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Properties evaluation of fiber reinforced polymers and their constituent

materials used in structures – A review

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DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.636

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 Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 1003–1008

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today: Proceedings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matpr

Properties evaluation of fiber reinforced polymers and their constituent

materials used in structures – A review
Imad Shakir Abbood a,⇑, Sief aldeen Odaa b, Kamalaldin F. Hasan c, Mohammed A. Jasim d
a
Engineering Affairs Department, Sunni Endowment Diwan, Baghdad, Iraq
b
Department of Planning, General Directorate of Anbar Education, Anbar, Iraq
c
Surveying Engineering Department, Northern Technical University, Mosul, Iraq
d
Directorate of Anbar Environment, Anbar, Iraq

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Competition in civil engineering markets usually imposes low-cost, low-density and environmentally
Received 13 June 2020 resistant materials with minimum maintenance and extended service life features to withstand the unde-
Received in revised form 18 July 2020 sired sever loading and aggressive environmental conditions. As a result, using advanced composite
Accepted 27 July 2020
materials as reinforcing for many different structures has been developed acceptably in past decades
Available online 10 September 2020
through new construction and rehabilitation applications. ‘‘Fiber reinforced polymers” as composite
materials are powerful strengthening technique for various structural applications and have been the
Keywords:
main focus for many researchers in the latest years due to their aforementioned properties. FRPs tech-
Structures
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
nique has been successfully implemented for strengthening bridges, buildings, tunnels, silos, tanks,
Reinforced concrete (RC) and underground infrastructures. FPRs have been conducted as high-performance materials owing to
Polymeric matrix their advantages including light-weight, fatigue resistance, high tensile strength, anti-corrosion, and
Strengthening thermal insulation. This paper intends to review the design of FRP composites and the characteristics
Corrosion resistance of their constituent materials. This review also provides a brief information about the potential of FRPs
as an alternative to steel reinforcement in concrete structural members by providing evaluation of the
mechanical properties of FRP composite materials in terms of compressive, shear, flexural and tensile
strength against extreme loading and environmental conditions.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Confer-
ence on Advanced Materials Behavior and Characterization. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction prestressed concrete structures in US since the early of 1960s

Structures may often undergo severe load conditions that result
in accidental damage during their service time, and replacing these
structures is very expensive. Thus, structures are desired to main-
tain critical loading subject to difficult environment conditions,
static and short-term dynamic stresses [1–3]. Therefore, strength-
ening, repairing and retrofitting is frequently required for struc-
tures for meeting the requirements of sufficient strength and
extending the service life. This concern resulted in utilizing several
techniques in numerous ways, such as fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites [4–9].
FRP composites have been developed as internal reinforce-
ments, for instance rebar to reinforce prestressed and non-
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: imadshakirabbood@gmail.com (I. Shakir Abbood).
[10] and in Europe [11] and Japan [12] since the 1970s, though
the general levels of research, commercialization and demonstra-
tion have grown significantly during the 1980s [13]. FRP reinforce-
ments obtained important attention in Japan during the 1990s
from research on magnetic levitated train support structures (ma-
glev). The Japanese were the first team who introduced design
guidelines for FRP Reinforced Concrete in 1996 [14]. From that,
using FRP as a structural reinforcement has expanded dramatically
and design guidelines have been authored by organizations world-
wide [13,15]. FRP reinforcements are mainly used in concrete
structures that require better corrosion resistance or electromag-
netic translucence.
FRP also functions as externally bonded reinforcement for rein-
forcing steel, timber, concrete and masonry structures [16]. Owing
to infrastructure ageing and the demand to upgrade structures for
meeting more strict design requirements, structural strengthening

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.07.636
2214-7853/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the International Conference on Advanced Materials Behavior and Characterization.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1004 I. Shakir Abbood et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 1003–1008

and repairing has received a great focus over past decades around
the world. Simultaneously, seismic retrofitting has become at least
evenly significant, particularly in earthquake-prone zones.
Strengthening and retrofitting techniques have progressively uti-
lized exteriorly bonded FRP composites, which provide unique fea-
tures in terms of lightness, strength, chemical resistance, and ease
of utilization. These techniques are the most attractive due to their
rapid implementation and low labor costs [13,17].
Currently, the FRP is most applied in civil engineering, such as
applications in industrial and public buildings, bridge engineering,
marine structures and underground infrastructures. This paper
attempts to review FRP design, matrix, material characteristics
and evaluates mechanical properties of FRP in terms of compres-
sive, shear, flexural and tensile strength.

2. FRP composite materials

Composite materials are made by combining two or more mate-

rials in which material possess unique characteristics that are com-
Fig. 2. Typical FRP materials VS mild steel [20].
pletely different from the individual materials added [18]. FRP
composite is designed from fibers, resins, interface, fillers and addi-
tives. The fiber has high elastic modulus contributing to the failure strain and elongation rates. Moreover, the elastic modulus
mechanical properties of FRP. While the resins help transfer or dis- of FRP is typically less than that of steel (excepting some of CFRP
tribute stresses from one to other fibers in order protecting them have high Young’s modulus). The FRP composites could be utilized
from mechanical and environmental damage. The interface amidst as reinforcing with concrete in various shapes, inclusive of rebar,
fibers and matrix is recognized to safely influence the behavior of rod, tube, sheet, beam stirrup, plate, roving, and textile and mesh
FRP composites. In addition to those three main constituents, fillers fabric. Especially, FRP bars demonstrated in Fig. 1 could be applied
assist in reducing shrinkage and cost. Additives serve to improve as a promised replacement for steel rebars, which are produced by
the physical and mechanical properties besides the workability the pultrusion process of impregnated thermoset resin fibers [20].
for composites [19]. There be four major materials utilized in order
to produce fibers predominating for the civil engineering industry:
2.1. CFRP
carbon, glass, aramid and basalt to form CFRP, GFRP, AFRP and
BFRP, respectively [17,19–22] (see Fig. 1). The stress–strain rela-
Carbon fiber is anisotropic material in nature, manufactured at
tionships of FRP and steel reinforcement are demonstrated in
1300 °C. The major advantages of this fiber include low density,
Fig. 2.
low conductivity, high fatigue strength, high elastic modulus, good
Contrasted with steel, FRP composites are insensible to the
creep level, resistant to chemical effects and do not absorb water as
chloride-induce corrosion on account of its non-corrosive and
well (Table 2). However, low compressive strength and being ani-
non-metallic intrinsically, which could substantially enhance the
sotropic (decreased radial strength) are the weak features in car-
corrosion resistance for structures. The properties of FRP materials
bon fiber. Furthermore, the relatively high energy requirement to
besides of conventional steel are demonstrated in Table 1. In com-
produce carbon fiber leads to rising costs is considered as another
parison with traditional steel, FRP have light weight and high
weak feature [19,23].
strength. Nevertheless, its mechanical characteristics are linear
elastic without an eminent yielding stage, that results in reduced
2.2. GFRP

Glass fiber is isotropic in nature and high commonly utilized fil-

ament. E-Glass, S-Glass, C-Glass and AR-glass are the popular kinds
of glass fibers (Table 3). High strength, well resistant to water and
chemicals with low cost are the main characteristics of glass fiber.
Relatively low costs compared with other types of FRPs make glass
fiber the most generally applied in construction industry. Never-
theless, a comparatively low elastic modulus, low resistant to alka-
line with low long-term strength due to stress rupture are the
major drawbacks for glass fiber. For the situation that required bet-
ter resistance to alkaline, the supposed AR-glass could be utilized
[19,23,25].

2.3. AFRP

Aramid fiber is anisotropic in nature and normally yellow color.

Fig. 1. Four types of FRP bars [19].
Aramid fiber is popular called Kevlar fiber in market as explained
in Table 4. Aramid fibers is highly costing compared with glass
fiber, sufficient for tension applications such as tendons and cables,
however, it holds low compressive strength. It has low density,
high tensile strength, high elastic modulus and sufficient stiffness.
 I. Shakir Abbood et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 1003–1008 1005

Table 1
Mechanical properties of FRP material types and steel [20].

Property Material Type

CFRP GFRP AFRP BFRP Steel
Density (gm/cm3) 1.50–2.10 1.25–2.50 1.25–1.45 1.90–2.10 7.85
Tensile Strength (MPa) 600–3920 483–4580 1720–3620 600–1500 483–690
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 37–784 35–86 41–175 50–65 200
Elongation (%) 0.5–1.8 1.2–5.0 1.4–4.4 1.2–2.6 6.0–12.0
Coefficient of Linear Expansion (10–6/°C) –9.0–0.0 6.0–10.0 –6.0–2.0 9.0–12.0 11.7

Table 2
Typical properties of CFRP [19,24].

Property Carbon Fiber

Polyacrylic Nitril Carbon Pitch Carbon
High Strength High Modulus Ordinary High Modulus
3
Density (gm/cm ) 1.7–1.8 1.8–2.0 1.6–1.7 1.9–2.1
Tensile Strength (MPa) 3430 2450–3920 764–980 2940–3430
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 196–235 343–637 37–39 392–784
Elongation (%) 1.3–1.8 0.4–0.8 2.1–2.5 0.4–1.5
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (10–6/°C) –0.6 up to –0.2 –1.2 up to –0.1 –0.6 up to –0.2 –1.2 up to –0.1

Table 3
Typical properties of GFRP [19,24].

Trade Name Density (g/cm3) Tensile Strength (MPa) Modulus of Elasticity (GPa) Extension to Break (%) Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (10–6/°C)
E-glass 2.5 3450 72.4 2.4 5.0
S-glass 2.5 4580 85.5 3.3 2.9
C-glass 2.5 3300 69 2.3 n/a
AR-glass 2.27 1800–3500 70–76 2.0–3.0 n/a

Table 4
Typical properties of AFRP [19,24].

Property Aramid Fiber

Kevlar 29 Kevlar 49 Kevlar 149 Technora H Twaron Twaron HM
Density (g/cm3) 1.44 1.44 1.44 1.39 1.44 1.45
Tensile strength (MPa) 2760 3620 3450 3000 3000 3000
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 62 124 175 70 80 124
Extension to break (%) 4.4 2.2 1.4 4.4 3.3 2.0
Coefficient of thermal expansion (10–6/°C) –2.0 long. 59 radil –2.0 long. 59 radil –2.0 long. 59 radil –2.0 long. 59 radil –2.0 long. 59 radil –2.0 long. 59 radil

This fiber can be utilized for static and impact resistant structures.
Nonetheless, its application is restricted due to low long-term
strength (stress rupture) and low radial strength as well. Further-
more, being hard to cut and process is another weak feature of ara-
mid fiber. There be several types of Kevlar having various typical
characteristics such as Kevlar-29, Kevlar-49, Kevlar-149, Technora
H, Twaron and Twaron HM [19,23,26].
2.4. BFRP
fibers, BFRP application in the civil construction field is quite lim-
ited [19,27–29].
3. Matrix of FRP
Depend on FRP type, the fiber combined with the matrix com-
posed of resin, fillers and additives are used to produce sheets
and bars (Fig. 3). Resin is the main component in a matrix. There
be two primary kinds of resins: thermosetting and thermoplastic

Basalt fiber is a kind of igneous rocks that be made up of the fast

cooling of lava on the planet surface. The producing of basalt fiber
is similar to that of glass fibers. Crushed basalt rocks are the only
raw materials needed to manufacture fiber. Basalt fibers are rela-
tively newcomer to FRP composites and structural materials. Such
fibres have high tensile strength, perfect resistance to high temper-
atures and good durability as well (Table 1). Other advantages are
having excellent electromagnetic characteristics and resistant to
corrosion, acid, radiation, UV and vibration. In comparison with
FRP composites which are made from glass, carbon and aramid Fig. 3. Typical composite geometry of FRP [21].
1006 I. Shakir Abbood et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 1003–1008
Table 5
Properties of thermoset resins for FRP matrices [19].
Property Resin
Polyesters Epoxy
Density (gm/cm3) 1.1–1.4 1.2–1.4
Tensile Strength (MPa) 34.5–104 55–130
Young’s Modulus (GPa) 2.1–3.45 2.75–4.10
Poisson’s ratio 0.35–0.39 0.38–0.40
Saturation, % 0.15–0.60 0.08–0.15
Coefficient of Thermal 55–100 45–65
Expansion (10–6/°C)
polymeric materials. The first is the more common for manufactur-
ing FRP composites. unalike thermoplastic polymer, as soon as the
thermoset polymer is cured, it could not be reheated or reshaped.
Thermoset is commonly brittle in nature; however, it offers high
rigidity, dimensional and thermal stability, high resistance to elec-
trical, chemical and solvent affects. The primary target of a matrix
is holding the fibers altogether, transferring the load to the fibers
and protecting them against external impacts [23,24]. Table 5
explains the properties of the more extensively applied thermoset
resins.
3.1. Epoxy resin
It is a kind of synthetic resins including an extensive diversity,
and with continued developing; it could be utilized as adhesive,
coating, flux, casting plastics and matrix resin for FRPs, that are
applied in construction applications [30]. The lower shrinkage
and manufacturing simplicity make the epoxy resin impressively
suitable for various of applications. In comparison to thermoset
polyester, the epoxy resin in general has superior properties and,
employing suitable hardeners, excellent heat and chemicals resis-
tance, particularly, to alkalis [31]. Epoxy resins are the most com-
monly used substrates for many researchers due to their good
mechanical characteristic, corrosive-resistant, versatility and dura-
bility [32].
3.2. Vinyl ester
This thermosetting resin could be utilized as a substitute for
epoxy and polyester resins as a thermosetting polymeric matrix
in FRP composites, as its strength, properties and total costs are
medium between epoxy and polyester. Vinyl ester resin has mini-
mal viscosity (roughly. 200 cps) than epoxy (roughly 900 cps) and
polyester (roughly 500 cps). It is a popular resin which considered
for marine industries owing to its anti-corrosion feature and its
capability in withstanding water absorbing. Vinyl ester is largely
applied resin for producing FRP vessels and tanks as per BS4994.
It enhances strengths and mechanical characteristics minimal than
epoxy and higher than polyester resins. Vinyl resin is oftentimes
applied in laminating and repair materials due to its waterproofing
and reliability [33].
3.3. Polyester
Polyester resin is very wide used in FRP composites owing to its
low costing, anti-corrosion, rapid curing, convenience, and toler-
ance of temperatures. Nevertheless, it has some disadvantages
include low elastic modulus and enhancement of up to (5–15) %
only. Polyester could produce a creep as well. Polyester produces
tensile elongation at break approximately (1–2) % contrasted to
typical epoxy resin which has (3.5–4.5) %. Polyester resin is desired
due to its minimum costing, while vinyl ester resin is preferred by
reason of saturated environs [22,34,35].
Vinyl-ester 4. Mechanical properties
1.15–1.35
73–81 Mechanical properties of FRP composites depend on the propor-
3.0–3.5
tion of fibers and matrix materials, manufacturing methods,
0.36–0.39
0.14–1.3
mechanical characteristics for constituent materials, and
50–75 orientation of fibers through matrix. Fibers could be designed as
‘‘Continuous Form” (aligned and continued fibers are in general
straight and long as well as paralleled to each other) or as ‘‘Woven
Form” (fibers produced in a cloth form and providing strength
multi-directionally) or in ‘‘Chopped Form” (fibers are in general
irregularly and discontinuously arranged and short known as
fiberglass).
4.1. Compressive strength
CFRP and AFRP have the highest and lowest compressive
strengths, independently, compared to other typical FRP compos-
ites [36]. However, the strength is high if basalt fibers are either
placed on the face or supplied by replacing layers through the com-
posite forming a sandwich shape [37]. The compressive strength
for fibers of epoxy-based is greater than that of polyester-based,
indicate that strength of composite polyester-based as a matrix
without or with fillers is less than that of the epoxy-based lami-
nates [38]. It has been revealed that strength of hollow columns
wrapped by (1 layer) and (3 layers) of CFRP is enhanced by 66%
and 123%, respectively while wrapping with GFRP only improved
by 36% and 105% [39]. Nonetheless, for hollow column filled with
concrete and wrapped by (3 layers) of CFRP, the strength increased
by 154% while 144% for that wrapped by GFRP with the same lay-
ers. The reduction in column compressive strength capacity is
caused by increasing the interior moment [40]. The UHPC
strengthen by FRPs produced compressive strengths of at least
115% greater than of the normal UHPC [41]. Furthermore, regard-
ing sandwich structures strengthened with CFRP, it has been found
that compressive strength is greater than that of non-strengthen
structures by roughly 24.68% [42]. The layer thickness of FRP effec-
tively enhances the compressive strength of strengthened concrete
elements zones [43].
4.2. Shear strength
Shear reinforcement for RC members might be produced via
epoxy-bonding with fibers as parallel as virtually viable to princi-
pal tensile stresses. Strengthening could be implemented via wrap-
ping of members either partially or fully as being contingent on
accessibility [13]. The increasing of absorbed humidity amount
by epoxy results in loss of required shear strength for RC elements
[44,45]. Yet, in order to withstand shear stresses, stirrups or ties
should be implemented to the FRP reinforced members or relying
only on concrete strength to shear loads if not functional as in case
of RC tanks [46]. The majority of FRP rebars have a notably low
stiffness or elastic modulus. Low stiffness indicating the need for
deep elements or extra reinforcing to relieve long-term deflection
and reduce crack breadths [47]. Design of shear strength for FRP
employs ACI 318 procedures [48], while ACI 440 [49] does not per-
mit dowel action for FRP rebars to withstand shear compared with
ACI 318 which enhances shearing resistance for steel rebars. Fur-
thermore, the textiles are generally developed to disclose a specific
load–strain outline in 45-degree directions, allowing the ideal
effect of shear beam strength [50]. Nevertheless, the rosette strain
gages revealed that sheets produced shear strength beyond shear
cracks.
 I. Shakir Abbood et al. / Materials Today: Proceedings 43 (2021) 1003–1008
4.3. Flexural strength
Reinforced elements of FRP are normally over-reinforced, which
means that the percentage of FRP bar to concrete is greater than
balanced ratio. Consequently, the failure mode is controlled by
concrete crushing for member [49]. Nonetheless, whereas the con-
crete reinforcement ratio is minimal than the balanced ratio, the
ductile failure mode is encountered by FRP rupture failure mode,
which is not the preferred [37,49]. The flexural strength reduction
factor is ranging from 0.55 to 0.65 based on the proposed reinforc-
ing ratio to the neutral reinforcing ratio due to the insufficiency of
ductility in FRP failure patterns [51]. The reduction factor of
strength for FRP rupture equals 0.55 at failure. Yet, when failure
is destructive in concrete, the flexural strength reduction factor
has increased to 0.65, as the neutral FRP reinforcing ratio is 1.4
times less than the potential reinforcing ratio [51]. The flexural
strength for CFRP-wrapped section has clearly decreased as the
delamination factor increases [52]. Nevertheless, the flexural
strength for FRP materials is specified utilizing ACI 440 identical
to ACI 318 owing to the fact that FRP bars do not yield the same
as steel rebars [48,49,53]. Practically, it is assumed that flexural
aptitude for reinforced parts has been limited by rupture strain
for composite structures [54]. Various researches examined
parameters and variables affecting the flexural strength of FRP
composites, such as fiber length, binder content, heat treatments,
and fibers preactivation before creation [55–58]. For flexural
strengthening, the rebars, sheets and plates are several of FRP rein-
forcing forms that utilized for bonding tension sides of timber, con-
crete and masonry. The load-bearing strength has been enhanced
up to 40% by strengthening of flexural members [22].
4.4. Tensile strength
FRPs are applied as internal reinforcing and as exterior
strengthening for RC structures that use synthetic fibers in poly-
mer matrices to provide massive tensile strength parallel to fibers
direction [59]. Fibers are arranged straight, parallel, and continu-
ous through a matrix [60]. Yet, if radial bursting stresses begin to
be greater than tensile strength in concrete element, cracks will
be developing and the bonding between concrete and rebar is crit-
ically impacted [22]. The tensile strength value of FRPs is usually
specified relying on the fiber types, fiber orientation, matrix, sec-
tion interface, moisture absorption [45]. For instance, the tensile
strength rises as the weight ratio of fiber increases by a specific
amount [61]. Nevertheless, CFRP is revealed to have low weight
and high tensile stress in comparison to other common FRPs
[57,61–63]. This circumstance results in considerable weight-
reducing and span lengthen for prestressed members [64] consid-
ering the CFRP as a frugally elastic-brittle composite [65]. Yet, the
BFRP is having first-rate tensile strength and elongation at break-
ing [41,66]. Wu et al. [67] disclosed that GFRP raised the tensile
strength by 36% for hybrid FRP contrasted to using of BFRP, which
is larger than polyparaphenylenl benzoisoxazole (PBO) by 2.56%.
Investigation on GFRPs have shown that the tensile strength and
short beam strength for vinyl ester matrix are lightly influenced,
while the tensile strength for polyester matrix clearly decreased
by 80% [68]. Moreover, the tensile strengths for GFRP epoxy-
based and GFRP polyester-based decrease by about 22.8% and
19.71% with rice husk and wheat husk fillers, independently [69].
This outcome concluded that tensile strength of hybrid GFRP is
more dispersive than that achieved by CFRP or GFRP only [70].
5. Conclusion
An effort has been done in this article to concisely review the
various aspects regarding the employment of FRP composites as
1007
strengthening materials in the construction industry. This review
has mainly engaged on delivering information exclusively about
engineering aspects including the design of FRP composites and
the characteristics of their constituent materials. This article also
provides a brief evaluation of the mechanical properties of FRP
composite materials in terms of compressive, shear, flexural and
tensile strength. Moreover, this review could avail as a massive
foundation for future works. It can be concluded that E-GFRP is
considered the cheapest composite among FRP materials and is
hence the largely consumed. BFRP is higher costing owing to the
lacking in manufacturing, unlike the E-GFRP. AFRP is not widely
used due to its low compressive strength despite its high cost. CFRP
has the superior strength and exhibits high resistance to fatigue
and creep failures among FRP composites which lead to the high
cost of CFRP. Based on the presented information in this review,
it is clearly noted that there is an increasing need and acceptable-
ness for FRP in the civil engineering field, and their composites are
utilized in a numerous number for various applications. Thus, there
is clear evidence that the FRP technique will progressively continue
in the coming years to be the favored option for numerous
strengthening, repairing and retrofitting projects involve bridges,
buildings, historical monuments, and other different structures.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Imad Shakir Abbood: Conceptualization, Writing - original
draft, Funding acquisition. Sief aldeen Odaa: Writing - review &
editing, Funding acquisition. Kamalaldin F. Hasan: Visualization,
Supervision, Funding acquisition. Mohammed A. Jasim: Writing -
review & editing, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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