required at the early conceptual stages of design
from that needed at the detailing stage.
3 Creative thinking benefits from the right environment,
and needs the right attitude of mind.
It is helped by:
self-confidence;
persistence and determination;
constructive discontent (quest for the ideal);
an adventurous spirit;
readiness to embrace irrational and emotional
involvement;
a receptive, open mind;
freedom from inhibitions.
It is hindered by:
criticism and judgement;
inability (and reluctance) to break out of a set
pattern, or an accepted conservative view;
timidity.
4 Thorough and detailed analysis of a problem is an
essential precursor to the formation of creative
solutions. This analysis leads to an understanding from
which the transition can be made to a creative attitude,
initiated by an emotional involvement and sensitivity
to the problem.
5 Individuais perform better when they have some
understanding of the psychological processes at work in
associative creative thinking.
6 Some people have developed from an early age a
diaergent way of thinking that is especially suited to the
associative thought processes that are the essence of

-35-
 creativity. Such people when at school find the arts
subjects easier than mathematics and the physical
sciences.

The opposite form, conaergers, are good at analytical,

deductive, logical thinking, and when they are at school
they find mathematics and the physical sciences easier
than the arts. They are also particularly ill at ease
declaring emotional involvement.
These differences influence option selections at school,
ultimately restricting the choice of degree course.
The design process cycles from a creative expanding
phase, through an analytical phase, to a decision
making converging phase and back to the creative
again. These constitute different roles which the
designer must adopt in sequence.
The logical, analytical, judgemental way of thinking
inhibits and quenches creative, associative thinking,
especially in one to whom it does not come naturally.
There is therefore a clear need for the designer to
differentiate between the steps in the design process
which require him to assume the different mental roles.
Naturally talented engineering designers seem to
exhibit characteristics of both conoergers and diaergers,
but not in a mixed sense; they appear to have the ability
to switch from one to the other as the need arises.
10 The various formal procedures advanced for
stimulating creative thought are structured to
encourage the creative attitude of mind and trigger
associative thinking. These procedures when used with
confidence (lack of confidence and a critical attitude
inhibit creative thinking) can be effective. It is to be
expected that such procedures will often seem strange -
this is a necessary feature to break away from the set way
of thinking and form fresh ideas.
11 The changes in creative thinking as the design process
cycles from problem formulation through to definition
of the final design details, move from a conceptual and
functional structure, to more specific components and
processes. Input in the form of recalled ideas is
necessary throughout, but at the detail design stage
there is a need for a far more specific level of knowledge

-36-
 relating to specific components and processes. As a
consequence of these differing needs, the creative
thinking involved moves to a higher, less emotional,
level of consciousness.
12 Creative thinking performance is refined by practice and
experience. This is applicable both to individuals and to
groups. With groups there is also the added problem of
assembling a well balanced and compatible team who,
through working together in this way, will develop
close emotional ties and defensive reactions against
outsiders. Students should be given ample opportunity
for creative design work as a member of a group to
develop the necessary skills.
13 The increasing use of CAD systems is not thought to
diminish or alter the basic creative role of the designer,
and may place even greater emphasis on the need for
creative ability. Expert systems should help in the area
of providing specific detail information.

-37-
RECOMMENDATIONS
[Applicable at the school level]
1 Creative exercises should be encouraged throughout
schooling, from rising fives to eighteen plus. This
should extend to the inclusion of more open-ended,
divergent, exercises as part of syllabuses for
mathematics and the physical sciences.
(Some of the new GCSE syllabuses have made moves in
this direction, particularly Design and Technology.)
2 Throughout school, particularly in subjects like history
and geography, due attention should be given to the
benefits attributable to creative technologists, in the
development of civilization and progressive
improvements in living standards. The role of people,
as opposed to an impersonal technology or industry, in
these developments should be highlighted.
3 Teachers, particularly those involved in giving career
and option advice, should be aware of the intellectual
(and even emotional) demands and challenges and
responsibilities of a career as a design engineer.
Thought should also be given as to how best to convey
such an awareness to school children, and perhaps an
even wider audience, but with priority on a carefully
targeted set of teachers - selected on the basis of their
positions of influence with children.
4 Ways should be sought to identify candidates for entry
to higher education with the right set of intellectual
qualities to become creative design engineers,
irrespective of their choice of school subjects. The new
"Access" courses, set up for the year 1988/89, were
originally established to provide routes for such people
to study engineering. Regrettably it has become
apparent that the places on these courses are largely
being taken up by candidates who failed to make the
grades required for the courses with more conventional
entry requirements. Every effort should be made to
make the original purpose of these "Access" courses
known whilst at the same time stressing that, rather
than being a route to engineering for people who had
studied the wrong subjects at school, there may be a real
aduantage in coming to engineering from an Arts
background.

-38-
[Applicable at degree level]
5 Design courses should induce familiarity with creative
tools and processes through:
understanding the roles of the designer and the
importance of their differentiation;
understanding the underlying psychology of
associative thinking;
becoming familiar with a range of creative
techniques (brainstorming, inversion, analogies,
etc.) and understanding how and why they work;
participating in creative problem solving groups
with suitable guidance.
6 Lectures or study assignments should be included to
provide students with some historical perspective of the
technical development of a subject, at a detailed level.
7 Careful consideration should be given to ensure that, by
whatever means might be most appropriate to the
specific subject and institution, all students develop a
basic knowledge of components, processes and the
solutions available to the detail problems of
engineering design.
Efforts should be made to adopt teaching methods, e.g.
case studies or special assignments, which will
stimulate the student and provide an appreciation of
the value of such information.
8 Students working on design projects, and as part of
design courses in general, should have access to expert
systems and data bases. Indeed far more emphasis
should be placed on learning the (creative?) use of
commercial software than in learning advanced
programing.
9 Even with the increasing availability of CAD systems
for the production of drawings, students must still learn
to draw, but skill in sketching is more important than
formal draughtsmanship. Students need to be aware
that sketching and the associated facility for three
dimensional visualisation are still important both for
communication and as a design medium.

-39-
 10 Final year design projects should ideally be performed
by students working in groups on tasks which provide
the opportunities to carry..out creative design at
conceptual and detailed levels. There should be specific
requirements for each group to plan a methodical
strategy appropriate to their problem, describing how
their roles, and therefore mental approach, will change
during the project, and identifying the creative
techniques to be used at different stages.
This planning exercise should be discussed with, and
approved by, someone who understands and can
advise on design methods and formal (i.e. structured)
creative thinking.
These recommendations inevitably impinge on areas of teaching
beyond the prescribed area of this study - creatiaity in engineering
design. In so far as they affect engineering degree courses, they do not
really imply any major changes from the way in which most
engineering departments run their design teaching at present, nor
should they entail any demand for significant additional teaching time.
The recommendations are intended to suggest how, by giving the
student an enhanced awareness of the processes, requirements and
constraints of creative thinking, with the right guidance and
experience, the quality of design work can be upgraded. No magic
panacea has been offered, nor is it intended that these suggestions
should displace or supplant other improvements in design education,
particularly those aimed at developing methods to produce robust
designs, for flexible manufacture.
On a somewhat broader front conclusions have been drawn and
recommendations made concerning the influence of school curricula,
and in particular the consequences of early specialisation on the
intellectual types of children who opt for engineering degrees. This is a
complex issue and while the observations of this report may perhaps
be thought over-simplified, there is some justification for the views
advanced.
In Britain the engineering profession and an engineering education
have, since the mid nineteenth century, been somewhat
unfashionable.t In those countries which are the UK's major
industrial rivals, an engineering education has long been regarded as
one of the best forms of general education, and not merely a
preparation for a career in industry. This attitude has sustained a

I The captive markets of the Empire enabled complacent British manufacturcrs to

grow rich without the need for well designed competitive products.

-40-
broader perception of engineering both in schools and society as a
whole. Coupled with patterns of education which result in much later
specialisation it would be interesting to know how far the observations
made here are applicable to other countries.
The major revisions of poliry currently taking place throughout the
British education system with the introduction of the National
Curriculum are intended to result in maintaining a broader syllabus to
a later stage. This, coupled with the greater awareness of the role of
technology that should also follow from the National Curriculum,
should help the cause of engineering. In time the great British public
and possibly even the "educated classes" will come to appreciate that
engineering is no more applied (and therefore second rate) science,
than science is theoretical engineering. To become a successful design
engineer demands high intellectual qualities that combine analytical
ability with a controlled emotional creativity.

-41 -
10 REFERENCES

ALGER, I. R. M., and HAYS, C. V. (1,964). "Creative synthesis in

design". Prentice-Hall, 1964.
ALLISON, ]. and BENSON, F. A.
(1983). "IJndergraduate projects and
their assessment". IEE Proceedings, Vol. 1,30, Pt. A, No. 8
November, 1,983.
ASKWITH, R. (1988). "What's in a brain". Sunday Telegraph
Magazine,22nd. Muy, 1988. (two sides)
BLACK, J. (1985). "The state of undergraduate engineering design
education". Report of study for The Fellowship of Engineering,
June, 1,986.
BROADBENT, G. H. (7966). "Creativity", in "The Design Method" ed.
Gregory, S. A. Butterworth & Co., London, 1966.
BRUNER, J. S. (7962). "The conditions of creativity", in
"Contemporary approaches to creative thinking: a symposium
held at the University of Colorado", edited by Gruber, H. E.,
Terrell, G. & Wertheimer, M. Atherton Press, New York &
Prentice-Hall International, London, 1,962.

BUZAN, Tony (1.974). "IJse your head". British Broadcasting

Authority, London, 1,974.
CANNON, G. (1988). "Feed your head". Sunday Telegraph Magazine,
22nd. May,1988.
CARTER, G., ARMOUR, D. G., LEE, L. S. and SHARPLES, R.
"Assessment of undergraduate electrical engineering laboratory
studies". IEE Proceedings, YoL727, Pt. A, 1980.
CARVILL, J. (1980). "The student engineer's companion".
Butterworths, 1980.

CHAPLIN, C. R. (1,982). "Design study project - an educational design

experience". Chartered Mechanical Engineer, January, 1982.
CHIRONIS, N. P. (ed.) (1965). "Mechanisms, linkages and mechanical
controls". McGraw Hill, London, 1.965.
CORFIELD, K. G. (1,979). "Product design". NEDO, March, 1979.
COSTELLO, T. A. (1989). "A process for concept development".
Procedings of Int. Conf. on Engineering Design ICED 89, Harrogate,
August, 7989.

-42-
CRICKMAY, C. L. (1972). "Design L: imagination and method".
Technology Foundation, Units 32-34, Course T100, The Open
University, '1.972.
CROSS, Nigel (1989). "Engineering design methods". Wiley 1,989.

CROSS, Nigel and ROY, Robin (7975). "Design methods manual".

Man-made Futures, Units 'l..3-'l.,6, Course T262, The Open
University, 1.975.

D'ARCY THOMPSON, W. (7977). "Of growth and form". Abridged

edition edited by I. f. Bonner, Cambridge University Press, 1,961,.
de BONO E. (1967). "The use of lateral thinking". Jonathan Cape, 7967.
DIXON, J. R. (7966). "Design engineering: inventiveness/ analysis, and
decision making". McGraw-Hill Book Co., U.S.A.1966
DUFF, W. (1,767) ed. by f. L. Mahoney. "An essay on original genius
(1767)". Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, Gainesville, Florida
U.S.A. (H. R.Warfel, General Editor) 7964.
DUNN, P. D. (1968). "Engineers for 2000 AD". Education, August, 1.968.

EHRLENSPIEL, K. & JOHN, T. (7987). "Inventing by design

methodology". Int. Conf. on Engineering Design ICED 87, Boston,
MA 17-20 August 1,987.
ELLIOTT, R. (1989). "The application of computer aided design to large
projects". Procedings of Int. Conf. on Engineering Design ICED 89,
Harrogate, August, 7989.
ENGINEERING COUNCIL (7984). "Standards and Routes to
Registration". The Engineering Council, London, 7984.
FINNISTON, M. (Chairman) (1980). "Engineering Our Future".
Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Egineering
Profession, Cmnd. 7794, HMSO, London, 1980.
FRENCH, M. J. (1988). "Invention and Evolution
- Design in Nature
and Engineering". Cambridge University Press, 1988.
GORDON, W.I. I. 0.961,). "Synectics, the Development of Creative
Capacity". Harper & Brothers, New York, 1.961..
GREENWOOD, D. C. (ed.) (1959). "Product engineering design
manual". McGraw Hill, USA, 1.959.
GREGORY, S. A. (Ed.) (7966). "The design method". Butterworth &
Co., London,1966.
HARDING, R. E. M. (1948). "An anatomy of inspiration". W. Heffer &
Sons Ltd., Cambridge,'1.948.

-43-
HOLGATE, A. (1986). "The art in structural design, an introduction
and sourcebook". Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1,986.
HUDSON, L. (1966). "Contrary imaginations. A psychological study of
the English schoolboy". Methuen, 7966; also published by Pelican
Books, 7967..
I.MECH.E. (1,987). "Guidelines for project work in degree courses".
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Bury St. Edmunds,'l.,987.
IEBB, A. and WYNN, H. P. (1989). "Robust engineering design post-
Taguchi". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London, A 327, 605-676,7989.
JONES, J. C. (1970). "Design methods - seeds of human futures".
Wiley-Interscience, ]ohn Wiley & Sons Ltd. Chichester, 7970.
LATHAM, R. L. (1965). "Problem analysis by the logical approach
System". Design Engineering and Management Conference/
P.E.R.A., Melton Mowbray,'1965.
LE DOUX, J. E. (1983). "Cerebral asymmetry and the integrated
function of the brain" in "Functions of the right cerebral
by A. W. Young . Academic Press, 1983.
hemisphere" ed.
McKAY, A. (1,982). "Design new look at an old problem".
Mechanical Engineering News, April 7982.
MATCHETT, E. (1958). "Control of thought in creative work". The
Chartered Mechanical Engineer, April, 7968.
MATCHETT, E. (1975). "Creative action. The making of meaning in a
complex world". Turnstone Books, London, 1975.
MORGAN, I. 0967). "A network approach". The Chartered
Mechanical Engineer, April, 7967.
MOULTON, A. E. (Chairman) (7976). "Engineering design education".
Design Council, April 1976.
ORNSTEIN, R. & THOMPSON, R. F. (1985). "The amazing brain".
Chatto & Windus, The Hogarth Press, London, 1985.
OSBORN, A. F. (1953). "Applied imagination. Principles and
procedures of creative problem solving". Charles Scribner's Sons,
New York, 1963 (3rd ed.) first published in 1953.
PAHL, G. and BEITZ, W. (7977). "Engineering design". Springer
Verlag, Berlin, 1977, English edition edited by K. Wallace, The
Design Council, London, 79U.
PAULL, I. and D. (1982) "Simple mechanics". Ladybird Books,
Loughborough, 1.982.

-44-
PARKER, R. C. (7975) "Creativity: a case history". Engineering,
February, 1,975.

PARKER, R. C. (1989) "Innovate through technology". BIM/Cogan

Page, 7989.
POLLARD, A. F. (1989). "The education and training of chartered
engineers for the 21st. century". The Fellowship of Engineering,
1989.
POINCARE, H. (1905). "Science and hypothesis". Scott, London, 1905.
POINCARE, H. (191,4). "Science and method". Nelson, London,19'l.,4.
PUGH, S. and MORLEY, I. E. (1988a) "Total design: towards a theory of
total design". University of Strathclyde, 1988.
PUGH, S. and MORLEY, I. E. (1988b). "Total design: some questions
and some answers". University of Strathclyde, 1988.
SAMONOV, C. (1987). "Philosophy of creative thinking and
management of designers". Int. Conf. on Engineering Design
ICED 87, Boston, Mas. 17-20 August 1,987.

SCHRADER, C. R. (7972). "Educating for creativity". Engineering

Education, Vol 62, No 8,May,7972.
SMALLEY, I. (1,989). "Degrees of engineering". Engineering Design
and Education, Spring, 1,989.
ruRNER, B.T.and DUNN, S. C. (7972). "The range of procedures and
strategies". In "Creativity and innovation in engineering", edited
by Gregory, S. A., Butterworths, London,1.972.
ULLMAN, D. G., DIETTERICH, T. G. and STAUFFER, L. A. (1988). "A
model of the mechanical design process based on empirical data: a
summary". DPRG-88-2, AIENG-88 Conference, Palo Alto, CA,
August, 1988.

VDI (1987). "VDI Design Handbook 2221,: systematic approach to the

design of technical systems and products". Translation of 1986
German edition, Verein Deutscher Ingenieure Verlag, Dusseldorf,
1987.

YOUNG, A. W. (ed) (1983). "Functions of the right cerebral

hemisphere". Academic Press 1983.

-45-
APPENDIX A: CONTRIBUTORS TO STUDY
The author wishes to acknowledge the help he has received from all
those listed below in carrying out this study.

F. Adams formerly Kenwood Ltd

K. Ball Merseyside Innovation Centre
I.R. Bayes Reading University
R. Coulthard APV plc
S. |. Culley Bath University
Prof. G. Davies Reading University
Dr. N. P. Fletcher , Loughborough University
Dr. I. Gilchrist Brunel University
K. Grange consultant
R. E. Jackson, F Eng formerly UKAEA
Dr. A. Jebb City University
D. Horne BICC, formerly Black & Decker Ltd
Dr. A. E. Moulton, F Eng consultant
M. Neale, F Eng consultant
Dr. R. C. Parker consultant
Dr. A. F. Pollard DTI
Dr. M. E. Preston Loughborough University
]. A. Ritchie consultant
Dr. I.Sharp QMC London
R. Tilson APV plc
K. M. Wallace Cambridge University
P. R. Whitfield consultant
Prof. G. R. Wray, F Eng Loughborough University

-46-