Exploration on Mechanism

of Flight of Insects:
By Yuvraj Singh
B.Sc. Physics 2025
2110110911

Abstract
Contrary to the mechanism of flight of airfoil like aero plane or a bird (when gliding) flapping
of wings is hard to model. The aerodynamics is complicated and computational methods are
used to make any sort of prediction or to understand the phenomenon. Computational fluid
dynamics is extensively used in the study of this biomechanics and physicist, mathematicians
and biologists are still puzzled by it. At the heart of it the phenomenon can be described in
simple terms as follows. [1]
The insect uses its legs to give a first jump into the air establishing a relative velocity with
respect to the fluid(air), V. At the same time, it enlarges its wings and starts flapping while
increasing wingspan in every flap. (This launch mechanism is not true with every insect
species. This case corresponds to bush crickets belonging to the family Tettigoniidae) [2].
Suppose after the stroke, an air of mass m has been displaced and a small volume with less
air molecules has been created. As the insect is starting to flap, we can imagine it to be in a
volume containing the entirety of insect and the surrounding air. When the insect flaps, air is
pushed out of the ‘box’ . Then let at time t0 the momentum be P(t0) if mass of Insect is M,
then, P(t0) = M . V. Let at some time instant t the insect starts the flap then P(t) = (M-m) . Vt +
m . v , here v is the velocity of air in the ‘box’ which is now in motion. So,

∆𝑷 = 𝑷(𝒕) – P(t0)

∆𝑷 = M . (Vt – V ) + m . (v – Vt)

This would be a simple way to model this phenomenon indicating generation of force for
movement in forward direction in each flap. The momentum generated from wings is thus
transferred to the surrounding air. But this grossly ignores the involvement of fluid dynamics
but hints at a quantity in fluid dynamics called momentum flux(Momentum flux is defined as
transport of momentum of fluid per unit surface area per unit time.) [3].
Let air has a density 𝜌 and the area of cross section of insect’s body be A which would be a
vector pointing in the direction of motion of insect. If the pressure of air at the tail end of
insect body be Pa and at the front end be P the by Bernoulli’s Principle:
Pa + ½ . 𝜌 . v12 + m . g . h = P + ½ . 𝜌 . v22 + m . g . h
Where symbols have usual meaning.
Here, Pa > P . Assumption is since air moves from high to low pressure.
Now since the force F would be in forward direction of motion, then F = (Pa - P ) . A
Again,
Pa + ½ . 𝜌 . v12 + m . g . h = P + ½ . 𝜌 . v22 + m . g . h
Pa + ½ . 𝜌 . v12 = P + ½ . 𝜌 . v22
Pa – P = ½ . 𝜌 . (v22 - v12 )
Indicating that v2 > v1 . Hence the speed of air as a fluid is more on the upper side of wings
than on the lower.
This involves a bit of the fluid dynamics picture but is not much useful in practical sense as it
assumes air to be incompressible, non-viscous fluid not involving any drag forces. Analysis
involving Navier- Stokes equation in fluid dynamics would be much more appropriate here [4].
At the molecular level it can be hypothesized that the number of air molecules striking the
insect body is not on an average leading to cancelling of net forces on the body, as there are
less molecules striking the insect body (hence less collisions) from the front side (where the
air molecules has been displaced from by the stroke of wings) this leads to net force in
forward direction and then after a fraction of time the air molecules are uniform all over and
the insect needs to repeat it again. All this happens in a fraction of a second.
A lot of this paper involves description of techniques to understand the phenomenon which
would involve model such as: leading-edge vortex. Although there are other mathematical
models of aerodynamics for this phenomenon such as: hovering, clap and fling, wake
capture, rotational circulation, and wake capture but those are not discussed here. [5]
It seems appropriate to begin with the subtle biomechanics that evolved for over millions of
years.

Biomechanics
Direct Flight
The wings are directly connected with the insect body and the muscles work analogous to a
rower’s arms. The muscles pull the base of wings downwards lifting the wings up which are
hinged at the connection points. [1]
 Credits: Wikipedia.org

This mechanism is seen in families of Dragonflies called Odonata.

Indirect Flight
The wings are an extension of the exoskeleton and are not directly connected to the muscles.
The muscles responsible for flight manipulate the shape of the thorax which causes the wings
to oscillate. So, the oscillations are mainly occurring in the body not the muscles.[1]

Credits: Wikipedia.org

This mechanism is seen in most of the insect species (for example butterfly). It also gave
many insects the ability to fold wings.
Fluid dynamics which is in work here involves two main components which are key in the
study : [7]
i. Fluid density (mass per unit volume)
ii. Fluid viscosity (measure of internal resistance to flow)

There are mainly 2 physical forces acting on the insect body due to movement in the fluid.
Lift forces and drag forces.

Drag Forces [3]

Drag forces act in the direction opposite to the motion of the body. These are dissipative in
nature and are of 2 types:
i. Pressure Drag
 ii. Viscous Drag
Pressure Drag also called inertial drag derives from the inertial characteristic of moving flow
field and varies with fluid density, relative fluid velocity and object’s shape.
Viscous drag depends upon fluid viscosity, relative fluid velocity, and total wetted surface
area.
Common theme between these is the dependence upon V, relative fluid velocity and object
dimensions. The ratio of both hint at a number which would contain quantities depending
upon viscosity, density, relative fluid velocity and object dimension. This ratio is called
Reynold’s number.
Re = 𝜌 . l . V / 𝜇 = l . V / 𝝑
Where l is the characteristic of the object. 𝜇 is the dynamic fluid viscosity which is the
resistance to deformation of a fluid. 𝜗 is the kinematic viscosity equal to 𝜇/ 𝜌 .
Flow is usually laminar for Re < 103 , and turbulent for >104 .

Credits: The Biomechanics of Insect Flight by Dudley

The above table shows the Re values for different insects. One thing that strikes out is that
for (Anax junius ) the green dragonfly the Re value is in turbulent range but still the flight
stability, mobility and navigation is remarkable than the flight taken by modern day aero
planes.

Lift Forces[3]
These forces are perpendicular to the direction of flow and thus perpendicular to drag force.
Magnitude of these forces vary significantly with object’s geometry and for most biological
objects lift force is generally low as compared to drag. Objects with high lift and low drag are
termed as airfoil whereas wings are considered biological airfoils.

Credits: The Biomechanics of Insect Flight by R. Dudley

The expression for Lift and drag forces is composed of a coefficient multiplied by the fluid
density, the chord length function, and a quantity W which is composed of vorticity and the
combination of products of the orthogonal set of unit vectors l, m, n in Euclidian space.

The Fundamental Formulae[6]

The empirically determined formula for lift force is given by:
dFl = 1/2 𝜌 CL c(r) dr I l x W I2 {( l x W) / I l x W I}
and the drag force is given by
dFd= -1/2 𝜌 CD c(r) dr I l x W I2 {( W – W.ll) / I W – W.ll I}
vectors are denoted by bold face
l, m, n are orthogonal unit vectors . l is parallel to axis of the wing. m perpendicular to
the axis of the wing in the instantaneous plane of beating, and n is perpendicular to
the plane containing l and m.
 The plane of beating is not the plane of the wing, but the plane in which its axis is
moving, p is the air density.
W is the relative wind or velocity of the surface element of the (right) wing with
respect to the air, and is given by W = (n𝜃 x lr) - U.
𝜃 is the instantaneous angular velocity of the wing element and U being the velocity
of air with respect to insect’s body. c(r) is the chord, r and t are the independent
variables — distance along the wing and time.
Now the drag and lift coefficients [3]
CD = 2D / 𝜌SV2
CL = 2L / 𝜌SV2
where p is the fluid density, S a reference area of the object (most typically the cross-
sectional area),D is the total drag force,L is the total lift force, and V the velocity of fluid
relative to object

Credits: AERODYNAMICS OF FLAPPING FLIGHT WITH APPLICATION TO INSECTS By M. F. M. OSBORNE

Aerodynamics
Leading – Edge Vortex [4]
Leading – edge is the uppermost corner of the wing
As highlighted in the image. (Image credits:
Wikipedia.org)

The folding and twisting of insect wings in half stroke lead to the formation of vortex. Vortex
creation is useful in aerodynamics, aero planes and even sports cars are designed to produce
spinning vortex to reduce drag. Vortices reduce drag created because of the deformation
created in the fluid on the surface of fluid and solid and it also delays aerodynamic stalling
which prevents reduction of lift coefficient. This is the main factor which leads to the
fantastic coefficients of lift created in insect flight unmatched by aero plane’s coefficient of
lift.
LEVs have been seen on the wings of both large insects and small ones. It was found that
because of the presence of the LEV, the wings of a hovering hawkmoth were able to generate
vertical forces up to about 40% greater than required to support its weight. The LEV is,
therefore, fundamental in explaining the large forces generated by insect-like flapping wings.
Interesting thing to note is the methodology of the experiment which was possible by making
of a robot mimicking the flight of a fruit fly in a pool filled with a comparatively viscous fluid.
The vortices formed where then computationally analyzed to form a result.

Conclusion
The simple seeming phenomenon of insect flight is a highly complicated process occurring in
fraction of seconds. Extensive research by Neuroscientists, Physicists, Biologists,
Mathematicians, and Engineers can be seen easily, but still there is no end to this. Bumble
bee was once proven by conventional methods to have a body morphology impossible for
flight but then computational methods involving analysis by detection of vortices came and
opened new dimensions of research methodology.
The research in mechanics of insect flight is highly funded by military in the U.S. to develop
MAVs (Micro Aerial Vehicles), Neuroscientists still can’t understand the simple seeming
structure of insect brain with 100,000 neurons and its ability to develop pathways of escape
at the same time having motor ability to stroke wings 220 times in a second [7]. The
evolutionary processes of natural selection that might have undergone to create such
complex movements are baffling, the movements which not only involve stroking of wings
but also twisting of wings in patterns, mid stroke. All this is an ongoing process which might
take decades of exploration and require new innovations in experimental methodology.
I would recommend the reader to watch this: https://youtu.be/e_44G-kE8lE

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the course instructors: Dr. Sankar Dhar, Dr. Mayukh Majumdar, Mr.
Pankaj Kumar Manav and Mr. Donjo George for the wonderful opportunity to explore my
curiosity through this project. The freedom provided to students to explore any topic and not
only just topics related to lab projects was crucial here because otherwise I might not have
explored this are at all.

References
[1] Insects in flight | 11 incredible species in SLOW MOTION, link:
https://youtu.be/xbOzYMKROs8 .
[2] Chapman, A. D. (2006). Numbers of living species in Australia and the World.
Canberra: Australian Biological Resources Study. pp. 60pp. ISBN 978-0-642-56850-2. Archived
from the original on 2009-05-19. Retrieved 2015-09-15.
[3] The Biomechanics of Insect Flight by R. Dudley
[4] Wang, Z. Jane (2005). "Dissecting Insect Flight" (PDF). Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics. 37 (1): 183–
210. Bibcode:2005AnRFM..37..183W. doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.36.050802.121940.
[5] Mathematical Modelling of Insect–Like Flapping Wings for Application to MAVs by A.
Roshanbin, C. Collette, A. Preumont
[6] AERODYNAMICS OF FLAPPING FLIGHT WITH APPLICATION TO INSECTS By M. F. M.
OSBORNE
[7] Michael Dickinson: How a fly flies, link: https://youtu.be/e_44G-kE8lE

Submitted on : 13-11-2021