axioms

Article
Some Identities for Euler and Bernoulli Polynomials
and Their Zeros
Taekyun Kim 1 and Cheon Seoung Ryoo 2, *
1 Department of Mathematics, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Korea; tkkim@kw.ac.kr
2 Department of Mathematics, Hannam University, Daejeon 306-791, Korea
* Correspondence: ryoocs@hnu.kr; Tel.: +82-42-629-7525

Received: 30 June 2018; Accepted: 11 August 2018; Published: 14 August 2018

Abstract: In this paper, we study some special polynomials which are related to Euler and Bernoulli
polynomials. In addition, we give some identities for these polynomials. Finally, we investigate the
zeros of these polynomials by using the computer.

Keywords: Appell sequence; Appell numbers and polynomials; Bernoulli and Euler polynomials;
cosine–Bernoulli and cosine–Euler polynomials; sine–Bernoulli and sine–Euler polynomials

MSC: 11B68; 11S40; 11S80

1. Introduction
Many mathematicians have studied in the area of the Bernoulli numbers and polynomials,
Euler numbers and polynomials, Genocchi numbers and polynomials, and tangent numbers and
polynomials. The class of Appell polynomial sequences is one of the important classes of polynomial
sequences. The Appell polynomial sequences arise in numerous problems of applied mathematics,
mathematical physics and several other mathematical branches (see [1–14]). The Appell polynomials
can be defined by considering the following generating function:

t t2 tn
A(t)e xt = A0 ( x ) + A1 ( x ) + A2 ( x ) + · · · + A n ( x ) + · · ·
1! 2! n!
∞ (1)
tn
= ∑ An ( x )
n!
, (see [5,7,8]),
n =0

where
t t2 tn
A ( t ) = A0 + A1 + A2 + · · · + An + · · · , A0 6= 0.
1! 2! n!
Alternatively, the sequence An ( x ) is Appell sequence for ( g(t), t) if and only if
∞
1 xt tn
e = ∑ An ( x ) , (see [5,7,8]),
g(t) n =0
n!

where
∞
tn
g(t) = ∑ gn
n!
, g0 6= 0.
n =0
tn
Differentiating generating Equation (1) with respect to x and equating coefficients of n! , we have

d
An ( x ) = nAn−1 ( x ), n = 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · .
dx

Axioms 2018, 7, 56; doi:10.3390/axioms7030056 www.mdpi.com/journal/axioms

Axioms 2018, 7, 56 2 of 19

The typical examples of Appell polynomials are the Bernoulli and Euler polynomials (see [1–14]).
It is well known that the Bernoulli polynomials are defined by the generating function to be
∞
t tn
et − 1
e xt
= ∑ Bn ( x )
n!
. (2)
n =0

When x = 0, Bn = Bn (0) are called the Bernoulli numbers. The Euler polynomials are given by
the generating function to be
∞
2 tn
et + 1
e xt
= ∑ En ( x )
n!
. (3)
n =0

When x = 0, En = En (0) are called the Euler numbers.

(r )
The Bernoulli polynomials Bn ( x ) of order r are defined by the following generating function
r ∞
tn

t
∑ Bn
(r )
e xt = (x) , (|t| < 2π ). (4)
et − 1 n =0
n!

(r )
The Frobenius–Euler polynomials of order r, denoted by Hn (u, x ), are defined as
r ∞
1−u tn

∑ Hn
(r )
e xt = (u, x ) . (5)
et − u n =0
n!

The values at x = 0 are called Frobenius–Euler numbers of order r; when r = 1, the polynomials
or numbers are called ordinary Frobenius–Euler polynomials or numbers.
In this paper, we study some special polynomials which are related to Euler and Bernoulli
polynomials. In addition, we give some identities for these polynomials. Finally, we investigate the
zeros of these polynomials by using the computer.

2. Cosine–Bernoulli, Sine–Bernoulli, Cosine–Euler and Sine–Euler Polynomials

In this section, we define the cosine–Bernoulli, sine–Bernoulli, cosine–Euler and sine–Euler
polynomials. Now, we consider the Euler polynomials that are given by the generating function to be
∞
2 tn
et + 1
e ( x +iy)t
= ∑ En ( x + iy )
n!
. (6)
n =0

On the other hand, we observe that

e( x+iy)t = e xt eiyt = e xt (cos yt + i sin yt). (7)

From Equations (6) and (7), we have

∞
tn 2 2
∑ En (x + iy) n! =
et + 1
e( x+iy)t = t
e +1
e xt (cos yt + i sin yt), (8)
n =0

and
∞
tn 2 2
∑ En (x − iy) n! =
et + 1
e( x−iy)t = t
e +1
e xt (cos yt − i sin yt). (9)
n =0

Thus, by (8) and (9), we can derive

∞
En ( x + iy) + En ( x − iy) tn
 
2
et + 1
e xt
cos yt = ∑ 2 n!
, (10)
n =0
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 3 of 19

and
∞
En ( x + iy) + En ( x − iy) tn
 
2
et + 1
e xt
sin yt = ∑ 2i n!
. (11)
n =0

It follows that we define the following cosine–Euler polynomials and sine–Euler polynomials.

(C ) (S)
Definition 1. The cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) and sine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) are defined by
means of the generating functions
∞
tn 2
∑ En
(C )
( x, y) = t e xt cos yt, (12)
n =0
n! e +1

and
∞
tn 2
∑ En
(S)
( x, y) = t e xt sin yt, (13)
n =0
n! e +1
respectively.

(C ) (S)
Note that En ( x, 0) = En ( x ), En ( x, 0) = 0, (n ≥ 0). The cosine–Euler and sine–Euler
polynomials can be determined explicitly. A few of them are

(C ) (C ) 1
E0 ( x, y) = 1, E1 ( x, y) = − + x,
2
(C )
E2 ( x, y) = − x + x2 − y2 ,
(C ) 1 3x2 3y2
E3 ( x, y) = − + x3 + − 3xy2 ,
4 2 2
(C )
E4 ( x, y) = x − 2x3 + x4 + 6xy2 − 6x2 y2 + y4 ,

and
(S) (S)
E0 ( x, y) = 0, E1 ( x, y) = y,
(S)
E2 ( x, y) = −y + 2xy,
(S)
E3 ( x, y) = −3xy + 3x2 y − y3 ,
(S)
E4 ( x, y) = y − 6x2 y + 4x3 y + 2y3 − 4xy3 .
By (10)–(13), we have
(C ) En ( x + iy) + En ( x − iy)
En ( x, y) = ,
2
(S) En ( x + iy) − En ( x − iy)
En ( x, y) = .
2i
Clearly, we can get the following explicit representations of En ( x + iy)
  n
n
En ( x + iy) = ∑ ( x + iy)n−k Ek ,
k =0
k
n  
n
En ( x + iy) = ∑ (iy)n−k Ek ( x ).
k =0
k

Let
∞ ∞
tk tk
e xt cos yt = ∑ Ck (x, y) k! , e xt sin yt = ∑ Sk (x, y) k! . (14)
k =0 k =0
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 4 of 19

Then, by Taylor expansions of e xt cos yt and e xt sin yt, we get

 
∞ [ 2k ]
tk
 
k
e xt cos yt = ∑∑ 2m
(−1)m x k−2m y2m 
k!
(15)
k =0 m =0

and  
∞ [ k−2 1 ] 
tk

k
e xt sin yt = ∑∑ 2m + 1
(−1)m x k−2m−1 y2m+1  ,
k!
(16)
k =0 m =0

where [ ] denotes taking the integer part. By (14)–(16), we get

[ 2k ]  
k
Ck ( x, y) = ∑ 2m
(−1)m x k−2m y2m ,
m =0

and
[ k−2 1 ]  
k
Sk ( x, y) = ∑ 2m + 1
(−1)m x k−2m−1 y2m+1 , (k ≥ 0).
m =0

The two polynomials can be determined explicitly. A few of them are

C0 ( x, y) = 1, C1 ( x, y) = x, C2 ( x, y) = x2 − y2 ,
C3 ( x, y) = x3 − 3xy2 , C4 ( x, y) = x4 − 6x2 y2 + y4 ,
C5 ( x, y) = x5 − 10x3 y2 + 5xy4 , C6 ( x, y) = x6 − 15x4 y2 + 15x2 y4 − y6 ,

and
S0 ( x, y) = 0, S1 ( x, y) = y, S2 ( x, y) = 2xy,
2 3
S3 ( x, y) = 3x y − y , S4 ( x, y) = 4x3 y − 4xy3 ,
S5 ( x, y) = 5x4 y − 10x2 y3 + y5 , S6 ( x, y) = 6x5 y − 20x3 y3 + 6xy5 .
Now, we observe that

∞ ∞
! !
2 tl tm
et + 1
e xt cos yt = ∑ El l! ∑ Cm (x, y) m!
l =0 m =0
(17)
∞
!
n  
n tn
= ∑ ∑ El Cn−l ( x, y) .
n =0 l =0
l n!

Therefore, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 1. For n ≥ 0, we have

 n
n
=∑
(C )
En ( x, y) El Cn−l ( x, y)
l =0
l

and  n
n
=∑
(S)
En ( x, y) El Sn−l ( x, y).
l =0
l
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 5 of 19

From (12), we have

∞
!
tl
∑
xt (C )
et + 1


2e cos yt = El ( x, y)
l =0
l!
(18)
∞
!
n
tn
 
n (C )
∑ ∑ l El (x, y) + En (x, y) n! .
(C )
=
n =0 l =0

By (14) and (18), we get

!
n  
1 n (C )
∑ l El (x, y) + En (x, y) .
(C )
Cn ( x, y) = (19)
2 l =0

Therefore, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 2. For n ≥ 0, we have

!
n  
1 n (C )
∑ l El (x, y) + En (x, y) ,
(C )
Cn ( x, y) =
2 l =0

and !
n  
1 n (S)
∑ l El (x, y) + En (x, y) .
(S)
Sn ( x, y) =
2 l =0

From (12), we note that

∞
tn 2
∑ En
(C )
(1 − x, y) = t e(1− x)t cos yt
n =0
n! e +1
2
= e− xt cos (−yt)
e−t
+1
∞ ∞ (20)
! !
tl tm
= ∑ (−1) El l
∑ (−1) Cm, (x, y) m!
m
l =0
l! m =0
∞
!
n  
n (−1)n n
= ∑ ∑ El Cn−l ( x, y) t .
n =0 l =0
l n!

Therefore, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 3. For n ≥ 0, we have

n
 
n
∑ l El Cn−l (x, y)
(C )
En (1 − x, y) = (−1)n
l =0
(C )
= (−1)n En ( x, y),

and
(S) (S)
En (1 − x, y) = (−1)n+1 En ( x, y)
n  
n
= (−1)n+1 ∑ El Sn−l ( x, y).
l =0
l
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 6 of 19

Now, we observe that

∞
tn 2
∑ En
(C )
( x + 1, y) = t e( x+1)t cos yt
n =0
n! e +1
2
= e xt (et − 1 + 1) cos yt
et + 1
(21)
2
= 2e xt cos yt − t e xt cos yt
e +1
∞   tn
= ∑ 2Cn ( x, y) − En ( x, y)
(C )
.
n =0
n!

By comparing the coefficients on the both sides, we get

(C ) (C )
En ( x + 1, q) + En ( x, y) = 2Cn ( x, y), (n ≥ 0). (22)

Therefore, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 4. For n ≥ 0, we have

(C ) (C )
En ( x + 1, y) + En ( x, y) = 2Cn ( x, y),

and
(S) (S)
En ( x + 1, y) + En ( x, y) = 2Sn ( x, y).

From (14) and (15), we have

∞ ∞
tk t2m
∑ Ck (0, y) k! = ∑ (−1)m y2m (2m)! . (23)
k =0 m =0

Therefore, by Theorem 4 and (23), we obtain the following corollary:

Corollary 1. For n ≥ 0, we have

(C ) (C )
E2n (1, y) + E2n (0, y) = 2(−1)n y2n ,

and
(S) (S)
E2n+1 (1, y) + E2n+1 (0, y) = 2(−1)n y2n+1 .

By (12), we get
∞ n 2e xt
 
t
∑
(C )
En ( x + r, y) = cos yt ert
n =0
n! et + 1
∞ ∞
! !
tl kt
k
= ∑ El ( x, y) ∑ r k!
(C )
(24)
l =0
l! k =0
∞
!
n  
n (C ) tn
= ∑ ∑ Ek ( x, y)r n−k .
n =0 k =0
k n!

Therefore, by comparing the coefficients on the both sides, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 5. For n ≥ 0, r ∈ N, we have

Axioms 2018, 7, 56 7 of 19

n  
n (C )
∑ k Ek (x, y)rn−k ,
(C )
En ( x + r, y) =
k =0

and
n  
n (S)
= ∑
(S)
En ( x + r, y) Ek ( x, y)r n−k .
k =0
k

Taking r = 1 in Theorem 5, we obtain the following corollary:

Corollary 2. For n ≥ 0, we have

n  
n (C )
∑ k Ek (x, y),
(C )
2Cn ( x, y) = En ( x, y) +
k =0

and
n  
n (S)
∑ k Ek (x, y).
(S)
2Sn ( x, y) = En ( x, y) +
k =0

From Corollary 2, we note that

(
n 
n (C ) 0, if n = 2m + 1,
∑ k Ek (0, y) = 2(−1)m y2m ,
(C )
En (0, y) + (25)
k =0
if n = 2m,

and (
n
2(−1)m y2m+1 ,
 
n (S) if n = 2m + 1,
∑ k Ek (0, y) =
(S)
En (0, y) + (26)
k =0
0, if n = 2m.

By (12), we get
∞
tn
 
∂ (C ) ∂ 2
∑ ∂x En (x, y) n! = ∂x et + 1
e xt cos yt
n =1
2
= te xt cos yt (27)
et
+1
∞   tn
= ∑ nEn−1 ( x, y)
(C )
.
n =1
n!

Comparing the coefficients on the both sides of (27), we have

∂ (C ) (C )
En ( x, y) = nEn−1 ( x, y).
∂x
Similarly, for n ≥ 1, we have

∂ (S) (S)
En ( x, y) = nEn−1 ( x, y),
∂x
∂ (C ) (S)
En ( x, y) = −nEn−1 ( x, y),
∂y
∂ (S) (C )
En ( x, y) = nEn−1 ( x, y).
∂y
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 8 of 19

Now, we consider the Bernoulli polynomials that are given by the generating function to be
∞
t tn
et − 1
e ( x +iy)t
= ∑ Bn ( x + iy )
n!
.
n =0

We also have
∞
tn t t
∑ Bn (x + iy) n! =
et − 1
e( x+iy)t = t
e −1
e xt (cos yt + i sin yt), (28)
n =0

and
∞
tn t t
∑ Bn (x − iy) n! =
et − 1
e( x−iy)t = t
e −1
e xt (cos yt − i sin yt). (29)
n =0

Thus, by (28) and (29), we can derive

∞
Bn ( x + iy) + Bn ( x − iy) tn
 
t
t
e xt cos yt = ∑ , (30)
e −1 n =0
2 n!

and
∞
Bn ( x + iy) + Bn ( x − iy) tn
 
t
t
e xt sin yt = ∑ . (31)
e −1 n =0
2i n!
It follows that we define the following cosine–Bernoulli and sine–Bernoulli polynomials.

(C ) (S)
Definition 2. The cosine–Bernoulli polynomials Bn ( x, y) and sine–Bernoulli polynomials Bn ( x, y) are
defined by means of the generating functions
∞
tn t
∑ Bn
(C )
( x, y) = t e xt cos yt, (32)
n =0
n! e −1

and
∞
tn t
∑ Bn
(S)
( x, y) = t e xt sin yt, (33)
n =0
n! e −1
respectively.

By (30), (31), (32), and (33), we have

(C ) Bn ( x + iy) + Bn ( x − iy)
Bn ( x, y) = ,
2
(S) Bn ( x + iy) − Bn ( x − iy)
Bn ( x, y) = .
2i
(C )
Note that Bn ( x, 0) = Bn ( x ) are the Bernoulli polynomials. The cosine–Bernoulli and
sine–Bernoulli polynomials can be determined explicitly. A few of them are

(C ) (C ) 1
B0 ( x, y) = 1, B1 ( x, y) = − + x,
2
(C ) 1
B2 ( x, y) = − x + x 2 − y2 ,
6
(C ) x 3x2 3y2
B3 ( x, y) = − + x3 + − 3xy2 ,
2 2 2
(C ) 1
B4 ( x, y) = − + x2 − 2x3 + x4 − y2 + 6xy2 − 6x2 y2 + y4 ,
30
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 9 of 19

and
(S) (S) (S)
B0 ( x, y) = 0, B1 ( x, y) = y, B2 ( x, y) = −y + 2xy,
(S) y
B3 ( x, y) = − 3xy + 3x2 y − y3 ,
2
(S)
B4 ( x, y) = 2xy − 6x2 y + 4x3 y + 2y3 − 4xy3 .
From (32), we have
∞
tn t
∑ Bn
(C )
( x, y) = t e xt cos yt,
n =0
n! e −1
∞ ∞
! !
tl tm
= ∑ Bn ∑ Cm (x, y) m! (34)
l =0
l! m =0
∞
!
n  
n tn
= ∑ ∑ Bl Cn−l ( x, y) .
n =0 l =0
l n!

Comparing the coefficients on the both sides of (34), we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 6. For n ≥ 0, we have

n  
n
∑ l Bl Cn−l (x, y),
(C )
Bn ( x, y) =
l =0

and
n  
n
∑ l Bl Sn−l (x, y).
(S)
Bn ( x, y) =
l =0

By replacing x by 1 − x in (32), we get

∞
tn t
∑ Bn
(C )
(1 − x, y) = t e(1− x)t cos yt
n =0
n! e −1
t
= e− xt cos yt (35)
1 − e−t
∞
tn
= ∑ (−1)n Bn (x, y) n! .
n =0

Therefore, we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 7. For n ≥ 0, we have

(C ) (C )
Bn (1 − x, y) = (−1)n Bn ( x, y),

and
(S) (S)
Bn (1 − x, y) = (−1)n+1 Bn ( x, y).
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 10 of 19

Now, we observe that

∞
tn t
∑ Bn
(C )
( x + 1, q) = t e( x+1)t cos yt
n =0
n! e −1
t
= te xt cos yt + e xt cos yt
et − 1
∞
tn ∞
tn (36)
= ∑ nCn−1 ( x, y) + ∑ Bn ( x, y)
(C )

n =1
n! n=0 n!
∞   tn
= ∑ nCn−1 ( x, y) + Bn ( x, y)
(C )
.
n =0
n!

Thus, by (36), we get

(C ) (C )
Bn ( x + 1, y) = nCn−1 ( x, y) + Bn ( x, y), (n ≥ 1). (37)

Therefore, by (37), we obtain the following theorem:

Theorem 8. For n ≥ 1, we have

(C ) (C )
Bn ( x + 1, y) − Bn ( x, y) = nCn−1 ( x, y),

and
(S) (S)
Bn ( x + 1, y) − Bn ( x, y) = nSn−1 ( x, y).

Now, we define the new type polynomials that are given by the generating functions to be
∞
2 tn
cos yt = ∑ En (y) ,
(C )
(38)
et +1 n =0
n!

and
∞
2 tn
sin yt = ∑ En (y) ,
(S)
(39)
et +1 n =0
n!
respectively.
(C ) (S) (C ) (C ) (S) (S)
Note that En (0) = En , En (0) = 0, En (0, y) = En (y), En (0, y) = En (y), (n ≥ 0). The new
type polynomials can be determined explicitly. A few of them are

(C ) (C ) 1 (C ) (C ) 1 3y2
E0 (y) = 1, E1 ( x, y) = − , E2 ( x, y) = −y2 , E3 (y) = + ,
2 4 2
(C ) (C ) 1 5y2 5y4 (C )
E4 (y) = y4 , E5 (y) = − − − , E6 (y) = −y6 ,
2 2 2
and
(S) (S) (S) (S)
E0 ( x, y) = 0, E1 ( x, y) = y, E2 ( x, y) = −y, E3 ( x, y) = −y3 ,
(S) (S) (S)
E4 ( x, y) = y + 2y3 E5 ( x, y) = y5 , E6 ( x, y) = −3y − 5y3 − 3y5 .
From (38) and (39), we derive the following equations:
 k 
∞ [2]   k
2 k 2m  t
et + 1
cos yt = ∑ ∑
2m
(− 1 ) m
Ek − 2m y
k!
(40)
k =0 m =0
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 11 of 19

and  
∞ [ k−2 1 ] 
tk

2 k
sin yt = ∑  ∑ (−1)m Ek−2m−1 y2m+1  . (41)
et +1 k =0 m =0
2m + 1 k!

By (38)–(41), we get
[ n2 ]  
n
∑
(C )
En (y) = (−1)m y2m En−2m , (42)
m =0
2m
and
[ n− 1 
2 ]

n
∑
(S)
En (y) = (−1)m y2m+1 En−2m−1 , (k ≥ 0). (43)
m =0
2m + 1
From (12), (13), (38) and (39), we derive the following theorem:

Theorem 9. For n ≥ 0, we have

n  
n
∑ k xn−k Ek (y),
(C ) (C )
En ( x, y) =
k =0

and
n  
n
∑ k xn−k Ek (y).
(S) (S)
En ( x, y) =
k =0

Now, we define the new type polynomials that are given by the generating functions to be
∞
t tn
∑
(C )
cos yt = Bn ( y ) , (44)
et − 1 n =0
n!

and
∞
t tn
∑
(S)
sin yt = Bn ( y ) , (45)
et − 1 n =0
n!
respectively.
(C ) (S) (C ) (C ) (S) (S)
Note that Bn (0) = Bn , Bn (0) = 0, Bn (0, y) = Bn (y), Bn (0, y) = Bn (y), (n ≥ 0). The new
type polynomials can be determined explicitly. A few of them are

(C ) (C ) 1 (C ) 1
B0 ( x, y) = 1, B1 ( x, y) = − , B2 ( x, y) = − y2 ,
2 6
(C ) 3y2 (C ) 1 (C ) 5y4
B3 ( x, y) = , B4 ( x, y) = − − y2 + y4 , B5 ( x, y) = ,
2 30 2
and
(S) (S) (S)
B0 ( x, y) = 0, B1 ( x, y) = y, B2 ( x, y) = −y,
(S) y (S) (S) y 5y3
B3 ( x, y) = − y3 , B4 ( x, y) = 2y3 , B5 ( x, y) = − − + y5 .
2 6 3
From (44) and (45), we derive the following equations:
 k 
∞ [2]   k
t k 2m  t
et − 1
cos yt = ∑ ∑
2m
(− 1 ) m
Bk − 2m y
k!
(46)
k =0 m =0

and  k −1 
∞ [ 2 ]  k
t k 2m+1  t
et − 1
sin yt = ∑ ∑
2m + 1
(− 1 ) m
Bk − 2m − 1 y
k!
. (47)
k =0 m =0
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 12 of 19

By (44)–(47), we get
[ n2 ]  
n
∑
(C )
Bn (y) = (−1)m y2m Bn−2m , (48)
m =0
2m
and
[ n− 1 
2 ]

n
∑
(S)
Bn (y) = (−1)m y2m+1 Bn−2m−1 , (k ≥ 0). (49)
m =0
2m + 1
From (32), (33), (44) and (45), we derive the following theorem:

Theorem 10. For n ≥ 0, we have

n 
n
∑ k xn−k Bk (y),
(C ) (C )
Bn ( x, y) =
k =0

and
n 
n
∑ k xn−k Bk (y).
(S) (S)
Bn ( x, y) =
k =0

We remember that the classical Stirling numbers of the first kind S1 (n, k ) and S2 (n, k) are defined
by the relations (see [12])
n n
( x )n = ∑ S1 (n, k)xk and xn = ∑ S2 (n, k)(x)k , (50)
k =0 k =0

respectively. Here, ( x )n = x ( x − 1) · · · ( x − n + 1) denotes the falling factorial polynomial of order n.

The numbers S2 (n, m) also admit a representation in terms of a generating function
∞
tn
(et − 1)m = m! ∑ S2 (n, m)
n!
. (51)
n=m

By (12), (51) and by using Cauchy product, we get

∞ n  
t 2
∑
(C )
En ( x, y) = (1 − (1 − e−t ))− x cos yt
n =0
n! et + 1
∞
x+l−1
   
2
= cos yt ∑(1 − e − t ) l
et + 1 l =0
l
∞
( e − 1) l
t  
2
= ∑ < x >l t+1
e−lt cos yt (52)
l =0
l! e
∞ ∞ ∞
tn tn
∑ < x >l ∑ S2 (n, l ) n! ∑ En
(C )
= (−l, y)
l =0 n =0 n =0
n!
∞ ∞
!
n
tn
 
n
∑ ∑ ∑ i S2 (i, l )En−i (−l, y) < x >l n! ,
(C )
=
n =0 l =0 i = l

where < x >l = x ( x + 1) · · · ( x + l − 1)(l ≥ 1) with < x >0 = 1.

By comparing the coefficients on both sides of (52), we have the following theorem:
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 13 of 19

Theorem 11. For n ∈ Z+ , we have

∞
  n
n
∑ ∑ i S2 (i, l )En−i (−l, y) < x >l ,
(C ) (C )
En ( x, y) =
l =0 i = l
∞ n  
n
En ( x, y) = ∑ ∑
(S) (S)
S2 (i, l ) En−i (−l, y) < x >l .
l =0 i = l
i

By (12), (38), (50), (51) and by using Cauchy product, we have

∞ n  
t 2
∑
(C )
En ( x, y) = t
((et − 1) + 1) x cos(yt)
n =0
n! e +1
∞  
2 x
= t cos(yt) ∑ ( e t − 1) l
e +1 l =0
l
∞
( e t − 1) l
 
2
= ∑ ( x )l cos(yt) (53)
l =0
l! et + 1
∞ ∞ ∞
tn tn
∑ (x)l ∑ S2 (n, l ) n! ∑ En
(C )
= (y)
l =0 n =0 n =0
n!
∞ ∞
!
n
tn
 
n
∑ ∑ ∑ i (x)l S2 (i, l )En−i (y) n! .
(C )
=
n =0 l =0 i = l

By comparing the coefficients on both sides of (53), we have the following theorem:

Theorem 12. For n ∈ Z+ , we have

∞
  n
n
= ∑∑
(C ) (C )
En ( x, y) ( x )l S2 (i, l ) En−i (y),
l =0 i = l
i
∞ n  
n
En ( x, y) = ∑ ∑
(S) (S)
( x )l S2 (i, l ) En−i (y).
l =0 i = l
i

By (4), (12), (38), (50), (51) and by using Cauchy product, we have
∞
tn
∑ En
(C )
( x, y)
n =0
n!
 
2
= e xt cos(yt)
et + 1
r ∞
(et − 1)r r! tn

t
∑
xt (C )
= e E n ( y )
r! tr e t − 1 n =0
n!
∞ ∞
! !
( e t − 1)r tn tn r!
∑ Bn (x) n! ∑ En (y) n! tr
(r ) (C )
=
r! n =0 n =0
∞
!
n (n) n−l 
− tn

n l
= ∑ ∑ l +l r S2 (l + r, r ) ∑
( r ) ( C )
Bi ( x ) En−l −i (y) .
n =0 l =0 ( r ) i =0
i n!

By comparing the coefficients on both sides, we have the following theorem:

Axioms 2018, 7, 56 14 of 19

Theorem 13. For n ∈ Z+ and r ∈ N, we have

n (nl) n−l 
n − l (C )

= ∑ l +r S2 (l + r, r ) ∑
(C ) (r )
En ( x, y) En−l −i (y)Bi ( x ),
l =0 ( ) i =0
i
r
n (n) n−l 
n − l (S)

En ( x, y) = ∑ l +l r S2 (l + r, r ) ∑
(S) (r )
En−l −i (y)Bi ( x ).
l =0 ( ) i =0
i
r

By (5), (12), (38), (50), (51) and by using the Cauchy product, we get
∞
tn
 
2
∑
(C )
En ( x, y) = t+1
e xt cos(yt)
n =0
n! e
(et − u)r 1 − u r xt
   
2
= e cos(yt)
(1 − u )r e t − u et + 1
∞
tn r r it
   
1 2
= ∑ Hn (u, x ) ∑
(r )
e (−u)r−i cos(yt)
n =0
n! i=0 i (1 − u )r e t + 1
∞
1 r  
r t n ∞ (C ) tn
∑ (−u)r−i ∑ Hn (u, x ) ∑ En (i, y)
(r )
= r
(1 − u ) i =0 i n =0
n! n=0 n!
∞
!
r n
tn
   
1 r n
= ∑ ∑ ∑
r −i ( r ) ( C )
(− u ) H l ( u, x ) En − l ( i, y ) .
n =0
(1 − u ) r i =0 i l =0
l n!

By comparing the coefficients on both sides, we have the following theorem:

Theorem 14. For n ∈ Z+ and r ∈ N, we have

r
  n
1 r n
∑ ∑ i l (−u)r−i Hl (u, x)En−l (i, y),
(C ) (r ) (C )
En ( x, y) =
(1 − u )r
i =0 l =0
r n   
1 r n
(1 − u)r i∑ ∑ i l (−u)r−i Hl (u, x)En−l (i, y).
(S) (r ) (S)
En ( x, y) =
=0 l =0

By Theorems 12–14, we have the following corollary.

Corollary 3. For n ∈ Z+ and r ∈ N, we have

∞ n  
n
∑ ∑ i (x)l S2 (i, l )En−i (y)
(C )

l =0 i = l
r n   
1 r n
(1 − u)r i∑ ∑ i l (−u)r−i Hl (u, x)En−l (i, y)
(r ) (C )
=
=0 l =0
n (n) n−l 
n − l (C )

= ∑ l +r S2 (l + r, r ) ∑
l (r )
En−l −i (y)Bi ( x ).
l =0 ( r ) i =0
i

3. Distribution of Zeros of the Cosine–Euler and Sine–Euler Polynomials

This section aims to demonstrate the benefit of using numerical investigation to support theoretical
prediction and to discover a new interesting pattern of the zeros of the cosine–Euler and sine–Euler
(C )
polynomials. Using a computer, a realistic study for the cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) and
(S)
sine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) is very interesting. It is the aim of this paper to observe an interesting
(C )
phenomenon of “scattering” of the zeros of the the cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) and sine–Euler
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 15 of 19

(S)
polynomials En ( x, y) in a complex plane. We investigate the beautiful zeros of the cosine–Euler
and sine–Euler polynomials by using a computer. We plot the zeros of the cosine–Euler polynomials
(C )
En ( x, y) (Figure 1).
In Figure 1 (top-left), we choose n = 30 and y = −3. In Figure 1 (top-right), we choose n = 30
and y = 0. In Figure 1 (bottom-left), we choose n = 30 and y = 1/2. In Figure 1 (bottom-right),
we choose n = 30 and y = 3.
(S)
We plot the zeros of the sine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) (Figure 2).
10 10

5 5

Im(x) 0 Im(x) 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
-50 0 50 -50 0 50

Re(x) Re(x)
10 10

5 5

Im(x) 0 Im(x) 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
-50 0 50 -50 0 50

Re(x) Re(x)

(C )
Figure 1. Zeros of En ( x, y).

In Figure 2 (top-left), we choose n = 30 and x = −3. In Figure 2 (top-right), we choose n = 30

and x = −1. In Figure 2 (bottom-left), we choose n = 30 and x = 1. In Figure 2 (bottom-right),
we choose n = 30 and x = 3.
(C )
We observe that En ( x, a), x ∈ C has Re( x ) = 21 reflection symmetry in addition to the usual
Im( x ) = 0 reflection symmetry analytic complex functions, where a ∈ R( Figures 1 and 2).
Since
∞
(−1)n tn 2
∑ En (1 − x, −y) n! = e−t + 1 e(1−x)(−t) cos yt
(C )

n =0
∞
2 tn
∑
xt (C )
= t
e cos yt = En ( x, y) ,
e +1 n =0
n!
we obtain
(C ) (C ) (C ) (C )
En ( x, y) = (−1)n En (1 − x, −y), En ( x, y) = (−1)n En (1 − x, y),
(S) (S) (S) (S)
En ( x, y) = (−1)n En (1 − x, −y), En ( x, y) = (−1)n+1 En (1 − x, y).

Hence, we have the following theorem:

Axioms 2018, 7, 56 16 of 19

Theorem 15. If n ≡ 1 (mod 2), then

(C ) (C )
En (1/2, y) = 0, Bn (1/2, y) = 0, for n ∈ N.

If n ≡ 0 (mod 2), then

(S) (S)
En (1/2, y) = 0, Bn (1/2, y) = 0, for n ∈ N.

Our numerical results for numbers of real and complex zeros of the cosine–Euler polynomials
(C )
En ( x, y) = 0 are displayed (Table 1).
10 10

5 5

Im(x) 0 Im(x) 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Re(x) Re(x)
10 10

5 5

Im(x) 0 Im(x) 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Re(x) Re(x)

(S)
Figure 2. Zeros of En ( x, y).

(C )
Table 1. Numbers of real and complex zeros of En ( x, y).

y = −3 y=2
Degree n
Real Zeros Complex Zeros Real Zeros Complex Zeros
1 1 0 1 0
2 2 0 2 0
3 3 0 3 0
4 4 0 4 0
5 5 0 5 0
6 6 0 6 0
7 7 0 7 0
8 8 0 8 0
9 9 0 9 0
10 10 0 10 0

Our numerical results for numbers of real and complex zeros of the sine–Euler polynomials
(S)
En ( x, y) = 0 are displayed (Table 2).
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 17 of 19

(C )
Stacks of zeros of the cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 40 from a 3D structure are
presented (Figure 3).
In Figure 3 (left), we choose y = −3. In Figure 3 (right), we choose y = 1/2. The plot of real zeros
(C )
of the cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 40 structure are presented (Figure 4).
In Figure 4 (left), we choose y = −3. In Figure 4 (right), we choose y = 1/2. Stacks of zeros of the
(S)
sine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 40 from a 3D structure are presented (Figure 5).

(S)
Table 2. Numbers of real and complex zeros of En ( x, y).

x = −3 x=1
Degree n
Real Zeros Complex Zeros Real Zeros Complex Zeros
1 1 0 1 0
2 1 0 1 0
3 3 0 3 0
4 3 0 3 0
5 5 0 5 0
6 5 0 1 4
7 7 0 7 0
8 7 0 1 6
9 9 0 9 0
10 9 0 1 8

(C )
Figure 3. Stacks of zeros of En ( x, y), 1 ≤ n ≤ 40.

(C )
Figure 4. Real zeros of En ( x, y).
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 18 of 19

(S)
Figure 5. Stacks of zeros of En ( x, y), 1 ≤ n ≤ 40.

In Figure 5 (left), we choose x = −3. In Figure 3 (right), we choose x = 1. The plot of real zeros of
(S)
the sine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y) for 1 ≤ n ≤ 40 structure are presented (Figure 6).

(S)
Figure 6. Real zeros of En ( x, y).

In Figure 6 (left), we choose x = −3. In Figure 6 (right), we choose x = 1.

We observe a remarkable regular structure of the complex roots of the cosine–Euler polynomials
(C )
En ( x, y). We also hope to verify a remarkable regular structure of the complex roots of the
(C )
cosine–Euler polynomials En ( x, y). Next, we calculated an approximate solution satisfying
(C )
En ( x, y) = 0, x ∈ R. The results are given in Table 3.

(C )
Table 3. Approximate solutions of En ( x, −3) = 0, x ∈ R.

Degree n x
1 0.50000
2 −2.5414, 3.5414
3 −4.7678, 0.50000, 5.7678
4 −6.8305, −0.82832, 1.8283, 7.8305
5 −8.8303, −1.8336, 0.50000, 2.8336, 9.8303
6 −10.799, −2.7017, −0.40666, 1.4067, 3.7017, 11.799
7 −12.751, −3.4960, −1.1389, 0.50000, 2.1389, 4.4960, 13.751

(S)
Next, we calculated an approximate solution satisfying En ( x, y) = 0, y ∈ R. The results are
given in Table 4.
Axioms 2018, 7, 56 19 of 19

(S)
Table 4. Approximate solutionsof En (−3, y) = 0, y ∈ R.

Degree n y
1 0.00000
2 0.00000
3 −6.0000, 0, 6.0000
4 −3.3912, 0, 3.3912
5 −10.687, −2.4038, 0, 2.4038, 10.687
6 −5.9045, −1.8630, 0, 1.8630, 5.9045
7 −15.241, −4.1727, −1.5184, 0, 1.5184, 4.1727, 15.241

Author Contributions: T.K. and C.S.R. wrote and checked the results of the paper; C.S.R. conducted numerical
experiments of this paper; T.K. completed the revision of the article.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the
Korea government (MEST) (No. 2017R1A2B4006092).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the referees for their valuable comments.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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