Journal of Coastal Research SI 73 564-571 Coconut Creek, Florida Winter 2015

Potential of Using Cemented Soil-Tire Chips Mixture as

Construction Fill: a Laboratory Study
Ling Xin†, Jia He‡*, Hanlong Liu§, and Yang Shen††

† ‡
College of Ocean Science and Engineering School of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Shanghai Maritime University Nanyang Technological University
Shanghai 201306, China 639798, Singapore www.cerf-jcr.org
§
College of Civil Engineering ††
College of Civil and Transportation Engineering
Chongqing University Hohai University
Chongqing 400045, China Nanjing 210098, China

ABSTRACT

Xin, L.; He, J.; Liu, H., and Shen, Y., 2015. Potential of using cemented soil-tire chips mixture as construction fill: A
laboratory study. In: Mi, W.; Lee, L.H.; Hirasawa, K., and Li, W. (eds.), Recent Developments on Port and Ocean
Engineering. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue, No. 73, pp. 564-571. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-
0208.
www.JCRonline.org Waste materials that are generated in large quantities, such as waste rubbers, plastics, and dredged soils, can
potentially be reused as fill materials in construction projects. It will bring both economical and environmental
benefits. This paper firstly presents a review on different methods of reusing scrap tires and waste soils in
constructions. Then, a new method of using these two wastes as a fill material is proposed and experimentally
evaluated. The material is formed by mixing waste soils, scrap tire chips, Portland cement, and water together in
varying proportions. Isotropic compression and triaxial consolidated undrained compression tests were carried out.
The geotechnical properties of the material with varying additions of different components are investigated. It is
found that adding more tire chips in the material leads to an evident improvement in the undrained strength; while the
compressibility of the specimens with 0-60% tire chips content (to dry soil by weight) does not change very much.
The test results also manifest that increasing cement content is an effective way to reduce the compressibility and
improve the undrained strength, indicating that the mechanical behavior of the material can be well controlled by
adjusting the cement addition. Thanks to its advantageous features such as small compressibility and adjustable
strength, the material is suitable for quaywall backfill and embankment fill in port or transportation constructions.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Tire chips, waste soils, fill material, isotropic compression test, triaxial test.
_______________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION
Construction projects, such as port, highway, and railway
developments, require large amount of fill materials. The supply
of conventional fills, including sand, rock, and good earth, is
becoming more difficult, because of their increasing prices and
exploitation restrictions. For this reason, the development of
alternative fill materials has been gaining increasing interests in
recent years. The sources of these alternative fill materials are
often from wastes. For example, large volumes of waste soils are
generated through the dredging of harbors and fairways and
other constructions works. Instead of dumping them into land or
sea as usual, these waste soils can be used as fill materials if
they can be properly treated. Some other waste materials, such
as scrap tires, waste plastics, and sewage sludge etc., can also be
used as fill materials in constructions projects after suitable
treatments.
In this paper, a laboratory study is presented on the potential
of using cemented soil-tire chips mixture as a fill material in
construction projects. The soil used is a waste soil with high
____________________
DOI: 10.2112/SI73-098.1 received 6 August 2014; accepted in revision
15 November 2014.
*Corresponding author: hejia@ntu.edu.sg
© Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc. 2015
water content and low strength. The tire chips used are
processed from scrap tires. Portland cement is used to stabilize
the mixture. A similar fill material that has gained extensive
research efforts is EPS lightweight fill (Gao et al., 2012; Gao,
Liu, and Liu, 2011; Liu, Deng, and Chu, 2006). However,
expandable polystyrene (EPS) beads used for EPS lightweight
fill are commercial products. Using scrap tire chips as a
replacement of EPS beads will bring more economical and
environmental benefits. Tire chips also have the lightweight
feature, although they are heavier than EPS beads. The specific
gravity of tire chips used in this study is 1.25, which is much
smaller than those of common soil minerals.
The use of waste materials as construction fill not only has
environmental and economical benefits, but also brings many
technical advantages to the construction projects. In port and
transportation constructions, tire chips alone or in combination
with other materials has lightweight, high strength, and small
deformation features. When using it in quay wall backfills and
road embankments in lieu of conventional fills, the ground
settlement and lateral earth pressure acting on the wall can be
much reduced. Projects can thus be safer and cheaper.
This paper will firstly present a background on the reuse of
scrap tires and waste soils in construction projects. Then, the
laboratory work will be provided on the isotropic compression
 Potential of Using Cemented Soil-Tire Chips Mixture
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
and undrained shear behavior of the material with various
mixing ratios of different components.
BACKGROUND
Scrap Tires and Their Reuse in Construction Projects
A large amount of scrap tires is generated in China every year.
Related pollution problems are acute. The number of scrap tires
increases from around 50 million in 2001 to 283 million in 2012
(Li et al., 2010). The rate of harmless utilization of scrap tires is
only about 60%, which is considerably lower than around 90%
in developed countries. The major utilization methods are
devulcanization and illegal tire oil extraction, which may cause
high energy consumption and heavy pollution (Li et al., 2010).
Around 11% of scrap tires do not receive any treatments (Li et
al., 2010).
The use of scrap tires in civil and environmental projects has
received great interests. Its common applications in this area
include lightweight fill materials (Eldin and Senouci, 1993;
Pierce and Blackwell, 2003; Yoon et al., 2006), road pavement
materials (Huang, Bird, and Heidrich, 2007), and sorption
materials to reduce or eliminate contaminants from landfill
leachates (Park, Kim, and Edil, 1996). It can also be used for
insulation of frost penetration and vibration/earthquake
attenuation. In China, one practical application is to use crumb
rubber mixed with asphalt as a road pavement material (Huang,
Bird, and Heidrich, 2007). Other applications have not been
widely used in practice.
Tire rubber has some beneficial features when used as fill
materials, such as lightweight and high strength. The unit weight
of different compacted tire rubbers ranges from 2.4 to 7.0 kN/m3
(Edinçliler, Baykal, and Saygili, 2010), which is significantly
smaller than the typical unit weight of compacted soil fill (about
20 kN/m3). The unit weight of the soil-tire rubber mixtures is
also smaller than that of pure soil. The lightweight feature can
help reduce the load acting grounds and earth retaining
structures. Scrap tires as fill materials can be used in several
forms. One common way is to use tire-sand mixtures (Eldin and
Senouci, 1993; Hataf and Rahimi, 2006; Lee and Roh, 2007;
Yoon et al., 2006). The mechanical behavior of tire-sand mixture
is better than pure sand, especially in the shear strength. Most of
the researches reported that the strength of tire-sand mixtures is
higher than that of pure sand (Edil, 2005; Edinçliler, Baykal, and
Saygili, 2010; Foose, Benson, and Bosscher, 1996; Lok and Yu,
2006; Marto et al., 2013; Singh and Vinot, 2011; Zornberg,
Cabral, and Viratjandr, 2004). However, a few experimental
studies on small size tire chips reported that the strength
decreased with increasing amount of rubber (Neaz et al., 2013;
Youwai and Bergado, 2003). The disagreement between these
previous studies could be due to the influences of other factors,
such as sizes and shapes of tire rubber resulted from different
processing conditions, and confining stress used in the strength
tests (Edinçliler, Baykal, and Saygili, 2010). Excessive
compression may occur in the tire-sand mixtures. However, test
results showed that most of the compression was plastic and
could be eliminated by preloading or surcharging during
construction (Edil, 2005; Neaz et al., 2013; Wartman, Natale,
and Strenk, 2007). And then the mixtures behaved like an elastic
material and the elastic modulus was at a level comparable to
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 73, 2015
565
pure sand (Edil, 2005).
Another way to adopt tire rubber as a fill material is to use
cementation agents such as Portland cement or lime to cement
tire rubber particles or mixtures of tire rubber and other
materials (Cheung, Jansen, and Hanson, 2008; Guleria and Dutta,
2011; Lee, Truong, and Lee, 2010; Pierce and Blackwell, 2003;
Shahin and Hong, 2010; Wang, Chen, and Wu, 2013; Yilmaz
and Degirmenci, 2009). Some studies reported that tire rubber
could be used in the controlled low strength material (CLSM) to
replace part of sand as aggregates (Cheung, Jansen, and Hanson,
2008; Pierce and Blackwell, 2003; Wang, Chen, and Wu, 2013).
Using cemented soil-tire rubber mixtures was another solution to
adopt scrap tires as a fill material (Lee, Truong, and Lee, 2010;
Shahin and Hong, 2010; this study). Shahin and Hong (2010)
tested the unconfined compression strength of soft clay-cement
mixture with 0-7% tire rubber addition (by weight). This paper,
however, will provide a more comprehensive study on both
compression and strength behavior of cemented soil-tire rubber
mixtures with a much larger range of tire rubber additions.
Despite the advantages of using scrap tires as fill materials,
awareness has been raised on its environmental impacts,
especially groundwater pollution and self-combustion potential.
Hennebert et al. (2014) reported that tire rubber only had limited
consequences on the environment, and the water quality in the
eluates considering a wide range of parameters did not exceed
the limits for road applications. Arroyo et al. (2011) reported
that the self-combustion potential was negligible as long as the
amount of corrodible steel in the tire rubber is tightly controlled.
The use of tire rubber-soil mixture as embankment fill has
almost no potential of self-combustion (Sienkiewicz et al., 2012).
Waste Soils and Their Reuse in Construction Projects
Dredging of harbors and fairways produces large amount of
waste soils. Other sources of waste soils are from transportation
and building constructions. These soils often cannot be used as
fill soil directly, because their engineering properties do not
meet the requirement as fills. For example, soft soils from
dredging works usually have high water content, high void ratio,
and low strength. The usual way to deal with these soils is to
dispose them in land and in sea, which occupies large land and
water spaces and may cause negative impacts to the
environments.
To reuse waste soils as fill materials in construction projects is
an effective solution to solve abovementioned problems (Parson
and Swafford, 2012). One way is to use waste soils for land
reclamation projects. The in-situ treatment of soils using vacuum
preloading techniques is a cost-effective method in land
reclamation (Chu, Yan, and Lam, 2012). Another way is to add
cementation agents like Portland cement or lime to stabilize
soils. In this method, EPS beads and tire chips can be added into
cemented soils to amend physical or mechanical properties of
the material. The use of waste soils and tire chips in such a way
is the method that will be investigated in this study. Some other
methods can also be adopted for the treatment of soft clay soil so
as to use the soil as a construction material. These methods
include the use of mechanical measures such as centrifuges and
geotextile tubes, and the use of chemicals such as flocculants
and coagulants (Howard et al., 2010). However, after the
treatment by these methods, the water content of soil sometimes
566 He et al.
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Table 2. Basic soil properties.

Specific Liquid Plastic Plastic

gravity limit limit index
Gs wL wP IP
% %
2.72 42.4 25.3 17.1
Undisturbed conditions
Water Dry Degree of Compressibility (under 0.1-0.2 MPa Undrained strength (Direct Permeabil
Density
Void ratio content density saturation pressure) shear) ity
e w r rd Sr a1-2 c f k
% g/cm3 g/cm3 % MPa-1 kPa ° cm/s×10-7
1.586 56.9 1.65 1.05 98.0 1.48 9.0 4.1 1.53

is still very high and further treatments are needed. specially-designed machine developed by the company. Fibers
and steel wires in the scrap tires were removed and only rubber
Benefits of Using Cemented Soil-tire Chips Mixture as part was left to be used. Some basic properties of the tire chips
Construction Fill used here are summarized in Table 1. A picture of tire chips is
The use of cemented soil-tire chips mixture has advantages shown in Figure 1.
when compared with previous methods of reusing waste soils or Soil used here was from a highway construction site at
scrap tires in constructions. As mentioned earlier, a conventional Ningbo, Zhejiang Province, China. The basic soil properties are
method is to use tire chips or chips-sand mixtures as a fill given in Table 2. The soil was classified into clay of low
material. In this way, tire chips may cause contamination to the plasticity (CL) according to Chinese soil classification standard
groundwater, although this impact is not significant. When (GB/T 50145-2007). This soil has high water content, high
adding cement into tire chips, this negative impact can be further compressibility, and low strength. Such a soil cannot be used as
reduced or eliminated, as cement has an effect to fix the fill material without any proper treatment.
contaminants. The use of sand can eliminate the potential of Tap water and Portland cement were used for the preparation
self-combustion. However, the sand is a relatively expensive of the specimens.
construction material. The replacement of sand with waste soils
when mixed with tire chips is a cheaper and more Table 1. Properties of tire chips.
environmentally-friendly solution.
Vacuum preloading method is an economical way for large- Specific Range of sizeAverage sizeParticle
scale land reclamation using soft dredged materials. The gravity (mm) (mm) shape
downsides of this method are that it is not economically feasible 1.25 4.3-4.8 4.5 Angular
for small-scale filling projects, and it takes a considerably long
time to complete the treatment process. In contrast, the use of
cemented soil-tire chip mixtures is more suitable for projects
which require relatively small amount of filling materials or
have limited construction periods, such as quaywall backfills
and road embankment constructions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, isotropic compression tests and triaxial
consolidated undrained tests were conducted to explore the
mechanical behavior of the material. The testing variables
include the contents of different components, that is, soil, tire
chips, cement, and water. The testing materials, methods, and
programme are introduced in this section.

Materials
The material tested in this study is made from four
components: tire chips, soil, Portland cement, and tap water. The
sources and basic properties are provided here.
Tire chips used here were processed from scrap tires of Figure 1. Tire chips.
automobiles. The material processing was done by a waste
material cycling company. Tire chips with a certain range of Test Arrangement and Specimen Preparation
sizes were obtained thought cutting and sieving using a There are four components in the material. The content of a
specific component (tire chips, cement, or water) here is defined

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 73, 2015

 Potential of Using Cemented Soil-Tire Chips Mixture 567
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
as the ratio of this component to dry soil by weight. There are apparatus. In the isotropic compression tests, the specimens
ten mixing ratios (that is, ten types of specimens) in the test were isotropically consolidated under a stepwise increasing
scheme, as shown in Table 3. The range of tire chips, cement, pressure. The pressure was applied in such steps: 50, 100, 200,
and water contents (which are denoted as R, C, and W in the 400, and 800 kPa (the pressure of 800 kPa was applied only for
following part of the paper) are in the range of 0-120%, 5-15%, some of the specimens). Each step of pressure lasted for 24
and 75-90%, respectively. We had consulted previous studies hours and the volume change was recorded at the end of each
(Liu, Deng, and Chu, 2006) and some preliminary trial and error step. In the triaxial tests, the specimens were firstly consolidated
tests to select these mixing ratios. Based on the results under this under an effective confining pressure of 100 kPa until pore
test scheme, the effect of any specific component can be pressure was completely dissipated. Then the specimens were
investigated. It should be noted that, the water content here was undrained sheared at a strain rate of 0.00144 mm/s. The tests
just the initial addition of water, as real water content changed stopped until the axial strain reached around 15%. Deviatoric
during the cement hydration and the operation of the tests. stress and pore water pressure data were recorded automatically
during the tests.
Table 3. Mixing ratios of the specimens.

Specimen Tire chips content,Cement content,Water content,

No. R (%) C (%) W (%)
#6 60 10 75
#12 60 5 80
#14 0 10 80
#16 30 10 80
#17 60 10 80
#18 120 10 80
#22 60 13 80
#27 60 15 80
#32 60 10 85
#38 60 10 90
(a)
The material was prepared as follows. The sequence of
mixing was that: mixing soil and water firstly, adding and
mixing cement secondly, and adding and mixing rubber chips at
last. The mixing was operated manually until the mixture
became homogeneous in a slurry form. The mixture was then
cast into cylindrical molds in five equal layers. Lubricating oil
was smeared on the inner wall of the molds beforehand to make
sure that the molds could be easily taken off. Slight compaction
was applied to each layer of the mixture to eliminate noticeable
voids in the specimen. If there was any relatively large void
found in a specimen after taking off the mold, this specimen
would be discarded and a new specimen of the same mixing
ratios would be prepared. The molds were then placed in a
curing box to maintain a temperature at 20±2 °C and relative
humidity at ≥ 90%. The size of the specimens was 12.5 cm in
height and 6.18 cm in diameter. In this study, relatively large (b)
size specimens were used so as to minimize the size effect of
rubber chips on the mechanical behavior of the specimens. The Figure 2. Isotropic compression curve of Specimen #17: a) Pressure
curing ages were 28 days for all the specimens. data in normal scale; b) Pressure data in logarithmic scale.
The specimens were saturated before the tests. The saturation
was done using a vacuum method. First, the specimens were RESULTS
placed in a desiccator and vacuum pressure was applied to the
desiccator for 1 hour. Second, water was sucked into the Isotropic Compression Tests
desiccator and submerged the specimens under the pressure The isotropic compression curve of a typical test (Test # 17) is
different inside and outside. The specimens were then left for 12 shown in Figure 2. The curve is presented in both a normal scale
hours to let water saturate them. and a semi-log scale (volumetric strain versus log of pressure),
as can be seen in Figure 2(a) and (b), respectively. In Figure 2(a),
Testing Methods we can see that the volumetric strain increasing rate is gradually
Isotropic compression tests and triaxial consolidated becoming slower within 100 kPa pressure, and becoming faster
undrained tests were carried out using a normal triaxial beyond 200 kPa pressure. In Figure 2(b), the curve in the semi-

Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 73, 2015

568
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
log scale shows a bilinear pattern with a change in the gradient
at around 200 kPa. The gradient after 200 kPa is much larger
than that before 200 kPa. This curve is similar to the
compression curve of an overly-consolidated soil. This type of
compression curves are also seen in the compression of
cemented soils (Bobet et al., 2011; Lee, Truong, and Lee, 2010;
Tremblay, Leroueil, and Locat, 2001). Such bilinear behavior is
reported to be due to the degradation of cementation bonds (Lee,
Truong, and Lee, 2010).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 3. Isotropic compression curves for different: (a) tire chips
contents; (b) cement contents; (c) water contents.
The effect of tire chips content on the compression behavior
of the material is illustrated in Figure 3(a). The increase in the
tire chips content till 60% does not have any noticeable impact
on the compression curves. The compressibility of the specimen
with 120% tire chips content is around twice larger than the
specimens within 0-60% tire chips content.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 73, 2015
He et al.
The effect of cement content on the compression behavior is
illustrated in Figure 3(b). The specimen with 5% cement content
has a much higher compressibility than the other three curves
with 10-15% cement content. In addition, this curve shows no
abovementioned bilinear pattern. These results indicate that the
material with 5% cement addition has little cementation effect.
However, when the cement content increases to 10%, the strong
cementation effect leads to a much lower compressibility. Within
10-15% cement content, there is still a gentle reducing trend in
the compressibility as the cement content increases, but the
reduction is not significant.
The effect of water content on the compression behavior is
presented in Figure 3(c). The three specimens with 75-85%
water content have similar compression curves. The
compressibility becomes larger when the water content increases
to 90%.
According to the test data stated above, the compressibility of
the material can be well controlled when the cement content is
in the range of 10-15%. Adding more tire chips in the material
up to 60% does not significantly increase the compressibility.
These results can be consulted in future studies if
compressibility is of concern.
Triaxial Consolidated Undrained Tests
The triaxial undrained behavior of the material with varying
tire chips content, cement content, and water content are
presented in Figure 4, Figure 5, and Figure 6, respectively.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Triaxial undrained behavior of the material of varying tire
chips contents: (a) Stress-strain curves; (b) pore water pressure curves.
It is shown in Figure 4 that, there is a substantial improving
trend in undrained shear strength with increasing tire chips
 Potential of Using Cemented Soil-Tire Chips Mixture
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
content. The peak strengths (half of the peak deviatoric stress) of
the four specimens with 0, 30, 60, and 120% tire chips content
are 126.6, 151.6, 197.0, and 300.7 kPa, respectively.
Accompanying the strength improvement, there is also a
reducing trend in pore water pressure generation as shown in
Figure 4(b). It is interesting to point out that, cement content
defined in this paper is the ratio of cement in relation to dry soil.
If we use total volume of the material as a reference, the cement
content is reducing as tire chips content increases, as is the case
for the specimens in Figure 4. Therefore, adding tire chips into
the material can not only increase the strength, but also reduce
the use of cement.
Undrained shear behavior of the material with varying cement
content is given in Figure 5. The undrained shear strength
increases significantly as the cement content increases. For the
specimens with 5, 10, 13, and 15% cement content, the
undrained peak strengths are 68.3, 197.0, 314.5, and 332.8 kPa,
respectively. There is also a reducing trend in the pore water
pressure as shown in Figure 5(b). Such results imply that, to
adjust the cement content is an effective way to control the
strength of the material in real applications.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Triaxial undrained behaviour of the material of varying
cement contents: (a) Stress-strain curves; (b) pore water pressure curves.
Figure 6 shows the undrained shear behavior of the material
with varying water content. The undrained strength gently
reduces as water content increases in the tested range of water
content. The undrained peak strength for the specimens with 75,
80, 85, and 90% water contents are 197.7, 197.0, 137.7, and
131.0, respectively.
Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 73, 2015
569
DISCUSSION
It has been seen in the test results that the cemented soil-tire
chips mixtures have adjustable strength. And the use of more tire
chips in the mixture lead to a higher strength or a less use of
cement to obtain the same strength. Thanks to these features,
there are many rewards to use cemented soil-tire chip mixture in
various types of constructions, especially port constructions.
With the presence of tire chips in the material, the strength of the
fill will be higher, and thereby ground settlement and lateral
earth pressure can be reduced when used as quaywall backfill.
Port constructions often associated with dredging works and
large quantities of dredged soils are generated. The dredged soils
can be used directly for the preparation of the material with little
transportation cost. This material is also suitable for
transportation constructions, including embankment fills and
retaining wall backfills. An advantage of using the material in
embankments is that, the slopes of the embankments can be
constructed in a steeper manner so that spaces can be saved.
(a)
(b)
Figure 6. Triaxial undrained behavior of the material of varying water
contents: (a) Stress-strain curves; (b) pore water pressure curves.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents an experimental study on the mechanical
behavior of cemented soil-tire chips mixture. Isotropic
compression tests and triaxial consolidated undrained tests were
conducted. The following conclusions can be made:
(i) The compression curves of the material in the semi-log
scale show a bilinear pattern that is similar to the compression
curves of overly-consolidated clay. The compressibility before
200 kPa is relatively small except for the specimens with 5%
cement content.
(ii) The addition of tire chips in the material up to 60% does
570 He et al.
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
not significantly increase the compressibility; while the
specimens with 120% tire chips content has a twice larger
compressibility than those with 0-60% tire chips. In addition, the
compressibility decreases with cement content and increases
with water content.
(iii) The undrained shear behavior for the specimens with
various tire chips contents shows that, as the tire chip content
increases, there are a significant increasing trend in undrained
shear strength and a reducing trend in pore water pressure
generation. This result implies that using more tie chips in the
material can enhance the strength or reduce the use of cement.
(iv) The undrained shear strength of the material increases
with cement content and decreases with water content.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Research Innovation Projects
of 2013 Shanghai Postgraduate (No. 20131129), the Top
Discipline Projects of the Shanghai Municipal Education
Commission, and 111 Project (No. B13024).
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