The Structures and

MODULE 1 Globalization of
World Economics
1.1. Definition of
Globalization
(Manfred Steger) the expansion and
intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across
world space.
• Expansion
• Intensification
Metaphors of
Globalization:
1. Solid - rigid
a)Natural
b)Man-made
c)Imaginary
2. Liquid – increased
fluidity
Five Perspectives on the Origin and
History of Globalization:

Hardwired Cycles Epoch

Broader, More
Events Recent
Changes
1.2. The Structures of Globalization
• The structure of globalization talks about the wheels of social sciences such as
Economics, Politics creating a common international community or society connected
by modern technology to connect the world's continents with more than seven billion
population. In history, we noticed that nations are separated by different types of
boundaries.

•Now we are in the new age where mankind's existence on this planet is confronted by
many challenges and issues making the means of survival a little complicated while
challenging people around the globe.
1.3. The
Globalization of
World
Economics
Economic Globalization – (IMF)
a historical process
representing the result of
human innovation and
technological progress.
Roots of Economic
Globalization
•Silk Road – the first international, but not global, trade
route.
•Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade – traced back to 1571.
Eastern goods (spices, tea, silk, etc.) were shipped by
galleons via the Pacific Ocean to Acapulco.
•Mercantilism – from 16th to 18th century. Countries aimed
to sell more goods than other countries in order to boost
their income.
•Gold Standard – the
financial system establishing
a common basis for currency
prices and a fixed exchange
rate system – all based on
the value of gold.

•Great Depression – a global

financial crisis that
happened during the 1920s
to 1930s. Solved through
Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s
“New Plan.”
Bretton Woods System – established
Keynesian Economics – Neoliberalism – (Friedrich Hayek and
two financial institutions, namely
Governments should reinvigorate Milton Friedman) answer to the
IMF and IBRD, later renamed to WB
economies by infusing of capitals problems caused by the dependence
(World Bank). Ended on August 15,
(stimulus) to kick start the economy. on Keynesian economics.
1971
• Stagflation – portmanteau of
stagnation (decline in growth and
employment) and inflation (rise of
prices of goods).
1970s oil embargo - economic sanction by
members of OAPEC (Arab members of OPEC)
against US and its allies due to American
support on Israel during the Yom Kippur War.

Washington Consensus – set of policies

adopted centering on neoliberalism. Has two
parts – first, reduction of public spending to
pay off debt and second, privatization of
government owned and operated
corporations – led to oligarchy.
2008 Global Financial Crisis – September 2008, caused
by the fall of Lehman Brothers (investment bank).

Economic Globalization Today – developed countries

tend to be protectionist (US sugar, Japan rice)

Race to the Bottom – countries deliberately lowering the

labor standards and wages to lure investors seeking
cheap labor for higher profit. Also includes issues with
the environment
The definition of Globalization is one of the
greatest miracles or phenomena in this world
since in this event we see the so-called fusion of
many continents, nations, nationalities from the
different parts of the globe to create a single
international community connected by modern
technology. It links multi-cultural people that
aims to promote the advancement of many
essential field of specializations, professions, and
industries.
The Global Experiences
Gio and Latif's story is fictional but very
plausible since it is, in fact, based on the real -life
experience of one of the authors. it was through
such friendships that one was able to appreciate
the meaning and impact of globalization.
The story of Gio and Latif shows how
globalization operates at multiple, intersecting
levels through mass media. For example, the
spread of Filipino TV in Malaysia suggests how
fast this Filipino popular culture has proliferated
and crisscrossed all over Asia.
The Model UN activity that Gio and Latif
participated in is an international competition
about international politics. Gio met Latif (a
Malaysian involved in the model UN) in Sydney,
a global city that derives its wealth and influence
from the global capital that flows through it.
Sydney is also a metropolis of families of
international immigrants or foreigners working
in the industries that also sell their products
abroad. After the two had gone back to their
home countries, Gio and Latif kept in touch
through Facebook, a global social networking
site that provides instantaneous communication
across countries and continents. They preserved
their friendship online and then rekindled this
face-to-face in Singapore, another hub for global
commerce, with 40 percent of the population
being classified as "foreign talents."
Some Descriptions
Gio's story is a very privileged way of
experiencing global flows, but for other people,
the shrinking of the world may not be as exciting
and edifying. For example, it common for young
women in developing countries to be recruited
in the internet as "mail-order brides" for foreign
men living in other countries. After being
promised a good life once married to a kind
husband in a rich city, they ended up becoming
sexual and domestic servants in foreign lands.
Some were even sold off by their "husbands" to
gangs which run prostitute rings in these cities.
Like Gio, they too have experienced the shrinking
of the world, albeit negatively.
Governments that decide to welcome
foreign investments on the belief that they
provide jobs and capital for the country offer
public lands as factory or industrial sites. In the
process, poor people living in this land, also
called "urban poor communities," are being
evicted by the government. The irony is that
these people forcibly removed from their
"slums" are also the labor force sought by
foreign companies. They had to be kicked out of
their homes, and then told that they could take
an hour or two of bus travel from their relocated
communities back to the "old home" for
minimum-wage work. Different people
encounter globalization in a variety of ways.
The structure of globalization talks about the
wheels of social sciences such as Economics,
Politics creating a common international
community or society connected by modern
technology to connect the world's continents
with more than seven billion population. In
history, we noticed that nations are separated
by different types of boundaries. Now we are in
the new age where mankind's existence on this
planet is confronted by many challenges and
issues making the means of survival a little
complicated while challenging people around
the globe.
People choose to cross seas, continents just
to support life and with the help of technology
mankind was able to create devices that can
make people one. There is now the normal norm
of transporting finished goods and products
from one place to another. People from different
places of the globe can now work and study from
one place to another and the sharing of cultures
best practices from one place to another has
become easy like passing a ball from one team
mate to another. Indeed, globalization has
become the special connecting device of multi-
culture and multi-practice of social science in this
modern world.
Globalization: A Working Definition
Most accounts view globalization as primarily an
economic process. When a newspaper reports
that nationalists are resisting "globalization," it
usually refers to the integration of the national
markets to a wider global market signified by the
increased free trade. When activists refer to the
"anti-globalization" movement of the 1990's
they mean resisting the trade deals among
countries facilitated and promoted by global
organizations like the World Trade Organization
(WTO).
Globalization scholars do not necessarily
disagree with people who criticize unfair
international trade deals or global economic
organizations. In fact, many are sympathetic to
the critique of economic globalization.
Academics differ from journalists and political
activists, however, because they see
globalization in much broader terms.
The best scholarly description of globalization
is provided by Manfred Steger who described the
process as "the expansion and intensification of
social relation and consciousness across world-
time and across-space. Expansion refers to both
the creation of new social networks and the
multiplication of existing connections that cut
across traditional political, economic, cultural
and geographic boundaries. Intensification
refers to the expansion, stretching and
acceleration of these networks.
Steger posits that his definition of
globalization must be differentiated with the
ideology he calls globalism. If globalization
represents the many processes that allow for the
expansion and intensification of global
connections, globalism is a widespread belief
among powerful people that the global
integration of economic markets is beneficial for
everyone, since it spreads freedom and
democracy across the world.
For anthropologist Arjun Appadurai,
different kinds of globalization occur on multiple
and intersecting dimensions of integration that
he calls "scapes." An "ethnoscape" for example
refers to the global movement of people, while
"mediascape" is about the flow of culture. A
"technoscape" refers to the circulation of
mechanical goods and software; a
"financescape" denotes the global circulation of
money; and the "ideoscape" is the realm where
political ideas move around.
 Appadurai's argument is simple: there are
multiple globalizations. Hence, even if one does
not agree that globalization can be divided into
five "scapes," it is hard to deny Appadurai's
central thrust of viewing globalization through
various lenses.
1.3 The Globalization of World Economics
International Trading System and the Bretton
Woods System
Apart from the sheer magnitude of
commerce, we should also note the
increased speed and frequency of trading.
These days, supercomputers can execute
millions of stock purchases and sales
between different cities in a matter of
seconds through a process called high-
frequency trading.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF)

regards "economic globalization" as a
historical process representing the result of
human innovation and technological
progress. It is characterized by the increasing
integration of economies around the world
through the movement of goods, services,
and capital across borders. These changes
are the products of people , organizations,
institutions, and technologies. As with all
other processes of globalization, there is a
qualitative and subjective element to this
definition.
Even while the IMF and ordinary people International Trading Systems
grapple with the difficulty of arriving at
International trading systems are not new.
precise definitions of globalization, they
usually agree that a drastic economic change
1. Silk Road - the oldest known
is occurring throughout the world. According
international trade route. It refers
to the IMF, the value of trade (goods and
to a network of pathways in the
services) as percentage of world GDP
ancient world that spanned from
increased from 42.1 percent in 1980 to 62.1
China to Middle East and Europe. It
percent in 2007. Increased trade also means
was called as such because one of
that investments are moving all over the
the most profitable products traded
world at faster speeds. According to the
through this network was silk,
United Nations Conference on Trade and
which was highly prized especially
Development (UNCTD), the amount of
in the area that is now the Middle
foreign direct investments flowing across the
East as well as in the West (today's
world was $57 billion in 1982. By 2015, the
Europe) Traders used the Silk Road
number was $1.76 trillion. These figures
regularly from 130 BCE when the
represent a drastic increase in global
Chinese Han dynasty opened trade
trade in the span of just a few decades. It
to the West until 1453 BCE when
has happened not even after one lifespan.
the Ottoman Empire closed it.

1. Gold Trade - A more open trade
1. Galleon Trade - According to
historians Dennis O. Flynn and
Arturo Giraldez, the age of
globalization began when "all
important populated continents
began to exchange products
continuously - both with each
other directly and indirectly via
other continents - and in values
sufficient to generate crucial
impact on all trading partners."
Flynn and Giraldez trace this back
to 1571 with the establishment
of the galleon trade that
connected Manila in the
Philippines and Acapulco in
Mexico. This was the first time
that the Americas were directly
connected to Asian trading
1. Fiat currencies- These are
routes. For Filipinos, it is crucial
to note that economic
globalization began on the
country's shore. The galleon
trade was part of the age of
mercantilism.
system emerged in 1867 when,
following the lead of the United
Kingdom, the United states and
other European nations adopted
the gold standard at an
international monetary
conference in Paris. Broadly, the
goal was to create a common
system that would allow for more
efficient trade and prevent the
isolationism of the mercantilist
era. The countries thus
established a common basis for
currency prices and a fixed
exchange rate system -all based
on the value of gold.
currencies that are not backed by
precious metals and whose value
is determined by their cost
relative to other currencies. It
also refers to a system in 20th
century that allows governments
to manage their economies
freely and actively by increasing
or decreasing the amount of
money in circulation as they see
fit.

The Bretton Woods System (BWS)
After the two world wars, world leaders
sought to create a global economic system
that would ensure a longer-lasting global
peace. They believe that one of the ways to
achieve this goal was to set up a network of
global financial institutions that would
promote economic interdependence and
prosperity. The Bretton Woods system was
inaugurated in 1944 during the United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
to prevent the catastrophes of the early
decades of the century from recurring and
affecting international ties.
The Bretton Woods System was largely
influenced by the ideas of British Economist
John Maynard Keynes who believed that
economic crises occur not when a country
does not have enough money, but when
money is not being spent and, thereby, not
moving. When economies slow down,
according to Keynes, governments have to
reinvigorate markets with infusion of capital.
This active role of governments in managing
spending served as the anchor for what
would be called a system of global
Keynesianism.
Two Financial Institutions created during the
Bretton Woods Conference:
1. International Bank for
Reconstruction and
Development (IBRD or World
Bank) is responsible for funding
a reconstruction projects of
countries affected by world
wars.
2. International Monetary Fund
(IMF) is a lending institution that
helps each country to recover
from financial crises.
Neoliberalism and its Discontents
Keynesianism is an economic theory that
assumed three things 1) Economic crisis
occur when a country does not have
enough money, but when money is not
being spent and, thereby, not moving 2) If
the economies slow down then government
should infuse money to reinvigorate the
market 3) Proponent argued that as prices
increased, companies would earn more, and
would have more money to hire workers.
Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman
challenged the Keynesian theory and
argued that government intervention in
economies distort the proper functioning of
the market.
The Washington consensus advocates for
minimal government spending to reduce
government debt. They also called for the
privatization of government-controlled
services like water, power, communications
and transport, believing that the free
market can produce the best result.
The Global Financial Crisis and the
Challenge to Neoliberalism
the contemporary world." Export, not just
the local selling of goods and services, make
national economies grow at present. In the
past, those that benefited the most from
free trade were the advanced nations that
were producing and selling industrial and
agricultural products.
In the recent decades, partly as a result of
these increased export, economic
globalization has ushered in an
unprecedented spike in global growth rates.
Economic globalization remains an uneven
process, with some countries, corporations
and individual benefiting a lot more that
others". (Claudio et al. 2018) The
beneficiaries of global commerce have been
mainly transnational corporations (TNCs)
and not government.

Neo-liberalism came under significant strain

during the global financial crisis 2007-2008
when the world experienced the greatest
economic downturn since the great
depression. The crisis can be traced back to
the 1980s when the United State
systematically removed various banking and
investment restrictions. Financial experts
wrongly assumed that even if many of the
borrowers were individuals and families who
would struggle to pay, a majority would not
default. The crisis spread beyond the United
States since many investors were foreign
governments, corporations and individuals.
The loss of their money spread like wildfire
back to their countries.
Economic Globalization Today
"The world has become too integrated.
Whatever one's opinion about the
Washington Consensus is, it is undeniable
that some form of international trade
remains essential for countries to develop in
Handout for GEC 003 (The Contemporary World)
Lesson 1: Definition, Origin, and History of
Globalization
Globalization – (Manfred Steger) the expansion
and intensification of social relations and
consciousness across world-time and across world-
space.
Expansion refers to the creation of new social
networks and multiplication of existing connections
that cut across traditional political, economic,
cultural and geographic boundaries.
Intensification refers to the expansion, stretching,
and acceleration of the aforementioned networks.
Metaphors of Globalization:
1. Solid - rigid
i) Natural – ex. Mountain ranges, oceans
ii) Man-made – ex. Berlin Wall, Great Wall
of China
iii) Imaginary – ex. National borders
2. Liquid – increased fluidity
Five Perspectives on the Origin and History of
Globalization:
1. Hardwired – the human need to make our
lives better made Globalization possible
2. Cycles – Globalization follows a long-term
cyclical process
3. Epoch – the origin of Globalization could be
traced from what are called “waves”
4. Events – specific events in history could be
considered as the start of Globalization
5. Broader, More Recent Changes – the events
during the latter half of the 20th Century could
be considered as the start of Globalization
Lesson 2: Economic Globalization
Economic Globalization – (IMF) a historical
process representing the result of human innovation
and technological progress.
Prepared by: Mr. Justin Paul D. Gallano
Faculty Member – College of Arts, T.I.P. Manila
PRELIM 1st Semester, S.Y. 2019-2020
Silk Road – the first international, but not global,
trade route. Not global because the Americas were
not included.
Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade – traced back to
1571. Eastern goods (spices, tea, silk, etc.) were
shipped by galleons via the Pacific Ocean to
Acapulco. In turn, South American silver is shipped
to Manila as payment. The first true global trade
route because of ocean routes, and it included the
Americas.
Mercantilism – from 16th to 18th century. Countries
aimed to sell more goods than other countries in
order to boost their income. Processing of raw
materials to finished products and sell at a higher
price.
Gold Standard – the financial system establishing a
common basis for currency prices and a fixed
exchange rate system – all based on the value of gold.
Because of World War I, countries were forced to
abandon the Gold Standard to increase their money
supply.
Great Depression – a global financial crisis that
happened during the 1920s to 1930s. Solved through
Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “New Plan.”
Keynesian Economics – economic crises do not
happen because countries do not have money, but
because money is not spent – meaning, it is not
moving. Governments should reinvigorate
economies by infusing of capitals (stimulus) to kick-
start the economy – increasing the purchasing power
of people, and eventually demand.
Bretton Woods System – July 1944 at the United
Nations Monetary and Financial Conference
(Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA). Led by
Harry Dexter White and John Maynard Keynes.
Value of currencies shall be linked to US Dollar, and
the US Dollar shall be pegged to the value of gold
($35.00 per ounce fixed). Established two financial
institutions, namely IMF (International Monetary
Fund) and IBRD (International Bank for
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Handout for GEC 003 (The Contemporary World)
Reconstruction and Development), later renamed to
WB (World Bank). Ended on August 15, 1971.
IMF – intended to be the lender of last resort to
prevent countries from spiraling into
credit/economic crises.
IBRD (WB) – responsible for funding postwar
reconstruction projects.
Neoliberalism – (Friedrich Hayek and Milton
Friedman) answer to the problems caused by the
dependence on Keynesian Economics. According to
them, Keynesian Economics will cause inflation but
not necessarily increases the supply/production.
1970s oil embargo – economic sanction by members
of OAPEC (Arab members of OPEC) against US and
its allies due to American support on Israel during the
Yom Kippur War
Stagflation – portmanteau of stagnation (decline in
growth and employment) and inflation (rise of prices
of goods)
Washington Consensus – set of policies adopted
centering on neoliberalism. Has two parts – first,
reduction of public spending to pay off debt and
second, privatization of government owned and
operated corporations. US President Ronald Reagan
adopted this (especially reduction of public
spending), along with UK PM Margaret Thatcher.
Referred to as a “shock therapy.” Also adopted in
Russia after the fall of USSR – led to oligarchy.
2008 Global Financial Crisis – September 2008,
caused by the fall of Lehman Brothers (investment
bank). Seen as the result of the flaws of
neoliberalism. Caused debt problems in Europe
(Greece, Portugal, and Iceland). US recovered
quickly by reverting to Keynesian-style stimulus
programs under Obama.
Economic Globalization Today – developed
countries tend to be protectionist (US sugar, Japan
rice). Rise of nationalism (President Donald J.
Trump of USA). Also, economies are too integrated.
Prepared by: Mr. Justin Paul D. Gallano
Faculty Member – College of Arts, T.I.P. Manila
PRELIM 1st Semester, S.Y. 2019-2020
Race to the Bottom – countries deliberately
lowering the labor standards and wages to lure
investors seeking cheap labor for higher profit. Also
includes issues with the environment.
Lesson 3: Political Globalization
Internationalization – the phenomenon
characterized by the deepening of interactions
between states.
International Organization - international
intergovernmental groups primarily made up of
nation-states or member-states.
Attributes of Global System:
1. Countries/states are independent and govern
themselves.
2. The countries interact with each other
through diplomacy.
3. International Organizations (like UN)
facilitates the interactions of states.
4. International Organizations take on lives of
their own.
Difference of a Nation from a State:
Nation – focuses on the “imagined community” that
is focused on culture, language, beliefs, etc.
State – a political entity.
• A state could be composed of multiple
nations (ex. United Kingdom – English,
Welsh, Scotts, and Northern Irish)
• Also, a nation could be distributed to multiple
states (ex. Korean Nation – North Korea
(DPRK) and South Korea (ROK))
Attributes/ Elements of a State:
1. Population – the citizens
2. Territory
3. Government
4. Sovereignty (both internal and external)
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Treaty of Westphalia (1648) – a set of agreements
to end the Thirty Years’ War between major
continental powers of Europe. Parties to the Treaty
recognized that countries should have complete
control over their domestic affairs and swore not to
meddle in each other’s’ affairs (concept of
sovereignty).
Napoleon Bonaparte – first major challenge of the
Westphalia system. Believes in the principles of
French Revolution (liberty, equality, fraternity).
Launched the Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815).
Defeated by Anglo (UK) and Prussian armies in the
Battle of Waterloo, 1815.
Napoleonic Code – implemented on the occupied
countries of Napoleon. Forbade the birth privileges,
encouraged freedom of religion, and promoted
meritocracy in government service.
Concert of Europe/ Metternich System (after
Klemens von Metternich) – after the defeat of
Napoleon, royal powers created a system that, in
effect, reinstated the Westphalian System. Restored
the monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges.
Lasted from 1815-1914 (dawn of World War I).
Liberal Internationalism:
Immanuel Kant – he likened the states in a global
system to people living in a given territory.
Advocated for a World Government.
Jeremy Bentham – coined the word “international.”
Promoted the creation of international law.
Giuseppe Mazzini – Italian patriot, advocated for
the unification of Italian-speaking mini-states.
Believed in Republican system and proposed a
system of free nations that cooperated with each
other to create an international system. Highly
influenced the thinking of President Woodrow
Wilson.
President Woodrow Wilson – lead advocate for the
creation of the League of Nations
Principle of Self-determination – the belief that
states had a right to a free, sovereign government.
Prepared by: Mr. Justin Paul D. Gallano
Faculty Member – College of Arts, T.I.P. Manila
PRELIM 1st Semester, S.Y. 2019-2020
League of Nations – predecessor of UN. US did not
participated due to the fierce opposition of US
Senate. Helpless during the onset of World War II.
Gave birth to task-specific international
organizations like the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the International Labor Organization
(ILO).
Socialist Internationalism:
Karl Marx – German philosopher, critic of Mazzini.
Believed that the true form of internationalism
should reject nationalism, and give focus instead on
economic equality. He divided the world into
classes, not by states. Bourgeois (capitalist owner of
means of production) and Proletariat (laborers,
those who do not own the means of production).
Socialist International (SI) – union of European
socialist and labor parties established in Paris in
1889. Achieved the declaration of May 1st as Labor
Day, 8-hour workday, and the International
Women’s Day. Collapsed during World War I.
Czar/ Tsar Nicholas II – Russian leader ousted
during the Russian Revolution of 1917.
Bolshevik Party – led by Vladimir Lenin. Replaced
the government of Tsar Nicholas II with a
revolutionary government, and called the new
government as the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR).
Communist International – (Comintern)
Communist Information Bureau – (Cominform)
Lesson 4: The United Nations
International Organizations (IO) – refers to the
international intergovernmental organizations or
groups primarily made up of member-states or
nation-states.
Powers of International Organizations
1. IOs have the power of classification
2. IOs have the power to fix meanings
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3. IOs have the power to diffuse norms countries and the US against the threat of Soviet
Union. USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
United Nations – primary goal is to prevent another
responded with the creation of its own alliance – the
global war. Divided into 5 organs.
Warsaw Pact. The members of the Warsaw Pact are
Five Organs of UN the USSR, and its satellite states in Eastern Europe.

1. General Assembly (GA) – main deliberative OPEC – (Organization of Petroleum Exporting

policymaking and representative organ. Countries) established in 1960 to regulate the
Filipino diplomat Carlos P. Romulo was production and sale of oil.
elected as president of GA from 1949-1950.
Non-Aligned Movement – established in 1961 to
2. Security Council (SC) – consisted of 15
pursue world peace and international cooperation,
members, 10 elective members and 5
human rights, national sovereignty, equality, non-
permanent members (US, UK, Russia, China,
intervention and peaceful conflict resolution. Did not
and France). Only permanent members have
side on either the First World (Western Europe and
the veto power. Calls for parties to a dispute
US) or Second World (USSR and allies).
to settle the act by peaceful means.
3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
– principal body for coordinating policy
review, policy dialogue, and
recommendations on social and
environmental issues.
4. International Court of Justice (ICJ) – to
settle legal disputes submitted to it by states
and to give advisory opinions referred to it by
UN organs.
5. Secretariat – consists of Secretary-General
and the staff members who carry the day-to-
day work of UN mandated by the GA and
other organs.

Lesson 5: A World of Regions

Regions – a group of countries located in the same
geographically specified area, or an amalgamation of
region to regulate and oversee flows and policy
choices.
Regionalization – regional concentration of
economic flows
Regionalism – political process characterized by
economic policy cooperation and coordination
among countries
NATO – (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) –
formed during Cold War between Western Europe
4
Prepared by: Mr. Justin Paul D. Gallano
Faculty Member – College of Arts, T.I.P. Manila © 2019 | NOT FOR SALE
2.1 A History of Global Politics

The world is composed of many countries or states, all of them having different forms of government.
Some scholars of politics are interested in individual states and examine the international politics of these
countries. For example, a scholar is studying politics of Japan may write about the history of its
bureaucracy. Other scholars are more interested in the interactions between states rather than their
internal politics. These scholars look at trade between deals between states. They also study political,
military, and other diplomatic engagements between two or more countries. These scholars are studying
international relations. Moreover, when they explore the deepening of interactions between states, they
refer to the phenomenon of internationalization.

How does internationalization differ from globalization of politics?

Internationalization refers to the deepening of interactions between states. Globalization of politics

refers to the multiple interactions or relations between states.

According to Claudio et al. (2018, p. 27), there are four attributes of today's global system.

• There are countries or states that are independent and govern themselves.
• Countries interact with each other through diplomacy.
• There are international organizations, like the United Nations (UN) that facilitate the
interactions.
• International organizations also take on lives of their own.

How did global system originate?

• Village/Tribe- people in various regions of the world were identified according to respective
units.
• Christian world - started by apostles of Jesus Christ until Christianity became a state religion.
• Nation-State - refers to state governing a nation.

What is the difference between nation and state?

State refers to a country and its government. It has four attributes: 1) It exercises authority over a
specific population (citizens). 2) It governs a specific territory 3) It has a structure of government 4) It has
sovereignty over its territory.

Nation is defined as an "imagined community" or group of people who shared a common culture,
language, history etc. (Benedict Anderson)

The Interstate System

The origins of the present-day concept of sovereignty can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia,
which was a set of agreements signed in 1648 to end the Thirty Years' War between the major continental
powers of Europe. After the brutal religious war between Catholics and Protestants, the Holy Roman
Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic designed a system that would avert wars in the
future by recognizing that the treaty signers exercise complete control over their domestic affairs and
swear not to meddle in each other's affairs.
 • Westphalian system - a system that gives stability to European nations through direct control
of their domestic activities - free from interference of other nations.
• Napoleonic Code - a principle that spread "liberty", "equality" and "fraternity" as themes for
creation of new form of government in France.
• Metternich system- an alliance of "great powers" - United Kingdoms, Austria, and Prussia that
restored monarchical, hereditary, and religious privileges of rulers.

Internationalism

Internationalism is an imagined system of heightened interaction between various sovereign states

particularly the desire for greater cooperation and unity among states and people. It comes in different
forms, but the principle may be divided into two broad categories: liberal internationalism and socialist
internationalism.

Liberal internationalism

Achievement: Foundation of United Nation

Proponents:

• Immanuel Kant - argues that citizens in the state must give up some freedom and establish a
continuously growing state consisting of various nations which will ultimately include the nations
of the world". Since, if there is no form of world government then international system will be
chaotic.
• Jeremy Bentham- says that the objectives of the global legislators should aim to propose
legislation that would create " the greatest happiness of all nations taken together".
• Giuseppe Mazzini- believes that free, unified nation-state should be the basis of global
cooperation.
• Woodrow Wilson- forwarded the principle of self-determination and advocate for the creation of
League of Nations to prevent a world war II.

Socialist internationalism

Achievement: Declaration of International women's Day and Labor Day

• Karl Marx -claimed a premium economic equality among the classes of citizens in the world.
• Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx established a socialist revolution through a battle cry "Workers
of the world, Unite! you have nothing to lose but your chains."
• Vladimir Lenin - established the communist international (Comintern) in 1919 to serve as
central body for directing communist parties all over the world.
• Stalin re-stablished the Comintern as Communist Information Bureau (Cominform) in order to
direct the various communist parties that had taken power in Eastern Europe.

This lesson examined the roots of the international system. In tracing these roots, a short history of
internationalism was provided. Moreover, internationalism is but one window into the broader
phenomenon of globalization. Nevertheless, it is a very crucial aspect of globalization since global
interactions are heightened by the increased interdependence of states. This increased interdependence
manifests itself not just through state-to-state relations. Increasingly, international relations are also
facilitated by international organizations that promote global norms and policies. The most prominent
example of this organization, of course, is the United Nations.

2.2 The Roles and Functions of the United Nations

What is an International Organization?

When scholars refer to the groups like the UN or institutions like the IMF and the World Bank, they usually
call them international organization. International Organization (IO) refers to international
intergovernmental organization or groups that are primarily made up of member-states. International
relations scholars Michael N. Barnett and Martha Finnemore listed the following powers of IOs.

• IOs have the power of classification.

• IOs have the power to fix meanings.
• IOs have the power to diffuse norms.

The United Nations

After the collapse of the League of Nations at the end of World War II, countries that worried about
another global war began to push for the formation of a more lasting international league. The result was
the creation of the United Nations on October 24,1945. Although the organization is far from perfect, it
should be emphasized that it has so far achieved its primary goal of averting another global war. And
because of this reason the United Nations should be considered as a success.

Five active Organs of the United Nations:

1. General Assembly (GA)

2. Security Council (SC)

3. Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

5. Secretariat -UN Admin

The General Assembly (GA) is the United Nations' main deliberative policy making and
representative organ. According to the its charter, the decisions on important questions such as those on
peace and security, admission of new members and budgetary matters. require a two thirds majority of
the General Assembly. Decisions on other questions are done by a simple majority. Annually, the General
assembly elects a GA president to serve a one-year term of office. All member-states, currently at 193,
have seats in the GA. The Philippines played a prominent role in the GA's early years when a Filipino
diplomat named Carlos P. Romulo was elected GA President from 1949-1950.

Although the GA is the most representative organization in the United Nations, many
commentators consider the U.N. Security Council (SC) as the most powerful. According to the U.N., this
body consists of 15 member states. the G.A. elects ten of these 15 to two-year terms.
The Five Permanent Members of the U.N. Security Council are -

1. The United States of America

2. China

3. Russia

4. France

5. The United Kingdom

The above-mentioned states are permanent members since the founding of the United Nations and
cannot be replaced through election. The SC takes the lead in determining the existence of a threat to
the peace or an act of aggression. It calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle the act by peaceful means
and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of settlement. In some cases, it can resort to imposing
sanctions or even authorizing the use of force to maintain or restore international peace and security.
Because of these powers, states that seek to intervene militarily in another state need to obtain the
approval of the SC. With the SC'S approval, a military intervention may be deemed legal. This is an
immense power.

The third UN organ is the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) which is the "principal body for
coordination, policy review, policy dialogue, and recommendations on social and environmental issues,
as well as the implementation of internationally agreed development goals." It has 54 members elected
for three-year terms. Currently it is the UN's central platform for discussion on sustainable development.

The fourth is the International Court of Justice whose task "is to settle, in accordance with international
law, legal disputes submitted to it by states and to give advisory opinions referred to it by authorized
United Nations' organs and specialized agencies.

Finally, the secretariat consists of the "Secretary-General and tens of thousands of international UN
staff who carry out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the General Assembly and the
organization's other principal organs."

Challenges of the United Nations

The United Nations is not a world government and it functions primarily because of voluntary
cooperation from states. If states refuse to cooperate, the influence of the UN can be severely
circumscribed. Perhaps, the biggest challenge of the United Nations is related to the issues of security.

The UN Security Council is tasked with authorizing international acts of military intervention. Because
of the P5's veto power, it is tough for the Council to release a formal resolution, much more implement
it. This became an issue, for example, in the late 1990s when the United States sought to intervene in
the Kosovo war.
 On September 2005, the Philippines was part of the powerful U.N Security council as one of the
10 non-permanent members. The Philippines served as the chair/head of the UN Security Council. In the
file photo, then Philippine President Gloria Arroyo was presiding the UN Security Council meeting - one of
the shining moments in our nation's history.
 Module 2.1.

History of Global Politics:

Creating an International Order
 identify the key events in the development of international
Identify relations;

Differentiate differentiate internationalization from globalization;

INTENDED
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Define define state and nation; and

distinguish between the competing conceptions of

Distinguish internationalism.
Internationalization / International Organization

Attributes of Global System:

1. Countries/states are independent and govern themselves.
2. The countries interact with each other through diplomacy.
3. International Organizations (like UN) facilitates the interactions of states.
4. International Organizations take on lives of their own.
 Population – the citizens

Territory
Attributes/
Elements of a
State: Government

Sovereignty (both internal and

external)
Treaty of
- It was a set of agreement signed in 1648 to
Westphalia
end the thirty years’ war among the
(1648)
major continental powers of Europe.
- The origin of the present-day concept of
sovereignty
First major challenge of the Westphalia system:
Napoleon Bonaparte
The Interstate
system
The one who challenged the Treaty
of Westphalia
 ❑ Napoleon Bonaparte
- He challenged the Westphalian system.
- He spread the principles of the French Revolution –
The Interstate liberty, fraternity, and equality – to the rest of Europe and
thus challenged the power of kings, nobility, and religion in
system Europe.
- Napoleonic Wars lasted from 1803-1815 with Napoleon
and his armies marching all over much of Europe.
The Interstate system
❑ The Concert of Europe System

- It was an alliance of great powers – The United Kingdom, Austria, Russia, and
Prussia.
- They sought to restore the world of monarchical, hereditary, and religious
privileges of the time before the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.
- Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich was the system’s main architect.
 People behind Liberal Internationalism:
• Immanuel Kant - Advocated for a World
Government.
• Jeremy Bentham - Promoted the creation of
international law.
Liberal • Giuseppe Mazzini - Believed in Republican
Internationalism: system and proposed a system of free nations
that cooperated with each other to create an
international system.
• President Woodrow Wilson – lead advocate for
the creation of the League of Nations

League of Nations – predecessor of UN.

 Karl Marx - German philosopher, critic of
Mazzini. Believed that the true form of
internationalism should reject nationalism,
and give focus instead on economic equality.
Socialist
Internationalism:
Socialist International (SI) – union of
European socialist and labor parties
established in Paris in 1889. Achieved the
declaration of May 1st as Labor Day, 8-hour
workday, and the International Women’s Day.
Collapsed during World War I.
Czar/ Tsar Nicholas II – Russian
leader ousted during the Russian
Revolution of 1917.

Bolshevik Party – led by Vladimir

Lenin. Replaced the government of
Tsar Nicholas II with a revolutionary
government, and called the new
government as the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR).
References:
Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales,
Patricio N. (2018) The
Contemporary World, C & E
Publishing, Inc.

Kennex, Prince and Aldama,

Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary
World, REX Book Store, Inc.
3.1 The Media and Globalization
In this lesson, you will be amazed on the impact of media on globalization. Relax! Enjoy
the lesson!

Globalization entails the spread of various cultures. When a film is made in

Hollywood, it is shown not only in the United States, but also in other cities across the
globe. Globalization also involves the spread of ideas. For example, the notion of the
rights of lesbian, gay bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) communities is spreading across
the world and becoming more widely accepted. Similarly, the conservative Christian
Church that opposes these rights moves from places like South America to Korea and to
Burundi in Africa. People who travel the globe teaching and preaching their beliefs in
universities, churches, public forums, classrooms, or even as guests of a family play a
major role in the spread of culture and ideas. But today, television programs, social media
groups, books, movies, magazines, and the like have made it easier for advocates to
reach larger audiences. Globalization relies on media as its main conduit for the spread
of global culture and ideas. There is an intimate relationship between globalization and
media which must be unraveled to further understand the contemporary world.

Media and Its Functions

Jack Lule describes media as "a means of conveying something such as a channel
of communication." Technically speaking, a person's voice is a medium. However, when
commentators refer to "media" (the plural of medium) they mean the technologies of mass
communication. Print media include books, magazines, and newspapers. Broadcast
media involve radio, film, and television. Finally, digital media cover the internet and
mobile mass communication. Within the category of internet media, there are e-mail,
internet sites, social media, and internet-based video and audio.
Media theorist Marshall McLuhan once declared that "the medium is the message."
He did not mean that ideas ("messages") are useless and do not affect people. Rather,
his statement was an attempt to draw attention to how media, as a form of technology,
reshape societies. Thus, television is not a simple bearer of messages, it also shapes the
social behavior of users and reorient family behavior. Today, the smart phones allows
users to keep in touch instantly with multiple people at the same time. Consider the effect
of the internet on relationship. Prior to the cellphone, there was no way for couples to
keep constantly in touch, or to be updated on what the other does all the time. The
technology (medium) and not the message, makes for this social change possible.
Cellphones, on one hand, expand people's senses because they provide the capability to
talk to more people instantaneously and simultaneously. On the other hand, they also
limit the senses because they make users easily distractible and more prone to
multitasking. This is not necessarily a bad thing; it is merely change with a trade-off.
Marshall McLuhan asked whether how media, as a form of communication, reshape
the society. Media has both positive and negatives effects. On one hand, one of the
positives effects of media is to expand the reach of communication. On the other hand,
one of the negative effects of media is to amputate and limit human senses.
The Global Village and Cultural Imperialism
McLuhan used his analysis of technology to examine the impact of electronic
media. He declared that television was turning the world into a "global village." By this,
he meant that as more and more people sat down in front of their television sets and
listened to the same stories, their perception of the world would contract. If tribal villages
once sat in front of fires to listen to collective stories, the members of the new global
village would sit in front of bright boxes in their living rooms.
In the years after McLuhan, media scholars grappled with the challenges of a global
media culture. A lot of these early thinkers assumed that global media had a tendency to
homogenize culture. They argued that as global media spread, people from all over the
world would begin to watch, listen to, and read the same things. Commentators believed
that media globalization coupled with American hegemony would create a form of cultural
imperialism whereby American values and culture would overwhelm all others. Herbert
Schiller argued that not only was the world being Americanized, but this process also led
to the spread of "American" capitalist values like consumerism.
Critiques of Cultural Imperialism
Proponents of the idea of cultural imperialism ignored the fact that media messages
are not just made by producers, they are also consumed by audiences. Media scholars
began to pay attention to the ways in which audiences understood and interpreted media
messages. The field of audience studies emphasizes that ,media consumers are active
participants in the meaning-making process, who view media "texts" (in media studies, a
"text" simply refers to the content of any medium) through their own cultural lenses.
Apart from the challenge of audience studies, the cultural imperialism thesis has been
belied by the renewed strength of regional trends in the globalization process. Asian
culture, for example, has proliferated worldwide through the globalization of media.
Japanese brands- from hello kitty to the Mario Brothers to Pokémon- are now an indelible
part of global popular culture. The same can be said for Korean Pop (K-pop_ and Korean
telenovelas, which are widely successful regionally and globally. The observation eve
applies to culinary taste. The most obvious case of globalized Asian cuisine is sushi. And
while it is true that McDonald's has continued to spread across Asia, it is also the case
that Asian brands have provided stiff competition. The Philippines' Jollibee claims to be
the number one choice for fast food in Brunei.
Social Media and the Creation of Cyber Ghettoes

As with all new media, social media have both beneficial and negative effects. These
forms of communication have democratized access. Anyone with an internet connection
or a smart phone can use Facebook and Twitter for free. These media have enabled
users to be consumers and producers of information simultaneously.
The dark side of social media shows that even a seemingly open and democratic
media may be co-opted towards undemocratic means. Global online propaganda will be
the biggest threat to face the globalization of media deepens. As consumers of media,
users must remain vigilant and learn how to distinguish fact from falsehood. People must
be critical of mainstream media and traditional journalism that may also operate based
on vested interest.

3.2 The Globalization of Religion

Hi everyone! Do you consider yourself to be religious? In this lesson, we will talk about
the globalization of religion. This lesson also introduces you to the realm of major
religions on earth. Enjoy the lesson and have fun!
 Religion, much more with the culture, has the most difficult relationship with globalism.
The two are entirely contrasting belief systems. Religion is always concerned with with
the sacred while the globalism places value on material wealth. Religion follows divine
commandments, while globalism abides by human -made laws. Religion assumes that
there is the possibility of communication between humans and the transcendent. This
link between the human and the divine confers some social power on the latter.
Furthermore "God," "Allah," or "Yahweh" defines and judges human action in moral
terms (good vs bad). Globalism's yardstick, however, is how much of human action
can lead to the highest material satisfaction and subsequent wisdom that this
new status produces.
Religious people are less concerned with wealth and all that comes along with it
like (higher social status, a standard of living similar with that of the rest of the community,
exposure to "culture," top-of-the-line education for the children). They are ascetics
precisely because they shun anything material for complete simplicity - from their domain
to the clothes they wear, to the food they eat, and even to the manner in which they talk
(lots of parables and allegories that are supposedly the language of the divine)
A religious person's main duty is to live a virtuous, sinless life such that when
she/he dies he/she is assured of a place in heaven. On the other hand, globalist are
less worried about whether they will end up in heaven or hell. Finally religion and
globalism clash over the fact that religious evangelization is in itself a form of
globalization. The globalist idea is largely focused on the realm of markets. The
religious is always concerned with spreading holy ideas globally, while the
globalist wishes to spread goods and services.
Religion regard identities associated with with globalism (citizenship, language, and
race) as inferior and narrow because they are earthly categories. In contrast, membership
to a religious group, organization, or cult represents a superior affiliation that connects
human directly to the divine and the supernatural. Being a Christian, a Muslim, or as
Buddhist places one in a higher plane than just being a Filipino, a Spanish speaker, or an
Anglo-Saxon. These philosophical differences explain why certain groups "flee" their
communities and create impenetrable sanctuaries where they can practice their religions
without the meddling ang control of state authorities.

Realities
In actuality, the relationship between religion and globalization is much more
complicated. Peter Burger argues that far from being secularized, the "contemporary
world is... furiously religious. In most of the world, there are veritable explosions of
religious fervor, occurring in one form of another in all the major religious traditions -
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and even Confucianism- and in may
places in imaginative syntheses of one or more world religions with indigenous faith.
Religions are the foundations of modern republics. The Malaysian government places
religion at the center of the political system. Its constitution explicitly states that "Islam is
the religion of the Federation," and the rulers of each state was also the "Head of the
religion of Islam."
 The late Iranian religious leader, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, bragged about the
superiority of Islamic rule over its secular counterparts and pointed out that "there is no
fundamental distinction among constitutional, despotic, dictatorial, democratic, and
communistic regimes." To Khomeini, all secular ideologies were the same- they were all
flawed - and Islamic rule was the superior form of government because it was spiritual.
Yet, Iran calls itself a republic, a term that is associated with the secular.
Religious movements do not hesitate to appropriate secular themes and practices. In
other cases, religion was the result of a shift in state policy.

Religion for and against Globalization

There is hardly a religious movement today that does not use religion to oppose
"profane" globalization. Yet, two of the so-called "old world religions" - Christianity and
Islam - see globalization less as an obstacle and more as an opportunity to expand their
reach all over the world. Globalization has "freed" communities from the "constraints of
the nation-state," but in the process, also threatened to destroy the cultural system that
bind them together. Religion seeks to take the place of these broken "traditional ties" to
either help the community cope with their new situation or organize them to oppose this
major transformation of their lives.
Religion is thus not the "regressive force" that stops or slows down globalization; it is
"pro-active force" that give communities a new and powerful basis of identity. Religious
fundamentalism may dislike globalization's materialism, but it continues to use "the full
range of modern means of communication and organization" that is associated with this
economic transformation.

4.1 A World of Regions

In this lesson, you will be amazed on how the world composed of various regions
interact with one another. The picture tells us about countries that responded to the
demand of globalization; these countries were grouped into regions desiring to promote
unity and cooperation in economic and political, health, culture and other
regional developments. Enjoy the lesson as you learn something new!
Governments, associations, societies, and groups form regional organizations and/ or
networks as a way of coping with the challenges of globalization. Globalization has made
people aware of the world in general, but it has also made Filipinos more cognizant of
specific areas such as Southeast Asia. While regionalism is often seen as a political and
economic phenomenon, the term actually encompasses a broader area. It can be
examined in relation of identities, ethics, religion, ecological sustainability and health.
Regionalism is also a process and must be treated as an "emergent, socially constituted
phenomenon." It means that regions are not natural or given; rather, they are constructed
and defined by policymakers, economic actors, and even social movements.
Edward D. Mansfield and Helen V. Milner state that economic and political definitions
of regions vary, but there are certain basic features that everyone can agree on. First,
regions are "a group of countries located in the same geographically specified area" or
are "an amalgamation of two regions or a combination of more than two regions." Second,
the words regionalization and regionalism should not be interchanged, as the former
refers to the "regional concentration of economic flows" while the latter is "a political
process characterized by economic policy cooperation and coordination among
countries."
How do countries in the region respond economically and politically to globalization?

1. China offers man power and low wages to workers to attract investors.
2. Singapore and Switzerland developed their countries into financial and banking
hubs.

Countries also form regional organizations to pool their resources, get better
returns for their experts as well as expand their leverage against trading partners. For
example, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was
established in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to regulate the
production and sale of oil. This regional alliance flexed its muscles in the 1970s when
its member countries took over domestic production and dictated crude oil prices in the
world market. In a word highly dependent on oil, this integration became a source of
immense power. OPEC's success convinced nine other oil-producing countries to join
it.

State Regionalism
Most countries formed a regional alliance for various reasons. According to Claudio and
Abinales, there are common reasons why state leaders in the countries formed a region.

1. For military defense . North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was

founded by the Western European countries and United States of America
during the Cold War to protect Europe against the Soviet Union while the Soviet
Union created a regional alliance known as Warsaw Pact alliance composed
of Eastern European countries.
2. To pool their resources, get better returns for their exports as well as
expand their leverage against trading partners. The organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in 1960 by Iran, Iraq,
Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela to regulate the production and sale of oil.
The OPEC power was felt in 1970s when the production and price of oil was
controlled by the said organization.
 3. To protect their independence from the pressure of the super
politics. The Non-Align Movement was founded by the president of Egypt,
Ghana, India, Indonesia and Yugoslavia to establish world peace, international
cooperation, human rights, national sovereignty, racial and national equality,
non-intervention and peaceful conflict resolution. It called itself non-aligned
because the association refused to side with either the First World capitalist
democracies in Western Europe and North America or the communist states in
eastern Europe.
4. Economic crisis compels countries to come together. The Thai economy
collapsed in 1996 after foreign currency speculators and troubled international
banks demanded that the Thai government pay back its loans. The
International Monetary Fund (IMF) tried to reverse the crisis, but it was only
after the ASEAN countries along with china, Japan and South Korea agreed to
establish an emergency fund to anticipate a crisis that the Asian economies
established. The crisis made the ASEAN more "unified and coordinated." The
Association has come a long way since it was formed as a coalition of
countries which were pro-American and supportive of the United States
intervention in Vietnam. After the Vietnam war, ASEAN continued to act as a
military alliance to isolate Vietnam after it invaded Cambodia, but there were
also the beginnings of economic cooperation.

Non State Regionalism

Although state regionalism is very popular in advancing regional economic and political
stability, non state regionalism nowadays is also gaining its presence in addressing the
common problems confronted by the region in term of economic, politics, health, culture,
environment and etc..
Claudio and Abinales identified some forms and examples of Non-State Regionalism;

1. Non-State regionalism varies in forms. First, there are tiny associations that
focus on a single issue or huge intercontinental unions that address a multitude
of common problems. Second, organizations representing the non-state
regionalism rely on the power of individuals, NGOs, Non-Government
Organizations and other associations. Third, non-state regionalism is identified
with reformists who shared the values.
2. Non-State regionalism has different strategies and tactics. Some
organizations partner with governments to social change. For examples,
Citizen Diplomacy Forum (CDF) tries to influence the policies and programs of
the organizations of American
States.AsianParliamentarianforHumanRightwasinispushingtopreventdiscrimin
ation,uphold political freedom, promote democracy and human rights through
out the region.
3. Regional organizations dedicate themselves to specialized causes. For
examples, First, Rain Forest Foundation was established to protect the
 indigenous people and the forest in Brazil, Guyana, Panama and Peru.
Second, Regional Interfaith Youth Networks was formed to promote conflict
prevention, resolution, peace education and sustainable development. Third,
Migrant Forum in Asia is committed to protect and promote the rights and
welfare of migrant workers.
4. Non state regionalism differs from state regionalism in identifying social
problems. For instance, states treat poverty or environmental degradation as
technical or economic issues that can be resolved by refining the existing
programs of the state agencies, making minor changes in economic policies
and creating offices that address these issues. While non state regionalism
advocated these issues as reflections of flawed development and
environmental models.

Contemporary Challenges to Regionalism

• Regionalism faces multiple challenges, the most serious of which is the

resurgence of militant nationalism and populism.
• ASEAN members continue to disagree over the extent to which member
countries should sacrifice their sovereignty for the sake of regional stability.
• A final challenge pertains to differing visions of what regionalism should be for.
• Western governments may see regional organizations not simply as economic
formations but also as instruments of political democratization.
• Singapore, China, and Russia see democracy as an obstacle to the
implementation and deepening of economic globalization because constant
public inquiry about economic projects and lengthy debate slow down
implementation or lead to unclear outcomes.

4.2 The Global City

Why Study Global Cities?
First, globalization is spatial because it occurs in physical spaces. You can see it when
foreign investments and capital move through a city, and when companies build
skyscrapers. People who are working in these businesses - or Filipinos working abroad -
start to purchase or rent high-rise condominium units and better homes. As all these
events happen, more poor people are driven out of city centers to make way for the new
developments. Second, globalization is spatial because what makes it move is the fact that
it is based in places. Los Angeles, the home of Hollywood, is where movies are made for
global consumption. The main headquarters of Sony is in Tokyo and from there the
company coordinates the sale of its various electronics goods to branches across the
world.
 In other words, cities act on globalization and globalization acts on cities. They are the
sites as well as the mediums of globalization. Just as internet enables and shapes global
forces, so too do cities. In the years to come, more and more people experience
globalization through cities. In 1950, only 30 percent of the world lived in urban areas. By
2014, that number increased to 54 percent. And by 2050, it is expected to reach 66
percent.

Defining the Global City

Issues Illustrated: Global Cities (Links to an external site.)
Sociologist Saskia Sassen popularized the term "global city" in the 1990s. Her criteria for
what constitutes a global city were primarily economic. In her work, she initially identified
three global cities: New York, London and Tokyo, all of which are hubs of global finance
and capitalism. They are the homes, for instance, of the world's top stock exchanges where
investors buy and sell shares in major corporations.

• New York has the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE).

• London has the Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE.
• Tokyo has Nikkei.
Indicators for Globality

• So what are the multiple attributes of the global city? The foremost
characteristic is economic power.
• Economic opportunities in a global city make it attractive to talents from
across the world.
• To measure the economic competitiveness of a city, The Economist
Intelligence Unit has added other criteria like market size, purchasing power of
citizens, size of the middle class, and potential for growth.
• Global cities are are centers of authority.
• The cities that house major international organizations may also be considered
centers of political influence.
• Finally, global cities are centers of higher learning and culture.

The Challenges of Global Cities

• Global cities conjure up images of fast-paced, exciting, cosmopolitan lifestyles.

• Global cities also have undersides.
• They can be sites of great inequality and poverty as well as tremendous
violence. Like the broader processes of globalization, global cities create
winners and losers.
• Cities, especially those with global influence, are obvious targets for terrorists
due to their high populations and their role as symbols of globalization that
many terrorists despise.
The Global City and the Poor People
In places like Mumbai, Jakarta, and Manila, it is common to find gleaming buildings alongside
massive shantytowns. This duality may even be seen in rich, urban cities. In the outskirts of New
York and San Francisco are poor urban enclaves occupied by African-Americans and immigrant
families who are often denied opportunities at a better life. As a city attracts more capital and richer
residents, real estate prices go up and poor residents are forced to relocate to far away but cheaper
areas. This phenomenon of driving out the poor in favor or newer, wealthier residents is
called gentrification.
In Australian cities, poor aboriginal Australians have been most acutely affected by this
process. Once living in public urban housing, they were forced to move farther away from city
centers that offer more jobs, more government services, and better transportation due to
gentrification. in France, poor Muslim migrants are forced out of Paris and have clustered around
ethnic enclaves known as banlieue. In most of the world's global cities, the middle class is also
thinning out. Globalization creates high-income jobs that are concentrated in global cities. A large
global city may thus be a paradise for some, but a purgatory for others.
World of Regions
Intended learning outcomes
❖Determine the difference between regionalization and
globalization
❖Explain how regions are formed and kept together;
❖Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of regionalism;
and
❖Identify the factor leading to a greater integration of the
Asian region
Regionalization

Regionalism
NATO – (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization)
❖ formed during Cold War
between Western Europe
countries and the US against the
threat of Soviet Union. USSR
(Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics) responded with the
creation of its own alliance – the
Warsaw Pact.
OPEC – (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
ESTAB LISHED IN 1 9 6 0 TO REG U LATE THE P ROD U C TION AN D SALE OF OIL.
Non-Aligned Movement
❖ established in 1961 to pursue world peace and international
cooperation, human rights, national sovereignty, equality,
nonintervention and peaceful conflict resolution. Did not side
on either the First World (Western Europe and US) or Second
World (USSR and allies).
References:
Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The
Contemporary World, C & E Publishing, Inc.

Kennex, Prince and Aldama, Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary

World, REX Book Store, Inc.
GLOBAL CITY
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• Distinguish the attributes of a global city.
• Analyze how cities serve as engines of globalization.
• Explain the theory of demographic transition as it affects the global
population.
• Classify the political, economic, cultural and social factors of global
movements of people.
• Describe firsthand knowledge of the experiences of OFW’s
GLOBAL CITY AND GLOBALIZATION

Globalization is
Globalization is
spatial because what
spatial as it occurs
makes it move is in
in physical spaces.
fact based in places.
IN THE COMING YEARS, MORE AND MORE PEOPLE WILL
EXPERIENCE GLOBALIZATION THROUGH CITIES:

1950 – 30% of people

living in the cities

2014 – 54% of people

living in the cities

2050 – 66% of people

living in the cities
 GLOBAL CITY:
• coined in the 1990s by sociologist
Saskia Sassen
• Sassen’s criteria focused primarily in
the economic aspect
• Sassen named New York, London,
and Tokyo as the three Global Cities.
• Considered by critics as highly
restrictive as it focused only on the
economic aspect, and it did not
account the changes that happened
since the 1990s.
INDICATORS OF GLOBALITY:

01 02 03
Economic Opportunities - Centers of Centers of
according to the Economist
Intelligence Unit, market size, Authority Higher Learning
purchasing power of citizens, (Washington and Cultures (ex.
size of the middle class, and D.C., Canberra) Melbourne and
potential for growth are some
of the criteria. (NY, London, Sydney)
Tokyo)
 • can be sites of great inequality and
poverty.
CHALLENGES
• can be sustainable because of its
ON GLOBAL
density but risks damage to the
CITIES:
environment
• has a massive demand on energy
London (Financial Times Stock Exchange or FTSE)

New York (New York Stock Exchange or NYSE)

Tokyo (Nikkei)

Copenhagen, Denmark (Cuisine/ “New Nordic”) GLOBAL

Singapore (rising Cultural Hub of Southeast Asia) CITIES:
San Francisco (Silicon Valley)

Los Angeles (Hollywood)

Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing (rising economic centers in

China
GENTRIFICATION –
A PROCESS OF DRIVING
GLOBAL CITIES AND
OUT OF THE POOR IN
FAVOR OF NEWER,
THE POOR:
WEALTHIER RESIDENTS.
References:
• Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The Contemporary World, C & E Publishing,
Inc.
• Kennex, Prince and Aldama, Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary World, REX Book Store, Inc.
5.1 Global Demography
When couples are asked why they have children, their answers are almost always
about their feelings. For most, having a child is the symbol of a successful union. It also
ensures that the family will have a successor of generation that will continue its name.
The kinship is preserved, and the family's story continues. A few, however, worry how
much strain a child can bring to the household as he/she ''competes'' for the
parents attention and in reverse how much energy the family needs to shower its love to
an additional member. Viewed from above, however having or not having children is
mainly driven by economics. Behind the laughter or the tears lies the question, will the
child be an economic asset or a burden to the family?
Rural communities often welcome an extra hand to help in crop cultivation, particularly
during planting and harvesting season. Urbanized, educated, and professional families with
two incomes, however, desire just one or two progenies. With each partner tied down, or
committed to his/ her respective profession, neither has the time to devote to having a
kid, much more to parenting. Rural families view multiple children and large kinship
networks as critical investments.
Urban populations have grown, but not necessarily because families are having more
children. It is rather the combination of the natural outcome of significant migration to the
cities by people seeking work in the "more modern" sectors of society. This movement of
people is especially manifested in the developing countries where industries and
businesses in the cities are attracting more people from the rural areas.
International migration also plays a part. Today, 191 million people live in countries
other than their own, and the United Nations projects that over 2.2 million will move from
the developing world to the First World countries.

The "Perils" of Overpopulation

Development planners see urbanization and industrialization as indicators of a
developing society, but disagree on the role of population growth or decline in
modernization. This lengthy discussion brings back ideas of British scholar Thomas
Malthus who warned in his 1798 "An Essay on the the Principle of Population" that
population growth will inevitably exhaust world food supply by the middle of the 19th
century.
Malthus' prediction was off base, but it was revived in the late 1960s when American
biologist Paul R. Ehrlich and his wife, Anne, wrote The Population Bomb, which argued that
overpopulation in the 1970s and the 1980s will bring about global environmental disasters
that would, in turn, lead to food shortage and mass starvation. They proposed that
countries like the United states take the lead in the promotion of global population control
in order to reduce the growth rate to zero. Their recommendations ranged from the bizarre
(chemical castration) to the policy-oriented (taxing an additional child and luxury taxes on
child related products) to monetary incentives (paying off men who would agree to be
sterilized after two children) to institution-building (a powerful Department of Population
and Environment).
There was some reason for this fear to persist. The rate of global population increase
was at its highest between 1955 and 1975 when nations were finally able to return to
normalcy after the devastations wrought by World War II. The growth rate rose from 1.8
percent per year from 1955 to 1975, peaking at 2.06 percent annual growth rate between
1965 and 1970. By limiting the population, vital resources could be used for economic
progress and not be "diverted" and "wasted" to feeding more mouths. In the mid-20th
century, the Philippines, China, and India sought to lower birth rates on the belief that
unless controlled, the free expansion of family members would lead to a crisis in resources,
which in turn may result in widespread poverty, mass hunger, and political instability.
As early as 1958, the American policy journal, Foreign Affairs, had already advocated
"contraception and sterilization" as the practical solutions to global economic, social, and
political problems. In May 2009, a group of American billionaires warned of how a
"nightmarish" explosion of people was "a potentially disastrous environmental, social, and
industrial threat" to the world.
This worry is likewise at the core of the economist argument for the promotion of
reproductive health. Advocates of population control contend for the universal access to
reproductive technologies (such as condoms, the pill, abortion, and vasectomy) and, more
importantly, giving women the right to choose whether to have children or not. Finally,
politics determine these "birth control" programs. Developed countries justify their
support for population control in developing countries by depicting the latter as
conservative societies.
It's the Economy not the Babies!

The use of population control to prevent economic crisis has its critics. For example,
Betsy Hartmann disagrees with the advocates of neo- Malthusian theory and accused
governments of using population control as a "substitute for social justice and much
needed reforms - such land distribution, employment creation, provision of mass
education and health care, and emancipation. Others pointed out that the population did
grow fast in many countries in the 1960s, and this growth "aided economic
development by spurring technological and institutional innovation and increasing the
supply of human ingenuity."
The median of 29.4 years for females and 30.9 for males in the cities means a young
working population. With this median age, states are assured that they have a robust
military force. The productive capacities of this generation are especially high in regions
like East Asia as "Asia's remarkable growth in the past half century coincided closely with
demographic change in the region.
Population growth has, in fact, spurred "technological and institutional innovation"
and increased " the supply of human ingenuity." Advances in agricultural productions have
grown that the Malthusian nightmare can be prevented. The "Green Revolution" created
high-yielding varieties of rice and other cereals and, along with the development of new
methods of cultivation, increase yields globally, but more particularly in the developing
world. The global famine that neo-Malthusian predicted did not happen. Instead, between
1950 and 1984, global gain production increased by over 250 percent, allowing agriculture
to keep pace with population growth, thereby keeping global famine under control.

Women and Reproductive Rights

The character in the middle of these debates - women - is often the subject of these
population measures. Reproductive rights supporters argue that if population control and
economic development were to reach their goals, women must have control over whether
they will have children or not and whey they will have their progeny, if any. By giving
women this power, they will be able to pursue their vocations - be they economic, social,
or political - and contribute to economic growth.
This serial correlation between fertility, family, and fortune has motivated countries
with growing economies to introduce or strengthen their reproductive health laws,
including abortion. High-income First World nations and fast-developing countries were
able to sustain growth in part because women were given the power of choice and easy
access to reproductive technologies.
Most countries implement reproductive health laws because they worry about the
health of the mother. Opponents regard reproductive rights as nothing but a false front
for abortion. They contend that this method of preventing conception endangers the life
of the mother and must be banned. The religious wing of the anti-reproductive flank goes
further and describes abortion as a debauchery that sullies the name of God; it will send
the mother to hell and prevents a new soul, the baby, to become human.
Muslim countries do not condone abortion and limit wives to domestic chores and
delivering babies. The Philippines with a Catholic majority now has a reproductive health
law in place , buth conservative politicians have enfeebled it through budget cuts and
installed its implementation by filing a case against the law in the Supreme Court.
A country being industrialized and developed, however, does not automatically assure
pro-women reproductive regulations.

The Feminist Perspective

Feminists approach the issue of reproductive rights from another angle. They are,
foremost, against any form of population control because they are compulsory by nature,
resorting to a carrot-and-stick approach (punitive mechanism co-exist alongside benefits)
that actually does not empower women. They believe that government assumptions that
poverty and environmental degradation are caused by overpopulation are wrong. These
factors ignore other equally important causes like the unequal distribution of wealth, the
lack of public safety nets like universal health care, education, and gender equality
programs.
Feminists also point out that there is very little evidence that point o overpopulation as
the culprit behind poverty and ecological devastation. Governments have not directly
responded to these criticisms, but one of the goals of the 1994 United Nations
International Conference on Population and Development suggests recognition of this
issue.

Population Growth and Food Security

 Today's global population has reached 7.4 billion. it is estimated to increase to 9.5
billion in 2050, then 11.2 billion by 2100. The median age of this population is 30.1, with
the male median age at 29.4 years and female, 30.9 years. Ninety-five percent of this
population growth will happen in the developing countries, with demographers predicting
that by the middle of this century, several countries will have tripled their population.
Demographers predict that the world population will stabilize by 2050 to 9 billion,
although they warn that feeding this population will be an immense challenge. The decline
in fertility and the existence of a young productive population, however, may not be
enough to offset this concern over food security. The food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) warns that in order for countries to mitigate the impact of population growth, food
production must increase by 70 percent; annual cereal production must rise to 3 billion
tons from the current 2.1 billion; and yearly meat production must go up to 200 million
tons to reach 470 million.
The problem here is that the global rate of growth of cereals had declined considerably
- from 3.2 percent in 1960 to just 1.5 percent in 2000. The FAO recommends that
countries increase their investments in agriculture, craft long-term policies aimed at
fighting poverty, and invest in research and development. The UN body suggests also that
countries develop a comprehensive social service program that includes food assistance,
consistent delivery of health services, and education especially for the poor.

What is Migration?
Migration should not be considered a "problem." There is nothing moral or immoral
about moving from one country to another. Human beings have always been migratory. It
is the result of their movements that areas get populated, communities experience
diversity, and economies proper. Thus, rather than looking at migration in terms of a
simplistic good vs. bad lens, treat it as a complex social phenomenon that even predates
contemporary globalization.
 Cambridge English Dictionary defines global migration as " a situation in which people
go to live in foreign countries, especially in order to find work. Most global migration is
from developing countries to developed ones."
There are two types of migration: internal migration, which refers to people moving
from one area to another within on country and international migration, in which people
cross borders of one country to another.
International migration can be broken down into five groups. First are those who move
permanently to another country (immigrants). The second refers to workers who stay in
another country for a fixed period (at least 6 months in a year). Illegal migrants comprise
the third group, while the fourth are migrants whose families have "petitioned" them to
move for the destination country. The fifth group are refugees (also known as asylum
seekers), i.e., those "unable or unwilling to return because of a well- founded fear of
persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social
group, or political opinion."

Benefits and Detriments for the Sending Countries

 Even if 90 percent of the value generated by migrant workers remains in their host
countries, they have sent billions back to their home countries. In 2014, India held the
highest recorded remittance ($70 billion), followed by China ($62 billion), the Philippines
($28 billion), and Mexico ($25 billion). These remittances make significant contributions to
the development of small- and medium-term industries that help generate jobs.
Remittances likewise change the economic and social standing of migrants, as shown
by new or renovated homes and their relatives' access to new consumer goods. The
purchasing power of a migrant's family doubles and makes it possible for children to start
or continue their schooling. Yet, there remain serious concerns about the economic
sustainability of those reliant on migrant monies. The Asian Development Bank (ADB)
observes that in countries like the Philippines, remittances "do not have a significant
influence on other key items of consumption or investment such as spending on education
and health care.
More importantly, global migration is "siphoning qualified personnel' (and) removing
dynamic young workers. This process has often been referred to as "brain drain." The loss
of professionals in certain key roles, such as doctors, has been detrimental to the migrants'
home countries. In 2006, some 15 percent of locally trained doctors from 21 sub-Saharan
African countries had emigrated to the United States or Canada; the losses were
particularly steep in Liberia (where 43 percent of doctors left), Ghana (30 percent), and
Uganda (20 percent).
Governments are aware of this long-term handicap but have no choice but to continue
promoting migrant work as part of state policy because of the remittances' impact on GDP.

The Problem of Human Trafficking and Integration

On top of the issue of brain drain, sending states must likewise protect migrant
workers. The United States Federal Bureau of Investigation lists human trafficking as the
third largest criminal activity worldwide. In 2012, the International Labor Organization
(ILO) identified 21 million men, women, and children as victims of "forced labor," an
appalling three out of every 1,000 persons worldwide.
Human trafficking has been very profitable, earning syndicates, smugglers, and corrupt
state officials profits as high as $150 million a year in 2014. Governments, the private
sector, and civil society groups have worked together to combat human trafficking, yet
the results remain uneven.
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
• Explain the theory of demographic transition as it affects the global
population.
• Classify the political, economic, cultural and social factors of global
movements of people.
• Describe firsthand knowledge of the experiences of OFW’s
 • the study of statistics of population
such as births and deaths, and the
DEMOGRAPHY
composition of a particular human
population.
 DIFFERENCES OF A RURAL
FAMILY AND AN URBAN FAMILY:

• Rural
• tend to have more children to help in farm work
or in a small family enterprise.They view children
as a form of investment, with their children’s
houses to serve as their “retirement homes.”
• Urban
• desires to have only one or two progenies
(children). Since partners are tied down on their
own professions, neither has time to devote to
having kids. They have sights to long-term savings
plans.
 Thomas Malthus - “An Essay on the Principle of
Population” – population growth will inevitably
exhaust world food supply by the mid-19th century.

THE PERILS OF
OVERPOPULATION: Paul and Anne Erlich – “The Population Bomb” –
overpopulation in the 70s and 80s will bring about
global environmental disasters that would, in turn,
lead to food shortages and mass starvation. They
proposed that countries like the USA take the lead in
the promotion of global population control to reduce
population growth rate to 0%.

Population Control – programs based

on the argument that resources could be
used for economic progress rather than
being “diverted” and “wasted” to feed
more mouths.
RECOMMENDED POLICIES OF PAUL AND ANNE ERLICH:

Institution-
Policy-Oriented Monetary Building
taxes on additional Incentives
Chemical children and creation of a
paying off men powerful
Castration luxury taxes on who would agree
child-related Department of
to be sterilized Population and
products. after two children. Environment
“IT’S THE ECONOMY, NOT THE BABIES!”

• Betsy Hartmann – a major critic of the neo-Malthusian Theory.

• Other experts pointed out that the population did grow fast in the
1960s, and this growth “aided economic development by spurring
technological and institutional innovation and increasing the supply of
human innovation.”
OTHER CRITICS OF THE NEO-MALTHUSIAN THEORY

• Feminist Perspective
• Against any form of population control because they are compulsory by nature,
resorting to a carrot-and-stick approach that actually does not empower women.
• They believe that government assumptions that poverty and environmental
degradation are caused by overpopulation are wrong.
• Feminist also point out that there is very little evidence that point to overpopulation
as the culprit behind poverty and ecological devastation.
 • Population as of 2014 has reached 7.4 billion and
is projected to increase to 9.5 billion by 2050, and
11.2 billion by 2100. 95% of this population
growth will happen in the developing countries.
POPULATION • The developed world has a generally stable
GROWTH AND population but declining in some of the most
FOOD advanced countries (e.g. Japan, Singapore,
Germany).
SECURITY
• The decline in fertility and the existence of a
young productive population may not be enough
to offset the challenge of food security.
References:
• Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The Contemporary World, C & E Publishing, Inc.
• Kennex, Prince and Aldama, Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary World, REX Book Store, Inc.
Global
Migration
Global Migration

Migration – the movement of people

from their place of origin to another.
Humans have always been migratory,
this led to the populating of areas. USA hosts the most number of
Communities experience diversity, and migrants
economies prosper. Migration is a
complex social phenomenon that even
predates contemporary globalization.
 Internal
people move from one area to
another within one country
Types of
Migration:
International
people cross borders of one
country to another
 Workers Illegals
Immigrants
people who stay in another country people who move to another
people who move permanently to
for a fixed period due to country without proper
another country
employment documentation

/ Refugees (asylum-seekers)
Petitioned people who are unable to return to
their country because of a well-
people who move to another
founded fear of persecution on
country with the help of their
account of race, religion, nationality,
migrant families
membership in a particular social
group, or political opinion.

Types of International Migrants:

Demographers estimate that 247 million people are currently living outside the
countries of their birth. 90% left for economic reasons, and the remaining 10% are
refugees or asylum-seekers.
USA remains as the top destination for migrants, followed by West Europe, and Middle
East.

The migrant influx has led to a debate in destination countries on whether migrants
are assets or liabilities to national developments.

Migration
Effects of migration:
Assets – according to a study in 2011 by the Harvard Business School, the likelihood and
magnitude of effects for natives from immigration are substantially weaker than often
perceived.
Liabilities – a number of anti-immigrant groups and political figures see migrants as liabilities
(e.g. Donald Trump).
 Remittances
Benefit of ◦ money remitted or sent to the home countries of
migrant workers that could help in their home
Migration country’s economic development. Remittances can
directly impact the home countries’ economy, and the
migrants’ families.
Brain Drain – the siphoning of qualified personnel and removing dynamic young
workers to work abroad. Focused on whitecollar workers (professionals).

Brawn Drain – the siphoning of skilled and semi-skilled workers out of the labor
force to work abroad. Focused on blue-collar workers (laborers).

Human Trafficking – considered to be the third largest criminal activity in the

world, worth as much as $150 billion in 2014.

Detriments of Migration
References:
• Claudio, Lisandro E. and
Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The
Contemporary World, C & E
Publishing, Inc.
• Kennex, Prince and Aldama,
Reguyal (2016) The
Contemporary World, REX Book
Store, Inc.
6.1 Environmental Crisis and
Sustainable Development
The World's Leading
Environmental Problems
Hi everyone! The world seems to be in trouble with the gradual, if not sudden, global
climate change. Well, as citizens of this planet earth, each one must do something noble
to save mother earth from decay. Let us learn more about the leading environmental
problems as we also think of ways to prevent the world from destruction. Relax and enjoy
the lesson!
The following are the world's leading environmental problems:

1. The depredation caused by industrial and transportation toxins and plastic in

the ground; the defiling of the sea, rivers, and water beds by oil spills and acid
rain; the dumping of urban waste.
2. Changes in global weather patterns (flash floods, extreme snowstorms, and
the spread of deserts) and the surge in ocean and land temperatures leading
to a rise in sea levels, plus the flooding of many lowland areas across the world.
3. Overpopulation
4. The exhaustion of the world's natural non-renewable resources from oil
reserves to minerals to potable water.
5. A waste disposal catastrophe due to the excessive amount of waste unloaded
by communities in landfills as well as on the ocean; and the dumping of nuclear
waste.
6. The destruction of million-year-old ecosystems and the loss of biodiversity that
have led to the extinction of particular species and the decline in the number of
others.
7. The reduction of oxygen and the increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
because of deforestation, resulting in the rise in ocean acidity by as much as
150 percent in the last 250 years.
Man-made Pollution
Humans exacerbate other natural environmental problems. In Saudi Arabia,
sandstorms combined with combustion exhaust from traffic and industrial waste has led
the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare Riyadh as one of the most polluted cities
in the world. It si this "human contribution" that has become an immediate cause of worry.
Greenpeace India reported that in 2015, air pollution in the country was at its worst,
aggravated by the Indian government's inadequate monitoring system (there were only
17 national air quality networks covering 89 cities across the continent).
Waste coming out of coal, copper, and gold mines flowing out into rivers and oceans
is destroying sea life or permeating the bodies of those which survived with poison
(mercury in tuna, prominently).
Pollution in West Africa has affected "the atmospheric circulation system that controls
everything from wind and temperature to rainfall across huge swathes of the region." The
Asian monsoon, in turn, had become the transport of polluted air into the stratosphere,
and scientist are now linking Pacific storms to the spread of pollution in Asia.
People's health has been severely compromised. An archived article in the
journal Scientific American blamed the pollution for "contributing to more than half a
million premature deaths each year at the cost of hundreds of billions dollars.
It has been the poor who are most severely affected by these environmental problems.
Their low income and poverty already put them at a disadvantage by not having the
resources to afford goof health care, to live in unpolluted areas, to eat healthy food, etc.
In Metropolitan Manila, 37 percent (4 million people) of the population live in slum
communities, areas where "the effects of urban environmental problems and threats of
climate change are also most pronounced.... due to their hazardous location, poor air
pollution and solid waste management, weak disaster risk management, and limiting
coping strategies of household."
Catching Up and Climate Change
The massive environmental problems are difficult to resolve because governments
believe that for their countries to become fully developed, they must be industrialized,
urbanized and inhabited buy a robust middle class with access to the best of modern
amenities. A developed society, accordingly, must also have provisions for the poor - jobs
in the industrial sector, public transport system, and cheap food. Food depends on a
country's free trade with other food producers. It also relies on a "modernized" agricultural
sector in which toxic technologies (such as fertilizers or pesticides) and modified crops
(e.g., high-yielding varieties of rice) ensure maximized productivity.
Governments have their own environmental problems to deal with, but these states'
ecological concerns become worldwide due to global warming, which transcends national
boundaries. Global warming is the result of billion of tons of carbon dioxide (coming form
coal-burning power plants and transportation), various air pollutants, and other gases
accumulating in the atmosphere. These pollutants trap the sun's radiation causing the
warming of the earth's surface. With the current amount of carbon dioxide and other
gases, this "greenhouse effect" has sped up the rise in the world temperature. There is
now a consensus that the global temperature has risen at a faster rate in the last 50 years
and it continues to go up despite efforts by climate change deniers that the world had
cooled off in and around 1998.
The greenhouse effect is responsible for recurring heat waves and long droughts in
certain places, as well as for heavier rainfall and devastating hurricanes and typhoons in
others. Until recently, California had experienced its worst water shortage in 1,200 years
due to global warming.
 In India and Southeast Asia, global warming altered the summer monsoon patterns,
leading to intermittent flooding that seriously affected food production and consumption
as well as infrastructure networks. Category 4 and 5 typhoons, like the Super Typhoon
Haiyan that hit the central Philippines in 2013, had "doubled and even tripled in some
areas of the (Southeast Asian) basin. Scientist claim that there will be more (of such)
typhoons in the coming years.
Glaciers are melting every year since 2002, with Antarctica losing 134 billion metric of
ice. There is a coastal flooding not only in the United States eastern seaboard but also
in the Gulf of Mexico.
Flooding has allowed more breeding grounds for disease carriers like the Aedes
aegpyti mosquito and the cholera bacteria. Since human-made climate change threatens
the entire world, it is possibly the greatest present risk to humankind.

Combating Global Warming

Combating global warming

More countries are now recognizing the perils of global warming. In 1997, 192
countries signed the Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gases, following the 1992
United Nations Earth Summit where a Framework Convention for Climate Change was
finalized. The protocol set targets but left it to the individual countries to determine how
best they would achieve these goals.
Social movements have had success working together, with some pressure on their
governments to regulate global warming.
 When local alliances between the state, schools, and communities are replicated at
thee national level, the success becomes doubly significant. In Japan, population
pressures forced the government to work with civil society groups, academia, and political
parties to get the parliament to pass a blizzard of laws- 14 passed at once - in what
became known as the Pollution Diet of 1970. These regulations did not eliminate
environmental problems, but today, Japan has some of the least polluted cities in the
world.

6.2 Global Filipino

Today, the Philippine economy depends largely on incomes from jobs with global
connections. The first is migrant labor. In 2015, the Department of Labor and Employment
reported that the number of Filipinos leaving the country to work overseas rose from
4,018 in 2010 to 6,092 in 2015, a 51-percent increase in the span of five years. In 2016,
there were 2.4 million Filipinos leaving and/or working outside of the country. They sent
back $25.8 billion in 2015, roughly 8.5 percent of the country's gross domestic product.
Filipinos really have very little choice but to accept this globalized state as a country
and a people. Globalization's impact has, admittedly, been uneven and often does not
benefit most Filipinos. Yet, there is some movement; there is progress when the
Philippines at the end of the 20th century is analyzed. And part of that is because - right
or wrong - Philippine political leaders decided to open up the country to the world. The
next step now is to make sure that the imbalance from globalization's benefits is corrected
to allow more Filipinos to live a better life.
ENVIRONMENTAL
CRISIS AND
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Environmental Crisis and
Sustainable Development
Globalization inevitably “caused” environmental issues since
it focuses on amassing material wealth and value,
oftentimes at the expense of the environment.
The World’s Leading Environmental
Problems:
Depredation caused
Exhaustion of natural
by industrial and Changes in global
Overpopulation nonrenewable
transportation toxins; weather patterns
resources
plastic pollution

Reduction of Oxygen
Destruction of million- Waste disposal and increase of Ozone Layer depletion
year-old ecosystems catastrophe Carbon Dioxide in the 9. Acid Rains
atmosphere

Pandemics (diseases
Urban sprawls (rise of Genetically Modified
Water pollution that spread on a global
megalopolis) Organisms (GMOs)
scale)
Causes of Environmental Problems

NATURAL – CAUSED BY NATURAL MAN-MADE – CAUSED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES,

PHENOMENA, EXAMPLE: VOLCANIC EXAMPLE: PLASTIC POLLUTION
ERUPTIONS
Man-Made Pollution

HUMANS EXACERBATE OTHER POOR PEOPLE ARE THE MOST

NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AFFECTED DEMOGRAPHY
“Catching Up”
USA is considered to be the world’s
worst polluter in history,
responsible for 27% of the world’s
carbon dioxide emissions.
“Extractive” economies (those
Developing countries always desire
dependent on exploiting resources)
to be more developed, urbanized,
are “terminal” economies (nearing
and industrialized – this leads to
the dead-end) since the resources
the worsening effects of
will soon be depleted, and there
environmental issues. “Race to the
are the major causes of
bottom.”
environmental issues.
 Climate
Change
• Caused by Global warming (the
increase in the Earth’s average
temperature caused primarily by the
increase in greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere)
• Effects include: (i) melting of polar
ice caps, (ii) increase in sea levels, and
(iii) coral bleaching.
Combating Climate Change:
Paris Accord – limits the increase of global average temperature to
UN Earth Summit – provided the framework convention for combating 1.5o C above the preIndustrial Revolution levels. Signed by 195
Climate Change. This led to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. countries, with the United States notably backing out of the deal.

1997

1992 2015

Kyoto Protocol – promoted the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions

and banned the use of CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) which are ozone-
depleting agents. Signed by 192 countries.
Sustainable Development
oIt is the idea that human societies must live and meet their needs without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

oThe “official” definition of sustainable development was developed for the first
time in the Brundtland Report in 1987.

oThe industrial revolution is connected to the rise of the idea of sustainable

development.
References:
• Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The Contemporary World, C & E Publishing,
Inc.
• Kennex, Prince and Aldama, Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary World, REX Book Store, Inc.
 GLOBAL
CITIZENSHIP
 Citizenship – the legal status of membership of
a person to a state which entails the bestowing
of rights live right to vote, and obligations like
obligation to pay taxes.
GLOBAL
CITIZENSHIP
Global Citizenship - the moral and ethical
disposition that can guide the understanding of
individuals or groups of local and global contexts,
and remind them of their relative responsibilities
within various communities.
A GLOBAL CITIZEN IS SOMEONE WHO:

is aware of the wider

has an understanding
world and has a sense respects and values is outraged by social
of how the world
of their own role as a diversity injustice
works
world citizen

participates in the is willing to act to

community at a range make the world a takes responsibility for
of levels, from the local more equitable and their actions.
to the global sustainable place
 Economic
• Trade Protectionism – involves systematic
government intervention in foreign trade
through tariffs and non-tariff barriers (like
APPROACHES IN quota) to encourage domestic producers
GLOBAL and deter foreign competitors.
CITIZENSHIP • Fair Trade – aims at a more moral and
equitable global economic system.
• Helping the Bottom Billion – improving of
economic marginalization to aid those in
need.
 Political – increased accountability and
transparency are the key issues.
• Globalization from Below – upholds
progressive values such as autonomy,
APPROACHES IN democracy, peace, ecological sustainability, and
GLOBAL social justice.
CITIZENSHIP • Globalization from Above – characterized as
being a neoliberalist economic system, or
being aggressive in terms of expansion by
nations and corporations.
IN CONCLUSION:

• To be effective Global Citizens, young people need to be flexible, creative

and proactive. They need to be able to solve problems, make decisions,
think critically, communicate ideas effectively and work well within teams
and groups. These skills and attributes are increasingly recognized as being
essential to succeed in other areas of 21st century life too, including many
workplaces.
References:
• Claudio, Lisandro E. and Abinales, Patricio N. (2018) The Contemporary World, C & E Publishing,
Inc.
• Kennex, Prince and Aldama, Reguyal (2016) The Contemporary World, REX Book Store, Inc.