TREE01312

MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES IN CEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

J. F. WHITBECK
R. H. DART
D. R. BREWER

J. D. MILLER

January 1979

IDAHO OPERATIONS OFFICE UNDER CONTRACT EY-76-C-07-1570

Printed in the United States of America Available from National Technical information Service U.S. Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22161 Price: Printed Copy $6.00; Microfiche $3.00

NOTICE
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by the United States Government. Neither the United States nor the Department of Energy, nor any of their employees, nor any of their contractors, subcontractors, or their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.

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TREE- 1312 D i s t r bution Category: . UC-66C

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MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL ., TECHNIQUES I N GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

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3. F. Whitbeck, EG&G Idaho, Inc:

R. H. Dart, EG&G Idaho, Inc.

3. 0. M i l l e r , EG&G Idaho, Inc.

D. R. Brewer, Rogers Engineering
~EG&G Idaho, Inc.': Idaho Falls, Idaho 83401
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Pub1i shed January 1979 -

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IDAHO OPERATIONS OFFICEUNDER CONTRACT NO. EY-76-5-02-4051

. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

PREPARED FOR THE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS t r i b u t e d information during preparation o f t h i s

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report.

I n p a r t i c u l a r the authors wish t o express t h e i r g r a t i t u d e t o mpany f o r permission t o p r i n t the material which and 11, and Tables I 1 and V, and t o acknowledge

Chi 1ton Pub1i s h i n g appears i n Figures

the f o l l o w i n g i n d i v i d u a l s and companies f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s and consultation whi 1e preparing t h i s chapter: Bechtel National Inc.

T. R. Fick, A. N. Rogers, and A. F. Marks

The Ben H o l t Co. Ben Holt, A.

J. L. Hutchinson, and Fletcher Leavenworth

Chevron O i l Co. A1 Cooper Imperial Magma Co. Tom Hinrichs, Cal Shepherd, and Mike Pierce Lawrence Livermore Laboratory Frank Locke P a c i f i c Gas & E l e c t r i c Co. Char1i e Franks Public Service o f New Mexico

A r t Martinez
Union O i l Co.

A. 3. Chasteen, Frank Lemon, and W. .B. Blaikie.

Also t h e authors express and Mr. Tom Hinrichs, "Imptiria
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Co.,

Gatitude , t o Mr. Charlie Franks, P.G.&E.

f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s i n supplying information which was included i n Sections 111-2.5 and 111-4.3.

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ABSTRACT

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The information contained in this report provided the background and source material used in preparing the chapter of the Geothermal Source Book on instrumentation, measurement, and control techniques. This source book is being assembled and edited under the direction of Dr. J. Kesten of Brown University. This report presents more complete and detailed information than could be included in the source book chapter and is being published for reference. Included are detailed examples o f instrumentation and control techniques currently being used in geothermal power plants. In addition, the basic guidelines and unique characteristics of instrumentation and control in geothermal systems, are presented.
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This report addresses the instrumentation and control philosophy and the hardware involved in geothermal electric plants and their supply and injection systems. The intent is to address he unique characteristics o f geothermal electric instrumentation and control (I&C) systems. Standard I&C practice is available in the general 1 iterature. Sources of information for standard I&C practice are listed in the Appendix. The information contained in this report presents
(1)

The philosophy o f I&C system design

(2) The development of the system, from power grid considerations through subsystem operation to specific system details
(3) Component selection and operating considerations.
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CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

........................ ABSTRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 1. INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH . . . . 1. DATA AND CONTROL REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . GEOTHERMAL INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Well and Plant D i s t r i b u t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Supplier/Plant Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Operating Point Range. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Environmental Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN OPTIONS . . 3.1 Research Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 P i l o t Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Commercial Plant

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3

4 4
5 6

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..... 1. PLANT OPERATING MODES AND PARAMETERS. . . . . . . . . 1.1 Power Range Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Startup Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Upset Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Bypass Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . STEAM PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Steam Supply System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Coolant and System Condensate . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Noncondensable Gas System. . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Geysers Steam Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . FLASH STEAM PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL . . . . . . . 3.1 Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Steam Supply System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 . BINARY PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL.'-'. . . . . . . . . 4.1 Design and Operational Considerations . . . . . . 4.2 Flash Binary Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 L i q u i d Binary Systems .

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT.

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11 12
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14 16
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18 18 20 20 21 24 24 26
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AUXILIARY SYSTEMS 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

.................. Heat Rejection System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A u x i l i a r y Cooling System . . . . . . . . . . . . A u x i l i a r y Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous A u x i l i a r y Systems . . . . . . . . . .

49 49
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51 51
52

IV

................. 1. GENERAL SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 F l u i d Temperature . . . . . . ......... 1.2 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Operating Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . MEASUREMENT ELEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEMS

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53 53 54 54 55

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3

Pressure Measurement Temperature Measurement Flow Measurement . . . . . . Level Measurement Q u a l i t y Measurement. . . . . Water Chemistry Monitors Combustible Mixture Monitors Additional Measurements . . .

.............. ............. .......... ................ .......... ............ .......... ..........

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64 67

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68 68 68 69 71 72

INSTALLATION REQUIREMENTS 3.1 3.2

....... V . REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
VI

Guidelines and Standard Practices .

............... Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. APPENDIX- SELECTED 8 IBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FIGURES Typical steam p l a n t

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.................... 15 Geysers U n i t 11 control schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Dual f l a s h steam system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 L i q u i d binary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Flash binary system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

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6. R a f t r i v e r dual b o i l e r b i n a r y plant.
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Raft r i v e r startup

.......... mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . .

29 36 38
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Turbine t r i p response

- .valve position,'
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speed, and' torque.

8b. 8c.

Turbine t r i p response pressure, l e v e l , and subcooling ... . . . margin,.

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... . .......

Turbine t r i p response

- temperature and f l o w r a t e .
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TABLES

9. Magmamax dual b i n a r y c o n t r o l schematic

10. 11. Pressure monitoring elements Flow monitoring elements

... .... .... ... ....

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40

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56 62

I.

R a f t River P l a n t S t a t i c Performance

11. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

111. Characteristics o f

. .... ... . .. Pressure Measurement Devices . . . . . Temperature Measurement Elements . .

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57
60
61
63

IV. Head Loss o r D i f f e r e n t i a l Pressure Flow Measurement.'.

V. Characteristics o f Flowmeter Elements.

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VI. Characteristics o f Level

........:. Measurement Elements. . . . . . .

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MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL TECHNIQUES I N GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANTS

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I.

INTRODUCTION

Measurement and control techniques i n geothermal systems are t y p i c a l o f standard instrumentation and control (I&C) practices used i n the process and power industries. This r e p o r t addresses the methods, systems, guidelines, and hardware unique t o geothermal e l e c t r i c f a c i l i t i e s . Standard I&C p r a c t i c e i s available i n the general l i t e r a t u r e . A selected bibliography i s included i n the Appendix, l i s t i n g sources f o r more information on standard I&C practice.

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INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN APPROACH

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This Section presents an overview afthe desigh of a geothermal electric I&C system and points out the unique design considerations and options included in the design process.

1.

DATA AND CONTROL REQUIREMENTS

The general considerations as to the number and character of panel mounted data channels for use in control, protection, and monitoring. are identical to those for any industrial process in that (a) experience gained in operating a pilot or experimental plant is utilized in developing simp1 ified and improved designs for large scale commercial units and (b) technology advances are retrofitted. Both of these trends are typified in the evolution of the Geysers steam plants, as subsequently described. Specific subsystem and plant data requirements for control and protection are described in Section 111. Instrumentation accuracy beyond ordinary process instrumentation standards is justified only for metering applications, where leaseholder or supplier charges are affected, and for experimental plants where binary fluid properties and component performance are of interest. Response requirements for monitoring and performance evaluation are not stringent, since these channels are o f interest in a static or quasistatic sense. Response and sampl ing rate requirements for control data, monitoring data, and control device actuation are generally not stringent because of the 1 arge thermal masses dominating temperature responses. One exception to this rule is the rapid overspeed (less than one second) of the turbogenerator on loss of load. Both thermal and speed responses are illustrated in the simulated transient results given

,in Section 111. The response o f other p r o t e c t i v e functions and the consequences o f a f a u l t should be given consideration i n the selection o f the t r i p levels.

2. GEOTHERMAL INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

This Section summarizes those unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f geotherma e l e c t r i c plants which influence the design o f the I & C system. *
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2.1

Well and Plant D i s t r i b u t i o n

Resource characteristics, p l a n t design, and economics d i c t a t e t h a t m u l t i p l e plants, t y p i c a l l y 50 MW(e) each, be placed on a given resource, and t h a t each o f those plants be supported by m u l t i p l e supply and i n j e c t i o n wells. Each we1 1 t y p i c a l l y requires pressure, temperature, and f l o w i n strumentation and manual o r automatic f l o w control. Each we1 1head must communicate i n both directions, w i t h the p l a n t o r control center, and may require e l e c t r i c power o r instrument a i r . . Analog communication, considering the distances involved, requires extensive signal processing and cabling. Signal m u l t i p l e x i n g o r complete d i g i t a l systems may therefore be a t t r a c t i v e . Another consequence o f the distance between the wells and the p l a n t i s the water-hammer hazard f o r actuated valves i n l i q u i d service. Since r a p i d v a l v e - a c t i o n i s generally not required f o r control o r protection, the actuation speed should- be made low enough t o preclude water-hammer damage.

2.2

Suppl ier/Plant I n t e r f a c e
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Another unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f geothermal systems i s t h a t the supplier and the p l a n t operator are l i k e l y t o be t w o separate corporations. Control and communication interfaces must be considered i n the I & C system design.
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2.3

Operating Point Range

As presented i n Section 111-1, p l a n t operating parameters change w i t h variations i n ambient conditions, increased * f o u l i n g resistance, and resource degradation. The magni tude-of these changes i s determined by the type o f p l a n t and mode o f operation. Using the f l o a t i n g power concept w i t h a l i q u i d binary plant, the "normal" value f o r an operating pipameter may vary, s i g n i f i c a n t l y . The operator's decision, as to whether operating parameters are w i t h i n the specified l i m i t s , i s therefore made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more d i f f i c u l t .
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2.4 Envi.ronmenta1 Constraints

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I n additi.oru t o the basic.plant.design, the l i m i t a t i o n s on noise l e v e l and emissions, affects. t r a n s i e n t operatfon and control. Specific influences o f hydrogen sulphide emission and noise l i m i t a t i o n s i n transient operation o f the steam supply are discussed i n Section 111. 3.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN OPTIONS'

This Section describes the options in. system design which r e s u l t from a consideration a f t h e - p l a n t status (whether i t i s a research, p i l o t , o r commercial plant) and o f the current trend from analog t o d i g i t a l systems.

3.1

Research Plant

A minimum-cost research plant, which would use e x i s t i n g hardware and would replace the turbine w i t h a t h r o t t l e valve, could w e l l incorporate l o c a l and d i s t r i b u t e d instrumentation, protection, and control. Since schedule and cost would be the most important.factors, p a - t i c u l a r l y f o r r a short term project, the operator would manually provide most o f the control and p l a n t protection he automatic control ;system would be a * . ,,correspondingly small portion.
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An analog system would t y p i c a l l y provide local indicators and s t r i p - c h a r t recorders. A current d i g i t a l approach would incorporate a data logger a t each location. This would provide, w i t h adequate p r o t e c t i o n from the f i e l d environment, a p e r i o d i c a l l y sampled o r report-by-exception history.

3.2

P i l o t Plant

A more permanent and complex i n s t a l l a t i o n would j u s t i f y a centralized control system w i t h a much greater reliance on automatic control.
The Magmamax p i l o t plant, described i n d e t a i l i n Section 111, incorporates a dedicated signal l i n e f o r each data and control function, complete analog signal processing, s t r i p - c h a r t recording, remote indicators and an annunciator and scanner warning system. The shutdown chain i s t r i g g e r e d by any o f a number o f system f a u l t s o r by the operator. Both manual and automatic loops, based on analog c i r c u i t s , are extensively used f o r modulated cqntrol functions. This p l a n t i s an example o f a modern analog control system.

A d i g i t a l system f o r the same p l a n t would consist o f a cathoderay-tube (CRT) display module, a pushbutton keyboard, a control processor, a p r i n t e r , and remote stations.
The CRT would provide an automatic visual display o f a l l alarms. I n a d d i t i o n i t would permit the operator t o c a l l up any p l a n t information he might desire. I t could provide a more f l e x i b l e display o f information than a s t r i p chart, p a r t i c u l a r l y since the reference far each channel could be computed and moved as a function o f varying operating conditions. The pushbutton keyboard would allow the operator t o converse w i t h the power p l a n t system. Through t h i s keyboard he would be able t o open o r close breakers, r a i s e o r lower equipment set points, review monitored breaker positions o r metered values, clear alarms, o r p r i n t information.
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The p r i n t e r would automatically p r i n t al-1 alarms and control actions performed by the operator. Display values could be p r i n t e d on a r o u t i n e basis o r upon operator request.
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I n a d d i t i o n t o the central processor, remote stations gather data and control equipment i n t h e i r defined area. The remote stations are e l e c t r i c a l l y 1inked t o the central control processor.

The cost of d i g i t a l systems i s now low enough t o be an,.attractive method of powerplant control.
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With e i t h e r type o f control system, as long as the system operation i s not f u l l y understood, the operator s t i l l performs an essential

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3 . 3 Commercial Plant
A f t e r development o f a p a r t i c u l a r process t o commercial status design considerations are operator and f&C system costs versus increased plant availability.
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Plant operation can be automated t o various degrees. I n order o f increasing p l a n t a v a i l a b i l i t y t o the grid, four degrees o f automation are (1 ) Semiautomatic p l a n t s w i t h a . r o v i n g operator

(2)

Plants connected by an alarm system t o a d i s t a n t controJ center

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(3) . Plants w i t h assigned l o c a l operators

(4)
Plants equipped w i t h remote supervisory control and data acquisition, i n a d d i t i o n to-. roving operators. I n t h i s case the
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( ) Semiautomatic Plants w i t h a Roving Operator.

plants would not have f u l l time operators and are unmanned except for sequential v i s i t s by a roving operator. This type o f operation would be

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appropriate f o r a reduced f i r s t cost design f o r which the power output o f an i n d i v i d u a l u n i t would be o f minor importance t o the e n t i r e power system and i n which the loss o f a single p l a n t ' s output could be t o l e r a t e d u n t i l the downed u n i t could be brought back on l i n e . An annunciator system w i t h a "first-in-alarm" c a p a b i l i t y , i s o f t e n i n s t a l l e d i n t h i s type o f plant. This type o f annunciator i s very important i n troubleshooting a u n i t t h a t has been shutdown automatically. This type o f p l a n t also commonly system f o r selected parameters. This a roving operator could take readings would allow f o r important readings t o v isits. includes an automatic data logging i s not a s t r i c t requirement, since during h i s v i s i t , but t h i s feature be recorded between the operator

(2) Plants Connected by an Urgent and Ordinary Alarm System t o a Distant Control Center. This type o f system i s a v a r i a t i o n o f an operation w i t h semiautomatic control and a roving operator, as discussed above. The p l a n t alarms are brought i n t o a central control area, so t h a t an abnormal condition i s known immediately and an operator can be dispatched t o t h a t plant. This system provides the advantage t h a t the down time o f a p l a n t can be reduced or avoided due t o immediate knowledge o f an abnormal condition.
An urgent alarm i s one which requires immediate a t t e n t i o n by an operator, such as a u n i t shutdown. An ordinary alarm i s one o f a lesser urgency i n which a monitored value i s out o f i t s normal range and should have the a t t e n t i o n o f an operator as soon as possible t o prevent more serious occurrences including a u n i t t r i p . The P a c i f i c Gas and E l e c t r i c Company Geysers' i n s t a l l a t i o n began operation using the roving operator approach. Recently, however, PG&E has i n s t a l l e d a central alarm system t o minimize down time.

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(3) Plants w i t h Assigned Local Operators. I n t h i s case a t r a i n e d operator would be assigned t o each p l a n t a t a l l times. The presence o f

trained personnel at the plant during both normal and abnormal conditions will result in a high degree of plant availability. This system normally contains a central control panel with control devices for operating selected plant equipment, data acquisition readouts, and alarms.

(4) Centralized Control of Mu1 tiple Plants. Relocation of individual plant control panels to a central control room permits a reduction in the number of operators and a coordination of plant operations. A complete digital system, as previously described would be located in a 01 area. The control area could be located in a central dispatch r, where operators control a power transmission system and various types o f generating plants.
Certain infrequent functional operations , routine maintenance, and . component failures would still be attended to by roving operators.

I1 1.

INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

This Section describes the development o f the I & C system i n c l u d i n g the basic requirements imposed on a p l a n t by i t s r o l e i n the power grid, the subsystem control requirements, and d e t a i l system and performance descriptions f o r various types o f geothermal plants. covers power range, startup, and upset operation. The discussion Supporting systems

involved i n other less frequent and generally manual operations, such as f i l l i n g , draining, purging, venting, and blowdown are not 'discussed. The Section describes the

I&C system f o r steam, flashed steam, flashA discussion o f a u x i l i a r y systems

binary and l i q u i d - b i n a r y power plants. Section.

common t o d i f f e r e n t types o f plants i s presented a t the end o f t h i s

1.

PLANT OPERATING MODES AND PARAMETERS

This Section d e t a i l s those aspects o f p l a n t operation which are common t o a l l p l a n t cycles. The p r i n c i p a l modes o f operation, defined as power range, startup and upset are discussed. 1.1 Power Range Operation The most fundamental c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o be considered i s t h a t o f the p l a n t ' s r o l e i n the power grid, i.e., power demand. I n most cases the geothermal p l a n t output represents a small
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base l o a d ' a t o r near p l a n t capacity,

o r load-following i n which generation matches the t r a n s i e n t ' v a r i a t i o n o f

p o r t i o n o f the capacity o f a large power grid. the base load condition.

Cost and operational

considerations would require t h a t such geothermal plants be operated i n Load f o l l o w i n g would be required i f the geothermal p l a n t were i s o l a t e d w i t h i t s own load network.

Load c o n t r o l i s u s u a l l y accomplished by modulating the vapor f l o w (steam o r b i n a r y - f l u i d vapor) through the turbine, by moving a governor valve o r other v a r i a b l e admission device a t the t u r b i n e i n l e t . Partial c l o s i n g o f t h i s valve reduces the t u r b i n e i n l e t pressure and f l o w rate. An a d d i t i o n a l c o n t r o l element i s generally employed t o c o n t r o l t h e pressure i n the vapor generator o r steam main, as described below. I n the base load a p p l i c a t i o n the turbogenerator speed i s d i c t a t e d by the g r i d system, and an operator changes the load demand t o match t h e power output t o the power setpoint. Maximum p l a n t output i s provided by a s e t p o i n t which equals o r exceeds the c u r r e n t c a p a b i l i t y . The generating c a p a b i l i t y i s determined by the design p l a n t output l e s s curtailments (reductions due t o equipment o u t o f service, such as a pump not i n service). I n the load-following application, where the p l a n t e x i s t s alone o r has a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e o v e r a l l load generation, t h e system frequency must be maintained by moving the t h r o t t l e valve t o c o n t r o l the turbogenerator speed. The maximum net power o f a geothermal p l a n t would, i n general, decline w i t h the c o o l i n g and depletion a f t h e resource. resource by changing t h e composition o f the binary f l u i d . Some b i n a r y Power required designs, notably t h e EPRI/SDGE Heber Plant, accommodate a c o o l i n g f o r resource pumping would increase appreciably i f the f l o w r a t e o f t h e geothermal f l u i d were increased t o o f f s e t the temperature decrease o f t h e resource. Additional w e l l s may also be necessary.

Maximum p l a n t output a l s o varies w i t h t h e changes i n condenser pressure caused by ambient temperature changes. The v a r i a t i o n i s r e l a t i v e l y
As t h e temperature

minor i n a steam p l a n t , because the condenser pressure i s l i m i t e d by t h e capabi 1i y o f t h e noncondensable gas removal system. t o f t h e coo i n g water decreases, a lower condenser pressure i s established.

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The a b i l i t y o f the noncondensable gas removal system t o remove the gases a t a lower pressure i s q u i t e l i m i t e d . The gases remaining i n the condenser exert t h e i r p a r t i a l pressure therefore l i m i t i n g the condenser pressure.
A binary p l a n t i s not subject t o the same l i m i t a t i o n , however, and the

r e s u l t i n g power v a r i a t i o n can be substantial as shown subsequently f o r the Raft Rtver p i l o t power plant. Both classes o f p l a n t s show a reduction i n power output as f o u l i n g deposits accumulate. The steam plants lose power due t o p i p e l i n e , The binary plants lose power p r i n c i p a l l y The common t r a n s i e n t power v a r i a t i o n due turbine, and condenser fouling. due t o heat exchanger fouling.

t o t h i s i s represented by a sawtooth curve; the power declines t o a minimum as the f o u l i n g b u i l d s up then peaks t o a maximum a f t e r shutdown and cleaning. 1.2
t

Startup Operation This i s the most challenging o f a l l phases o f operation because o f

the number o f subsystems simultaneously exercised, the off-design operating l e v e l s o f the various components, and the wide ranging t r a n s i e n t conditions. The most obvious o f the hazards i s t h a t o f thermal stress. Components

throughout the geothermal system are subject t o design l i m i t a t i o n s on heatup rate. .Wells generally require a slow increase i n flow. The speed w i t h which a w e l l can be p u t on l i n e depends upon the temperature

o f the geothermal f l u i d a t the wellhead and the temperature o f the

resource, and i s determined by temperature change l i m i t a t i o n s o f the we1 1 pump ( p a r t i c u l a r l y a shaft-driven pump) o r the transmission systems. Generally each o f the l i q u i d loops, such as the brine, working f l u i d , and coolant, incorporates a pump which has a l i m i t e d range o f
*

flow-to-speed r a t i o s f o r sustained operation. The slow t r a n s i t through the low f l o w range generally requires a d d i t i o n a l complications such as a variable-speed e l e c t r i c o r turbine d r i v e or, f o r fixed-speed drives, a bypass f 1ow-control 1oop.

W
11

Turbine startup is not subject to the same temperature gradient' limitations as in fossil or nuclear plants, because of the substantially 1 ower vapor temperatures. The control .hardware and operating procedures are, however, similar. The acceleration to near synchronous speed is accomplished with the generator unloaded and with the governor or steam chest valves full open, to provide full admission for even heating and loading. A relatively small vapor flow is controlled by the speed controller and a separate throttle valve prior to synchronization. When the throttle valve is full open, control is transferred to the governor valve. Connection to the grid results in fixed-speed operation, as dictated by the grid ,frequency. The speed controller and the governor v a h e provide load control as the load is increased to the desired leve P1 ant operation during turbine startup is detailed for each type of pFant in the Sections which describe the individual plant types.
1 . 3 Upset Operation

An upset condition is defined as an abnormal operating condition sensed by one or more of the plant protective devices or by an operator. Where system response to an upset does not depend on an operator reaction, it is accomplished by logic implemented in the plant protective system. That logic i s , of course, developed by a consideration of the consequences o f various upsets. Upsets may result in the system responding by: shutdown, or total- shutdown. curtailment, turbine

A curtailment is a reduction in system output due to the failure of one of a set of parallel devices such as pumps and cooling tower fans. .Tjw device is shutdown by automatic or operator response and-plant - . - _ operation continues at a reduced power output.

12

A t u r b i n e shutdown i s d i c t a t e d by a turbogenerator o r l i n e f a u l t
which requires separation from the g r i d and cessation o f turbine operation. The remainder o f the p l a n t can continue operating i f the f a u l t This allows r a p i d resumption can be cleared q u i c k l y and i f the vapor can bypass the turbine, o r , i f i n a steam plant, the vapor can be vented. o f power generation. Turbine-only shutdown w i t h continued p l a n t operation requires external power f o r a u x i l i a r i e s unless an immediate resumption o f generat i o n a t the s t a t i o n - a u x i l i a r y l e v e l can be accomplished. c a p a b i l i t y , and i s o f i n t e r e s t f o r U.S. p a r a s i t i c losses. The p l a n t must be t o t a l l y shutdown i f the f a u l t i s l o c a l and serious,
i f external f a u l t s p e r s i s t , o r i f turbine-only shutdown i s not possible.

This i s common

on conventional power plants i n Europe, because o f l i m i t e d t i e - l i n e geothermal plants w i t h high

A c r i t i c a l upset condition i n any power system i s the loss o f

generator load due t o separation from the grid. Vapor f l o w t o the t u r b i n e must be stopped q u i c k l y t o l i m i t the r e s u l t a n t turbine overspeed. I n Westinghouse's large-turbine design, f o r example, the turbine valves a t the main steam i n l e t t o the turbine are closed i n 0.10 t o 0.15 second by venting the actuator o i l and allowing r a p i d spring-driven closure.

A simulation o f a turbine t r i p w i t h vapor bypass i s described f o r the Raft River binary p l a n t below.
1.4 Bypass Operation Plant operation and control, i n power range, startup, and upset operation, may be improved by the a d d i t i o n o f geothermal-supply o r

t u r b i n e bypasses.

Bypassing geothermal f 1u i d around the p l a n t permits Bypassing vapor

independent startup and t e s t i n g o f the supply system.

around the t u r b i n e allows s t a r t i n g and operating the p l a n t without

13

r e q u i r i n g t u r b i n e startup. i t s own requirements.

The t u r b i n e can be s t a r t e d subject only t o

It

The load can be c o n t r o l l e d without d i s t u r b i n g

50

L ,

p l a n t oper,ation by simply d i v e r t i n g excess f l o w around t h e turbine. 'allows continued p l a n t operation i n t h e event o f a t u r b i n e t r i p , t h e plant.

that

normal operation can be q u i c k l y restored i f t h e problem was external t o Bypass operations are discussed i n each o f t h e s p e c i f i c . p l a n t presentations which follow.

2.

STEAM PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL

2.1

Configuration

A p l a n t producing e l e c t r i c i t y from a geothermal steam resource, as

shown i n Figure 1, incorporates . f o u r main process streams: coolant, condensate, and noncondensable gas. e a r l y Geysers design without hydrogen sulphide abatement. steam, Modifications The f i g u r e represents an

f o r H2S abatement are addressed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g discussion. Steam flows from t h e producing w e l l s through t h e supply l i n e s , scrubber, separator, turbine, and condenser. coolant stream i s pumped t o t h e c o o l i n g tower. The coolant stream i s Excess coolant i s pumped Noncondensable brought t o a d i rect-contact condenser , ,And t h e mixed condensatefrom t h e c o o l i n g tower and i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e ground. steam-jet ejectors.

gases, i n c l u d i n g H2S, are drawn from the condenser through two stages of The r e l a t i v e l y d r y noncondensables, are t r e a t e d t o The condensate This process remove t h e objectionable gases i c l udi ng H2S, then vented. n from t h e e j e c t o r s i s returned t o the i n j e c t i o n well.

requires t h a t the complete f l o w o f coolant and condensate be t r e a t e d f o r gas removal.

_ . . *

By changing t o a surface -condenser' and t r e a t 4 ng t h e

stream.

oncondensable

gas stream w i t h the S t r e t f o r d process 90% o f t h e H2S i s removed from t h e Since o n l y the condensate leaves the condenser w i t h dissolyed

14

I I

.~

~.~ . . .. .~.. ..

..

... ..

Steam Coolant Noncondensable Gas Condensate for Injection

-----0-

Vent

--

.- ..Supply well

INEL-A-887'0

Injection well

Fig. 1 Typical steam plant.

H2S, the amount o f water which must be t r e a t e d i s v a s t l y decreased. Further abatement, t o approximately 95%, i s possible by t r e a t i n g the condensate before i t reaches the cooling tower.

LJ

2.2

Steam Supply System

Before a geothermal power p l a n t can be started, the w e l l s must be s t a r t e d and brought up t o the normal flow o f clean steam. During t h i s period the steam flows through automatic pressure-control valves t o the atmosphere. When the p l a n t i s brought up t o load .the pressure control valves w i l l automatically close and the steam flow i s directed t o the turbine. The automatic pressure-control valves are backed up by -pressurer e l i e f valves designed t o handle well f l o w i f the control valves f a i l t o open. I f the p l a n t i s t o be shutdown f o r a long period o f time, t h e w e l l s w i l l be manually shut o f f . When the p l a n t i s ready t o r e s t a r t , the w e l l s w i l l be gradually brought up t o the design flowrate, and vented which clears them o f debris. The i n i t i a l Geysers design responded t o the flow reduction r e s u l t i n g from a t u r b i n e t r i p , by venting through pressure-control valves. I f the outage continued f o r several hours, cross-connections w i t h other supply l i n e s were used t o d i v e r t the flow t o other plants. A more recent p l a n t design, Unit 15, incorporates the c a p a b i l i t y o f a 20% reduction i n well flow, i n order t o reduce noise and H2S emission without damaging the supply w e l l s by a r a p i d shutin. Normal supply system shutdowns require over f o u r hours t o prevent well damage. Even though s i g n i f i c a n t condenser f o u l i n g occurs the t i m e i n t e r v a l between shutdowns i s d i c t a t e d by the f o u l i n g o f the turbine by particulates. This i n t e r v a l i s determined by how e f f i c i e n t l y the p a r t i c u l a t e scrubbers remove p a r t i c u l a t e .

A p l a n t t h a t i s fed dry steam from the wells i s not usually endangered by excessive moisture i n the steam. The condensate t h a t forms i n the pipelines i s drained o f f by steam traps. An i n - l i n e moisture separator
a

16

i s i n s t a l l e d i n the steam p i p e l i n e from the w e l l s before the l i n e enters the turbine building; i t c o l l e c t s condensate t h a t may be coming through the pipeline.
2.3

Coolant and Condensate

Coolant f l o w s from the cooling tower basin t o the condenser by g r a v i t y o r by pumping. The coolant condenses the vapor from the t u r b i n e and i s returned t o the cooling tower. I n a d i r e c t contact condenser, the condensate plus the t o t a l f l o w o f cooling water must be pumped from the condenser basin t o the cooling tower t o maintain a constant l e v e l i n the condenser basin. I f the condenser i s o f the surface type, only the condensate must be pumped out t o maintain the level. I n both cases i t i s important t o maintain the condenser l e v e l w i t h i n l i m i t s . A high l e v e l w i l l reduce the condenser e f f i c i e n c y , while a low level w i l l c a v i t a t e the condensate pump. The normal method o f c o n t r o l l i n g condenser basin l e v e l i s by t h r o t t l a flow-control valve,,in the discharge l i n e o f the coolant pumps, w i t h a signal from the l e v e l controller. I n some designs a bypass valve permits r e t u r n o f the condensate-pumb discharge back t o the condenser basin t o control l e v e l o r t o prevent pump overheating during low f l o w conditions. The p o r t i o n o f the condensate t h a t i s not used as make-up i n the c o o l i n g tower w i l l overflow from the cooling-tower basin as blowdown i n t o a c o l l e c t i n g pond. To prevent t h i s from causing stream o r surface p o l l u t i o n , i t i s normally returned t o the acquifer v i a i n j e c t i o n wells. The w e l l s - a r e located so t h a t the cool r e t u r n water w i l l not thermally degrade the producing geothermal wells. The operation o f the i n j e c t i o n pump i s c o n t r o l l e d by a l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r i n the pond. When the steam condensate i s i n s u f f i c i e n t o r unavailable f o r make up i t may be necessary t o add surface water t o the tower basin. Cooling tower operation i s discussed i n Section, 111-5.2.

17

2.4

Noncondensable Gas System

The absolute pressure i n the condenser i s determined by the capabil t Y o f the noncondensable gas removal system and by the heat-transfer capabi i t y o f the cooling system.
Before turbine startup, the noncondensable gas removal system i s s t a r t e d t o evacuate a i r from the condenser and produce the low absolute pressure required t o operate the turbine a t design conditions. When the turbine i s operating and steam i s flowing i n t o the condenser, the vacuum i s c o n t r o l l e d by equipment c a p a b i l i t y t o remove gases which exert t h e i r p a r t i a l pressure i n the condenser. The system shown i n Figure 1 requires a l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r t o c o n t r o l the condensate discharge l e v e l o f the steam condenser.

2.5

Geysers Steam Plants

This section presents a summary o f the control configuration f o r Geysers U n i t 11, which has two 55 MW turbines and a s i n g l e generator. Both turbine-exhaust flows t o a s i n g l e low l e v e l d i r e c t contact condenser. This i s the common configuration o f most o f the Geyers plants. The l a t e r units, c u r r e n t l y under construction, w i l l have surface type condensers The steam, condensate, cool ant, and noncondensabl e f 1ow configuration i s shown i n Figure 2. From the wells, steam flows i n t o the p l a n t through a motor operated valve. A p a r a l l e l pressure equalizing valve i s used f o r warming the l i n e s and the turbines. The flow i s then s p l i t i n t o two paths, each w i t h a strainer, stop valve and swing check valve. One o f the stop valves i s p a r a l l e l e d by a 10-inch motor operated valve t o admit steam f o r i n i t i a l turbine acceleration. A u x i l i a r y steam, f o r the gas ejectors, i s taken from the other l i n e . The two l i n e s are reconnected i n a header which supplies steam t o each turbine. Each t u r b i n e e n t r y l i n e has a b u t t e r f l y control valve. The steam i s expanded through the turbines and the exhaust flows t o the main condenser. A u x i l i a r y steam t o the f i r s t and second stage gas ejectors i s provided through a motor operated valve and a pressure control valve.
18

LCV 11005

-- -- - Non condensables
INEL-A-10 143

Fig. 2 Geysers U n i t 11 control schematic.

Cooling water t o he i n t e r - and after-condensers i s modulated by temperature control valves. Liquid level i n the a f t e r condenser i s contrdl l e d by modulating the coolant r e t u r n t o the main condenser. Coolant flows from the cooling tower basin t o the main condenser by gravity and vacuum drag. A f l o w control valve regulates the flowrate accordimg t o condenser pressure. During the i n i t i a l p o r t i o n o f a startup t h e relatively high condenser pressure blocks the f l o w t o the t o p of the condenser. During t h i s period coolant f l o w i s d i r e c t e d through a s t a r t u p dime and l e v e l control valve. The startup l i n e i s located a t a lower n t h e main condenser. When the condenser pressure has reached 14 t o 15 inches o f mercury the s t a r t u p - l i n e valve i s closed. The coolant i s directed 0 the top o f the condenser and level c o n t r o l i s switetkd the r e c i r c u l a t i o n l i n e fo the pump. discharge header t o t h e condenser rm

Each pumpschafge valve controls pump-di scharge pressure during starup and i s the+% opened fwtly. li?ackfbw through a stopped pump {s preueltted by c-los-ipFs.the discharge valve. A separate l i n e from the pump discharge header t o the cooling t&er b a s h i s used t o s t a r t ug the un%when freeZ.i&g coridi t i o n s prevai 1. Excess condensate overflows the cooli ng tower basin and proceeds v i a a w e i r t o a s e t t l i n g basin f o r u l t i m a t e r e i njecf ion.

The four condensate pumps are started i n sequence,

3.

FLASH, ST-UN PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL

5. T Ca.nfiguration
A f l a s h steam p l a n t d i f f e r s from a d i r e c t steam pTani i.n t h a t a l i q u i d or two-phase f l u i d f l o w s o r i s pumped t o the plant, where the vapor i s created i n a series o f f l a s h tanks. The steam supply t o the t u r b i n e i s cleaner than t h a t o f a-direct-steam cycle. .The,brine discharge i s more saline and has a higher r a t e o f flow, than the condensate discharged from the d i r e c t steam plant.

20

As i n the direct steam plant, vapor can be bypassed around the

'45(

turbine during turbine startup or turbine t r i p operation. In contrast w i t h the direct steam plant, however, the flash steam plant can bypass the liquid supply directly t o the injection system during plant startup.
The operation of control of turbine, condenser, cooling tower, and noncondensable gas system i s basically the same as for the direct steam cycle, and they will not be discussed further.

3.2 Steam Supply System

The discussion which follows i s initially directed towards a design w i t h o u t brine or turbine bypasses. Discussion of bypass system operation is deferred t o the end of Section 111. Figure 3 illustrates a typical two-stage flash supply system w i t h o u t bypasses.
A mixture of hot liquid brine and steam flows from each well through a control valve t o the first-stage separator (flash drum). The pressure i n the drum is normally controlled a t primary steam pressure by operation of inlet-control valve PCV-1A. Steam flow through the flash drum and

thence t o the turbine is controlled by the turbine-throttle valve. If the first-stage flash drum pressure cannot be controlled by the inletcontrol valve PCV-lA, the v e n t control valve PCV-1B w i l l open t o release steam t o the atmosphere. If PCV-16 cannot control pressure a t a level that is safe for the flasher, the pressure-safety valve PSV-1 will open t o release additional steam.
I

The liquid level i n the first-stage flash drum must be maintained a t a level that wil1,prevent both steam flow into the liquid line and l i q u i d flow i n t o the steam line. A level control sensor i n the flash drum, controls level-control valve LCV-lA, which allows l i q u i d brine t o flow i n t o the second-stage flash drum. If the flow rate t o the secondstage flash drum i s not.sufficient, the level i n the first-stage flash drum will rise, and the controller will then open drain-valve LCV-lB, which allows liquid brine t o flow t o the collection pond.
21

Production wells

To pond for pumping to injection

To injection wells
INEL-Ab876

Fig. 3 Dual f l a s h steam system.

22

The steam pressure i n the second-stage flash drum i s controlled by releasing steam t o atmosphere when the pressure exceeds that required a t the turbine-throttle valve. A pressure-safety valve protects the flash drum from excessive pressure should the pressure control system f a i l . I t may be necessary t o close the low pressure turbine-stop valve i f the flash drum pressure becomes subatmospheric. The liquid level i n the second-stage flash drum must also be controlled t o prevent steam flow i n t o the l i q u i d disposal line and liquid brine t o flow i n the steam 1i ne. Level control 1er LIC-2 operates valve LCV-2, which a1lows excess brine t o be pumped t o the injection well.

Startup of the wells requires a period of time during which automatic pressure-control valves a t the well head allow the liquid t o flash i n t o steam. The steam is vented t o the atmosphere and the excess brine flows i n t o a pond. After the well operation becomes stable, the liquid brine and steam flow i s gradually shifted t o the high-pressure steam flash drum. The excess brine from the high-pressure flash drum flows t o the low-pressure flash drum. Steam is vented t o the atmosphere from both flash drums by automatic pressure-control valves. When the plant is brought up t o load, the pressure-control valves will automatically close and a l l steam flows t o the turbine. The automatic pressure-control valves are backed up by pressure-relief valves designed t o handle well flow i f the control valves fail t o open.
If the plant is t o be shut down for a long period of time, the wells would be s h u t off manually. When the plant i s ready t o restart, the wells will be gradually brought up t o flow t o clear them of debris, and t o control the heating rate of the well and of the piping system. With shorter shutdowns, the pressure-control valves a t the wellhead, vent steam as i n well startup.

Plant startup for a system w i t h a brine bypass would involve the manual or programmed closure of a flow-control valve i n the bypass line, w i t h brine admission t o the first-stage flash drum modified by the first-stage pressure controller. Turbine startup would involve increasing

23

i
i
1

,
-

iI
I

i
I

the turbine-inlet flow while maintaining flash drum pressures by .controlling y turbine-bypass flows. B opening the turbine bypass valves, turbine t r i p could be accommodated without s h u t t i n g the plant down or' venting to - the atmosphere.
A flash steam system i s vulnerable to excessive moisture being fed

L
*

into t h e turbine. To guard against this, the t u r b i n e is t r i p p e d , due to a signal from a level sensor when the l i q u i d level gets to the c r i t i c a l level i n any of the flash drums. Other alarms which may be provided on each flash drum are: h i g h or low level flash drum pressure and h i g h or low flash drum level.
4.

BINARY PLANT OPERATION AND CONTROL

4.1

Design and Operational Considerations

Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s a typical binary plant concept, where an intermediate working f l u i d i s vaporized, expanded through--a turbine, condensed, and pumped back through the loop, i n a closed cycle. The geothermal f l u i d i s used to heat the secondary working fluid. One requirement o f binary systems i s mu1 t i p l e heat exchangers. Various types of heat exchangers can be used. The direct-contact heat exchanger i s one type currently being studied. Many different surface heat exchanger configurations have been studied. The significant d i s tinction from a controls standpoint is the boiler temperature r e l a t i v e to the c r i t i c a l p o i n t of the binary f l u i d . Figure 4 i l l u s t r a t e s a subcritical boiler, i n which the l i q u i d level may be measured and controlled by the feed control, matching the feed supply to the r a t e of vapor generation. A supercritical boiler, of course, has no l i q u i d .level; the feed control could be. based D n boiler,exi-t temperature:

.*.

-.

-..

,__.,

<. .

- - '

The binary f l u i d boiler pressure, i n the variation shown i n the Figure 4 , i s controlled by slaving the turbine-bypass valve to the turbine-governor valve, i n order to provide a constant total vapor flow
24

25

as the load varies. Boiler pressure control may also be accomplished by driving the turbine-bypass valve from a separate boiler-pressure controller or by modulating the geothermal f l u i d flowrate. Geothermal f l u i d control is discussed separately i n the sections describing the flash-binary and 1iquid-binary systems.

ki

A shown i n the figure, the working f l u i d head r i s e is provided by s a motor-driven pump. The bypass-flow control loop provides for s a t i s factory pump operation and a more constant head rise i n the startup range. Another common arrangement incorporates a motor-driven boost pump and a turbine-driven main feed pump. Feed control would be provided by modulating the flow of vapor t o the main feed pump turbine.
Surface type condenser and cooling tower operation are similar t o the operati on i n other types of geothermal plants previously di scussed.
4.2

._-

Flash Binary Systems

Figure 5 shows a flash brine replacement f o r the supply system portion of the previous configuration. The control of t h e flash binary supply system i s similar t o the flash steam plant control presented previously. The l i q u i d level and pressure is maintained i n the f i r s t flash drum. The l i q u i d level i s maintained i n the second flash drum. During low flow and startup condition the brine is flashed a t the wellhead, the vapor i s vented t o the atmosphere, and the l i q u i d is pumped t o the injection well.
4.3

Liquid Binary Systems

4.3.1 General Design Considerations. Figure 4 i s typical of a l i q u i d brine system. T h i s type of binary system uses the geothermal f l u i d i n liquid s t a t e , throughout the system; by making- certain the' pressure i s above the vapor pressure. I t i s also necessary, f o r brines w i t h high carbon dioxide content, t o keep pressures high enough t o prevent outgassing and the resulting deposition of calcium carbonate i n piping and equipment. Figure 4 shows the use of a pressure controller

26

27

and a control valve a t the i n j e c t i o n wellhead t o maintain the pressure on the geothermal f l u i d . Pumps are t y p i c a l l y provided a t the supply wells, a t the plant, and a t the i n j e c t i o n wells. Figure 4 shows an arrangement which provides b r i n e i n l e t temperature control and a constant b r i n e flow rate. I t also provides a slow heatup r a t e t o minimize heat exchanger thermal stresses.

bi

.
The three control valves are driven by a s i n g l e c o n t r o l l e r providing a constant flow resistance while replacing some o f the hot incoming b r i n e with an equal amaunt o f colder p l a n t e x i t brine. The supply and i n j e c t i o n system i s s t a r t e d and brought t o f u l l flow w i t h valves A and B open and valve C closed. The b r i n e boost pump i s s t a r t e d and the design f l o w r a t e i s established through the heat exchangers while r e c i r c u l a t i n g c o l d geothermal f l u i d through valve B. The c o n t r o l l e r adjusts valves A, B y and C y t o provide a mixed b r i n e temperature, matching a demand which i s ramped upwards t o the resource temperature. This gradually closes valves A and B and opens valve C u n t i l the bypasses are closed and a l l o f the b r i n e flows d i r e c t l y through the heat exchangers.
t

A much limitations l i n e can be and valve C

simpler arrangement may be used i f heat exchanger startup can be met by f l o w modulation. Valve B and the r e c i r c u l a t i o n eliminated, valve A i s driven t o provide the required bypass i s driven t o provide the required heat exchanger flow.

4.3.2 Raft River Dual B o i l i n g Plant. The Raft River 5 MW p l a n t i n southern Idaho has been chosen t o i l l u s t r a t e binary system performance because the data i s available from the dynamic simulation used t o develop the p l a n t controls and operating procedures. The information and considerations are t y p i c a l o f what might be developed f o r any binary p l a n t control system design.
. .

(1) Configuration. Figure 6 i l l u s t r a t e s the configuration o f t h i s plant. This p l a n t i s a v a r i a t i o n o f the l i q u i d binary system discussed previously. The p l a n t s intended t o demonstrate the technical f e a s i b i l i t y

28

'

W
29

I
I

of a dual-boiling system u t i l i z i n g isobutane as a working f l u i d f o r power generation f r o m a medium temperature (29OOF) geothermal f l u i d . The p l a n t w i l l operate i n the base load, and power v a r i a t i o n s due t o changing operating conditions w i l l be accepted by the grid. Turbine t h r o t t l i n g and bypass allow t r a n s i e n t load reduction without adjustment o f b r i n e o r coolant loops. The b r i n e loop consists o f three supply w e l l s ( f o r s i m p l i c i t y , the f i g u r e shows only one) with check valves a t the junctions w i t h the main supply l i n e . An artesian bypass a t each w e l l permits thermal conditioning (control l e d heatup rate) o f the complete b r i n e system. Pumped geothermal f l u i d flow i s established by s t a r t i n g the well pump and opening the manual control valve. Subsequent adjustment o f w e l l f l o w i s also accomp l ished manual ly. Temperature control during startup i s provided a t the p l a n t by the boost pump and the ganged three-valve arrangement discussed e a r l i e r . A hand balancing valve i s provided i n the flow path through the heat exchangers, t o adjust f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n heat exchanger performance and i n f o u l i n g resistance. This startup procedure requires considerable external power t o d r i v e the pumps, u n t i 1 the turbogenerator begins producing power. Peak external power requirements could be reduced by s t a r t i n g the p l a n t a f t e r a single supply well i s established. This would require additional hardware t o d r i v e an additional balancing valve t h a t would match the r e c i r c u l a t i o n pressure drop t o the bypass pressure drop, i n order t o permit the three valve system t o operate a t a suitable pressure d i s t r - i b u t i o n for the lower b r i n e flowrate. I n an urgent upset condition, the bypass l i n e provides a r a p i d and redundant means o f stopping heat i n p u t - t o the working f l u i d loop. Since the m a j o r i t y o f the b r i n e p i p i n g is- low cost asbestos-cement w i t h a l i m i t e d c a p a b i l i t y f o r r a p i d temperature change, the i n j e c t i o n l i n e

30

cannot accept the sudden change from normal plant exit brine at 15OOF to supply brine at 29OoF. The three way valve is therefore sequenced to divert the flow to the pond, and the injection and supply pumps are shut down when the exit brine temperature rapidly changes. Each of two injection wells has a control valve at the pump discharge to automatically maintain the pump inlet pressure above the outgassing level. The working fluid loop uses isobutane and a configuration identical to that shown in Figure 4 except for the parallel high and low pressure paths, which were provided to increase cycle efficiency, and the preheater bypass lines. These bypass lines are manually controlled to prevent flashing at the boiler inlets, to compensate for heat exchanger overperformance, and to adjust for variations in fouling, The boiler feed valves are, relative to the basic configuration discussed ,earlier, moved downstream to the boiler inlets. This provides individual boiler level control. While this increases the vapor pressure at the control valves it ensures that cavitation will occur in these valves. The pressure drops are relatively small and cavitation resistant valve trims are provided to minimize erosion. The coolant loop provides a constant cooling water flowrate and an isobutane condensing pressure varying with the ambient temperature. Cooling tower basin level is controlled by varying the treated brine makeup flow. ,
(2) Simulation. Transient simulation of the plant and the supply and injection system was accomplished using two specifically developed codes.

The thermohydraulic system behavior, neglecting acoustic phenomena, was simulated using the Time and Frequency (TAF) problem solver codec13 and a CDC 7600 computer. The acoustic behavior was studied using the

31

C5MP CodeCP1. The following discussion presents some o f the analysis generated using the TAF code. The TAF mathematical model o f the system incorporates the following:

I I

(1)

Approximations t o Star1 propert i es

data f o r isobutane

(2)

Estimated o r vendor data f o r pump, turbine, and cooling tower c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Detailed lumped parameter models o f the condenser and the heat exchanger Flow equilibrium throughout the various process loops

j
l

. (3)

(4)

(5)

Mass and energy balances f o r uniform two-phase c o n t r o l

volumes f o r the isobutane spaces i n the b o i l e r s and the condenser ,

I
I

(6)

Proportional plus i n t e g r a l mode control 1ers.

The model accepts variable inputs f o r b r i n e i n l e t and e x i t conditions, pump speeds, fouling, ambient conditions, t r i m valve positions, and control 1e r demands. Table I summarizes the e f f e c t o f ambient a i r conditions and f o u l i n g on p l a n t performance. The three data points represent the hot, median, and c o l d conditions. Ambient temperature, exceeds the value o f the hot condition 1% o f the t i m e , and goes below the c o l d condition 1% o f the time. A discontinuous curve must be used t o connect the data a t the three points, because the tower a i r flow i s reduced from 2255 t o 1500 cfm a t the c o l d condition. .This was done t o keep the cold'water leaving the c o o l i n g tower a t l e a s t 3 9 O F t o prevent c i n g a t the worst location.

t .
32

TABLE I RAFT RIVER PLANT STATIC PERFORMANCE

Low Foul Low High Cond Boil % Bypass B ass Press Press Design % psia psia High Low B o i l Cond Boil Press TempLa3 Temp psia OF OF High Boil Temp
OF

Wet Dry Bulb Bulb

OF

OF

' I
0 0

Low Subcool Margin O F

High Brine Subcool E x i t Margin Temp OF O F

Cold Coolant Temp

OF

Hot Tot Coolant Evap Is0 Tzmp Flow Flow F lb/sec lb/sec

Power MW(e)

Net

E f f e c t o f Preheater Bypass 65 92
DES 10 15

74.8 74.6

196.7 193.7

364.1 363.2

100.8 100.6

175.2 233*.8 174.0 233.5

5.3 7.4

5.3 5.7

149.7 150.2

73.2 73.2

93.0 92.9

38.1 37.9

245.5 243.8

2.46 2.42

w w

E f f e c t o f Ambient and Fouling 65 38.4 8 92 47 8

DES

10

lb%
DES 10% DES 10% 10
10

0 0

74.8 73.1 54.5 53.3 44.7 43.8

196.7 196.2 192.3 192.5 190.2 190.7

364.1 395.0 362.8 394.3 362.2 393.9

100.8 99.3 80.2 78.8 68.8 67.8

175.2 175.0 173.4 173.4 172.5 172.7

233.8 242.2 233..4 242.0 233.2 241.9

5.3 8.0 8.0 10.2 9.6 11.3

5.3 8.8 5.8 9.0 6.1 9.2

149.7 140.5 140.7 130.8 135.8 125.7

73.2 73.4 50.9 51.2 38.6 39.4

93.0 94.3 71.8 73.4 60.1 62.2

38.1 39.7 26.2 27.8 19.9 21.4

245.5 2.46 258.1 2.96 243.6 3.34 256.6 3.87 242.4 .3.82 255.7 4.37

[a]

Saturation temperature:

leaving condition i s 4OF lower

Standard Conditions besign fouling Brine 0.0015 hr-ft2-'F/Btu Working f l u i d 0.0005 Cool ant O.OOl0 Brine i n l e t 288.6 lb/sec @ 290 F Makeup temp 75 F Coolant flow 1869 lb/sec

The low-temperature preheater bypasses 10% o f the t o t a l flow, and the high preheater bypass i s closed. These s e t t i n g s y i e l d i n l e t conditions a t both b o i l e r s which are 5.3OF subcooled a t the c r i t i c a l conditions o f ''hot" ambient temperature and design (maximum) fouling.

As shown i n the

table, power output i s r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o preheater bypass. The e f f e c t o f reduced ambient temperature i s to: lower condenser

temperature and pressure, lower coolant temperature, lower b r i n e e x i t %emperature, lower evaporation r a t e , increase the low preheater subcooling, and increase the n e t power output. Reduced f o u l i n g increases high b o i l e r pressure and temperature, increases subcool ing, increases isobutane f l o w rate, increases net power, and appreciably decreases b r i n e e x i t temperature. The maximum range o f p l a n t power output, considering 1% temperature extremes and f o u l i n g o f 10 and 100% o f t h e design value, i s 1.91 MW(e), o r 78.0% o f the minimum power.

The advantages o f a l l o w i n g t h e power

output t o vary w i t h the ambient conditions are clear.

It should be noted, i n summary, t h a t t h e c o n t r o l s operating over

the above range o f f u l l power operation are

High and low pressure b o i l e r feed c o n t r o l s Turbine power-boiler pressure c o n t r o l Cooling tower basin l e v e l c o n t r o l I n j e c t i o n pump i n l e t pressure c o n t r o l B u i l d i n g heating/cool i n g and freeze p r o t e c t i o n c o n t r o l valves Manual stepping o f c o o l i n g tower fan speed ( f u l l , h a l f , zero) and d i r e c t i o n under i c i n g conditions.

6.i

34

Further description of cooling tower control i s given i n Section 111-5.2. (3) Plant Startup. As described e a r l i e r , the supply and i n j e c t i o n system i s brought t o f u l l flow and the temperature i s s t a b i l i z e d by using the p l a n t bypass. The isobutane loop startup i s i n i t i a t e d by successive purges w i t h water and nitrogen. The loop i s then completely f i l l e d w i t h subcooled isobutane. The isobutane pumps are s t a r t e d and c i r c u l a t i o n continues u n t i l the pump work has heated the f l u i d t o 13OoF and any remaining water has been removed by a dryer. The loop i s then drained t o the required inventory o f isobutane. The b r i n e boost pumps are s t a r t e d and the b r i n e temperature c o n t r o l l e r i s enabled w i t h an i n i t i a l demand o f 13OoF, thereby providing a small b r i n e supply t o the p l a n t w i t h the nearly open r e c i r c u l a t i o n and bypass valves reducing the mixed p l a n t i n l e t temperature t o 130OF. The t u r b i n e inlet-bypass valve combinations -are manually controlled, w i t h the bypass valves i n i t i a l l y closed, and turbine f l o w blocked by the stop valves. The isobutane r e c i r c u l a t i o n - f l o w control and the b o i l e r l e v e l controls are enabled, and the isobutane pumps restarted. The cooling tower basin l e v e l control i s then enabled, and the fans and the coolant pumps are started. The b r i n e temperature demand i s then ramped t o 29OoF. Figure 7 shows the r e s u l t s o f a quasistatic mapping study made to.: determine the turbine-bypass valve sequencing during the heatup t o f u l l operating conditions. The objective was t o maintain a subcooled condition a t the b o i l e r i n l e t s , and t o minimize the change i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f b r i n e r e c i r c u l a t i o n flow t o ' b r i n e 'mixed temperature over the e n t i r e startup. Both preheater bypasses were s e t a t 15%.. The high pressure preheaterbypass i s necessary a t the c o l d end o f the startup; i t w i l l be shut o f f a f t e r startup i s comple The data i s f o r a l l heat transfer surfaces fouqed t o 10% o f the design maximum. D i f f e r e n t bypass settings would be ng requi red i f f o u l i were more severe.

35

NOTE:

The selected bypass valve schedule (Cv a l t n e a r funcf'idn of brine temperature) is shown as the dashed lines. The solid lines represent constant C values for bypass valves a!! indicated.

a ,
. L

f i
80

I
140

40

I 180

I I 180 200 220 240 Mixed brine temperature (OF)

I 260

\,
280
INEL-A-8878

F i g . 7 Raft River startup mapping.

36

k,

Figure 7 shows the high pressure and low pressure b o i l e r i n l e t subcooling and t h e b r i n e r e c i r c u l a t i o n f l o w as functions o f mixed b r i n e temperature f o r several turbine-bypass-valve f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t s . purposes o f t h i s study. The data show t h a t t h e subcooling a t both b o i l e r i n l e t s varies i n v e r s e l y w i t h t h e bypass-valve f l o w c o e f f i c i e n t as t h e b r i n e temperature increased.
A 1inear ( w i t h mixed b r i n e temperature) bypass valve sequencing

The

high and low pressure bypass-valve c o e f f i c i e n t s are made equal f o r t h e

w i t h a very small i n i t i a l value was selected f o r s i m p l i c i t y .

The r e s u l t i n g

subcooling and b r i n e r e c i r c u l a t i o n f l o w i s shown by t h e dotted l i n e s . The minimum subcooling values were 5.0 and 5.5OF f o r t h e high and low pressure b o i l e r i n l e t s , respectively. the complete s t a r t u p range. The t u r b i n e would be s t a r t e d a t t h e completion o f t h e p l a n t startup, when t h e turbine-bypass valves are f u l l y open, t h e slaved t u r b i n e - i n l e t valves are f u l l y closed, and t h e turbine-stop valves are closed. speed demand ramped up t o t h e design l e v e l . demand ramped t o ,the desired p l a n t output. The stop valves would be opened, t h e t u r b i n e speed c o n t r o l enabled, and t h e The generator would be p u t on l i n e , c o n t r o l t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e load c o n t r o l mode, and t h e load The r a t i o o f r e c i r c u l a t i o n - f l o w change t o mixed-brine-temperature change varied by a f a c t o r o f 3.0 over

(4)

Upset Operation.

Figures 8a through 8c' shows t h e simulation

o f a t u r b i n e t r i p a t f u l l power. The loss o f t h e generator was simulated (conservatively) by stepping t h e generator torque t o zero a t 1.0 second. A f t e r .a 0.2 second dead t i m e , t h e turbine-stop valves (both stages) were closed i n 0.5 second and t h e t u r b i n e bypass valves opened i n 5.0,seconds.
Figure 8a shows t h e t u r b i n e speed increase from 8000 t o 8800 r e v o l u t i o n s per minute and t h e subsequent decay. Figures 8a through 8c show the p e r t u r b a t i o n i n l i q u i d l e v e l s i n t h e b o i l e r s and condenser, which i s due
z

t o blocking t h e vapor f l o w u n t i l t h e bypasses,open f u l l y and t h e feed

37

--0--

iI
~

-...-0-

High feed Low feed High throttle High bypass

I
I

50

100 Time (sec)

750

200

------

Turbine speed Generator torque Turbine torque

--2500
I I I
+

38

400
r

300

-.- - . I - - . -

High boiler Low boiler Condenser

'

tn tn

200

2
100
7-~~

50
'

100 Time (sec)

I50

200

-High
--am--

.-

-*-

boiler level Low boiler level Condenser level

g 6

I
I

50
\

100 Time (sec)

150

200
INEL-A-10 271

Fig. 8b Turbine trip response

-- pressure,

level, and subcooling *mrgin.

3
-

39

- I - -0-

Brine exit Coolant irtlet Coolant exit

LVV

- 0

--Do-

I
h

150

0
Q)
\ v)

52

IO0

50

--------High
-**.I

Y '.

High turbine bypass Low bypass Low feed High feed

I

50

100
Time (sec)

150

200
INEL-A-10 270

Fig. 8c Turbine trip response

-- temperature and

flowrate.

40

6,

controls r e t u r n t o the design condition. Except f o r a 7.0 p s i pressure r i s e i n the high b o i l e r , a 3.0 p s i r i s e i n the low b o i l e r , and a 7.0 p s i drop i n the condenser, the system i s r e l a t i v e l y undisturbed. While the flow and pressure disturbances could be eliminated by providing bypass-valve speeds equal t o those o f the turbine stop valves, the t r a n s i e n t response i11ustrated above i s considered acceptable.
4.3.3 Magmamax Dual Binary Plant. The Magmamax system i s presented because o f the i n t e r e s t i n g c o n t r o l aspects o f the dual binary cycle, the p a r t i c u l a r design options chosen, and t o show the d e t a i l e d I&C design f o r a p l a n t c u r r e n t l y being constructed.

(1)

Configuration. (a) (b)

As shown i n Figure 9, the design incorporates

A l i q u i d b r i n e system w i t h a flow modulation p l a n t bypass A s u p e r c r i t i c a l isobutane loop, w i t h a t u r b i n e driven feed pump, a tandem synchronous turbogenerator, and recuperation t o a separate propane loop
A lowertemperature propane loop w i t h an induction turbogenerator, and A spray pond cooling system with extensive management o f cool ing capabi 1i ty.

(c)

(d)
,

Another unique feature o f both isobutane and propane loops i s the use o f heat exchanger bypass flow t o cool the t u r b i n e bypass flow, and thereby reducing condenser thermal shock.

41

. .

.. .

. . .

..

. _..

Injection wells (2)

P
h)

Discharge to drain canal DVWlS

I
I I
L--t--l

lsobutane condenser

e ,

(2) Geothermal "Brine C i r c u i t . The heat source f o r the Magmamax power p l a n t i s geothermal b r i n e supplied by deepwell pumps from three separate wells. Since these wells are q u i t e f a r apart (as much as 1/2 mile), and since the equipment yard and the heat exchange equipment i s remqte from these well sites, the geothermal b r i n e i s piped from each w e l l t o a common p o i n t where i t i s manifolded, and brought t o the p l a n t as a s i n g l e combined flow. Each o f these i n d i v i d u a l well l i n e s contains a sand separator for removing any p a r t i c u l a t e matter which may flow from the we1 1. Valves VB1, VB2, and VB3 are production we1 1 shutoff valves, actuated l o c a l l y t o shut o f f w e l l flow and stop the well pump i n the event o f p i p e l i n e rupture. These valves may also be used t o manually adjust w e l l supply quantity and w i l l be used f o r w e l l balancing purposes.
The b r i n e i s supplied from the wells a t 36OOF and about 200 psia, i n order t h a t i t might be pumped t o the p l a n t without f l a s h i n g and without releasing any o f i t s dissolved gases. Flow quantity from each w e l l w i l l be measured (probably near the wellhead) and a remote i n d i c a t i o n o f these flows w i l l be required. A t the plant, the geothermal b r i n e i s pressurized by the booster pump t o 270 p s i a t o prevent f l a s h i n g i n the heat exchanger f i e l d . The t o t a l p l a n t flow passes through valve VB4 i n t o the heat exchanger f i e l d (HXF) when the p l a n t i s i n f u l l operation. Valve VB4 i s a two-position i s o l a t i o n valve which i s used t o p r o t e c t the heat exchanger i n the HXF from r a p i d thermal changes a t startup. It w i l l be c o n t r o l l e d by HXF leaving water temperature, and i s bypassed by a small o r i f i c e f o r HXF warmup. It would open only a f t e r enough hot b r i n e had been b l e d through the f i e l d t o r a i s e i t s temperature t o a preset value. Valve VB8 i s a small bleed valve. It bypasses VB7 t o provide warmup flow control and i t i s c o n t r o l l e d by a preset flow r a t e ramp-up. Valve VB7 i s the main flow control valve f o r the HXF, and i s c o n t r o l l e d . by f l o w rate, AT, o r isobutane knockout drum temperature, depending on whether control i s i n the s t a r t , intermediate, o r run mode. Valve VB9

.
*

43

i s the tlXF dllow .bypass valve. This valve i s pressure c o n t r o l l e d t o keep the c i r c u i t above s a t u r a t i o n pressure, and wou1.d bypass t h e p l a n t c i r c u i t during sitavtup, and duripg load f l u c t u a t i o n transients.
_ *

LJ

The heat exchanger f i e l d consists of eleven Iong-tube t r u e counterfJaw ,&at ,exchangers. Ten o f these are piped i n a series-parall*el used t o pr,eheat, b o i l , and .Superheat the isobutary ,working f l u l d . Each hangers i s '18 inches i n diameter, with 70 foot-1 Isobytane flows i n t h e tubes, and geothermal b r i n e f l o w s i n the shell. The eleventh s h e l l i s a shorter exchanger used t o .boil and superheat the dual f l u i d cycle XDFC) propane working f l u i d a f t e r i t has been heated by co ust. Valves V85 and YB6 are u$ed b r i n e floy through t h i s propane b o i ler-superheater. Design t h r w g h p u t tor the wat;?r 5ide o f the HXF i s abou; two minutes, and u t 153 p s i . A t $he HXF e x i t , gooled b r i the i n j e c t i p n pump .where i t i s pressurized and sent t o the i n j e c t i o n B l l pre the shqtoff ya 'lled i n a manner similar t o YB1

ne $.low c i r c u i t is n o t
team power cycle, @ u t uses the hydrocarbon as i t s working' f l u i d . Isobutane l i q u i d entering a t a nominal 9 heated during i t s series t r a v e l through s i x o f the 10 counterflow beat t h e HXF. I t then s p l i t s i n t o two p a r a l l e l flqws, each gh a b o i l e r and a superheater before passing i n t o the a t 345O.F and 500 psia. Design isobutane flow i s 1.03 x 6 pounds per hour. A f t e r passing through the knockout drum, the gas 10 passes through a t r i p valve and then through the main turbine control valve V11. This valve i s c o n t r o l l e d by a speed-load contro!ler, the speed signal comes from a magnetic pickup on the'main t u r b i n e gear reducer output s h a f t and the load signal provided by devices sensing generator e l e c t r i c a l output. Seyeral modes o f operation o f the turbinec o n t r o l valve are required. A t startup, and p r i o r t~ synchronization, manual speed control w i l l be used t o b r i n g the turbine t o i d l e speed. A f t e r reaching i d l e speed, the turbine acceleration w i l l be c o n t r o l l e d through automatic ramp-up by the governor. Once synchronization i s

44

u
?

accomplished, the generator speed i s set by the g r i d l i n e frequency, and valve VI1 w i l l be used t o control only the load. Normally, t h i s valve w i l l be wide open and the p l a n t w i l l be running a t f u l l capacity, since i t i s only a p i l o t operation. When i t i s necessary t o reduce the p l a n t output, a means o f s e t t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g VI1 i s required. The main turbine s t a r t i n g bypass valve, V18, i s used t o bypass gas around the main turbine t o the condenser during the startup sequence and during any load change s t a b i l i z a t i o n periods. This valve would be under knockout drum pressure control, and would be closed during normal operation. The bypass desuperheater valve, VI9, would be modulated during periods o f bypass f l o w t o provide l i q u i d f o r cooling t h i s bypass gas, since the condensers should not be subjected t o temperatures as high as may be encountered i n the main t u r b i n e supply f 1ow. The main turbine i s a YORK 3338 tandem design w i t h dual three-stage units, each u n i t exhausting i n t o the s h e l l side o f the isobutane recuperator. The t u r b i n e drives an Allis-Chalmers 10,500 KW, 1200 rpm synchronous generator through a General E l e c t r i c reduction gear, a t a turbine speed o f 6391 rpm. Extraction gas from the main t u r b i n e flows through a f l o w measuring device (FI2) and then through the b o i l e r feed pump-turbine The BFPT i s control-valve, V12, t o the b o i l e r feed pump-turbine (BFPT). a YORK 226 two-stage turbine d r i v i n g a, United Centrifugal Pump, threestage horizontal centrifugal pump through a Western reduction gear. VI2 i s c o n t r o l l e d by a governor, which senses both speed and knockout drum pressure. The speed signal comes from a magnetic pickup on the BFPT gear reducer. The BFPT speed w i l l be varied during operation, t o control l i q u i d flow t o the HXF. A pressure c o n t r o l l e r , sensing b o i l e r feed pump. (BFP) discharge pressure , w i 11 override the knockout drum pressure __ signal. The e x t r a c t i o n f l o w control VI7 w i l l normally be closed during operation, but would be c o n t r o l l e d by a f l o w c o n t r o l l e r , and would open i f e x t r a c t i o n 'flow was t h r o t t l e d by VI2 t o the p o i n t where i t began t o a f f e c t main t u r b i n e output. A pressure c o n t r o l l e r sensing e x t r a c t i o n line-pressure w i l l override t h i s f l o w signal t o maintain the proper

'6

45

i n t e r s t a g e pressure.

The operational con$,rol 0f VI7 must be f l e x i b ; since t h i s vaJve w i l l Its

, -

enough t o a l l o w f u t u r e r e s e t t i n g and "tuning,"

1J .
._

probably be used mainly for @proving the p l a n t power outpyt. t h e other p l a n t equjpment. Exhaust gas from the generator and feed pump t u r b

c o n t r o l mode w i l l depend upqn the operational e f f i c i e n c i e s o f some of

f 1ows thvough

the recuperator, where it gives up some of i t s heat t o t h e dual .f cycle (DFC] by heating and s t a r t i n g l i q u i d propane -to Q o i l fo t h e rm b o i l e r feed puqp. The isobutane exhaust gas p ndensers, where t h e o ;e m h recuperator t o the ty9 ispbutane

r e j e c t e d t o t h e c o o l i n g water c i r c u i $ . passe5 t o t h e receiver, where i t working f l u i d t o HFX pressure. and bypass valves. booster pumps and passed on t o the BFP. These valves a s s i s t The @fPT s t a r

pow This i
The BFP then pressurizes t h e

is picked up
.

Valves V I 3 and Y14 are t h e BFP e BFPT governor, in c o n t r o l l i n g

the flpw o f working f l y i d t o t h e HFX, and ,prevent t h e ,6FP fr

r o t * l e d t o shutoff. p valye, V16, w i l l be supply BF.?T gas during startup, and would p'ls_osypply c o n d i t j p n where e x t r a c t i o n flow was i n s u f f i c i

The k w c k o u t drum-

b l owdown-val ve , V I S , under primary c o n t r o l o f knockout drum-1 eve1 , i s used t o r e t u r n any l i q u i d carryover from t h e HXF t o the receiver. would be i n use mainly during t h e warmup and s t a r t u p sequences.

VI5

(4)

Propane .Ciycuit.

The propane flow c i r c u i t i s very s i m i l a r i n

t o t h e isobutane c i r c u i t , p r o v i d i n g a !'bottoming cycle" t o i o n a l he?t from the geothermal b r i n e and a l s o r e d amount o f heat r e j e c t e d t o the atmosphere through t h e c o o l i n g circuit. Propane l i q u i d , e n t e r i n g a t a nominal 77OF i s heated and p a r t i a l l y b o i l e d i n the tube side o f the isobutane recyperator, e x t r a c t i n g heat from t h e isobutane t u r b i n e exhaust. b o i ler-superheater where boi 1i n 205OF and 460 psia.
I t then passes i n t o t h e propane
rc

s completed and the gas i s heat

This second stage o f heating i s provided by geothermal

6.
46

br

brine, which passes. through the s h e l l side of,. the boiler-superheater a f t e r leaving the isobutane boilers. The b r i n e then flows on t o the isobutane heaters. Design propane f l o w i s 274,400 pounds per hour. From the b o i ler-superheater, propane gas passes through the knockout drum, through a t r i p valve, and then through VP1, (DFC Turbine control valve). This valve i s c o n t r o l l e d by a governor, the speed signal being provided by a magnetic pickup on the turbine and the load signal provided by devices sensing generator e l e c t r i c output. The turbine also contains v a r i a b l e i n l e t nozzles t h a t are share-controlled by the governor. The modes o f operation o f the DFC turbine control are s i m i l a r t o those. o u t l i n e d f o r the main turbine, b u t are s e t up t o handle an induction generator 1oad. Valve VP2 (DFC turbine bypass valve) i s c o n t r o l l e d by propane knockout drum pressure. This valve would be used during propane c i r c u i t s t a r t u p t o provide turbine bypass; i t would a s s i s t i n flow c i r c u i t s t a b i l i z a t i o n during any r a p i d load changes and i t would provide the c a p a b i l i t y t o "tune" the "bottoming" cycle f o r optimum dual cycle operation. Valve VP4 (propane knockout drum blowdown valve) i s c o n t r o l l e d by a l e v e l c o n t r o l l e r and i s used t o r e t u r n any l i q u i d carryover from the heating vessels t o the propane receiver. This valve would be subject t o the same override considerations during the startup mode t h a t the isobutane knockout drum blowdown valve control experiences. Valve VP5 (DFC turbine bypass desuperheater valve) i s control l e d by bypass 1i n e gas temperature and protects the propane condensers from excessively high i n l e t temperatures during bypass periods.
< .

&

r b i ne exhaust f 1ows t o the propane. condenser, where i t i s cooled and condensed by the cooling water system. This l i q u i d drains t o the receiver, 'where 1t i s taken by the motor-driven condensate pump and passed~ t o the 'motor-driven b o i l e r feed pump. ' Valve VP3 on (propane BFP t h r o t t l e valve) i s control l e d by knockout drum temperature, and i s bypassed by a f l o w o r i f i c e t o prevent the condensate and b o i l e r feed pumps from overheating by going t o shutoff.
*

47

(5) Cooling Water C i r c u i t . The cooling water c i r c u i t for the Magmamax power p l a n t i s s i m i l a r t o a standard spray pond system, but has same unique impkements. The sprays are o f the j e t spray type, and are mt atomized t o t h e - e x t e n t t h a t they are i n conventional spray ponds. These j e t sprays u t i l i z e a g r a v i t y f a l l t o provide c o n t r o l l e d stream breakup t o optimum drop size. The spray headers are d i r e c t i o n a l I l e d to-provide operation counterflow w i t h the wind d i r e c t i o n f o r aptimum cooling. Spray cooling i s o n l y accomplished during off-peak periods when the atmospheric cooling conditions are the most favorable.
The deep storage pond i s the reservoir fyom which a 25,000 gpm vertfcal wet-pit type turbine pump c i r c u l a t e s water t o the condensers. This pump i s mounted on a specially-designed tower i n the pond. The submerged p o r t i o n of the tower .contains a device which allows the pump to draw water from the bottom (3Q feet deep) o r fo ;he surface rm . This two-pasitjon selector valve i s operated by a manually ar motor mounted above tk water surface. Valve positian i s on p l a n t peer output requfrmetrts and water temperaturesfrom the circulbthg p u p through the tube s i d propane C O ~ ~ ~ R S W (single pass), and Ohem it:splits, h a l f & o f each o f the two isobotane condensers. These condensers rge t o separate day storage pond-spray header c m b i nations.

The 12,500 gpm flows pass directly i n t o day storage ponds d u r i n g a namitral & h o w peak load period (daytime), when the a i r w e t buib temperature i s the highest. This allows he p l a n t t o operate w i t h the l e a s t amount o f p a r a s i t i c power requirements, since none o f the spray pumps are operated during t h i s period, and the c i r c u l a t i n g pump i s drawing f k the deep, cold water i n the main pond. During t h i s 8-hour period r the water level i the day storage ponds r i s e bout 5 feet. a t the end ! t a l spray pump suction period, valves VW1, 2, 3, and 4 (hori valves) are opened, and valves W5 and 6 (day storage pond f i l l valves) The horizontal spray pumps are started and jet-spray cooling , 9, and 10 (spray pond bypass valves) are used

t o adjust spray header supply pressure, w i t h f u l l pressure being used when wind v e l o c i t i e s arerlow, and the pressure being reduced as wind v e l o c i t i e s increase. These valves would modulate t o minimize d r i f t and maximize cooling. Spray o r i e n t a t i o n would also be c o n t r o l l e d on t h i s basis. I n the meantime, v e r t i c a l wet-pipe.pumps i n the day storage ponds would begin t o t r a n s f e r water by j e t sprays from these ponds. A l l spray-cooled water would be c o l l e c t e d by the cooling stream surface and would flow i n t o the deep storage pond.
I t i s expected t h a t a l l water system valves (including those required f o r the makeup and blowdown c i r c u i t s ) would be operated from the control panel, b u t would be manually actuated. Position spray header pressure and pond l e v e l indications would be used t o e s t a b l i s h the proper operating p r o f i l e . Automatic control o f these functions could be added a t a l a t e r date.
25%

5. 5.1 Heat Rejection System

AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
>

. The techniques f o r r e j e c t i n g heat t o the surroundings are, o f course, those i n common practice' i n the power industry. 'The options ng ng are: once-through-cool i , evaporative cool i i n e i t h e r a spray pond o r cooling tower, and dry a i r cooling. The choice depends on a v a i l a b i l i t y , environmental, and economic considerations. Controls f o r the h e a t . r e j e c t i o n ,system can include, coolant .and a i r flowrate control as >required. These are generally manual controls. I n the case o f evaporative cooling a c o n t r o l loop i s required t o modulate the makeup f l o w t o maintain a basin level.

Cold weather operation requires special a t t e n t i o n f o r an evaporative cooling system. Cooling towers can be damaged by i c i n g , which tends t o occur on the windward louvers. To prevent t h i s , a minimum b u l k f l u i d . temperature o f 37 t o 40F must be maintained, by reducing fan speed o r reversing fan d i r e c t i o n , t o allow the warm water introduced a t the top o f the tower t o cascade over the exposed surface rather than the i n t e r n a l

49

"

portions o f the tower. A s i g n i f i c a n t amount o f operator a t t e n t i o n i s required t o a t t a i n these l o w coolant temperatures w i t h a t y p i c a l multic e l l tower. The Magmamax spray pond i n t e r e s t because i t provides It provides and stores water This cooler water i s used t o demand period daily. system discussed i n Section 111-4.3 i s of an e f f e c t i v e management of cooling resources. produced i n the cooler p a r t s o f the day. maximize pTant output during the peak load

b'

5.2

A u x i l i a r y Cooling System

Cooling water i s required f o r cooling a v a r i e t y o f a u x i l i a r y equipment w i t h i n the plant. This includes the i n t e r - and after-condensers o f a noncandensabte gas remowal system, the generator cooling medim * the lube o i l , the a i r compressors, and the p l a n t a i r conditioning systemThe intercondenser and aftercondemer require c o o l i n g water ta condense t h e vapor carryover from the condenser *and the steam from the steam-jet gas ejectors. I n most systems t h i s flaw i s set manually, since the amount o f steam t o be condensed i s r e T a t i v e l y constant and independent o f load. The lube o i l temperature must be controTled i n order t o hold the o i l v i s c o s i t y i n the proper range. This i s usually done i n a shell and tube heat exchanger. Since geothermal condensate tends t o inciude finely suspended solids, i t i s desirable t o pass the cooling water through the tube side o f a shell and tube heat exchanger, a t a-constant v e l o c i t y s u f f i c i e n t t o minimize deposition of solids in t h e t u k s . To maintain heat t r a n s f e r capability, the tubes may be rodded out i f they s t a r t t o become plugged. A bypass around the exchanger i s used t o control the o i l f l o w r a t e through the exchanger and t o maintain the desired temperature of the t o t a l f l o w o f o i 1. The generator i s normally cooled by the f l o w o f a gas through i t s windings. This gas w i l l be e i t h e r a i r o r hydrogen, depending mainly on
I

50

U '

generator size. The gas i s cooled by c i r c u l a t i n g cooling water through tubes mounted i n the generator gas cooling stream. The cooling water flow i s s e t manually, t o maintain proper temperatures w i t h i n the generator when i t i s a t f u l l load. The a i r compressors and the a i r conditioning system require cool ing water. Therefore, a closed fresh water cooling system i s used. It consists o f c i r c u l a t i n g pumps, piping, heat exchanger, surge tank, and treated water. The fresh water i s cooled by cooling tower water which flows through the tube side o f the heat exchanger a t constant v e l o c i t y , while the flow o f the treated water i s c o n t r o l l e d t o maintain the temperat u r e o f the system.
_ $

5.3

Heating System

The geothermal supply may also be required t o provide space heating and freeze protection. The geothermal f l u i d f l o w 'through these systems should be thermostatically control led.

5.4

Miscellaneous-Auxiliary Systems

'

Subsystems f o r f i l l i n g , draining, purging, venting, blowdown, f 1are, i nstrument , and p l ant a i r , in- house power, and other m i nor subsystems are not discussed i n t h i s chapter because they are common t o standard process practice.
u

.
51

IV. INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

- , -

bpi
Mo5t measurement systems include three subsystems: detectortransducer, signal conditioning, and action or results. The detectortransducer subsystem is general ly a measurement element which detects the physical variable and transforms this into a mechanical or electrieal signal. The signal conditioning subsystem modifies the direct measurement element signal by amplification, filtering, or other modifhxitfons so that the output can be used by the a c t l m or results wbsystem. The action or results subsystem indicates, stores, records, ~ o n t r o l ~or acts on the physical variable being measured. ,
The detector-transducer subsystem or measurement element is the primary concern of the following Section. The remaiwder o f the measurement system i s c m o n to any process system and i s adequately covered by the many -texts on instrumentation and controls.

The specificatton and selection o f measurement elements for use in geothermal systems requires a knowledge o f the operating range and loeation o f measurements. The expected end use o f the measurement and the necessary accuracy must also be known. This information is generally the result o f process control studies and test or experiment plans.

The various types of control systems have been examined in the previous sections. Each control system requires certain types, range,
and location o f measurements. With this information the particular instruments to accomplish the desired results can be selected. The following discussion of primary measurement elements addresses three aspects o f this topic

(1)

The service considerations common to a1 1 geothermal measurement elements

52

kd

(2)

The accuracies, ranges', and responses available f o r each type o f measurement' device And the applicable codes and standards i n measurement systems. 1. GENERAL SERVICE CONSIDERATIONS

(3)
,

The selection o f measurement elements f o r use i n geothermal systems must consider f l u i d temperature, corrosion, deposition, and operating environment. This Section discusses each o f these considerations as they apply uniquely t o geothermal systems.
.-

1.1

F1u i d Temperature

An instrument selected f o r use i n a geothermal system must be compatible w i t h the operating temperature range. The operating temperature may range from a low ambient temperature t o the maximum temperature o f the resource. The material5 o f construction must be able t o withstand these temperature extremes. The accuracy and r e l i a b i l i t y o f some instrument elements i s a f f e c t e d by a temperature variation. This inaccuracy may be unacceptable f o r c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l measurement. -Instruments which would be unaffected by the temperature * v a r i a t i o n are avai 1ab1e, and coul d very we1 1 be necessary f o r c e r t a i n applications. 1.2 Corrosion

Geothermal f 1uids are general l y corrosive. Therefore, when a measurement device i s i n d i r e c t contact w i t h the geothermal f l u i d , the s e l e c t i o n o f materials i s very important.
I

A t y p i c a l Bourdon-tube pressure gauge, f o r example, has a brass bourdon and i s connected t o the system w i t h a brass nipple. A geothermal
f l u i d which contains hydrogen s u l f i d e ( H p S ) i s very corrosive t o copper

L,

53

and copper alloys; a more suitable material, such as a u s t e n i t i c stainless steel, may therefore be necessary. Corrosion due t o - d i s s o l v e d oxygen, pH, or c h l o r i d e ions i s also common t o some geothermal f l u i d s . A materials t e s t program i s o f t e n necessary t o determine the type and severity o f corrosion a p a r t i c u l a r geothermal f l u i d w i l l haue. The r e s u l t s o f t e s t s should be used when selecting measurement devices. I n a binary system, measurement- devices must also be compatible with the system's secondary fluid.

L
..

1 . 3 Deposition
Most geothermal f l u i d s tend t o form deposits. Measurement devices i n d i r e c t contact w i t h the geothermal f l u i d may become plugged and. inoperable due t o deposition. Deposition i s caused by a pressure drop across a device, a disturbance o f the f l u i d flow o r an area o f stagnant f l u i d . Most devices commonly used are subject t o one o r more o f these conditions. P a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n must therefore be given t o the type of device used. A method often used t o reduce the s e v e r i t y o f the problem i s t o avoid d i r e c t contact w i t h t h e geotkrmal f l u i d by using a diaphragm seal between the element and the geothermal f l u i d . Deposition may also a f f e c t the accuracy and response o f an element w i t h time. A deposit formation on a thermowell, f o r instance, has resistance t o heat t r a n s f e r and causes inaccurate measurements. When t h i s happens the instrument should be taken out o f service and cleaned. 1.4 Operating Environment

The problems associated with the environment i n which measurement devices are expected t o operate are due t o ambient temperatures and corrosive gases. Geothermal systems are t y p i c a l l y located outside, exposed t o the ambient environment. Measurement devices should be able t o withstand variations i n ambient conditions without damage o performance. I n some locations there i s a freezing problem. I n these locations the geothermal f l u i d should not be stagnant without some type

54

W
s

o f heating. I n other locations extreme heat may cause malfunctions o r inaccuracies. Both o f these conditions should be considered when selecting and i n s t a l l i n g a measurement device. Hydrogen s u l f i d e (H2S) i n the environment is both corrosive and flammable. Copper and copper a l l o y s are p a r t i c u l a r l y susceptible t o corrosive attack by hydrogen sul fide. Copper contai n i ng devices can be enclosed i n an a i r t i g h t environment, o r the use o f copper can be avoided entirely.
? -

Other gases commonly associated with geothermal systems, p a r t i c u l a r l y binary systems, can be corrosive o r f 1ammabl e. Appropriate measures, such as the i n s t a l l a t i o n o f explosion proof enclosures, must be taken t o avoid problems and hazards. _ _

2.

MEASUREMENT ELEMENTS

e f o l l o w i n g Section reviews the common types o f measurement elements i n commercial use. actual operating experience i n geothermal systems i s included f o r each type o f measurement.
\i

2.1

Pressure Measurement

Pressure i s one o f the most important o f the measured and c o n t r o l l e d process variables. Most commercial pressure elements use mechanical devices such as Bourdon tubes, diaphragms, o r bellows as the basic detector elements. These elements d e f l e c t under pressure. This d e f l e c t i o n moves a pointer, i n the case o f a gauge, o r creates an e l e c t r i c a l signal, i n the case o f a transducer.

A p i c t o r i a l summary o f the method o f operation o f various pressuremeasurement elements i s shown i n Figure loE4? The normal pressure and temperature range, accuracy, and other c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f commercially available pressure-measurement elements are l i s t e d i n Table I 1 51.

55

. (lb.) Spml Source: Ametek

(Ic)Hclix
Soune:Ametek

Fig. 10 Pressure monitoring elements.

56

TABLE I 1 CHARACTER1STI CS
,

OF

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

The most significant problem which affects pressure measurement i n geothermal systems is deposition. A Bourdon-tube pressure gauge made of appropriate materials functions well i n geothermal service u n t i l the passageway -becomes plugged by deposits, This problem has been partially . solved by using a seal element between the geothermal f l u i d and the gauge; however, the accuracy o f the gauge i s degraded w i t h time due t o the deposition dn the seal element. T h i s same approach, of isolating the gauge or element from the geothermal f l u i d , has been used successfully with other types -of pressure-measurement elements. Because fIJids i n a pressute clement are mostfy stagnant another ern i n sme locations i s the possibility that the geo This can be resolved by heat tracing. 1he.problem.of material selection for a1 1 elements i n direct .fpnta& w i t h the geothermal f l u i d is m m n t o all types o f measurement devices. The appropriate materials can be determined from the results o f a testing program.
-.

b.
.
. ...-.

In other plant systems, such as i n the secondary f l u i d or t h e cooling water, the elements and accessory equipment must withs&d the operating environment, This includes sm~llamounts o f hydrogen sulfide (H2S) which is very corrosive t o copper and copper alloys. In binary systems w i t h flammable secondary f l u i d s , the instrument enclosures must be o f the appropriate class as defined by the National Fire Protection Association.
2.2 Temperature Measurement

The measurement and control of temperature w i t h i n a geothermal system is of primary concern. Heat exchange, heat balances, turbinegenerator and supply system operation, and many other functions depend on the measurement and control o f temperature.

58

Most commercial temperature-measuring elements detect the change i n heat-affected physical properties l i k e thermal expansion, radiation, o r electrical properties, These properties change w i t h a change i n temperature. This difference i s measured, and correlated to a temperature. change. The accuracy, response, range, and relative cost of commercially available temperature-measurement elements, i s shown i n Table 111.
2.3

Flow Measurement

The measurement and control of fluid flow is important to the safe and e f f i c i e n t operation of a geothermal system. In some cases ( a s a t the plant i n l e t from the supply system, i f this i s the basis-of payment for the-supply), extreme precision i s called for; i n other instances only crude measurements a r e necessary. Flow measurement i s generally an inferred measuring of another variable such as pressure, pressure drop, velocity; flow disturbance, or other properties,-which change w i t h a change i n flowrate. Flowrate i s most commonly indicated by head loss or differential pressure measurement. Three common devices o r i f i c e plate, flow nozzle, and venturi tube cause a differential pressure by a flow obstruction. T h i s differential is measured by a pressure or differential pressure gauge, and the flowrate can be derived from this measurement. Table I V summarizes the characteristics of head-loss flow-measurement elements.

Many other types of flow-measurement elements are available, and they have possible application I n geothermal service. A pictorial review of the principles of operation i s given i n Figure llC6. A -summary of flowmeter characteristics i s shown i n Table V 171

.
f

W
59

TABLE I11 CHARACTERISTICS

L i qui d- inglass t hemometer
-

OF TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT ELEMENTS

Thermistor -150 t o 600 -300 t o 1600 l e s Thermocouples Type J -300 t o 1400 The ouples Type K Thermocouples Type T -300 t o 700

Fluid Expansion Thermometer -150 t o 1000

Bimatallic Strip

Electric Resistance Thermometer -300 t o 1800

TemDerature Range (OF1

-200 t o 600

-100 t o 1000

-300 t o 2300

Approximate 21 Accuracy (% o f reading) output Type Transient Response Shock and V ibration Sensitivity cost Mechanical

+2

-.1 9
Mechanical Resistance Change Fair t o dood Fair

- 2 +o.
Resistance Change Very Good Fair
'

+0.5.
Electric Current Good

- 75 +o.
Electric Current Good

+o. -

75

- 375 +o.
Electric Current Good

Mechanical

Electric Current Good

Poor

Poor

Poor

Good

Good

Good

Fair t o Good

Fair t o Good

Fair t o Good

Fair t o Good

Low

Low

Low

Readout Rather Expensive

Readout Rather Expensive

'

Low

Low

Low

Low

Advantages

Low cost Dependable

Low c o s t Rugged

Re1iab1e f o r indust. measurement

Most accurate Fast

o f a l l methods response very s t a b l e sinal 1 AT

Highest Emf

Recommended f o r reduci ng. atm Protect f rom Z%e, sulfur

Resists oxidation

Linear Sensitivity f o r moist atm.

Disadvantages

Poor Response

Lacks accuracy poor response

Lacks stability

Additional reactout required

Small range

Protect from sulfur

Low r e s i s t t o reduci n g atm

Temperature limited . protect from a c i d

c *

TABLE I V HEAD LOSS. OR DIFFERENTIAL .PRESSURE FLOW MEAS

1

Device 0ri.f i c e

Fluid Types

Head Loss (46 Produced)

ccuracy
(% Max. )

Reaui red Upstream Piping (Pipe Dia.) 10-30 10-30 10-30

20-50

Viscosity Effect Large

Relative cost Low Low Low Medium

Advantages 1. Lowest cost

O r i fi c e

Disadvantages
1. High head loss

Concentric
Eccentric Segmented Quadrant
I

Liqu o r steam

+1 -

60- 100

-2 + - 2.5 +
-1 +

Large
*
I

Large Small

40-80

2. Easily i n s t a l l e d -2. Traps o r replaced Suspended sol i d s 3. Well established 3. Low capacity coefficient 4. Continued r e l i - 4. Reauires abi 1i y t flanges Higher cost than o r i f i c e Higher head loss than Venturi 3. Lower head loss 3. I n s t a l l a t i o n i s than o r i f i c e critical. Venturi Tube 1. Lowest head loss 1. Highest eost 2. Largest and heaviest Shortest upstream p i p i n g required Does n o t obstruct f 1ow o f suspended solids Does not require pipe flanges Well established coefficient

0 9

Flow Nozzle

Liquid, gas, o r steam

30-70

- 1.5 +
7

10-30

Small

Flow Nozzle Medium t o high 1. Can be used w/o 1. f 1anges 2. Lower cost than 2. Venturi

Venturi Tube l i q u i d , gas, o r steam 10-20 Very large

High

3.

4.
. L

5,
6.

Fig. l a Orifice plate

some sippa
Fig. l b Orifice plate installed Sourn: Singer

Har

Fig. 5h Vortex shedding sourrr: ncphmentrteen Fig. 5a Vortex precession

Smner F

i L Porlrrlsinper
lnld

Fig. 2a Trapezoidal weir

n

Fig. 7 Positive displacement

smnc: Singer

.Fig. 8 SoniclUltrasonic

9b

and rotor toppart

Fig. 3 Turbine

Source: L

Fig 9a Fluidic

Swrcc YOOR PWduaS

Fig. 11 F1ow monitoring elements.

62

TABLE V CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOWMETER ELEMENTS

As previously stated, the most common method o f flowrate measurement

uses an o r i f i c e p l a t e and d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure gauge. This i s aTso t r u e i n geothermal systems. Operating experience has shown t h a t i n some he brine.chemistry and location, o r i f i c e plates
w i l l trap scale and b u i l d up a scale deposit upstream. T h i s causes readings and w i l l eventually p l u g the hole. Another p r o b l rm o r i f i c e p l a t e i s damaged by erosion fo particulates. I , however, and under most service Considerations an o r i f i c e te Will give r e l i a b l e and accurate flowrate measurement. I t must frequently be checked t o determine i f the edges are rounded o r the diameter changed, due t a erosion o r scale formation.

Ld i
._...-.
d

Another method whlch has been .used w i t h some success i s a p i t o t vers this requires very clean service and i d e a l conditions. tube ; Qds which are i n use include ultrasonic, vortex, magnetic, and Other t u r b i n e meters. Each o f these can be gfven consideration when the condltfons, accuracy, pressure drop, o r scale formation w i l l not allow using a less exp

The measurement and control o f l i q u i d l e v e l i s frequently a primary control clement i n a geothermal system. Typical applications i n a geothermal system are separator l e v e l , condenser l e v e l , and cooling tower level.

the measurement of l i q u i d l e v e l ca.n be a d i r e c t o r i n f e r r e d measurement. The methods commonly used are as follows:
D i r e c t methods
(1) (2)

Gauge glass

' Ball float

64

(3) Electric conductivity electrode

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t

(4) Light, sonic, or ultrasonic beams

Inferred methods

(1)

Pressure gauge

(2) Differential pressure

(3) Physical or electrical property change

(4) .Radiation
,

(5) -Displacement transmitter

(6) Bubbler or purge.
't

The characteristics of these types of 1 iquid level measurement elements are summarized in Table VI. Level-measurement elements in contact with the geothermal fluid have two common problems: corrosion and deposition. Therefore, a measurement element which is disabled by either of these, such as a ball float, gauge glasses, or electrodes, must use a method to resolve this. In some cases this is not possible, as in any type of float device, the float will collect deposits and the accuracy of measurement will be degraded. In these cases sonic, ultrasonic, or pressure gauges can i sometimes be used. In other "clean-water" *applications, such as in cool ing water or condensate, f 1 oat devices may perform sati sfactori ly.

In some cases two different types of measurement may be used, one

for continuous monitoring and the other for high or low level switches.

65

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TABLE V I CHARACTERISTICS OF LEVEL MEASUREIIENT ELEMENTS

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Mechanism Gauge glass Ball float Conductivity electrode L i g h t , sonic, ultrasonic beams Pressure gwe Differential pressure Property Change Radiation Hydrostatic bloat
t lectronic

Components Transparent tube connected t o vessel n erna o r ex erna oa :iEh mehhanica; o r inefImaEic ktectrodes w i t h switches and detecting relays Transmitter and receiver, transducer, power supply Pressure gauge and other standard instrument components D i f f e r e n t i a l pressure gauge, transducer, pneumatic system Uevice t o measure a change i n the property o f the gas vs the l i q u i d

Principle o f Operation Gauge acts as a manometer showing level v: :e oa moves up an own, w i w i t h motiondtdransmitti!

Advantages Simple, inexpensive, accurate

Disadvantages

i m e inexpensive, d i r e c t L R h c a l action
unlimited range, accurate switch Keletively small, no moving parts, out o f process f l u i d , continuous level monitor, accurate sim le, inexpensive, standard equqpment, unlimited range

tlectronic

Conducting l i q u i d completes a c i r c u i t when level reaches electrode Beam sent f r o m transmitter i s reflected t o receiver, timing i s measured Measured hydrostatic head due t o l i q u i d level Level hydrostatic head causes a d i f f e r e n t i a l pressure from top t o bottom o f vessel W en the phase changes a t the h l i q u i d level the measured property also changes

S i m p l e , inexpensive,

Slow response, l i m i t e d pressure, visual, reading, deposition Narrow range, corrosion o r deposition, must be i n contact w i t h process f l u i d Ueposition, corrosion, viscous f l u i d s

Hydrostatic Hydrostatic

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v1sc0s1 ty, thermal, o r electrical property Kadiatioii attenuation

Source, detector, transducer, Change i n level varies the amplifier, power supply quantity and i n t e n s i t y o f radiation from source t o detector

txperlslve, c a l i b r a t i o n required f o r viscosity, temperature, density, salinity ueposition, corrosion, density sensitive, temperature sensitive Simple, inexpensive, standard Deposition, corrosion, tempequipment, unlimited range erature, pressure, and d density 1imited Fa1ibration, cleaning. Varies w i t h the type of Uepends on known properties, meagurernent deposition, corrosion,. must i n contact w i t h process fluid Accurate, out o f process txpensive, safety f l u l d , large range precautions, .

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2.5

Quality Measurement

The most widely used methods to measure quality are the sodium tracer, e l e c t r i c a l ' conductivity, throttling calorimeter, and gravimetric. The t h r o t t l i n g calorimeter determines the quality directly, whereas the other methods infer the quality from measuring the solid content of the steam. The most accurate method for continuous measurement i s the sodium tracer method. Conductivity methods a r e useful w i t h i n a 1imi ted range. The t h r o t t l i n g calorimeter is not suitable for small quantities of carry-over. Gravimetric methods require large samples and do not detect carry-over peaks. Other methods 'sometimes used are: capacitance measurement, piezoe l e c t r i c , various wave-absorption methods; however, these are not i n common operational use.
/

2.6

Mater Chemistry Monitors

Water chemistry monitoring, i n both the geothermal brine and the cooling water systems, is limited t o measurement of pH and conductivity. In some cases corrosivity and total disolved solids are inferred from other measurements. These types of instruments a r e commercially available, and t h e i r use i n geothermal service does n o t involve unique problems. However, as previously discussed, corrosion, deposi tton, and temperature, should be given consideration when selecting an instrument.
2.7

Combustible Mixture Monitors Combustible mixture monitors are necessary i n a binary system u s i n g
-

a flammable secondary fluid, and where concentrations of hydrogen sulphide (H2S] or other gases a r e possible. Measurement of combustible gases i s important for detecting process leaks and for ensuring t h a t t h e i r concentrations a r e w i t h i n safe limits, below the lower explosive limit.

67

The most common method used f o r measuring combustible gas mixtures employs sel f-heated "hot wire" detectors o f a high-temperature material such as platinum These are mounted i n a Wheatstone bridge' c i r c u i t . The hot. w i r e causes a combustible mixture t o burn. The combustion o f the mixture causes a temperature r i s e which r e s u l t s i n a resistance imbalance. When t h e bridge i s brought t o a balance i t indicates t h e concentration of combustibles. Other methods include i n f r a r e d absorbtion; thermoconductSvi ty, and o x i dat ion.

k-'
*

2.8

Additional Measurements

Other measurements that may be required include geophysica

seismic monitoring, a i r qual.ity monitoring, and weather measurements: Devices for these measurements are available and i n common use. The application, i n s t a l l a t i o n , and operation o f these instruments should f o l 1ow the manufacturers ' suggested methods. 3.

INSTALLATJON REQUIREblENTS

3.1

Codes and Standards

The f o l l o w i n g codes and standards should be followed when selecting, i n s t a l l i n g , and operating measurement and control systems (1) American Society o f Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Div. 1 B o i l e r and

(2)

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulations

7

(3) National E l e c t r i c Code

E

(4)

ASME Power Test Codes

GV

68

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(5)
(6)

ASME flow metering and other measurement standards

American National Standards I n s t i t u t e (ANSI) standards I n s t i t u t e o f E l e c t r i c and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) standards f o r instrumentation Instrument Society o f America (ISA) Standards and Practices Manual National E l e c t r i c Manufacturers Association (NEMA) standards f o r e l e c t r i c a l equipment National F i r e Protection Association (NFPA) standards.

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

3.2 Guide1ines and Standard Practices

d

I n a d d i t i o n t o the applicable codes and standards previously discussed, t h i s section addresses those items which are used as general guidelines f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f measurement devices i n geothermal systems. The m a i n t a i n a b i l i t y o f a measurement device i s o f p a r t i c u l a r concern i n geothermal systems. This i s due t o the p o t e n t i a l f o r corrosion o r deposition. The r e l a t i v e ease o f maintenance o f a p a r t i c u l a r device i s considered i n the process of selection and should be followed during i n s t a l l a t i o n o f the device. I s o l a t i o n valves should be provided f o r devices such as pressure gauges, f o r example, which can become plugged by deposition. Also, bypasses are normally provided where a device i s i n the f u l l process stream. I n areas c r i t i c a l t o the operation, redundant instrumentation may be necessary. I n general, areas o f stagnation should be avoided. This w i l l reduce the p o s s i b i l i t y o f plugging and freezing. The l o c a t i o n o f a device should be c a r e f u l l y selected t o ensure t h a t the desired process variable-measurement i s a c t u a l l y being measured.

69

For example, a. pH meter,.in the.cooling water system should be located a t a p o i n t o f complete mixed condition, not i n areas o f concentration cells. -iping-runs f o r ingtrumentatim should be as short-as possible, t o avoid damage due t o thermal expansion.
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70

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2

V. REFERENCES

1.

T. E. Springer and 0. A. Farmer, "TAF A Steady State, Frequency Response, and Time Response Simulation Program, I Fa11 J o i n t Computer Conference, San Francisco , Cal if o r n i a, December, 1968. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Business Machines, Continuous System Model i n Program 111, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Business Machines Corporation, Q975.

2.

3.
4.
5.

R. S. Deeds and K. E. Starling, THERPP-A Thermodynamic Properties Program, TREE- 1081 (May 1977).
John Hal 1, "A uide t o Pressure Monitoring Devices ," Chi 1ton's Instruments & o n t r o l Systems, 51, 4 ( A p r i l 1978) p 20.

John Hal 1, "A Guide t o Pressure Monitoring Devices ," Chi 1t o n ' s Instruments & Control Systems, 51, 4 ( A p r i l 1978) p 22. John Hall, "Flowmeters Matching Application and Devices,'' Chi1ton's Instruments & Control Systems, 51, 2 (February 1978) p 18.

6.
7.

John Hal 1, ''Flowmeters Matching Application and Devices," C h i l t o n ' s Instruments & Control Systems, 51, 2 (February 1978) p 20.

71

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APPENDIX SELECTED B I B LfOGRAPHY

73

_-

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,APPENDIX

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Douglas M. Considine, Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, 2nd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1974. Howard P. Kallen, Handbook o f Instrumentation and Controls, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961. 3. P. Holman, Experimental Methods f o r Engineers, 2nd edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1971.
R. H. Perry and C. H. Chilton, Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 5 t h edition, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1973.
T. Baumeister and L. S. Marks, Standard Handbook f o r Mechanical Engineers, 7 t h edition, New Y o r k McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,

2.

3.

4.

5.
4 .

1967.
2

6.

Steam I t s Generation and Use, 38th edition, New York: 81 Wilcox Company, 1972.
I .

The Babcock
,1 -

. .

7.

Engineer Data Book, 9 t h edition, Tulsa, Oklahoma: Suppliers Association, 1972.

. .
1

Gas Processors

. '

8.

ves, 2nd edition, ngson, Handbook o f Control strument Society of America, 1976. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania:
I

75

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