cause maximum available fault currents in on economy of line protection against light- However, one discusser indicates that
cates that the
many systems have risen well above the
maximum tube current ratings now avail-
able. In addition, high-speed carrier-cur-
rent relaying has been adopted on most
power company systems at transmission
levels of 100 kv and above. A time of 2
cycles must be allowed for an expulsion tube
to completely clear a fault before any line
relays are allowed to operate This would
offset the advantage of fast operating time
of 1 to 11/2 cycles possible with carrier-
currenit relaying.
In conclusion, this paper rightly implies
that considerable emphasis should be placed
Testing Electrical Insulation ol Rotating
Machinery with High-Voltage Direct
Current
G. LESLIE HILL
MEMBER AIEE
Synopsis: Field test data are presented
and a simplified high-voltage d-c method for
determining the condition of the insulation
in large electric apparatus is described. A
graphical presentation is shown whereby
the characteristic shape of the curve of the
d-c microamperes versus d-c kilovolts is
utilized as the indicator of the condition.
This method has been under experimental
observation for several years and the tech-
nique now has reached a stage where it has
been adopted as the primary means for
testing and determining the condition of the
electrical insulation of large rotating ma-
chinery. All indications point out that
predictions as to the life expectancy of
electrical insulation, in large rotating ma-
chinery and other apparatus, may be possi-
ble after years of testing and recording the
trend of the characteristic curves. This
should aid very materially in setting up a
program of planned maintenance and help
to answer the question: when to rewind,
repair, or replace old electric apparatus.
THE purpose of this paper is to give
a summary of representative d-c
field test data which have been obtained
on stator insulation and other apparatus
to date and to present the method that
is being utilized to analyze these data in
order to determine the condition of the
electrical insulation.
The theory of dielectrics and the test-
ing of insulation of large rotating ap-
paratus have been given a great amount
of attention recently, with many papers
published. The subject papers may be
grouped in three general classes or a
combination of the classes as follows:
APRIL 1953
ning as well as effectiveness at all voltage
levels.
H. N. Ekvall: Tie discussions by F E.
Andrews, 0. Ackermann, E. Beck, and R. M.
Butler supplement the paper in a conistruc-
tive manner by presenting additional in-
formation on the effectiveness of expulsioa
lightning arresters and by giving an estimate
of tube life.
There appears to be no disagreement with
the general conclusion in the paper that
tubes offer protection in all voltages classes.
1. Testing with alternating current: high-
potential acceptance, proof, and mainte-
nance testing.23,4' 7,9
2. Testing with alternating current: meas-
urement of dielectric loss and power factor.5
3. Testing with direct current: measure-
ment of insulation resistance by Ohm's
law.3'4.5'6'"1
The testing of cable insulation and the
measurement of cable insulation resist-
ance with direct current has been stud-
ied.
The need for a nondestructive test on
the insulation of large rotating machines
to determine its condition was pointed
out in 1949 in an unpublished AIEE paper
by E. A. Crellin who raised the question
of how to determine the condition of the
insulation and when to rewind a big gen-
erator, thus starting the work which re-
sulted in the methods outlined here. Mr.
Crellin brought out the fact that the
problem becomes one of large monetary
magnitude under the following represen-
tative conditions:
1. When the cost of a rewind job is con-
sidered.
2. In taking into account the losses in-
volved if a failure occurs at a time when a
generator is badly needed or in the case
where water may have to be by-passed or
synchronous kilovolt-ampere capacity may
be needed for voltage control.
A discussion of this subject covered
the testing of insulation on the Pacific
Gas and Electric Company system up to
Hill-Testing Electrtcal Insulation
paper presents a more pessimistic picture on
effectiveness of protection than warranted
by well-designed tube installations. UIn-
fortunately this higher degree of protection
could not be detected from the replies to the
simplified questionnaire.
The estimates on tube life are very in-
teresting and give additional information
which was not covered by the paper. An
important factor affecting tube life has been
the use of a weather-resisting phenolic paper
covering over the fiber tube. Field ex-
perience has shown this to be a definite pro-
tection against weathering.
1949. It was reported that a decision
had been made to start systematic rou-
tine maintenance testing of the insula-
tion of large rotating machines giving
particular attention to a method of
determining the condition of the insula-
tion by using high-voltage direct current.
The importance of establishing and
maintaining a record of the condition
of the insulation of large rotating ma-
chines becomes apparent when the kilo-
watt and kilovolt-ampere capacity of the
Pacific Gas and Electric Company system
is totalled as of January 1, 1952:
58 hydro plants, combined capacity of:
1,326,600 kw
17 steam-electric plants, combined capacity
of: 1,722,800 kw
46 synchronous condensers, combined ca-
pacity of: 1,045,900 kva
Total capacity: 4,095,300
Some years ago the Department of
Electrical Operation of this company
noted that a high percentage of insula-
tors, which had been tested with low-
voltage direct-current and showed a
high value of insulation resistance of the
order of 500 megohms and above, would
fail after being put back in service or
would fail on an a-c high-potential test.
An investigation made soon disclosed that
the 500 to 2,500 volts d-c obtained from
the small hand-driven generators were
not high enough to reliably pick out
faulty insulators or the faulty individual
shells of a multipart insulator. A d-c
voltage of 40,000 was found to be the
Paper 53-3, recommended by the AIEE Rotating
Machinery Committee and approved by the AIEE
Committee on Technical Operations for presenta-
tion at the AIEE Winter General Meeting, New
York, N. Y., January 19-23, 1953. Manuscript
submitted March 31, 1952; made available for
printing October 7. 1952.
G. LESLI.E HILL iS Supervisor of Research and Spe-
cial Engineering Tests, Department of Engineering,
Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Emeryville,
Calif.
The assistance of W. E. Sprague, E. W. Brunsman,
and C. M. Buck, Test Engineers of the Pacific Gas
and Electric Company, and David Hendrickson
of the East Bay Municipal Utility District for ob-
taining valuable test data is gratefully acknowl-
edged.
159~

A phase-angle corrections. The same prob-
Figure 1. Hydraulic analogy of insulation
resistance
minimum that would give satisfactory
results. These results were given in
1947,1 and it is interesting to note that the
d-c current-voltage curves obtained at
that time have similar characteristics to
those obtained on the insulation of rotat-
ing machines.
Method of Testing
In the electrical utility industry at
large, the various methods of determin-
ing the condition of insulation have been
a subject for discussion at any meeting
where insulation has been under considera-
tion. The d-c equivalent for an a-c
specified test voltage has been a long-
standing problem.'3.4,9"12
A-C INSULATION TESTS
When testing new equipment with
alternating current it was generally the
practice to follow the AIEE Test Code
for Synchronous Machines7 and the
American Standards Association (ASA)
Standard C 50-1943.8 The voltage applied
on acceptance tests has been that re-
quired by paragraphs 3-200 and 3-2008
of the ASA Standard. Proof tests with
alternating current, after maintenance
repair work, have been performed with
available apparatus such as a voltage
build-up from another generator of the
same voltage, or an assembly consisting
of a step-up transformer and regulator.
When a step-up transformer was used
the applied alternating potential was
generally the rated rms volts of the ap-
paratus plus some overvoltage. The
overvoltage to apply, if any, always has
been a subject of discussion and gener-
ally it has been considered a risk to go
too high with a-c test voltages. Recent
papersS"4 covering research on insulation
for large machinery have verified this
160
fear of overvoltage field and acceptance
tests on large rotating electric machinery.
These a-c tests required a truckload of
equipment which had to be transported
to and handled at the station as the
kilovolt-amperes required to charge the
capacitance and supply the losses may
reach values'0 of 50 to 300 kva or higher.
High-voltage power-factor measure-
ments seldom were made because of the
instrumentation problem and the re-
quirement of current and potential trans-
formers with very accurate ratio and
lem in transporting equipment is en-
countered as with the a-c high-potential
tests.
D-C INSULATION TESTS
By the use of a hydraulic analogy and
reference to a vector diagram of a-c tests
an endeavor will be made to show the
basic analysis and reasoning for adopting
the d-c method of testing insulation.
Figure 1 shows a closed hydraulic sys-
tem were the fluid in cylinder A is dis-
placed by the piston, in a reciprocating
motion. This displacement creates a
pressure E1 and E2 which moves dia-
phragm D in cylinder B to positions D,
and D2. The movement of diaphragm
D is the hydraulic analogy of the elec-
trical stress impressed on the insulation
by the alernating current voltage in a
closed electric system.
In case diaphragm D is overstressed
by pressure E1 or E2 it will rupture. This
action represents applying an overpoten-
tial and puncturing the insulation. The
size of the pump required to move the
diaphragm back and forth is analogous
to the kilovolt-amperes applied to charge
the electric circuit and is large compared
to the small pump that would be needed
to supply a small leakage through dia-
phragm D if deflected in one direction.
(D) CURENT LIMING RESISTOR
(C) V.T. PRCTIFIE - i
3> (B) H.V. TRANS1OM
(A) VARIALE TRANSFOR
Figure 3. Simplified diagram of the high-voltage insulation resistance testing device used by
the Pacific Gas and Electric Company
Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation
IC I
I
I =o 2ltE
I
I
I
w S tI
Figure 2. Vector diagram of a-c tests
The molecular friction in the metal dia-
phragm represents the dielectric loss in
the insulation.
In the a-c tests the charging current,
shown as I=27rfCE in Figure 2, is large
when compared with the current I,,,
in phase with E. The current I. in
turn may be considered as the sum of:
Id, dielectric loss
h, conduction or leakage current passing
through the insulation
Is, ionization loss current
I., current over surfaces and stray loss
current
The conduction or leakage current I,
passing through the insulation, in phase
with E may be of the order of 1/103
to 1/105 of the total alternating cur-
rent I. This is the current we are
primarily interested in and it is repre-
sented by the fluid leaking through
diaphragm D of Figure 1. It is verv
difficult to separate the conduction cur-
rent 1, from the total current I; conse-
quently the test engineer, when testing
with alternating current on nondestruc-
tive testing, has no warning when near
APRIL 1 953
 Figure 4 (left). One
of the original insu-
i lation resistance test-
ers about 20,000
volts d-c, 10 milli-
*, amperes

Figure 5 (right). In-

the danger point and may damage the
insulation or cause a puncture to occur,
whereas with direct current he has a
close and accurate control of the current
Ir passing through the insulation.
The test engineer plots the d-c micro-
amperes versus the d-c kilovolts while
the test is in progress. The maximum
direct voltage to apply is decided before
the tests starts but if a sudden increase of
current or a "knee" in the curve is ob-
served the test is discontinued and steps
taken to determine the cause. The basic
requirement of this method is to await
a stabilized reading of micro-amperes
at each increment of applied d-c kilovolts
This, in effect, is the final current reading
in a series of absorption tests, each addi-
tional higher level of dielectric absorption
current being obtained by adding defi-
nite voltage steps on some lower value.
When the test engineer is desirous of
obtaining the d-c puncture value without
puncturing the insulation, he plots the
d-c micro-amperes versus d-c kilovolts
up to the bend in the curve and then extra-
sulation tester 40,-
000 volts d-c, 10
milliamperes
type and thickness of insulation and in
the same condition. The larger machine
will have one-fourth the megohms resist-
ance of the smaller but its insulation is
just as good. Conversely, if the larger
machine had the same megohms as the
smaller its insulation would not be as
good.
Since starting the routine nondestruc-
tive d-c testing of insulation the AIEE
Standard Number 436 was followed as a
guide. Also power-factor measurements
with a low-voltage bridge are made at
the same time and under the same condi-
tions as the d-c tests. Dielectric absorp-
4000-
3000
tl200U- -tt
R IA,
/// ow~~
tion and discharge curves also are plotted
from the d-c readings which generally
are taken at 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 kv and
some at 30 kv. These voltages are
higher than the AIEE recommended
direct voltage of 500 and 5,000. It
was decided that the d-c test voltage
should be a value at least equal to or
above the peak of the rms rating of the
apparatus before Standard Number 43
was issued.
10000 VW
15000 1DC
20000 V1
25000 VDC

polates the curve. He then draws a

tangent to this curve and the point where [aoc #W ALL 0 TO FROM.
VWDO. TEMP.s 19 DM!. 0.
JMB. HMUDmIr 46
the tangent intercepts the X ordinate, CAPACITAGZ. 0.4n4 NGD.
POWER FACTOR: 2.5%
at 90 degrees, will be the predicted
d-c puncture value of the insulation.
This becomes a very valuable tool to
obtain the predicted a-c dielectric strength
of the insulation by applying the d-c/a-c
dielectric strength ratio. If the alternat-
ing voltage is increased to the puncture
value this method then is used to obtain
the d-c/a-c dielectric strength ratio of
the insulation under study.
The insulation resistance in megohms
also is plotted versus d-c kilovolts, but
experience has shown that a better method
of diagnosis of the condition of the insula- Figure 6. Typical

.1
DISCHAME TDE - HINUTES
set of insulation I.
tion can be obtained from the d-c micro- resistance curves
20
amperes versus d-c kilovolt curve. As an
example, let us assume two generators,
made on a new |10_
13.8-kv 115,-
one of which has four times the area of 000-kva turbo- I
In
I0 15 20
I
the other and each wound with the same generator D-. VOLIME - KY

APRIL 1 953 Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation 16)1

40
,6
~200
.x
I
'.4

I
O
1100
200

0 4 8 12 0 10 2 30 C0 10 2
D-C VOLTAGE - [V
D-C VMLTA - IV DC VOLTAGE - IV
Figure 7. Capacitance of winding section Figure 8. Capacitance of winding section Figure 9. Capacitance of winding section
under test: 0.399 microfarad; winding tem- under test: 0.017 microfarad; winding tem- under test: 0.018 microfarad; winding tem-
perature 22 degrees centigrade, ambient hu- perature 23 degrees centigrade; ambient hu- perature 23 degrees centigrade; ambient hu-
midity 59 per cent; power factor 11.9 per midity 71 per cent; power factor 12 per cent. midity 71 per cent; power factor 11.2 per
cent. Wilson synchronous condenser 11 ,000 Wilson synchronous condenser 11,000 volts, cent. Wilson synchronous condenser 11,000
volts, 25,000 kva 25,000 kva volts, 25,000 kva

Records are made of the following at
the time of the stator and rotor tests
which generally are performed during the
annual overhaul.
1. Station and division
2. Apparatus under test, serial number,
kilovolt-amperes, volts, amperes, and so
forth.
3. Class of insulation
4. Age and history of the insulation
5. Year apparatus was installed
6. Winding temperature
7. Humidity at time of test
8. Surface and physical condition of stator
winding
9. Surface and physical condition of rotor
winding
10. Individual field coil amperes, volts,
and watts (power factor)
11. Rotor insulation resistance
All the test data, and curves plotted from
the test data, are kept on file so that any
change in the condition of the insulation
mav be detected.
Test Apparatus Used by Pacific
Gas and Electric Company
When it was established definitelv that
the maximum direct voltage (2,500) ob-
tainable from the small hand-driven
generator type of insulation testers was
not high enough to detect faulty insula-
tion, which could be revealed only by a
much higher voltage, equipment was as-
sembled to obtain a higher direct voltage.
The circuit selected was a half-wave
rectifier, utilizing the capacitance of the
apparatus under test to smooth the wave
out when dielectric absorption is reached.
A full-wave rectifier circuit would have
required two filament transformers and
a step-up a-c transformer of larger size.
The final design only weighs about 85
to 90 pounds and is contained in one box
which may be transported in any auto-
mobile.
Figure 3 shows the simplified wiring
diagram where the main component
parts are (A) variable alternating voltage
regulator, (B) step-up a-c transformer,
(C) rectifier tube, (D) current limiting
resistor, (E) high-voltage voltmeter,
and (F) the microammeter used to meas-
ure the current through the insulation
under test.

Table 1. Representative Values of Power Factor, Polarization Index, and Insulation Resistance
Age of Power Factor, Polarization Insulation Direct
Apparatus Insulation Per Cent Index* ResistanceVoltage
Generator, Station P, 115,000 kva, 13.8 kv
. . ..........160t3..................
.. 5.1
.............. 1 600 ,to 3,750 megs ....... 10,000 to 25,00
Syn. condenser, Wilson Substation, 25,000 kva ............ 25 years
11 kv #1 phase....... 7.5 ............. 3.0 825 to 1,000 .......... a,000 to 20,000
#2 phase....... 8.0 .............8. 2.3t ......... 665 to 714 ............. ,000 to 9,000
#3 phase......... ... .......... 3.6 560 to 660 .............10,000 to 20, 000
Syn. condensers, Herndon Substation, 25,000 kva,..1. -6 1 years 1.8 ....... .......... 2, 100 to 3,500 ........... 10, 000 to 25, 000
12 kv #2-6 years ............. 2... ........... 7.7 2, 200 to 4, 000 ........... 10, 000 to 25, 000
#3-1 years ............. 2... ........... 6.2 2,600 to 3,800 ........... 10, 000 to 25, 000
Syn. condensers, Salinas Substation, 10,000 kva ..... #....1-26 years ......... 8..3.1
5 .... .... 1 ..4 0. 87 to 125 . . 10,000 to 23,000
11 kv #2-23 years ... 9.5 . . 1.10 ....... 160 to 500 ............. 5, 000 to 21, 000
Generator, Kilarc Power House, 1,500 kva, 2.2 kv . ......... 47 years ......... 1 .85 .. . .................... 3, 300 to 8, 000 ........... 2, 000 to 5, 000
27 megs. 5,500
Generator, West Point Power House, 16,000 kva ............. new ......8............... ......... 2.01 ......... 8 to0 300 . 10 000 to 1, 000
11.5 kv
Syn. condenser, Calif. Ave. Substation, 20,000 20 years ..... 3.5 ............. 2.6 ......... 84 to 623 .,000 to 20,000
kva, 12.5 kv
Generators, Bucks Crk. Power House, 23,000 kva .........f #-24 years ........ Phase 1-4 .0 ........2 1,500 ..... 15,000
11 kv. #2-3.2 ...... 3.3 ......... 3,900 .... 15,000
#3-3. 0... No data§ . no data .1, 500 max.
#2-24 years... Phase #1-2.8. No data§ ....... 1,930§§. 2,900 max.§§
#2-3. 0 . 5 .8. 5,000. 15,000
#3-3.0 . 1.811tt. 1,200. 15,000
Syn. condenser, Station A Stockton, 10,000 kva ............. 28 years
12 kv
......... 9.0 ............. 2. 181¶ ........ 312 to 212 megs ......... 1O,000 to 23,000
Syn. condensers, Station G, El Crrito, 15,000 kva ......... #1-29 years ...... 4...4.0 .............2 181 ........ 450 to 280 megs ......... 5, 000 to 25, 000
11 kv #2-29 years . 3.8 ............. 2.32** ....... 380 to 105 megs ......... 10,000 to 19,000
* Polarization Index at 20,000 volts d-c except
§ notenotugh readings and ** at 15,000 volts d-c
t at 9,000 volts at13,000 volts
¶ at 20,000 volts
tt at 15,000 volts; no good at 20,000 volts
$ at 15,000 volts a-c §§ failure indication at 3,000 volts d-c

162 Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation APRIL 1 953

 Table 11. Test Values for D-C/A-C Dielectric Strength Ratios

Ratio
Maximum Predicted A-C Puncture
Test Applied D-C D-C Kv D-C/A-C D-C/A-C
Station Number Test Kv Puncture RMS Peak RMS* Peak

Bucks Creek generator number 2; age of insulation 24 years; ... 1. 35,000 .... 38,000 ....... 17,400 .... 24,500 .... 2.18 .. 1.55
Class B 2. 34,000 ....... 36,000 . 15,300 . 21,600. 2.35. 1.66
3. 28,000 ....... 29,000 . 15,300 . 21,600 . .89 . 1.34
4. 34,000 ....... 36,000 . 22,200 . 31,400. 1.62 . 1.15
a.
6.
35,000 ....... 40,500 . 22,000 .
60,000 ....... 67,000 . 40,000 .
31,000.
56,500.
1.84.
1.69 .
1.30
1.20
7. 35,000 ....... 37,500 . 28,300 . 38,500. 1.33 . 0.98
Electra Power House generator number 1; age of insulation 3 1/2. 1. 35,000 . 37,000 . 29,800 . 42,000. 1.17. 0.83
years; class B 2. 36,000 . 37,000 . 26,300 . 37,000 . 1.41 ...... 1.00
3t .. 27,000 . 28,500t . 19,000 . 28,000. 1.50. 1.02
Santa Maria syn. condenser; age of insulation 20 years; class B . ........7......... 43,000 . 49,000 . 33,300 . 47,000 . 1.47 . 1.02
Wilson syn. condenser; age of insulation 24 years; class B . ............. 3......... 31,000 . 32,500 . 21,750 . 30,650. 1.50. 1.06
4. 20,000 . 20,500 . 14,000 . 19,700. 1.47. 1.04
8. 25,000 . 29,000. 25,800 . 36,400. 1.12 . 0.80
9. 15,000 . 17,000 . 9,78 . 13,800. 1.73. 1.23
Pardee generator number 2; age of insulation 10 years; class B .... 1......... 24,000 . 28,000 . 13,500 . 18,900 . 2.15 . 1.53
(composite) 1(a) .. .16,500 . 23,100
2. 24,000. 25,000 . 14,000 . 19,600 . 1.78. 1.27
3. 25,000 . 27,500 . 14,500 . 20,300. 1.90. 1.35
4t. 25,000 ..... 25,OOO .t .10,000 . 14,100
5 $ 22,000 ..... 22,000 . 5,500 .
. 7,700
* Average 1.72, minimum 1.12, maximum 2.35.
t Insulation on coil physically damaged but not punctured.
$ Discharge or puncture at this point-insulation may have been damaged.

The first device built used a mercury
vapor rectifier tube to obtain 10,000
volts d-c. It was soon determined that
10,000 volts d-c was not high enough,
so one was built for 20,000 volts. Tests
showed a higher d-c test voltage would be
desirable, so one was built to obtain 40,-
000 volts d-c.
Figure 4 shows one of the original in-
sulation testers assembled from miscel-
laneous equipment to obtain approxi-
mately 20,000 volts d-c. Figure 5 shows
one of the later devices built as a complete
compact portable unit for 40,000 volts
d-c. Three of these sets have been built
to date and two more are being built.
They are used for testing insulators,
cable bushings, and other apparatus
as well as the insulation of rotating approximately 75 per cent of the total
machines. The output is limited to kilovolt-amperes of rotating machines on
10 microamperes at 40,000 volts; with the system. During this testing 14
current ranges of 0 to 100, 0 to 1,000, machines have been found with insulation
and 0 to 10,000 microamperes. considered to be bad and on the border
A d-c rectifier set also was assemnbled line of possible failure at an early date.
for experimental testing up to 150 kv d-c. Some representative test data which
The voltage and current in micro- have been obtained to date are given
amperes are obtained during the test and now.
the resistance is calculated in megohms
or the readings are plotted for graphical STATION P STEAM PLANT NEW
analysis, as covered in a preceding section 115,000-KVA 13.8-KV GENERATOR
entitled "Methods of Testing." Figure 6 shows the curves obtained
when this new generator was tested.
Results of Tests The curve of micro-amperes versus d-c
kilovolts should be noted especially.
The stator insulation testing to date The low current passing through the
has covered about 3,000,000 kva which is insulation resulted in the high insulation

18I
(1) A-C I:AK BREAKDOWN -|
1z-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
(2) A-C PEAK BRFA3tDOWN _l~ ... sn

80 20
:a i
l M:
620

ZL~ ~ ~ ~ ~ IS
PC
I
t
40 I
I x
0

Ir
0 - 0 5 16
D-C VOLTAGE - KV D.C VOLTAGE - KX
Figure 10. Capacitance of winding section Figure 11. Pardee generator number 2, East
Bay Municipal Utility District, 6.9 kv, 7,500
under test: 0.01 5 microfarad; winding tem-
perature 23 degrees centigrade; ambient hu- kva
midity 71 per cent; power factor 10.5 per Test made on C phase only. After the d-c test
cent. Wilson synchronous condenser 11,000 C phase was divided into two sections and an
volts, 25,000 kva a-c breakdown made on each section
I
2/+
D-C VOLTAGE - KV
Figure 12. Pardee generator number 2, East
Bay Municipal Utility District, 6.9 kv, 7,500
kva
Test made on A phase only. A-c and d-c test
made on half section of A phase winding

APRIL 195D3 Hill Testing Electrical Insulation 163

 Table Ill. D-C Predicted and Actual Puncture Values
Insulation Test
Under Test INumber
Santa Maria............................ ..1
2
50, 000
I 3. 5,000 ..
55....
4.
: 31,000
6....-45,000
Wilson Substation syn. condenser..........
6.
7 12,000
Bucks Creek Power House genera ..... ........38
D-C VOLTAGE - KV
tor number 2 9 .3. ,00 6.1.
Figure 13. Kilarc Power House generator
number 2, 2.2 kv, 1,500 kva
Test on total windings to frdme. Cdpdcitdnce: resistance of 1,600 megohms at 25,000
0.059 microFarad; winding temperature 25 volts d-c. After 30 minutes discharge,
degrees centigrdde1 ambient humidity 56 per when the starting point was 25 kv d-c,
cent; power fdctor 1.85 per cent the winding still maintained a voltage
of 11,000.
It should be noted that these curves
120 (500 Micro.Amps.) at are very unifonn up to 20 kv d-c. Test
18 kv D-C irtez) u e
0 experience and study of these curves
.l indicate that this insulation is in very
A 8C~ ~~Cuv
good condition. They are similar to
I
the curves obtained on all large genera-
v
4°~~~Cuv15 CZ2 tors and synchronous or static condensers
when the insulation is in good condition.
0I
WILSON SUBSTATION
2 SCVOLT^GE - veV
Tests for Figure 7, 8, 9, and 10 were
made on a 25,000-kva 11,000-volt syn-
0D LT 2 30 chronous condenser, class-B insulation,
age 24 -ears.
Figure 14. Station A generator number 5, A d-c insulation test revealed two phases
18,700 kva, 11,000 volts good up to 20,000 volts and one phase
good up to 10,000 volts d-c. The machine
Curves 1, 2, 3: phdses A, B, and C with was put back on the line and continued
neutral current transformer and 100 feet of
in sernice for about 9 months when it
cable. Curve 4: phase A with neutral cur-
rent transformer, no cable. Winding tempera- failed. The failure became a phase-to-
ture 24.5 degrees centigrade; ambient hu- phase fault, doing considerable damage,
so it became economically advisable to
midity 55 per cent
rewind the machine. It was decided to
make d-c/a-c comparison tests on the
600
old winding before removal, by going up
hase No. 1
as high as the curve would indicate with
direct current and then remove the direct
current and puncture the winding with
2400
alternating current. A total of ten
tests was made as follows:
Test XVunmber 1: All the observed bad
coils were cut out. At 4,600 volts the
b~~~QPase No. 2
current was 4,000 micro-amperes. The
d-c test was discontinued and alternating
ase No. 3 current applied but the kilovolt-ampere
capacity was not sufficient so it was
0 10 20 30
D.C VOLTAGE - KV decided to cut out some of the winding.
Figure 15. El Cerrito Substation, synchronous Test A-nuber 2(a): Direct current was
condenser number 2, 1 5,000 kva, 11,000 volts applied up to 4,600 volts when again it
Winding temperature 28.7 degrees centigrade; was discontinued due to excessive direct
ambient humidity 35 per cent; power factor: current current of 2,800 micro-amperes.
phase 1 3.1 per cent, phase 2 3.2 per cent, A-c failure was indicated by high kilvolt-
phase 3 3.1 per cent amperes and by smoke at 6,625 volts.
164 Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation
Max. Applied Predicted Actual
Direct Voltage Puncture Puncture
Before Prediction Voltage Voltage
...5 000 59,500 .... 57,000
.... 54,000 ....3.. 1,500
3.. 9,000 58,000
49, 52,000 50,500
35,000 34,000
48,000 46,000
l,000 .... 17,200 .... 16,000
1.... 2,000 13,000 14,000
13,200 13,000
56,000... . 59,000... . 38,000
61, 000.... 58,000
This test was not considered a satisfactory
comparison for d-c/a-c ratio so the wind-
ing was cut up into smaller sections.
Test 2(b), Figutre 7: Direct current
was applied, in increments of 500 volts,
up to 6,000 volts; when the current
had reached 4,000 microamperes it was
discontinued; however, by extrapola-
tion of the curve the direct current
would have reached 6,000 microam-
pere.s at 7 kv d-c. This section of
the winding punctured at 6,750 alternat-
ing current rms or 9,500 peak alternating
current.
The characteristic curve of this test
is shown as Figure 7. These values were
not used to obtain a d-c/a-c ratio as
the high direct current current was
undoubtedly due to some of the lower
coils having been partially immersed in
water remaining in the slots after the
fire was extinguished. It was evident
that the d-c puncture point had not been
reached no was it possible to predict
the puncture point from the curve.
Test 3, Figure 10; Test 4, Figure 8;
Test 9, Figure 9; Test 8 (no graph):
The characteristic curves of the first
three of these in Figures 8, 9, and 10 and
the predicted d-c puncture and the a-c
puncture values of the four tests are
given in Table II. The d-c/a-c ratios
also are given in Table II for these tests.
Tests 5, 6, 7; The sections of the wind-
ings, in these tests, were punctured with
direct current. These values and the
predicted value of d-c puncture, before
d-c puncture occurred, are given in Table
III. Tables I, II, and III give the test
values on this synchronous generator.
PARDEE DAM
The East Bay Municipal Utility Dis-
trict has two 7,500-kva 6.9-kv generators
at Pardee Dam Figures 11 and 12, which
supply power to the system. They were
flooded and, after dry out, number 1
generator tested satisfactory and was
APRIL 1 953
placed on the line, but number 2 genera-
tor indicated poor insulation at 2,500
volts d-c. Additional drying did not
raise this value and two faulty coils
were replaced. The tests indicated poor
insulation at 10,000 volts d-c on one phase
but the generator was placed on the line
and after several months failed. Coils
were repaired but after each repair job
additional coils failed on test until it was
decided to rewind the machine.
Several tests were made on the winding
that remained to get infornation simi-
lar to that obtained on the 25,000-kva
condenser at Wilson Substation. All
the curves had the same characteristic
shape, that is, at a given direct
voltage the d-c micro-amperes would
start to rise very rapidly. The peak a-c
breakdown value was consistently lower
than the d-c value, indicating insulation
failure, on this machine. Figures 11
and 12 show two of the typical test
curves obtained on the winding of this
generator. Table II gives all the d-c
applied voltages and the a-c puncture
values on this generator.
KILARC HYDRO PLANT
Figure 13 shows the direct current
curve obtained on a 1,500-kva 2.2-
volt generator installed in a small hydro
plant in 1903, the Insulation thus being
47 years old. This machine has the
original armature winding which is of a
modified Class-B insulation. The in-
sulation was dry and brittle at the time
of test but the direct current curve has
the same characteristic shape of the other
machines. The curve shows a uniform
characteristic up to 2,500 volts d-c with
only 0.2.5 micro-amperes at this value.
At 5,000 volts d-c the current was onlv
1.5 micro-amperes but at 5,500 volts
d-c the current rose to 200 micro-amperes
for an increase of only 500 volts. Ob-
viously the recommendation was to
order a new winding for this machine,
the decision being based on the test data
obtained and the age of the present wind-
ing. The machine has been rewound and
is now on the line.
STATION A STEAM PLANT GENERATOR
NUMBER 5
Figure 14 shows an 18,700-kva 11,000-
volt generator, with the insulation 40
years old. This is a vertical steam-
turbine generator installed in 1912 and
the last cleaning date was in 1948.
No stator -winding failures have occurred
on this machine but at one time it operated
at a high temperature, up to a smoking
condition, for a short time due to auxi-
liary apparatus failure. Bearing trouble
APRrLl95'3
has allowed oil to flow down and over the 900
stator winding on several occasions. Pbase No. 2
Curves 1, 2, and 3 show the test results
on phases A, B, and C including the neu- | Phase No. 1
tral current transformners and about 100 ,3600
feet of cable. Phase A, curve 1, has a
rapid rise of current, starting at 17 kv
(40 microamperes). At 18 kv the cur-
rent was 500 microamperes. Curve 4 300
gives the current obtained without the
c? ,ae No. 3
cable for the A phase. The rapid rise
started again at 17 kv (10 microamperes)
and at 18 kv it was again about 500 0 10 20 30
microamperes which shows definitely D.C VOLTAGE _ KV
that the weak spot is in the A phase. The
cable then was eliminated from the test
Figure 16. El Cerrito Substation, synchronous
condenser number 3, 30,000 kva, 11,000 volts
and phase A still showed a bad insula-
tion condition. The steam end of this Winding temperature 25.5 degrees centigrade;
machine requires considerable mainte- ambient humidity 65 per cent; power factor:
nance repairs and the condition of the phase 1 10.0 per cent, phase 2 10.0 per cent,
electrical insulation in the generator phase 3 10.0 per cent
will have considerable weight in the
management's decision as to what ex- 300
penditures to make. Curve No. 2
EL CERRITO SUBSTATION
8 J~~~~~1,2,&32
Three synchronous condensers: 200
Number 1 15,000 kva, 11,000 volts, class-B Curve No, 3 g
02
insulation, 29 years old o~~~~o
Number 2-15,000 kva, 11,000 volts, class-B
(composite insulation), 29 years
Number 3-30,000 kva, 11,000 volts, class-B
(composite insulation), 27 years
Number 1 Condenser: The characteris-
tic shape of the curve of the stator wind-
ing was found to be satisfactory up to
and includin, 95,000 volts d-c. The
direct current was only 90 micro-amperes erator number 1, 1,875 kva, 2,300 volts
for the full stator winding, at 25.7 degrees Winding temperature 44 to 54 degrees centi-
centigrade, and considering the age and Cuv No.
grade, ambient temperature 25 degrees centi-
size of the machine this was considered grade;
0 ambient humidity 36.4 per cent
c 306
satisfactorv.
Number 2 Conideniser: Figure 13 gives
the results obtained when the separate Winding tem Puncture44t54dgescni
phases of the stator of this machine were grde
| __
abinthuidty31.4V pe1cn
.~~~~()-55 r3
tested. Phase 1 had an abrupt change of
slope starting at 16,000 volts d-c, and at 45 M-35(X)53KV
20,000 volts d-c the current had risen D-CVOLTAGE - D-C
V
to 500 microamperes. This was the
maximum applied to this phase. The
30
curves of phases 2 and 3 are shown which
have satisfactory characteristics up to
and including 23,000 volts d-c. The
low-voltage power factor of this machine 0 5 30 4
was: phase 1, 3.1 per cent; phase 2,
3.2 per cent; and phase 3, 3.1 per cent.
D-C VOLTAGE - KV
Nulmber 3 Condenser: The test on the
full stator wvinding, Figure 16, showed Figure 18. Bucks Creek Powerhouse, gen-
this winding to have a rapid rise in cur- erator number 2, 25,000 kva, 11,000 volts
rent starting at 13,000 volts. When the
Winding temperature 15.5 degrees centigrade;
phases were separated phase 1 had an ambient temperature 15.5 degrees centigrade;
abrupt change of slope starting at 14,000 ambient humidity 45 per cent; power factor
volts d-c, and at 15,000 volts it had risen 2.6 per cent
Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation 165
Table IV. Predicted A-C and Actual A-C Puncture Values, Generator Number 5, Big Bend 600
Power House
10,000 Kva, 11,500 Volts, Class-B Insulation. Age 28 Years-About 25 Per Cent of Coils I
Had Been Replaced
400 All__ _ _ _ __ _

Predicted Max. Applied A-C Puncture Ratio Phases

Max. Applied Puncture, Kv A-C Volts RMS, Volts RMS D-CI to
Test D-C Volts, First Second A-C
Number Kv D-C A-C Build-Up Build-Up RMS
_
1 . 32 .......... 33 ......... 18.8 punctured . ........... 1.70
A 200 _

2 . 30 .......... 31 ......... 18.2 .....20.8 punctured . ........... 1.49

3 . 38 .......... 41 ......... 24.1 ...... 23-kv. max........ 20.8 . ......... 1.97
373 .....3......... 22.9 ........ 19 .3 punctured.
37. .. ..... 2.02

I
4. Phase 1
5. 31 .2................ .. 18.8 ........ 17.1 punctured ................... 1.87
6. 37 ... 37.5 ......... 22.0 .. 21.3 punctured .. 1.76
......
0 Phase3
7. 32.8 .. 33.5 ......... 19.7 . 17.8 punctured .. 1.88 0 10 20 30
8. 37 .. 38 ......... 22.3 . 23-kv max. 27.4 . 1 l37
23-kv max. 20.0.......... 1.75 D-C VOLTAGE -KV
9 . 34 35 .. 20.6 ........ ..
0
Average 1. 75
60 __ _

All
to 700 microamperes, when the test Generator Number 2: After dryout a Thases
was stopped on this phase. The curve
of phase 2 had an abrupt change of slope
weak spot was found in this generator
at 7,000 volts d-c. This spot was located
I
AJ
starting at 13,000 volts d-c, and at 16,000 and repaired and, after additional dry- B 40

volts d-c the current was 900 micro- out, the generator was tested to 10,000
amperes. volts d-c and placed on the line. It is li
4-

It was recommended that one set of still running satisfactorily. It is interest-

winding coils be obtained for condensers
number 2 and 3 as these machines have
the same dimensions and ratings; then
locate the weak spots by high-voltage
direct current and replace coils. If
this does not bring the insulation to a
satisfactory condition it will be neces-
sary to rewind.
AMERICAN RIVER POWER HOUSE
Tests for Figure 17 were made on three
2,300-volt generators, number 1, 1,875kva;
number 2, 2,115 kva; and number 3,
1,875 kva; class-A insulation. These
generators were installed about 1919.
The stators of number 1 and number 2
were rewound in 1929. The stator of
number 3 was rewound in January 1952.
This hydro plant was flooded up to the
base of the generators and after the water
receded all generator stators were tested,
at the time other maintenance work was
performed, and the following results
obtained.
Generator Number 1: After dryout the
whole stator was tested with the results
shown as curve 1, Figure 17. The rapid
rise in current started about 5 kv and
punctured at 7,500 volts d-c. The phases
were separated and curve 2 was obtained
on phase 1, curve 3 on phase 2, and curve
4 on phase 3. The difference in the
curves of phases 1 and 2 compared with
the curve of phase 3 should be noted.
A total of seven bad coils in phases
1 and 2 were found and replaced or re-
paired. The machine was put on addi-
tional dryout and then tested again and
the results plotted as curve 5. The
machine then was put on the line and is
still running.
166
ing to note that a dielectric absorption
test at 5,000 volts d-c did not disclose
faulty insulation. No graphs are shown
on this generator.
20
Generator Nutmber 3: The d-c tests 0 10 20 30
on the stator insulation disclosed result- D-C VOLTAGE -KV
ant curves so similar to Figure 17 of
generator number I that they could be
100 A
o~~~~~~~~~
Phases
mistaken as duplicates. One phase was
satisfactory and two phases were bad a75
starting at about 6,000 volts d-c. The >
windings were not punctured and it was $2
decided to try the machine on the line. l
The generator stator winding failed while 50
being synchronized at the time of closing
the circuit breaker. The winding was
separated into phases and, when tested, 9 25
so many bad spots were located that it
was necessary to rewind. The generator 0-~~~~~~~$
was rewound in January 1952, tested, and
placed in service.
0 1 20 30
C D-C VOLTAGE -KV
BUCKS CREEK POWER HOUSE 100- -
Line
Tests were perfonned on two 25,000- Haf
kva generators, 11,000 volts, with class- vt
B insulation 24 years old, as shown in I75
Figure 18.
50
Figure 19. Coalinga Substation, synchronous 5~ Neutral
condenser number 2, 9,000 kva, 12,000 volts
25~~~~~~~a
A-First Test: windings dirty; winding tem- o
perature 14.2 degrees centigrade; ambient ci
humidity 76 per cent
B-Second Test: after winding cleaned; 'II>/ 7i
winding temperature 16 degrees centigrade;
ambient humidity 58 per cent D D-C VOLTAGE - KV
C Third Test: after varnishing winding;
winding temperature 18 degrees centigrade; ambi ent humidity 55 per cent
D Fourth Test: phase 2 separated in two parts ;; winding temperature 21 degrees centi-
grade; ambient humidity 44 per cent
Hill Testing Electrical Insulation APRIL 1 953,

Curve3 z
Curve 2
IX L The machine then was cleaned and
'CCurve 1
D-C VOLTAGE - KV
Figure 20. Typical curves obtained when
testing insulation
Generator Number 1: When the stator
of this machine was first tested it was
found impossible to build the voltage
above 1,300. The winding was separated
and the results on the individual phases
were: Phase number 1 was good up to
and including 20,000 volts d-c. Phase
number 2 was good up to and including
20,000 volts d-c. Phase number 3 was
only good to 1,500 volts d-c. The
power factors were 4 per cent, 3.2 per
cent, and 3.0 per cent respectively.
Generator Number 2: The first test dis-
closed that 4,000 volts d-c was the limit
that could be applied to this generator.
The stator winding was separated and
the results on the individual phases were:
Phase number 1-the current started to
rise very rapidly at 3,000 volts d-c, but
at 2,900 volts the current was steady at
1.3 micro-amperes (1,900 megohms).
Phase number 2 tested good up to and
including 20,000 volts d-c. Phase num-
ber 3 tested good up to 15,000 volts d-c
but the current started to rise abruptly
at a slight increase above this value.
The power factors were 2.8 per cent,
3.0 per cent, and 3.0 per cent.
Coils were ordered to rewind both
generators and it was decided to make
guinea pigs out of the old windings in
order to obtain data on the relationship
between d-c test voltage and a-c dielec-
tric strength.
Both generators continued in service
until the following winter (1951-52) when
a mountain avalanche partially flooded
the basement with debris and water.
After the cleanup the generators were put
on dryout and returned to service. Gen-
erator number 1 was on about 6 weeks
when it failed in service, developing an
internal phase-to-phase fault with con-
siderable iron damage. The rewinding
job was started immediately and there
was no time for testing.
When number 1 was returned to serv-
ice number 2 was taken out and d-c
APRIL 1 953
IZ
14~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
Curve 6
D-C VOLTAGE - KV
Figure 21. Predicting life expectancy of insu-
lation
tests were made on the old winding. The
results are tabulated in Table II when
punctured with alternating current and
Table III when punctured with direct
current Figure 18 shows the curve of
direct current obtained up to the point
X (34 kv d-c). The direct current was
removed but the curve was extrapolated
to obtain the predicted d-c puncture
point Z (35.5 kv d-c) by projecting the
tangent Y to the X ordinate. Alter-
nating current then was applied and the
peak or crest puncture of 31.4 kv was
obtained. Generator number 2 was re-
wound on March 15, 1952. Tables I,
II, and III give all the test values on
these generators.
COALINGA SUBSTATION
Tests on a synchronous condenser of
9,000 kva, 12,000 volts, insulation 23
years old were performed. This machine
was first tested with all phases tied to-
gether at the neutral and a very rapid
rise in current was noted to start after
the reading of 23 microamperes at 6 kv.
At 7 kv the current rose to 400 micro-
amperes. The phases were separated
rz
11
I'11
54
c
0
I
$4
0
I ii~~~~~~C #
C?
Curve 7
er Service - Years Service -
Figure 22. Predicted maximum service
Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation
and each tested; phase 2 showed a simi-
lar characteristic curve as the curve of
all phases, starting with 18 microamperes
at 8 kv and rising to 500 microamperes
at 8.5 kv. Figure 19(A) shows these
results and the curves of phases 1 and 3
which were satisfactorv.
Figure 19(B) shows the low conduction
currents obtained and similar characteris-
tic curves for all phases. The analysis
was that there were cracks or voids or
dirty surface paths which had been elimi-
nated. This was verified when another
test was made after varnishing and while
the varnish was fresh. Figure 19(C)
shows phase number 2 again with a bad
insulation condition starting at 18 kv.
This phase then was separated, Figure
19(D), and the bad half which was on
the line side then was placed on the
neutral end of the winding. The machine
was put on the line then. A test will
be made soon to check this machine
again to determine if the varnish has
eliminated the bad spot.
TYPICAL CURVES
The test data obtained to date seem
to follow the pattern of the curves shown
in Figure 20. Curve 1 is the characteris-
tic shape obtained when testing new and
also old insulation when in good homo-
geneous physical condition with a mois-
ture content which would be classed as
dry. To obtain the d-c dielectric
strength the test values are plotted as the
test progresses. The applied direct cur-
rent is removed at point X and the curve
extrapolated. The tangent or asymptote
Y, to the curve 1, projected on the X or-
dinate will give the predicted d-c punc-
ture value.
Curve 2 is the type obtained when test-
tf/I~~~~~
kI
Figure 23. Additional output gained by
planned maintenance
167
ing faulty and badly deteriorated insula-
tion due to aging, mechanical damage,
tape separation, and conducting creep-
age paths caused by dirt and oil contam-
ination. The current will increase
more or less uniformly with the increase
in applied voltage but at some value it
will rise very rapidly and a knee in the
curve is observed. The test is stopped at
this point, unless it is desired to puncture
the winding, and steps taken to deter-
aintenance test voltage would be limited AJEE alternating potential tests after
some value such as 25 or 30 kv d-c. the d-c test.
When a curve like number 6 was ob- Curve A, Figure 24, gives the results
ined the test voltage would be limited obtained on one of the six good bushings
the point X and the curve extrapolated after it had absorbed moisture. The
) obtain the predicted limit at point Z. following statistics are the readings:
Figure 22 shows a hypothetical curve
where the current through the insula- Kv, D-C Microamperes
,on, for any given voltage, is given for
ears of service. The predicted maxi- 30.......................... ...... I
50 ....
lum service would be obtained by ex-
-

64...................... ...... 10
13.5
-

mine the cause. Only two punctures, -apolating the curve from the point X 70......................
76 ............... 20
without warning, have occurred to date the point Z where the tangent Y is
-

when running this type of test, and the
action, in these cases, was similar to the
discharge of a condenser.
Curve 3 is the type generally obtained
when the insulation is wet. The cur-
rent rises more rapidly than it should
under normal conditions and may reach a
value of several milli-amperes without
puncturing the winding. The d-c curve
of Figure 7 is a good example of a rela-
tively high current passing through a
winding without puncturing.
PREDICTING INSULATION LIFE EXPECTANCY
It would be economically desirable to
predict the life of a machine or insula-
tion to the last day of operation, before
it required replacement, but it does not
seem that this goal will ever be reached.
However, it is hoped to be able to come
very close to that prediction in the future
by the method proposed here or some im-
provement of this method.
The curves in Figure 2 are hypothetical
but have the characteristic shape of
those obtained from test data. Curve 1
represents the results we would expect to
obtain on new insulation and, if an ac-
ceptance test on a new 12- or 13.8-kv
machine, we will assume that it would be
carried up to 50 or 60 kv d-c. After
the machine had been operated we would
expect to obtain curves like numbers
2 through 5 inclusive when tested over
a period of years. The maximum applied
100
240 Micro-Amps, at 94 Ky-DC
Predic. D-C failue - KY
100
50
t75
I
l 50 CT-e A-
ien projected on the X axis to obtain
ie predicted maximum service.
UTPUT GAINED BY PLANNED
AJAINTENANCE
If a machine could be operated con-
inuously without any outages a straight
ne output curve would be obtained for
he years of service up to replacement
ime. This is shown on Figure 23 and
he difference between the planned main-
enance curve and the unplanned main-
enance curve gives the net gain to be
xpected if the insulation is tested and
7eak spots are repaired instead of waiting
Dr service failures to occur.
As an example the synchronous con-
.enser stator winding at Wilson Sub-
tation failed four times in service before
he fifth and final one when it had to be
ewound.
ESTS ON BUSHINGS AND TRANSFORMERS
. Table I gives representative v-alues of
The curves shown on Figures 24 and 23
zok very similar to others shown but
hey are on bushings and transformers
nd not on the insulation of rotating
aachines. Figure 24 gives the tests on
ix condenser-type bushings rated 69
iv by the manufacturer. Curve B
rives the maximum current and curve C
,iv-es the minimum currents obtained.
tt 100 kv d-c the maximum was 9 micro-
Lmperes and the minimum was 3 micro-
tmperes. These bushing withstood the
1 Figure 24 (left). Curve A is a test on
one 69-kv condenser-type bushing
with faulty insulation. Curves B and
C represent maximum and minimum
results on a group of six 69-kv con-
denser-type bushings with good insu-
lation
82......................... .. ..70
83 ......................... 80
100
88........................
90.......................... .105
240
94..........................
D-c test discontinued.
Alternating potential was applied and
the bushing failed at 68 kv rms (96-
kv peak).
Figure 25 gives the results of direct
current applied to three 4,250-kv 72,000/
6,600-volt transformers after a bushing
failure in transformer A at Drum Power
House. The stator of one generator also
failed during this trouble and had to be
rewound. Curves Al, B, and C give the
comparative currents obtained on the
three transfonners up to 40 kv d-c.
Curve A2 gives the results on transfomer
A after cleaning and reinsulating and
drvout.
Discussion of Results
power factor, polarization index, insula-
tion resistance, age of insulation, and the
direct voltages applied.
Table II gives the maximum d-c test
voltage applied, the predicted d-c punc-
ture value, and the a-c puncture values
obtained during tests on the machines
at Bucks Creek, Wilson Substation,
Pardee Dam, and on coils from Electra
Power House and Santa Maria Substation.
The ratios of d-c predicted puncture
to a-c puncture values are given.
The d-c test values are given in Table
III. The direct voltage applied and the
4,00
$ 300
uz

E-4 1 200
A-C Peak Breakdown /
97KV
Figure 25 (right). Tests on three
c 25 4,250-kva 72,000/6,600-volt trans- w 100
formers. Curves Al, B, and C of
Cue
Curv max. transformers A, B, and C after bushing
a1
_t C urve C_ -pMin. failure in A. Curve A2 after cleaning,
0 reinsulating, and dryout of transformer 40
0 .-

0 25 50 75 100 0 10 20 30
D-C VOLTAGE - KY A D-C VOLTAGE - KV

168 Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation APRIL 1953

predicted d-c puncture compared with
the actual d-c puncture are given.
An interesting game was played in
trying to predict the d-c puncture values.
The values were obtained quite accu-
rately on insulation that looked fairly
good but on insulation that was old,
brittle, damaged or eaten away by corona
the d-c puncture value was hard to pre-
dict and several samples punctured with-
out warning. Only two cases of puncture
without warning while testing large
machines have occurred. In both of
these cases the puncture point was located
about 112 inches out of the slot and rela-
tively easy to repair without removing
the coil.
Table IV gives the predicted a-c and
the actual a-c puncture values obtained
during a d-c/a-c test on generator num-
ber 5 at the Big Bend Power House. The
predicted d-c puncture values were ob-
tained by the method previously de-
scribed and the a-c puncture values pre-
dicted by using the d-c/a-c ratio of 1.7
from Table II.
It was intended to build up to the a-c
predicted value, trv to avoid a-c puncture,
then back down to zero a-c volts, and
build up again. This is a difficult test
to perform but it will be noted that in
tests 3 and 9 the winding punctured
below the first build-up voltage. The
average d-c/a-c dielectric strength ratio
for this generator was 1.75.
The method, shown in Figure 18, and
curve 1, Figure 20, for obtaining a com-
parison of d-c/a-c dielectric strength
ratios is considered a better method
than testing a group of coils with direct
current and an adjacent group with
alternating current. The method shown
on Figure 18 was used on the Wilson
Substation, Bucks Creek, Pardee, and
Big Bend machines.
It was interesting to note the similarity
of the direct current/voltage curves to
one side of an equilateral hyperbola
where the asymptotes become the X- Y
ordinate in some tests and a similarity
to one-quarter of and ellipse in others.
The direct current/direct voltage curves
have been found to be relatively easy to
analyze if the readings are taken in small
increments and a rapid rise or an abrupt
change in the curve is noted while the
test is in progress. These curves will
definitely search out the faulty insulation
in apparatus when all component parts
are separated.
It is generally advisable to separate
out long cable runs when making the
first test as company experience is that
if too much apparatus is included in the
over-all test there may be a bad spot that
APRIL 19.53
is not detected because of the current
passing through this spot being a small
percentage of the total conduction cur-
rent.
This d-c method of testing gives a far
more useful tool to work with than a-c
testing. It gives a measure of the degree
of insulation deterioration whereas with
alternating current it is a "go" or "no
go" gauge. As an example, if it had been
decided to test both El Cerrito Substa-
tion condensers (Figures 15 and 16)
with alternating current and 1.5 times
11,000 a-c volts was applied the winding
undoubtedly would have punctured with-
out warning. With direct current it
has been determined that the insulation
is bad, but still operable, and steps will
be taken to repair or rewind.
Other examples could be cited and it
can be stated that none of the machines
where the insulation has been tested and
found to be good have failed in service,
whereas 4 out of 14 machines have failed
in service that had indications of bad
or faulty insulation.
Practically all a-c high-potential tests,
on large rotating machines, have been
discontinued except to obtain information
on the comparison of d-c/a-c dielectric
strength ratio.
The condition of insulation with any
degree of certainty from power factor
values has not been determined but a
study of Table I and other test data shows
a general trend of high power factor as-
sociated with low insulation resistance.
However, the test data show that power-
factor values do not pick out a faulty
winding. As an example, the power
factors of the six phases on two generators
at Bucks Creek Power House only varied
from 2.6 to a maximum of 4.0 per cent.
Another example is the El Cerrito
Substation condensers where the power
factors of all phases on machine number
2 were approximately 3.1 per cent and the
power factors on the number 3 machine
were 10 per cent on all phases.
The power factors on the bushings
having their d-c amperes/d-c volts curve
shown on Figure 24 were all practically
of the order of 2.6 to 3.2 per cent whether
of faulty insulation or good insulation.
It was estimated (from curve A, Figure
24) that the a-c test voltage would have
to be above 35 kv a-c rms to detect the
faulty insulation by power-factor meas-
urement.
The polarization index does not give
any degree of success in the analysis of
the condition of insulation in large
machines. As an example, the polariza-
tion index taken on the insulation of the
Coalinga Substation condenser at 6,000
Hill -Testing Electrical Insulation
volts (Figure 19) would not have shown
a fault in the insulation. If the voltage
selected to apply was 10,000 volts it
would have an index of 1, and the insula-
tion would have been damaged or possibly
punctured.
Another example is the polarization
index of 2.3 of number 2 phase of the
Wilson Substation condenser compared
with 3.0 and 3.6 of the other two phases.
This definitely did not disclose a faulty
insulation whereas the d-c amperes/volts
curve did show the fault.
The test data show that the dielectric
absorption curves will not pick out a
faulty winding if the voltage applied is a
value below where the fault would be
detected. As an example, a good die-
lectric absorption curve could be obtained
on the station-A generator number 5
(Figure 14) at 15 kv d-c but no curve
could have been obtained at 20 kv d-c.
Conclusions
1. Experience and test results obtained to
date lead to the conclusion that the best
and most reliable indicator for determining
the condition of insulation, during non-
destructive and maintenance tests on large
rotating machines, is by observing the char-
acteristics of the direct current/direct volt-
age curves obtained on the insulation of the
machine under test.
2. No definite formula has been derived
nor has any rule been written as to the
direct test voltage to apply on tests, but the
basic requirement is that the direct voltage
should be as high or somewhat higher than
the alternating rms peak rated voltage of
the apparatus, or the a-c peak of the speci-
fied a-c fest voltage.
3. The maximum direct voltage to apply
to the apparatus under test should be de-
cided before the test starts but the test
engineer should determine how high a volt-
age to impress on the insulation from the
characteristics of the current/voltage curve
and stop before a dangerous value is reached,
unless he wants to puncture the insulation.
4. When testing large rotating machines
the direct voltages generally are limited to
the following values:
A-C Apparatus Rating
Old
Insulation
New
Insulation
11, 12, 13.8 kv ...... 20 to 25 kv .30 kv
6.9, 7.2 kv ...... 15 to 20 kv .25 kv
2.3, 2.5 kv ...... 6 to 7.5 kv .. 10 kv
It is generally considered that these test
voltages will pick out faulty insulation but
if desired, and conditions warrant it, higher
values may be used.
5. It has been concluded that any a-c
overpotential test such as twice the rated
voltage plus 1,000 or a lesser amount on
maintenance tests may damage the insula-
tion without the test engineer's knowledge.
6. Power-factor values, obtained at a rela-
tively lower voltage than the rating of the
169
apparatus, are only an aid, and not a posi-
tive indicator, in determining the condition
of the insulation. If made at the full rated
voltage or at an overvoltage they may be
more helpful but the large amount of appa-
ratus required for charging the full kilovolt-
ampere capacity of rotating machines and
the very accurate instrumentation required
make the method impractical to use.
7. The Polarization Index is only a minor
aid in determining the relative condition
of the insulation when the insulation is
in good, or fairly good condition, and is of
no especial value or aid when the d-c test
voltage reaches a limiting value when test-
ing faulty insulation.
8. The condition of the insulation of insu-
lators, transformers, and bushings may be
determined by the characteristics of the
direct current/direct voltage curve in the
same manner as the method used on large
rotating machines.
9. The d-c/a-c dielectric strength ratio of
a certain insulation may be determined by
obtaining the direct current/direct voltage
curve, and by extrapolation (or by calcula-
tion) the d-c puncture value may be pre-
dicted and the same sample then tested with
alternating current to puncture under the
same conditions.
10. The average d-c/a-c rms dielectric
strength ratio, determined by the method
outlined in item 9, was found to be 1.72 on
the tests performed up to the writing of this
report. The minimum ratio was 1.12 and
the maximum wi-as 2.35. It is not con-
Discussion
John L. Fuller (Reliance Electric and
Engineering Company, Cleveland, Ohio):
The author gives an excellent discussion of
newly discovered phenomena in connection
with possible nondestructive testing of high-
voltage equipment using the application of
d-c overpotential. Does the author know
of any similar work which may have been
done on insulation systems for equipment
rated 600 volts and under? The author
discusses a powerful method of insulation
analysis, and it would be very helpful to
know whether the same type of approach
is applicable in lower voltage equipment.
E. B. Curdts (James G. Biddle Company,
Philadelphia, Pa.): This paper can be con-
sidered an interesting review of cases where
the presence of localized incipient faults in
rotating machinery insulation has been
detected by direct voltage tests which reveal
sharply rising currents as the voltages are
increased in steps. The evidence presented
seems conclusive and indicates that d-c
test voltages, when raised to certain levels,
can oftentimes reveal weaknesses that
cannot otherwise be found except by actual
puncture.
The voltage levels used in the cases re-
viewed in this paper exceed in most in-
stances the values which have been thought
of in the past as nondestructive. Whether
or not the voltages used were considered in
any way damaging to the insulation as a
170
sidered that any universally accepted
d-c/a-c ratio of dielectric strength will be
attained for all types of insulation in vari-
ous types of apparatus but ratios will have
to be determined for each insulation and for
the different physical conditions, age, and
application of the insulation.
11. The predicted a-c dielectric strength
of a given insulation may be determined to
a high degree of reliability by first obtaining
the predicted d-c dielectric strength, as
outlined in the methods of testing, and then
applying the d-c/a-c dielectric strength
ratio for the insulation under consideration.
12. The success of the d-c method, as out-
lined here on the Pacific Gas and Electric
Company system, warrants the continua-
tion of the high-voltage d-c maintenance
testing of the insulation in large rotating
machinery and the extension to the main-
tenance testing of other high-voltage appa-
ratus such as transformers, bushings, and
cable.
13. The field test data, and methods out-
lined, and the conclusions are presented
with the hope that they will aid the manu-
facturer in his research studies of insulation
and that they will encourage other utilities
to investigate the use of high-voltage direct
current to test the insulation of large elec-
tric apparatus.
References
1. INSULATOR TESTING WITH HIGH-VOLTAGE D-C,
G. Leslie Hill. Electric Light anzd Power (Chicago,
- Ar
whole is not mentioned, although other in-
vestigators have given evidence to show that
for equal searching effect the d-c test is less
damaging than the a-c one. Engineers
responsible for the operation of important
generators which have seen service may be
reluctant to accept d-c test voltages much
above the a-c peak phase-to-neutral operat-
ing voltage until more conclusive evidence
of its harmlessness is presented.
According to the author of this paper, the
direct voltage level to which the test should
be carried is either some predetermined
maximum or that which gives a sharp bend
in the curve. The slope of the curve, or its
slope as compared to that otherwise known
as satisfactory, becomes a measure of reli-
ability. He further mentions a method
by which the curve may be extrapolated to
predict the strength of the insulation. The
slope of the curve at some unpredictable
voltage level therefore becomes an extremely
important factor in the interpretation of the
data, and to be of practical use this slope
must be determined at a harmless voltage
level. It is obvious then that for the
method to be practical in the hands of the
average test engineer a simple and well-
defined procedure for quickly determining
the critical slope of the curve must be
devised and standardized.
Two separate curves of the same test
data can look very different as to slope due
to the choice of co-ordinates. It would
therefore seem necessary to think in terms of
the true mathematical slope of the nonlinear
part of the curve so that the insulation
conditions can be judged effectively at the
10Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation
Ill.), November 1947.
2. ROUTINE INSULATION TESTING OF SYNCHRO-
NOUS MACHINES, L. F. Hunt, J. H. Vivian. AIEE
Transactions, volume 70, part I, 1951, pages 756-62.
3. ALTERNATING AND DIRECT VOLTAGE ENDUR-
ANCE STUDIES ON MICA INSULATION FOR ELECTRIC
MACHINERY, Graham Lee Moses. AIEE Tranis-
actions, volume 71, part I, 1951, pages 763-69.
4. A MAINTENANCE INSPECTION PROGRAM FOR
LARGE ROTATING MACHINES, John S. Johnson.
AIEE Tra7nsactions, volume 70, part I, 1951, pages
749-55.
5. A PORTABLE INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING
INSULATION RESISTANCE AT HIGH VOLTAGE, F. W.
Atkinson, R. B. Taylor. AIEE Transactionts (Elec-
trical Engineering), volume 64, April 1945, pages
164-66.
6. RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR TESTING INSU-
LATION RESISTANCE OF ROTATING MACHINERY-
AIEE Standard Nuinber 43, April 1950.
7. TEST CODE FOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES.
AIEE Standard N,nunber 503, June 1945.
8. ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINERY. A SA
Standard Numnber C50-1943, American Standards
Association (New York, N. Y.) March 29, 1943.
9. MAINTENANCE OVERPOTENTIAL TESTS FOR
ARMATURE WINDnNGS IN SERVICE, R. W. Wiese-
man. Genteral Eleci ic Review (Schenectady, N. Y.),
August 1940, pages 24-28.
10. CAPACITANCE OF SYNCHRONOUS-MACHINE ARM-
ATURE WINDINGS DETERMINED FOR HIGH POTEN-
TIAL TESTS, R. W. Wieseman. General Electric
Review (Schenectady, N. Y.), July 1947.
11. DIAGNOSIS OF A-C GENERATOR INSULATION
CONDITION BY NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS, A. W. W.
Cameron. AIEE Transactions, volume 71, part
III, 1952, pages 263-74.
12. RESULTS OF A QUESTIONNAIRE COVERING
CURRENT PRACTICES IN ELECTRICAL TESTS ON
DIELECTRICS IN THE FIELD, AIEE Committee
Report. AIEE Tr anisacdionzs, volume 70, part I,
1951, pages 986-89.
lowest possible voltage.
Furthermore, we may ask ourselves if we
are dealing with a phenomenon in which the
current avalanche can be predicted by the
mere extrapolation of the curve, unless the
current has reached a magnitude that
borders on avalanche. Mr. Hill in Table
III shows that he used voltages on an aver-
age of 95 per cent of the actual puncture
voltage to predict breakdown. The element
of time of direct voltage application natu-
rally enters into the problem also, as we all
know from our experiences with testing
cable by high direct voltages. Where the
current increase is extreme at very small
increments of voltage, there is no doubt of
the efficacy of the method, provided
the test can be stopped before avalanche
occurs. This is shown by several of the
cases described in the paper.
In analyzing data from field tests made by
us in several instances, we have replotted
the current-voltage values on log-log co-
ordinates after first subtracting out the
linear part of the current. The non-linear
parts of the total current were found to be
constant power functions of the ionizing
voltages up to the maximum voltages used.
The total current then became
i=iC+in
= Vo/R+k( Jo- VI)m
where
ic = linear conduction current, micro-
amperes
in = nonlinear ionization current, micro-
amperes
APRIL 1 953
Figure 1. Actual test data I.nl
with extrapolations at m = 2.26 200
and m' = 3.00 (k = 0.01 5)

in
180

160

140

120

Q)
CA.
zlg
IR 100
qz.
Qt
.j

80

60

iC
40

20

0
70
KILOVOL TS

Vo = applied voltage, kv
V1 = ionization starting voltage (break from
linear current), kv
Vo-V1
V=
m =slope of the nonlinear part of the
current before run-away or avalanche
R = low-voltage insulation resistance or
specimen, megohms per 1,000
bordering the avalanche zone current approaches nearer to avalanche
will decrease the predicted breakdown
din/d V= mk( Vo-V)tm ' = tan a voltage.
Data from one of our tests have been
Tan a expresses the rate of change of the extrapolated according to the foregoing
nonlinear part of the current with voltage,
approach to the problem, and are shown in
in this case microamperes per kilovolt. Figure 1 of the discussion. Here the d-c
If we choose a ratio of 10 microamperes per
test was stopped at 29 kv with m 2.26 and
=

kilovolt, which is equivalent to a being k=0.015. Extrapolating at this slope, the

k = a constant establishing the magnitude
of the nonlinear current for any
particular specimen, in this case in
terms of microamperes with the
voltage expressed in kv
Assuming i, to be a current uniformly dis-
tributed throughout the specimen and not
contributing to breakdown, it may be
ignored in this consideration. Then, fur-
ther, taking some tangent of the curve as
approximately 84 degrees, then V, the pre-
dicted breakdown voltage above VI, is
m m
l/mk=V1O/mk
I
V= V
This is, of course, only a fair approxima-
tion at best since it is difficult to determine
V1, k, or m accurately. It is also to be
emphasized that V + V1 is the maximum
voltage predicted from the slope used.
Any further increase in this slope as the
predicted breakdown voltage would be
V+ V1* 91+6-97 kv. This value is un-
reasonably high, and indicates the possi-
bility that the slope of the curve would have
increased had the voltage been carried
higher. Actually, the winding broke down
at 40-kv peak a-c at a rate of rise of about
1 kv per second.
If we use this 40 kv to determine tan 6,
we find a to be about 74 degrees or a rate of

APRIL 195-3 Hill-Testing Electrical Insulation 171

 Figure 2. Ioniza-
tion voltage test
results

(j)
0.

KW.

lz~
K-

0~

0
K-
Nt
0

V-( Vo -6) KV and PEAK VALUES FOR A-C TEST

rise of 3.5 microamperes per kilovolt. Since
the d-c breakdown voltage should be higher
than the equivalent a-c, we have reason to
believe that 3.5 microamperes per kilovolt is
too low to be considered as bordering on
avalanche. This again indicates the likli-
hood that the slope of the curve would have
increased for some voltage above 29 kv. where
Such a further change in slope would
introduce a third term in the current V2= the voltage at which the slope changes
rn'=the new slope
equation so that
Again assuming that 84 degrees borders
iict+i+ini
= the avalanche zone, the predicted break-
in, = k'( Vo -V2)m' down voltage above V2 becomes

172 Hill Testing Electrical Insulation APRIL 1 953

 rnl'- 1/
V= V 10/rl'k'
and the total predicted breakdown voltage is
VO= V V
To show how the third (second nonlinear)
current term may affect the predicted
breakdown voltage value, we may assume
that, in the case discussed, the slope changed
to m'=3.00 at 29 kv and k' -=0.015 as before
`o- 13+29944 kv
The extrapolation for this change of slope
is also shown in Figure 1 of the discussion.
The foregoing is presented merely as
a possible theoretical analysis of the problem
with no intention necessarily implied that it
can be put to practical use during an actual
test. However, since the true slope or rate
of rise of current seems important, it may be
necessary to resort to an analysis of this
kind during the actual test. This may
require the use of very small voltage incre-
ments, plotting the data on log-log paper as
the test progresses, and carefully watching
for slopes that experience may indicate as
dangerous. Whatever the future holds for
this test method will depend on our degree
of understanding of the phenomenon and
our ability to make measurements that can
be rationalized into data that present a clear
picture of what is going on during the test.
The high-voltage d-c tests we have re-
cently made were in some cases supple-
mented by ionization voltage measurements
of the amplified high-frequency output of a
capacitance-resistance divider in the test
circuit. Ionization voltage measurements
were also made during comparable alter-
nating voltage applications. Similarities
in the characteristics of the ionization volt-
age and the nonlinear part of the direct
voltage-current curves give evidence of
their common cause. Results of the ioniza-
tion voltage tests are shown in Figure 2 of
the discussion.
A question arises as to whether or not it
would be desirable to analyze the data in
terms of the product of the nonlinear part
of the current and voltage, so that the
condition of the insulation can be spoken
of in terms of watts, or watt-seconds if
time of voltage application is considered.
The practicability of this will assume that
the nonlinear part of the currenlt is the
result of a localized condition which is
vulnerable to heat, and with future experi-
ence may provide a permissible upper limit
in terms of watts as well as voltage.
It is interesting to note in studying the
various curves presented in Mr. Hill's
paper that what may be considered as in-
nocuous nonlinear currents usually result in
losses of about 1 watt or less at the maxi-
mum direct voltages used, whereas non-
linear currents falling in the run-away
category range from 1 to 5 watts in general
and to 10 watts in a few cases. Since nearly
all of the machines are in the 15-kv class with
comparable ground wall insulation thick-
ness, these watt loss figures may be signifi-
cant. A curve such as that shown in
Figure 7 of the paper, taken from a machine
which was wet, and having a nonlinear loss
of about 16 watts, would not ordinarily be
tested by the high-voltage d-c method since
its condition of wetness would obviously be
revealed by the usual low-voltage insulation
APRIL l1953
resistance measurement. It would be ex-
pected that watt loss values would be very
erratic and, therefore, useless in cases where
the insulation has already been punctured
in service or by previous tests.
Throughout this paper Mr. Hill has made
numerous statements deprecating the use
of the low-voltage dielectric absorption
test in determining the condition of rotating
machinery insulation. He is, of course,
right in maintaining that the low-voltage
dielectric absorption test cannot reveal
conditions that only the application of high
voltage can bring to light. All that has ever
been claimed for such tests is that they
offer a simple and reliable means of deter-
mining the extent of excessive losses
throughout the insulation as usually caused
by dirt and moisture. No one to my knowl-
edge has ever expected such tests to dis-
tinguish between localized and generally
distributed losses. Figure 7 may be referred
to again as an excellent example of how the
low-voltage d-c test (particularly the 2-
voltage dielectric absorption test) would
have revealed excessive losses.
In closing this discussion, I would like
to ask Mr. Hill to describe the guard system
which was undoubtedly a part of the
measurement circuit used in these tests.
This is an important phase of high-voltage
testing technique and has a direct bearing on
the accuracy of measurement.
E. H. Povey (Doble Engineering Company,
Belmont, Mass.): Mr. Hill has presented a
rather comprehensive report on his method
of testing stator insulation; there are, how-
ever, some points on which additional in-
formation would be helpful in judging the
practicability of the method.
The method is described as high-potential
and nondestructive. These seemingly con-
tradictory terms lead one to ask Mr. Hill
if he has ever experienced unexpected or
unpredicted breakdown of the insulation
during such high-potential testing. To
avoid errors of extrapolation in extending
the current-voltage curve, it is necessary
to carry test voltage to the verge of break-
down, as Table III of the paper indicates.
Another point affecting practicability is
the time element involved. It would be
interesting to know the time required to
produce a normal set of curves, for example,
the curves of Figure l9(B) of the paper.
We agree with Mr. Hill that power-factor
tests made at low test voltages have a
limited value. We do not agree, however,
that power-factor tests at full rated voltage
are impractical. The measurement prob-
lem is no greater than for the low-voltage
tests which Mr. Hill has made. Potential
and current transformers are not necessary
for this type of measturement and in general
are not used. Measuring equipment to-
gether with auxiliaries for energizing the
stator of a large generator from a 30-
ampere lighting circuit may be transported
in a station wagon. Power-factor tests
made at voltages up to rated voltage have
been found useful in following the general
condition of stator insulation from year to
year without subjecting the insulation to
excessive voltages.
A. W. W. Cameron (Hydro-Electric Power
Commission of Ontario, Toronto, Ontario,
A 3Hill Testing Electrical Insulation
Canada): I am particularly grateful for
Mr. Hill's paper as it increases confidence in,
and background experience on, the similar
test methods we are now using in our com-
pany. I would like to join Mr. Hill in
stressing that the success of such tests de-
pends on allowing adequate time for true
conduction-current readings.
As a contribution to the understanding of
the peculiar shapes of some of the current/
voltage curves, such as in Figures 7, 8, 10,
and 19(B) of the paper, I might mention
that we have found that generator insula-
tions, as well as many other composite di-
electrics, have a characteristic marked
hump in the resistance/voltage curve at the
lower voltages. In the case of asphaltic
bonded mica for 13.8 kv, this is on the de-
scent at 25 or 30 kv d-c, and the resulting
increase on current in this region can cause
needless alarm. The shellac-mica hump is
lower and rarely obtrudes itself in practical
tests. In this connection, it would be
valuable to know the types of insulation
represented by Mr. Hill's results, instead of
just the classes.
It may be wise not to look for too much
accuracy in forecasts of remaining econom-
ical life. There are great differences in the
voltage and current surges to which ma-
chines in different locations are subjected,
and the incidence and severity of these can
be predicted only ve:ry roughly.
In our experience, old brittle stator in-
sulation, which is still intact but ripe for
sudden cracking and failure, has often very
high resistance at high voltages. In com-
parison, normal healthy insulation has
moderate resistance, and new insulation has
low resistance due to remanent moisture.
This is illustrated by Table I of the paper;
the Kilarc machine and the two Bucks
Creek machines, all on the verge of failure,
had high insulation resistances on the phases
not at the moment affected. Therefore,
I wonder how reliable would be the proposed
life prediction by extrapolation of a curve
like in Figure 22 of the paper.
We are gaining some confidence in the
specific absorption criterion of expenditure
of life. I agree with Mr. Hill as to the un-
reliability of polarization index for this
purpose: it is a mixture of the two super-
imposed but independent phenomena of
absorption and leakage.
I believe that extensive regular testing of
the type evolved by Mr. Hill, and experience
of the trends in dielectric characteristics so
revealed, related to service histories, will
teach us enough in years to come to make us
reasonably reliable prophets of the lives of
our machines. I trust that many will
follow Mr. Hill's pioneering work and so
hasten that essential experience.
G. Leslie Hill: Mr. Curdts questions
whether or not the direct voltages used were
considered in any way damaging. The
results of this particular phase of our testing
were inadvertently omitted from the paper.
This was one of the first questions we
settled in our own minds at the beginning
of the d-c test program. We repeated d-c
tests as many as five and six times on various
machines and individual coils and obtained
curves similar to curve 1, Figure 20 that
would repeat without any indication of
damage to the insulation. When we tried
to repeat a-c build-up voltages to a point
173
near the puncture value, we found that
puncture would occur in some cases at a
lower value than the previous build-up
value. This was especially the case when
testing old insulation.
An over-all answer to paragraphs 3, 4,
and 5 of Mr. Curdts' discussion will be
attempted. First, the test engineer should
be well qualified and experienced; then he
has to use his own judgement as to the
maximum d-c test voltage to apply. This
voltage is based on an interpretation of test
results. The test data, as a general rule,
are plotted to the same co-ordinate scale.
We consider that Mr. Curdts is unduly con-
cerned about avalanche currents. We
have had only two punctures to date without
a warning on the plotted curve. These
occurred at about 22 and 23 kv on 12-kv
a-c synchronous condensers. Upon ex-
amination, the puncture paths were found to
be through voids or tape separation which
resulted in air path breakdowns.
We have performed sufficient tests so
we do not question the fact that we can
build up to 95 per cent of the d-c breakdown,
draw the curve, and predict the puncture
value. A great deal of patience must be
exercised in obtaining this type of test
data and it is absolutely necessary to await a
stabilized current at each increment of
voltage increase.
The mathematical analysis given is
mainly of academic interest. We have
derived an equation for calculating the
breakdown (which differs considerably from
Mr. Curdts' equation) and have obtained
very good checks with actual values.
However, in the field the test engineer is
generally pressed for time so we rely mostly
on the diagnosis of the curves plotted from
test data. The method used by Mr.
Curdts in obtaining the curve "actual test
data" in Figure 1 of the discussion is not
given so it would be difficult for us to
calculate the puncture value. Assuming
he used the method as recommended in the
text of the paper, the puncture value we
obtain is approximately 50-52.5 kv d-c.
We most likely would have carried this test
to at least 40 or 45 kv d-c before stopping,
that is, assuming we wanted to puncture
with alternating current.
Mr. Curdts considers that numerous
174
statements in the paper deprecate the use of
low-voltage dielectric resistance testing.
What we have tried to bring out is that
until our high-voltage d-c testing method
was inaugerated we were almost completely
in the dark as to a method that would enable
us to diagnose the condition of the insulation
in a large machine and tell us if we could put
it on the line. Obviously the high-voltage
a-c tests were either "go" or "no go."
Mr. Curdts should note that Figure 7 of the
paper was obtained after the machine had
failed and that part of the winding was wet
because of water used in extinguishing the
fire. If he will refer to the text he will find
that it states "a d-c insulation test revealed
two phases good up to 20,000 and one phase
good up to 10,000 volts d-c." This means
the knee of the curves started on two phases
at 20,000 and on one phase at 10,000 volts
d-c. No low-voltage d-c absorption test
would have shown this condition. Ob-
viously a d-c test that indicated 10,000
volts d-c as the limit gave a warning signal
to repair or rewind. The machine failed
after 9 more months of additional operation
resulting in considerable damage. It is
thought that Mr. Curdts will recognize that
the high-voltage d-c testing technique, as
described in this paper, has opened up a
new horizon and given us a new tool to
work with. The guard circuit, as used, is
similar to the typical circuits in low-voltage
insulation testers whereby the surface
leakage current is by-passed around the
microammeter so that it can not cause an
error.
Mr. Povey's first question is partly
answered in the preceding remarks but I
might again reiterate that an experienced
test engineer may carry the d-c test voltage
to the verge of breakdown, without punc-
ture, on homogeneous insulation.
Mr. Povey is interested in the time to
perform the high-voltage tests on a certain
machine such as a sy,nchronous condenser of
9,000 kva. The total time will vary with
conditions, but a careful d-c test to obtain
values for a complete curve on a machine,
large or small, will take about 30 to 45
minutes. Obtaining the clearances and
switching will generally take longer than the
test. As a general rule, a large generator
including the house generator, cable and bus
Hill Testing Electrical Insulation
runs, and transformers are all tested on the
same shutdown, and will take about 2 hours.
Mr. Povey questions the reference in the
paper in regard to power-factor measure-
ments. We recognize his organization has
some ingenious apparatus and instrumenta-
tion requiring step-up transformers, special
current transformers, special inductors, and
so forth, to measure dielectric loss and power
factor of insulation in electric apparatus.
What he has not told us is how to diagnose
the power-factor values obtained and
determine the dielectric strength of the
insulation under observation. Our experi-
ence leads us to the conclusion that some
technique in a-c testing will have to be
developed to separate the conduction cur-
rents, through the insulation, from dielectric
loss currents before a-c testing will give us
the information that d-c testing does.
Mr. Povey will recognize the instrumenta-
tion problem when the small amount of
watts, from conduction currents, involved
are considered in comparison to the volt-
amperes required to charge a large machine.
This was brought out by Mr. Curdts in his
discussion.
In answer to Mr. Fuller's question in
regard to similar work on 600-volt appa-
ratus: 2,300-volt motors and generators are
the lowest rated machines we have tested.
We do not know of any work carried out at
this low voltage.
Mr. Cameron questions the type of in-
sulation in the machines from which were
obtained the curves shown in Figures 7, 8,
10 and 19(B). Both of these machines had
a composite insulation consisting of several
layers of impregnated mica tape with outer
layers of varnished cambric. The text
omitted the class in one case and stated
class B in the other, which was an error.
We agree with Mr. Cameron that a high
accuracy cannot be expected in forecasts
of the remaining economical life of the in-
sulation in old machines. His work has
paralleled ours to a very great extent and
I am quite sure he will agree that the present
methods of prediction that both are using
will give us a better chance of prediction than
we have had in the past. Our first predic-
tion work was in the early part of 1950
and his first prediction work was in the
early part of 1951.
APRIL 195-3