4038CEM Engineering Mathematics I 4010CEM Mathematics For Physics and Engineering

4038CEM Engineering Mathematics I
4010CEM Mathematics for Physics and Engineering

Week 1 – Linear Algebra
HELM Workbook 9
Eng. Mathematics Chapter 33
Adv. Eng. Mathematics Chapter 7
Dr. Paul Griffiths
paul.griffiths@coventry.ac.uk
Introduction to vectors
A scalar has only magnitude. However, a vector has both
magnitude and direction.
For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

velocity of 70 mph due north is a vector quantity.
It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

• An area of 100 m2


• An area of 100 m2 – scalar


• A time of 60 s


• A time of 60 s – scalar


• A force of 10 N acting in a given direction


• A force of 10 N acting in a given direction – vector


• An acceleration of 9.81 ms−2


• An acceleration of 9.81 ms−2 – vector


• A temperate of 100 K


• A temperate of 100 K – scalar


• A mass of 20kg


• A mass of 20kg – scalar


• A weight of 5 g


• A weight of 5 g – vector
Vectors Magnitudes
−
→
b = OB −
→
v = AB
O −→ A
a = OA
−→ − → − →
OA + AB = OB,
a + v = b.
~
OA
Magnitudes – A = (2, 0) – B = (3, 3)
−
→
b = OB −
→
v = AB
O −→ A
a = OA
−→
|a| = |OA| = 2,
−→ √
|v| = |AB| = 10,
−
→ √ √
|b| = |OB| = 18 = 3 2.
Scaling vectors Magnitudes
−→
c = OC
O −→ A C
a = OA
−→ −→
OC = 3OA/2,
c = 3a/2.
~
OA
Unit vectors Magnitudes
−
→
b = OB
b̂
−
→ − →
b̂ = OB/|OB|,
b̂ = b/|b|,
|b̂| ≡ 1.
More vectors Magnitudes
−
→
b = OB −
→
v = AB
O −→ A
a = OA
−
→ −→ − →
OB = OA + AB,
−
→ − → −→ −
→ −→ −→ − → −
→
BO = BA + AO = −AB − OA = −(OA + AB) = −OB,
~
OA
Some vector facts
• Vectors have magnitude and direction.

• Vectors can be added, subtracted and multiplied by a scalar
number.
• The zero vector (0) has no magnitude.
• Vectors are only equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction.
• A unit vector always has a magnitude of one.
• The same position can be described in infinitely many different
ways.
• It does not matter how we add vectors:
a + b = b + a,
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
Examples I
−
→ − → −
→
1) Express AB, BA and BC in terms of the position vectors a, b and c.
c
b
O a A
Examples I
−→
2) Determine OM in terms of the position vectors a and b.
A M B
a b
O
Examples I
3) OABC is a parallelogram. The position vector of A is a and the
position vector of C is c. F is the mid-point of AB and the point E
divides the line OC such that OE : EC = 2 : 1. The point E also
divides the line AD such that AE : ED = 3 : 2. Find the following in
terms of a and c:
−→ −→ − → −→ − →
• OB, AC, AE, AD, BD.
• the position vector of F.
D C B
E F
O A
Resolving forces
A force of F1 = 4 kN acts horizontally and a force of F2 = 4 kN acts
vertically on an object located at O. Determine the resultant force.
C
B
R
F2
θ F1 A
O
R = F1 + F2 .
p p √
|R| = |F1 |2 + |F2 |2 = 42 + 42 = 4 2.
θ = arctan(|F2 |/|F1 |) = arctan(1) = 45◦ .
Examples II
1) Find the magnitude of the resultant force R. You are given that
θ = 30◦ and φ = 45◦ .
φ
R
θ
A 8 kN B
You may make use of the sine rule:
a b c
= = .
sin A sin B sin C
Examples II
2) Two forces act on an object located at the origin. Force F1 is
10 kN, force F2 is 15 kN and is inclined at an angle of θ = 60◦ with
respect to F1 . Determine the resultant force R.
R
15 kN
θ
A 10 kN B
You may make use of the cosine rule:
b2 = a2 + c 2 − 2ac cos B
Examples II
3) Two forces act on an object located at the origin. Force F1 is 10 kN

and is inclined at an angle of θ = 45◦ from the horizontal. Force F2
is inclined at an angel of φ = 30◦ from the vertical. Determine the
resultant force R.
F2
F1
φ
θ
O
Cartesian components of vectors
Vector calculations become much simpler if we make use of the unit
vectors in the x and y ‘directions’.
y
B
b
j
x
O i a A
−→
OA = ai,
−→
AB = bj,
−→
OB = ai + bj.
Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction of vectors is exactly the same - the
notation is just simpler.
3 y
2 p
1
j x
−4 −3 −2 −1 i 2 3
q
−2
−3
−4
−5
p = 3i + 3j
q = −i − 2j
r = p + q = 2i + j
s = q − p = −4i − 5j
Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction of vectors is exactly the same - the
notation is just simpler.
3 y
2 p
1
j r x
−4 −3 −2 −1 i 2 3
q
s −2
−3
−4
−5
p = 3i + 3j
q = −i − 2j
r = p + q = 2i + j
s = q − p = −4i − 5j
Magnitude and unit vectors
If t = ai + bj, using what we already know about the magnitude of
a vector we are able to write
p
|t| = |ai + bj| = a2 + b 2 .
We use trigonometry to determine the angle the vector is inclined at

b
θ = arctan .
a
This is measured from the positive x-axis.

Previously we noted that t̂ = t/|t|. Therefore
t t ai + bj
t̂ = =√ =√ .
|t| a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
Here t̂ is the unit vector that corresponds to the vector t. This is a

two-dimensional unit vector.
Example
3 y
2 p
1
j θ x
−4 −3 −2 −1 i 2 3
−2
−3
−4
−5
p √
|p| = 32 + 32 = 3 2,
θ = arctan(3/3) = 45.0◦ ,
p 3i + 3j i+j
p̂= = √ = √ .
|p| 3 2 2
Example
3 y
2 p
1 p̂
j θ x
−4 −3 −2 −1 i 2 3
−2
−3
−4
−5
p √
|p| = 32 + 32 = 3 2,
θ = arctan(3/3) = 45.0◦ ,
p 3i + 3j i+j
p̂ = = √ = √ .
|p| 3 2 2
Example
3 y
2
1
j x
−4 −3 −2 −1 i 2 3
θ
s −2
−3
−4
−5
p √
|s| = (−4)2 + (−5)2 = 41,
θ = arctan(−5/ − 4) = 51.3◦ −180◦ = −128.7◦ ,
p −4i − 5j
ŝ= = √ .
|p| 41
Example
3 y
2
1
j x
−4 −3 −2 −1 ŝ i 2 3
θ
s −2
−3
−4
−5
p √
|s| = (−4)2 + (−5)2 = 41,
θ = arctan(−5/ − 4) = 51.3◦ −180◦ = −128.7◦ ,
s −4i − 5j
ŝ = = √ .
|s| 41
Rules to remember
y
2
+180◦
1
j x
−2 −1 i 1 2
−1
◦
−180
−2
Principle argument:
−180◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ .
Angle always in degrees.

Examples III
1) Given that p = 3i + 9j, q = −4i + 5j, r = −i − 3j and s = i − 3j.

Determine
• p+q+r +s
• p + 3r
• q̂ and the angle θ that the unit vector is inclined at
• ŝ and the angle θ that the unit vector is inclined at
2) Given that t = ai + bj and u = ci + dj, show that
v̂ 6= t̂ + û,
where v = t + u.
Examples III
3) Three forces act on an object located at the origin. Force F1 is
10 kN and is inclined at an angle of θ = 45◦ from the horizontal.
Force F2 is 8 kN and is inclined at an angel of φ = 30◦ from the
vertical. Force F3 = 15 kN acts vertically downwards. Determine the
resultant force R.
F2 F1
φ
θ
O
F3
The dot product
We’ve discussed vector addition, subtraction and multiplication
with a scalar. The next natural question to ask is:
“How do we multiply vectors?”
There are two ways to do this. The first is the dot product – the
result of this calculation is a scalar. The calculation if defined like so
a · b = |a||b| cos θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ,
where θ is the angle between the two vectors.

• If θ = 90◦ then the vectors are perpendicular (in this case the
dot product is equal to 0).
• If θ = 0◦ then the vectors are parallel (in this case the dot
product is equal to |a||b|).
Dot product in practice
Recall that the basis vector in the x direction is i and the basis
vector in the y direction is j. Then
i · i = |i||i| cos(0) = 1,
i · j = |i||j| cos(90) = 0,
j · i = |j||i| cos(90) = 0,
j · j = |j||j| cos(0) = 1.
Therefore if a = a1 i + a2 j, and b = b1 i + b2 j then
a · b = (a1 i + a2 j) · (b1 i + b2 j)
= a1 b1 (i · i) + a1 b2 (i · j) + a2 b1 (j · i) + a2 b2 (j · j)
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 .
Hence, in general
a1 b1 + a2 b2
θ = arccos .
|a||b|
Graphical example
y
3
2
q
1
p
θ
j x
−2 −1 i 1 2 3 4
p √
|p| = 42 + 12 = 17,
p √
|q| = (−2)2 + 32 = 13,
p · q = (4i + 1j) · (−2i + 3j) = (4 · −2) + (1 · 3) = −5,

p·q −5
θ = arccos = arccos √ = 109.7◦ .
|p||q| 221
Projection of a vector
We know that
a · b = |a||b| cos θ.
Therefore
b
|a| cos θ = a · = a · b̂ = d.
|b|
d is the projection of the vector a in the direction of the vector b.

y
3
2
a
1
θ
j b x
−2 −1 i 1 2 3 4
√
d = |a| cos θ = 3 2 cos(45◦ ) = 3,
b (3i + 3j) · (4i + 0j) 12
d =a· = = = 3,
|b| 4 4
d = a · b̂ = (3i + 3j) · (1i + 0j) = 3.
Work done (force times distance)
The work done by a force F in moving a particle from a point A to a
point B is defined as the product of the component of the force in
the direction of movement and the distance moved:
−
→
work done from A to B = projection of F in direction of AB
−
→
multiplied by the length of AB.
Or −
→
AB −→ −
→
work done from A to B = F · −→ |AB| = F · AB
|AB|
−→ −
→ −
→
If r A = OA and r B = OB then AB = r B − r A . Therefore
W = F · (r B − r A ).
Work done (force times distance)
We wish to calculate the work done by the force F in moving the
particle from A to B.
y
3
F
A
2
B
1 rA
rB
j x
−2 −1 O i 1 2 3 4
From the figure F = 3i − j. Also r A = i + 2j and r B = 3i + j.

Therefore
W = (3i − j) · [(3 − 1)i + (1 − 2)j] = (3i − j) · (2i − j) = 6 + 1 = 7.

Vectors in three dimensions
k a
i a3
j
a2 a1 y
x
a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k.
Vectors in three dimensions
Everything we’ve covered so far translates logically from
two-dimensions into three-dimensions.
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k, then:
αa = α(a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) = αa1 i + αa2 j + αa3 k,

a + b = (a1 + b1 )i + (a2 + b2 )j + (a3 + b3 )k,
q
|a| = a12 + a22 + a32 ,
q
|b| = b12 + b22 + b32 ,
a a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
â = = p 2 ,
|a| a1 + a22 + a32
b b1 i + b2 j + b3 k
b̂ = = p 2 ,
|b| b1 + b22 + b32
a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = |a||b| cos θ.
The cross product
We’ve discussed vector addition, subtraction and multiplication

with a scalar. The next natural question to ask is:
“How do we multiply vectors?”
There are two ways to do this. The second is the cross product – the
result of this calculation is a vector. The calculation if defined like
so
a × b = ê|a||b| sin θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ,
where ê is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b – in the sense

determined by a screw turning from a to b.
Cross product – visualisation
a × b = ê|a||b| sin θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ .

Cross product in practice
Recall that the unit vector in the x direction is i and the unit vector
in the y direction is j. Then
i × i = ê|i||i| sin(0) = 0,
i × j = ê|i||j| sin(90) = k,
j × i = ê|j||i| sin(90) = −k,
j × j = ê|j||j| sin(0) = 0.
Therefore if a = a1 i + a2 j, and b = b1 i + b2 j then
a × b = (a1 i + a2 j) × (b1 i + b2 j)
= a1 b1 (i × i) + a1 b2 (i × j) + a2 b1 (j × i) + a2 b2 (j × j)
= 0 + a1 b2 k − a2 b1 k + 0
= (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.
So that, in two-dimensions, the unit vector is in the direction:
(a b − a2 b1 )k
p1 2 = k.
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2
Cross product in three-dimensions
If a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k then
a × b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i − (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.
As an additional exercise prove that this is true!
We can use the idea of a determinant (we’ll spend a lot of time

looking at these in the next few weeks) to help us calculate the cross
product in three-dimensions:
     
i j k i j k i j k
a × b = + a1 a2 a3  − a1 a2 a3  + a1 a2 a3 
b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3

a a a a a a
= +i 2 3 − j 1 3 + k 1 2
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= +(i)(a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − (j)(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + (k)(a1 b2 − a2 b1 ).
Moments
A force F is applied to an object making it rotate about a fixed axis
z
M
F
k r
i
j
y
x
The moment of the force about the origin is

M = r × F.
In the above example r = −1.6i and F = −1.6j. Hence M = 2.56k.

Examples IV
1) Determine the force F , which has a magnitude of 28 kN, in the
−→
direction of the vector AB, where the respective coordinates of A
and B are (1, 3, 5) and (7, 1, 2).
2) Given that p = 3i + 9j − 6k and q = −4i + 5j + 2k. Determine

• p̂ and q̂
• p·q
• The angle between p and q
• The projection of p in the direction of q
• The work done by a force F = −2i + j in moving a particle
from (3, 9, −6) to (−4, 5, 2).
3) A force has a magnitude of 18 kN and it acts on a particle in the
direction of i + 2j + 2k. This force remains constant whilst the
particle is displaced form (1, 3, 5) to (7, 4, 2). Find the total work
done by the force.
Examples IV
4) Given that a = 3i + 2j − 2k, and b = 2i + 4j − k. Determine
a × b and hence find a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b.
5) Determine the moment of the force F = 3i + j − 2k, about the

origin, that is applied to a particle at the point (2, −1, 0).
6) Given that a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, and b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k.

Show that
a × b = −b × a.
7) Given that a and b are as above and that c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k.

Show that:
(a · c)b − (b · c)a = (a × b) × c.

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4038CEM Engineering Mathematics I

4010CEM Mathematics for Physics and Engineering

Dr. Paul Griffiths

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

For example, a speed of 70 mph is a scalar quantity. However, a

It is important to know the difference between scalars and vectors!

• Vectors have magnitude and direction.

You may make use of the sine rule:

You may make use of the cosine rule:

3) Two forces act on an object located at the origin. Force F1 is 10 kN

We use trigonometry to determine the angle the vector is inclined at

This is measured from the positive x-axis.

Here t̂ is the unit vector that corresponds to the vector t. This is a

θ = arctan(−5/ − 4) = 51.3◦ −180◦ = −128.7◦ ,

θ = arctan(−5/ − 4) = 51.3◦ −180◦ = −128.7◦ ,

Angle always in degrees.

1) Given that p = 3i + 9j, q = −4i + 5j, r = −i − 3j and s = i − 3j.

2) Given that t = ai + bj and u = ci + dj, show that

“How do we multiply vectors?”

a · b = |a||b| cos θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ,

where θ is the angle between the two vectors.

Therefore if a = a1 i + a2 j, and b = b1 i + b2 j then

d is the projection of the vector a in the direction of the vector b.

From the figure F = 3i − j. Also r A = i + 2j and r B = 3i + j.

W = (3i − j) · [(3 − 1)i + (1 − 2)j] = (3i − j) · (2i − j) = 6 + 1 = 7.

αa = α(a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) = αa1 i + αa2 j + αa3 k,

We’ve discussed vector addition, subtraction and multiplication

“How do we multiply vectors?”

a × b = ê|a||b| sin θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ ,

where ê is a unit vector perpendicular to both a and b – in the sense

a × b = ê|a||b| sin θ, 0◦ ≤ θ ≤ 180◦ .

We can use the idea of a determinant (we’ll spend a lot of time