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2005-ISB Recommendation On Definitions of Joint Coordinate Systems of Various Joints For The Reporting of Human Joint Motion Part 2 Shoulder Elbow Wrist and Hand
2005-ISB Recommendation On Definitions of Joint Coordinate Systems of Various Joints For The Reporting of Human Joint Motion Part 2 Shoulder Elbow Wrist and Hand
2005-ISB Recommendation On Definitions of Joint Coordinate Systems of Various Joints For The Reporting of Human Joint Motion Part 2 Shoulder Elbow Wrist and Hand
Abstract
In this communication, the Standardization and Terminology Committee (STC) of the International Society of Biomechanics
proposes a definition of a joint coordinate system (JCS) for the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and hand. For each joint, a standard for the
local axis system in each articulating segment or bone is generated. These axes then standardize the JCS. The STC is publishing these
recommendations so as to encourage their use, to stimulate feedback and discussion, and to facilitate further revisions. Adopting
these standards will lead to better communication among researchers and clinicians.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-802-656-2556; fax: +1-802-656- In the past several years, the Standardization and
2191. Terminology Committee (STC) of the International
E-mail address: ge.wu@uvm.edu (G. Wu). Society of Biomechanics has been working to propose a
1
Chairperson of the Standardization and Terminology Committee. set of standards for defining joint coordinate systems
The International Society of Biomechanics.
2
Authored shoulder and elbow.
(JCS) of various joints based on Grood and Suntay’s
3
Authored wrist and hand. JCS of the knee joint (Grood and Suntay, 1983). The
4
Subcommittee Chair. primary purpose of this work is to facilitate and
0021-9290/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jbiomech.2004.05.042
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982 G. Wu et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 38 (2005) 981–992
encourage communication among researchers, clini- The starting point for the shoulder standardization
cians, and all other interested parties. proposal was a paper by Van der Helm (1996). More
The STC has established a total of nine sub- information can be obtained at: http://www.internatio-
committees, involving nearly 30 people who have nalshouldergroup.org.
extensive experience (either research or clinical) in joint The standardization of motions is only described for
biomechanics, and had developed proposals for nine right shoulder joints. Whenever left shoulders are
major joints in the body. These joints include: foot, measured, it is recommended to mirror the raw position
ankle, hip, spine, shoulder, elbow, hand and wrist, TMJ, data with respect to the sagittal plane ðz ¼ zÞ. Then, all
and whole body. The proposals are based on the ISB definitions for right shoulders are applicable.
standard for reporting kinematic data published by Wu Rotations are described using Euler angles. For a
and Cavanagh (1995). The first set of these standards for clearer interpretation of these angles it is suggested that
the ankle joint, hip joint, and spine was published in the coordinate systems of the proximal and distal body
Journal of Biomechanics in April 2002 (Wu et al., 2002). segments are initially aligned to each other by the
A response to comments to this set of standards was introduction of ‘anatomical’ orientations of these
later published in 2003 (Allard et al., 2003). coordinate systems. The rotations of the distal coordi-
In this publication, the proposed standards for the nate system should then be described with respect to the
shoulder joint, elbow joint, and wrist and hand are proximal coordinate system. If both coordinate systems
included. For each joint, the standard is divided into the are aligned, the first rotation will be around one of the
following sections: (1) Introduction, (2) Terminology, common axes, the second rotation around the (rotated)
(3) Body segment coordinate systems, and (4) JCS and axis of the moving coordinate systems, and the third
motion for the constituent joints. It is then up to the rotation again around one of the rotated axes of the
individual researcher to relate the marker or other (e.g. moving coordinate system. This last axis is preferably
electromagnetic) coordinate systems to the defined aligned with the longitudinal axis of the moving
anatomic system through digitization, calibration move- segment. This method is equivalent to the method of
ments, or population-based anatomical relationships. Grood and Suntay (1983) using floating axes. They also
The two major values in using Grood and Suntay’s describe the first rotation around an axis of the proximal
JCS are: (1) conceptual, since it appears easier to coordinate system and the last rotation around the
communicate the rotations to clinicians when using longitudinal axis of the moving segment. The second
individual axes embedded in the proximal and distal axis is by definition perpendicular to both the first and
segments and (2) the inclusion of calculations for third rotation axis.
clinically relevant joint translations. Some confusion, For joint displacements, a common point in both the
however, has arisen over their statement that the JCS is proximal and distal coordinate systems should be taken,
sequence independent, whereas Euler or Cardan angle preferably the initial rotation center (or a point on the
representations are not. It should be noted that the fixed rotation axis in the case of a hinge joint). For most
Grood and Suntay’s convention, without the transla- shoulder motions the rotation center would be only a
tions, is simply a linkage representation of a particular rough estimate, since only the glenohumeral joint
Cardan angle sequence; the floating axis is the second, resembles a ball-and-socket joint. The definition of the
i.e. rotated, axis in the Cardan sequence (Small et al., common rotation centers of the sternoclavicular joint
1992; Li et al., 1993, Baker, 2003). The angles are and acromioclavicular joint are left to the discretion of
independent because the sequence is defined by the the researcher. Displacements should be described with
mechanism; a Cardan or Euler sequence is equally respect to the axes of the coordinate system of the
‘‘independent’’ once the sequence is defined. segment directly proximal to the moving segment to
represent true joint displacements.
2.2. Terminology
2. JCS for the shoulder
2.2.1. Anatomical landmarks used in this proposal
2.1. Introduction
(Fig. 1)
Standardization of joint motions is very important for
the enhancement of the study of motion biomechanics. Thorax: C7: Processus Spinosus (spinous process)
The International Shoulder Group (ISG) supports the of the 7th cervical vertebra
efforts of the ISB on this initiative, and recommends T8: Processus Spinosus (spinal process)
that authors use the same set of bony landmarks; use of the 8th thoracic vertebra
identical local coordinate systems (LCS); and report IJ: Deepest point of Incisura Jugularis
motions according to this recommended standard. (suprasternal notch)
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G. Wu et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 38 (2005) 981–992 983
Fig. 3. Clavicule coordinate system and definition of SC motions. Y t is Fig. 5. Humerus coordinate system and definition of GH motions. Y s
the local axis for the thorax coordinate system, which is initially is the local axis for the scapula coordinate system.
aligned with Y c of the clavicle.
Xf: The line perpendicular to the plane through US, e1: The axis coincident with the Z g -axis of the
RS, and the midpoint between EL and EM, global coordinate system.
pointing forward. Rotation (aGT ): flexion (negative) or extension
Zf : The common line perpendicular to the X f and (positive).
Y f -axis, pointing to the right. e3: The axis fixed to the thorax and coincident with
the Y t -axis of the thorax coordinate system.
2.4. JCS and motion for the shoulder complex Rotation (gGT ): axial rotation to the left
(positive) or to the right (negative).
In the shoulder, it can be useful to report two types of e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3,
rotations. One is joint rotation, i.e., rotation of a i.e., the rotated X t -axis of the thorax.
segment with respect to the proximal segment including Rotation (bGT ): lateral flexion rotation of the
the clavicle relative to the thorax (SC joint), the scapula thorax, to the right is positive, to the left is
relative to the clavicle (AC joint), and the humerus negative.
relative to the scapula (GH joint). The other is segment
rotation, i.e., rotation of the clavicle, scapula, or humerus 2.4.2. JCS and motion for the SC joint (clavicle relative
relative to the thorax (the non-existent thoracohumeral to the thorax, Y–X–Z order, Fig. 3
joint, often loosely defined as the shoulder joint). The Displacement (q): corresponds to translations of the
definition of joint displacements is only useful if it is common rotation center of the SC joint with respect to
defined with respect to the proximal segment. the thorax coordinate system.
Many rotation orders are possible (such as X–Y–Z in
Cardan angles or Y–Z–Y in Euler angles). We have e1: The axis fixed to the thorax and coincident with
chosen rotation orders so that the angles remain as close the Y t -axis of the thorax coordinate system.
as possible to the clinical definitions of joint and Rotation (gSC ): retraction (negative) or protrac-
segment motions. Differences are unavoidable since tion (positive).
these clinical definitions are not consistent in 3-D. For e3: The axis fixed to the clavicle and coincident
example, although flexion and abduction each is clearly with the Z c -axis of the clavicle coordinate
defined in 2-D, flexion followed by abduction gives a system.
different result than abduction followed by flexion (see Rotation (aSC ): axial rotation of the clavicle;
Anglin and Wyss, 2000, Section 8.1). rotation of the top backwards is positive,
In the following definitions, a is around the Z-axis, b forwards is negative.
around the X-axis, and g around the Y-axis, irrespective e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3,
of the order of rotation. the rotated X c -axis.
Rotation (bSC ): elevation (negative) or depres-
2.4.1. JCS and motions of the thorax relative to the sion (positive).
global coordinate system (Z–X–Y order, Fig. 2
Displacement (q): corresponds to motions of IJ with 2.4.3. JCS and motion for the AC joint (scapula relative
respect to the global coordinate system ðX g –Y g –Z g to the clavicle, Y–X–Z order, Fig. 4
defined by Wu and Cavanagh (1995)). Displacement (q): corresponds to translations of the
common rotation center of the AC joint with respect to
the clavicle coordinate system.
Note: The following sequence is supported by
Karduna et al. (2000), who studied the six possible
Euler sequences for scapular motion. They found that
the proposed sequence is ‘‘consistent with both research-
and clinical-based 2-D representations of scapular
motion’’. They also found that changing the sequence
resulted in ‘‘significant alterations in the description of
motion, with differences up to 50 noted for some
angles’’. Since the scapular coordinate system is initially
aligned with the clavicular coordinate system even
though this position is never assumed anatomically,
typical angle values are offset from zero (either positive
or negative).
Rotation (gAC ): AC retraction (negative) or AC 2.4.5. JCS and motion for the clavicle relative to the
protraction (negative); the scapula is usually thorax
retracted. For the motions of the clavicle no distinction between
e3: The axis fixed to the scapula and coincident segment and joint rotations needs to be made, since the
with the Z s -axis of the scapular coordinate proximal coordinate system of the clavicle is the thorax.
system (scapular spine). Definitions are equal to the definitions in Section 2.4.2:
Rotation (aAC ): AC-anterior (negative) or AC- ac = aSC ; bc = bSC ; and gc = gSC .
posterior (Positive) tilt; the scapula is usually
tilted posteriorly. 2.4.6. JCS and motion for the scapula relative to the
e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3, thorax (Y–X–Z order)
the rotated X s -axis of the scapula coordinate
system. e1: The axis fixed to the thorax and coincident with
Rotation (bAC ): AC-lateral (negative) or AC- the Y t -axis of the thorax coordinate system.
medial (positive) rotation; the scapula is usually Rotation (gs ): retraction (negative) or protrac-
laterally rotated. tion (positive).
e3: The axis fixed to the scapula and coincident
2.4.4. JCS and motion for the GH joint (humerus relative with the Z s -axis of the scapular coordinate
to the scapula, Y–X–Y order, Fig. 5) system.
Note: This is the one joint that is based on an Euler Rotation (as ): anterior (negative) or posterior
rotation sequence. Since e1 and e3 start in the same (positive) tilt.
direction, the standard Grood and Suntay (floating-axis) e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3.
equations cannot be used. Instead, an Euler decomposi- Rotation (bs ): lateral (negative) or medial
tion is used to find the corresponding angles. As stated (positive) rotation.
before, we have avoided the clinical terms flexion and
abduction because flexion followed by abduction would
give radically different results than abduction followed 2.4.7. JCS and motion for the humerus relative to the
by flexion. Furthermore, these terms are only defined thorax (Y–X–Y order) (Fig. 7)
relative to the thorax, not the scapula (see Section 2.4.7).
For comparison, flexion is elevation parallel to the e1: The axis fixed to the thorax and coincident with
sagittal plane and abduction is elevation in the coronal the Y t -axis of the thorax coordinate system.
(frontal) plane. Rotation (gh ): Plane of elevation, 0 is abduc-
Displacement (q): Corresponds to translations of the tion, 90 is forward flexion.
common rotation center of the GH joint with respect to e3: Axial rotation around the Y h -axis.
the scapular coordinate system. In particular, we define Rotation ðgh Þ2 : axial rotation, endo- or internal-
qx ¼ anterior=posterior translation; qy ¼ inferior= rotation (positive) and exo- or external-rotation
superior translation; and qz ¼ joint distraction. (negative).
e2: The axis fixed to the humerus and coincident
e1: The axis fixed to the scapula and coincident with the X h -axis of the humerus coordinate
with the Y s -axis of the scapular coordinate system.
system. Rotation (bh ): elevation (negative).
Rotation (gGH1 ): GH plane of elevation.
e3: Axial rotation around the Y h -axis.
Rotation (gGH2 ): GH-axial rotation, endo- or
internal-rotation (positive) and exo- or exter- 3. JCS for the elbow
nal-rotation (negative).
e2: The axis fixed to the humerus and coincident 3.1. Introduction
with the X h -axis of the humerus coordinate
system. To make a kinematic description of the elbow joint
Rotation (bGH ): GH elevation (negative5). useful and practical, we use the following anatomical
approximations (see Fig. 1):
1. The GH joint is a ball joint.
2. The humeroulnar joint is a hinge joint.
5 3. The radioulnar joint (contacting proximally and
As a consequence of the chosen direction of axes (ISB choice, but
not preferred by the ISG), the second rotation elevation is by definition
distally) is a hinge joint. The center of the capitulum
in the negative direction. The clinical term ‘‘elevation’’ corresponds to on the humerus and the axes of the two radioulnar
negative rotations around the e2-axis. joints (proximal and distal) are on the joint axis.
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3.2. Terminology 3.4.1. JCS and motion for the elbow joint (forearm
relative to the humerus, Z–X–Y order)
See Fig. 1(1) and Section 2.2.
e1: The axis fixed to the proximal segment and
3.3. Body segment coordinate systems coincident with the Z h -axis of the humerus
coordinate system (preferably an approxima-
3.3.1. Humerus coordinate system—X h1 Y h1 Z h1 (1st tion of the elbow flexion/extension axis).
option) or X h2 Y h2 Z h2 (2nd option) Rotation (aHF ): flexion (positive) and hyperex-
See Sections 2.3.4 and 2.3.5 for a description of the tension (negative).
two options for humerus coordinate systems. Since the e3: The axis fixed to the distal segment and
forearm is obviously needed when studying the elbow, coincident with the Y f -axis of the forearm
we recommend using the second definition. coordinate system.
Rotation (gHF ): axial rotation of the forearm,
3.3.2. Forearm coordinate system—X f Y f Z f pronation (positive) and supination (negative).
See Section 2.3.6. e2: The floating axis, the common axis perpendi-
cular to e1 and e3, the rotated X f -axis of the
3.3.3. Ulnar coordinate system—X u Y u Z u (defined at forearm coordinate system.
elbow flexed 90 in the sagittal plane) Rotation (bHF ): carrying angle, the angle
between the longitudinal axis of the forearm
Ou : The origin is at US. and the plane perpendicular to the flexion/
Y u: The line pointing proximally from US to the extension axis. The carrying angle occurs due to
midpoint between EM and EL. both a tilt in the humeral (flexion/extension)
X u: The line perpendicular to the plane formed by axis at the humeroulnar joint and an angulation
US, EM, and EL, pointing forward. of the ulna itself (see Anglin and Wyss, 2000,
Zu : The common line perpendicular to the X u - and Section 5.6). It is therefore a passive response to
Y u -axis, pointing to the right. elbow flexion/extension. Since the carrying
angle is passive, it is rarely reported.
3.3.4. Radius coordinate system—X r Y r Z r (defined with 3.4.2. JCS and motion of the humeroulnar joint (ulna
forearm in the neutral position and elbow flexed 90 in the relative to the humerus, Z–X–Y order)
sagittal plane)
e1: The axis fixed to the proximal segment and
Or : The origin is at RS. coincident with the Z h -axis of the humerus
Y r: The line pointing proximally from RS towards coordinate system (preferably an approxima-
EL. tion of the flexion/extension axis).
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Rotation (aHU ): flexion (positive). Hyperexten- tions of the eight carpal bones with respect to each
sion is defined negative. other. Some researchers, who only examine global wrist
e3: The axis fixed to the distal segment and motion and have no need to examine carpal motion, can
coincident with the Y u -axis of the ulnar still use the definitions given for the radius and the
coordinate system. metacarpal bones to describe wrist motion.
Rotation (gHU ): axial rotation of the ulna The ISB committee proposal (Wu and Cavanagh,
(negligible). 1995) recommends that orthogonal triads be fixed at the
e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3, segmental center of mass. In the hand and wrist, the
the rotated X u -axis of the ulnar coordinate center of mass is simply not known for most of the
system. segments or bones. Data from cadaver studies do exist
Rotation (bHU ): carrying angle, the angle that describe the center of mass location for the forearm
between the longitudinal axis of the ulna and and hand as a proportion of the entire length of each of
the plane perpendicular to the flexion/extension these segments. These center of mass definitions may be
axis (see 3.4.1). suitable for global wrist motions, but cannot be used to
describe the kinematics of the component parts. The
phalanges cannot be ignored as many researchers are
3.4.3. JCS and motion for the radioulnar joint (radius
examining individual movement of the carpal bones or
relative to the ulna, X–Z–Y order)
movement of the radius with respect to the ulna.
Therefore for this joint coordinate system application,
e1: The axis fixed to the proximal segment and
the location of the orthogonal triad on each bone is
coincident with the X u -axis of the ulnar
primarily based on bony landmarks and is usually
coordinate system (describing the orientation
located at the axial center for the long bones or the
of the pro/supination axis with respect to the
volumetric centroid for the carpal bones. (CT scans
ulna). It is implicitly assumed that the pro/
might be used to define the volumetric centroid;
supination axis intersects the elbow flexion/
however, this method may not be available or necessary
extension axis, although in reality this is not the
for all applications.)
case.
Rotation (bUR ): orientation of the pro/supina-
tion axis relative to the ulna (constant). 4.2. Terminology
e3: The axis fixed to the distal segment and
coincident with the Y r -axis of the radius 4.2.1. Anatomical landmarks used (see Figs. 8–10)
coordinate system.
Rotation (gUR ): pro/supination of the radius
with respect to the ulna. Radius: Radioscaphoid fossa—articulation of
e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3, the scaphoid with the radius
the rotated Z r -axis of the radius coordinate Radiolunate fossa—articulation of
system. the lunate with the radius
Rotation (aUR ): abduction/adduction of the Radial Styloid
radius (negligible). Sigmoid Notch—depression in the
distal radius where the ulna
articulates with it
Radial Head (proximal)
4. JCS for the hand and wrist Ulna: Dome of Ulnar Head (distal)
Coronoid Process
4.1. Introduction Carpal Bones: Scaphoid
Lunate
Separate coordinate systems have been developed for Triquetrum
each bone that is distal to the elbow, so that relative Pisiform
motion between any two adjacent segments may be Trapezium
described. These systems are then also applicable to Trapezoid
global wrist motion as well as to motion of the Capitate
individual components that cause the global motion. Hamate
Global wrist motion is typically considered as the
motion of the second and/or third metacarpal with
respect to the radius (here, we use the third metacarpal) Metacarpals
and is achieved by movement of the carpal bones with and
respect to the radius as well as the numerous articula- Phalanges: Distal Head Center of Base
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G. Wu et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 38 (2005) 981–992 989
base of the concavity of the sigmoid notch and and Y axes and nearly parallel to the central ridge of the
the specified origin. trapezial metacarpal surface’’.
X r: The common line perpendicular to the Y r - and
Zr -axis. 4.3.4. Metacarpals coordinate system—X m Y m Z m
The five coordinate systems for the five metacarpals
are described in the same manner. The major differences
4.3.2. Ulna coordinate system—X u Y u Z u
in the metacarpals are in the shape of their bases where
‘‘contact’’ with the carpals is made and their relative
Ou : The origin is located midway between the distal
movement capabilities. In this regard, the first metacar-
ulna at the level of the dome of the ulnar head,
pal has a very large range of motion. The third
and the proximal ulna at the level of the
metacarpal has special significance because of its use
coronoid process. In the transverse plane it is
in the definition of global wrist motion. Most research-
at the approximate center of the tubular bone
ers consider either the second or third metacarpal as
(along its principal axis of inertia).
representative of hand motion.
Y u: The line parallel to the long shaft of the ulna
from Ou to intersect with the center of the dome
Om : The origin for each of these coordinate systems
of the ulnar head.
is located midway between the base and head of
X u: The line parallel to X r when the radius is in
each metacarpal. In the transverse plane, it will
neutral forearm rotation.
be at the approximate center of the tubular
Zu : The common line perpendicular to the X u - and
bone (at its moment of inertia).
Y u -axis.
Y m: The line parallel to a line from the center of the
distal head of the metacarpal to the midpoint of
4.3.3. Carpal bones coordinate system—X c Y c Z c the base of the metacarpal.
The eight carpal bones, scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, X m: The X m and Y m -axis will form a sagittal plane
pisiform, trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate, that splits the metacarpal into mirror images.
will be considered simultaneously. Most researchers Zm : The common line perpendicular to the X m - and
only report angular changes in carpal bone motion and Y m -axis.
use the neutral wrist position as a neutral reference
position. The neutral wrist position is when the wrist is 4.3.5. Phalanges coordinate system—X p Y p Z p
in neutral flexion/extension and neutral radial/ulnar The 14 coordinate systems for the phalanges of the
deviation such that the third metacarpal long axis is five digits can be described in a manner that is analogous
parallel with the Y r axis in the radius. These researchers to the description used for the metacarpal systems. The
define the motion relative to the radius and typically not proximal and middle phalanges for the five digits are
the ulna. Therefore, the orientation of the coordinate similar in shape as are the five distal phalanges.
systems for each carpal bone (Fig. 2) should be parallel
with the radial coordinate system when the wrist is in the 4.4. JCS and motion for the hand and wrist
neutral wrist position. Thus, Y carpal bone will be parallel
to Y r and similarly for X carpal bone and Zcarpal bone . At 4.4.1. JCS and motion for the interphalangeal,
present, most researchers who need to define a metacarpophalangeal, intercarpal, radiocarpal, and
coordinate system origin in a carpal bone use the carpometacarpal joints
volumetric centroid of the bone. Therefore it is proposed
that, when necessary, the origin of a coordinate system e1: The axis fixed to the proximal segment and
in a carpal bone be located at the volumetric centroid of coincident with the Z-axis of the proximal
the bone. segment coordinate system.
A separate coordinate system is required for the Rotation (a): flexion or extension (flexion is
trapezium in order to describe motion at the trapezio- positive).
metacarpal joint of the thumb. The coordinate system Displacement ðq1Þ: radial or ulnar translation.
defined by Cooney et al. (1981) will be adapted for this e3: The axis fixed to the distal segment and
purpose: ‘‘The Y axis extends from the exact mid-point coincident with the Y-axis of the distal segment
of the central ridge of the trapezial saddle to the center coordinate system.
of the junction of the trapezium, scaphoid and Rotation (g): rotation (pronation–supination).
trapezoid. The X axis runs in a dorsal-to-volar direction Zero degrees of rotation is defined to be at the
along a line perpendicular to the central ridge of the neutral forearm position. Pronation is a positive
trapezium and passes through the mid-point of the rotation. Supination is a negative rotation.
dorsal surface to the proximal volar pole of the tubercle Displacement ðq3Þ: proximal or distal transla-
of the trapezium. The Z axis is perpendicular to the X tion.
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G. Wu et al. / Journal of Biomechanics 38 (2005) 981–992 991
e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3. e3: The axis fixed to the intermediate radial
Rotation (b): adduction or abduction, or radial coordinate system and coincident with the Z-
or ulnar deviation (ulnar deviation is positive). axis of the intermediate radial coordinate
Displacement ðq2Þ: dorsal or volar translation. system.
Rotation ðgÞ: flexion–extension (flexion is posi-
tive).
For the interphalangeal, first metacarpophalangeal, Displacement ðq3Þ: radial or ulnar translation.
intercarpal, and radiocarpal joints, a neutral posture is e2: The common axis perpendicular to e1 and e3:
defined as the position where the orientations of the Rotation ðbÞ: radial–ulnar deviation (ulnar
proximal and distal segmental systems are aligned. For deviation is positive).
the second through fifth metacarpophalangeal joints, a Displacement ðq2Þ: dorsal or volar translation.
neutral posture is defined as the position where the
orientation of the distal segmental system is identical to
that of the third metacarpal. The third carpometacarpal
joint will be neutral when the third metacarpal system is Acknowledgements
aligned with the wrist system. For the first carpometa-
carpal (trapeziometacarpal) joint, a neutral posture will We thank Ed Chadwick, Brendan McCormack, A.C.
be defined as the position where the orientations of the Nicol, Bo Peterson, and Victor Waide for their past
proximal segmental system (as defined by Cooney et al., involvement in the development of the elbow joint
1981) and distal segmental system are identical. The standard.
neutral posture for the second, fourth, and fifth
carpometacarpal joints can be defined in an analogous
manner. References
Allard, P., Cristofolini, L., D’Lima, D., Kirtley, C., Leardini, A.,
4.4.2. JCS and motion for the radioulnar joint Rosenbaum, D., Schmid, O., Siegler, S., Stokes, I., Whittle, M.,
For the radioulnar joint, the Y-axis of the radius and Witte, H., Wu, G., 2003. Response to Dr. Baker’s letter to the
ulna may not be parallel at the neutral posture. They editor. Journal of Biomechanics 36 (2), 303–304.
Anglin, C., Wyss, U.P., 2000. Review of arm motion analyses.
may only diverge by a few degrees depending upon the
Proceedings of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers 214 (Part H),
subject. The neutral position for the radius and ulna is 541–555.
clinically called neutral forearm rotation. With the Baker, R., 2003. Letter to the editor regarding ISB recommendation on
elbow flexed to 90 , this position can be visualized as definition of joint coordinate systems for the reporting of human
when the thumb is pointing to the shoulder. In the joint motion—part I: ankle, hip and spine. Journal of Biomecha-
standard anatomical position, the radius is supinated nics 36 (2), 300–302.
Cooney, W.P., Lucca, M.J., Chao, E.Y.S., Linscheid, R.L., 1981. The
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