Characterisation and utilisation of steel slag

for the construction of roads and highways

M. M. A. Aziz*1, M. R. Hainin 1, H. Yaacob 2, Z. Ali2, F.-L. Chang 2 and A. M. Adnan 2
Steel slags are by-products from steel industries which can be used for the construction of roads
and highways. Most of the physical and mechanical properties of steel slags are similar or better
compared to conventional crushed stone aggregates. Most of the developed countries have
successfully incorporating steel slags as an aggregate in hot mix asphalt, road base, sub-base
and soil stabilisation in road works. This paper is a review of the physical, mechanical and
chemical characteristics of steel slags and its utilisation in road pavement works. This paper
highlights the flaws that need to be addressed, and further studies are required to develop an
understanding of the potential of steel slag as a construction material. Hydrophobic property of
steel slag provides a good adhesion with bitumen binder and helps to resist against the
stripping and other defects of roads. Thus, it enhances a sustainable cost-effective green
pavement in highway industry.
Keywords: Steel slag, Recycle, Soil stabilisation, Industrial waste material, Environment friendly, Leaching, Sustainable green pavement

Introduction properties of the asphalt mix design. The replacement

Factors such as environment, economic, technical and
deficiency of proper construction material have diverted
the attention of experts towards the industrial waste
materials. Steel slag is one of the industrial waste
materials containing significant amounts of iron which
makes it sufficiently hard, dense and abrasion resistant.1
The angularity and high shear resistance of steel slag par-
ticles enhance the resistance against permanent defor-
mation (G/Sin δ) and fatigue cracking (G* Sin δ) of
pavements.2 According to Geiseler,3 Aristotle has indi-
cated that during the purification of iron, a byproduct is
generated similar to a stone called iron slag in 350 BC.
It has been reported in the National Slag Association
that iron and steel slags have been used in engineering
constructions for more than 150 years. Iron slag was
used for the construction of roads during the Roman
Empire.4
During the year 1998, an estimated amount of 97% of
the total generated steel slag has been used for the con-
struction of high trafficked roads in Germany. It is uti-
lised as aggregate, soil for earthworks and hydraulic
structures as well.5 Partial replacement of natural aggre-
gate with steel slag provides satisfactory results. Asi
et al.6 reported that partial replacement of limestone
coarse aggregates with steel slag of about 30–75% pro-
vides high skid resistance and improves mechanical
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering and UTM Construction Research Center
(CRC), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310 Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), 81310
Skudai, Johor, Malaysia
*Corresponding author, email mzaman@utm.my
of fine or coarse aggregate fraction with steel slag in
asphalt pavement mixes provides satisfactory results.
Moreover, the use of 100% steel slag requires higher
amounts of bitumen binder because of its high porosity
and also results in volume expansion owing to free lime
and magnesium.7
Production and treatment process
of steel slag
Production of 3 tons steel may generate around 1 ton of
steel slag.8 It is reported that from steel industries
50million tons of steel slag are generated every year. In
Europe, around 12million tons of steel slag are generated
every year.5 Steel slag is a residual material, and it is gen-
erated either by converting iron to steel in basic oxygen
furnace (BOF) or from the melting of scrap to produce
steel in electric arc furnace (EAF). The impurities such
as carbon monoxide, silicon, manganese, phosphorous
and iron in liquid state combine with lime and dolomite
lime and are separated by injecting oxygen with high
pressure to form steel slag. The cold steel scrap is
melted through high electric current passing through
graphite electrodes by forming an arc. Some other
metals like alloys are added to balance the chemical com-
position and then oxygen is blown to purify the steel.9
There are four steps in the treatment process of steel
slag, after separation of steel the cooling process is
carried out either by air or water cooling process. Slag
is then crushed into smaller pieces, this process of crush-
ing and grading is repeated until the required grade of
aggregates is obtained. Metallic particles are separated
through conveyer belts electromagnetically. It is

© W. S. Maney & Son Ltd 2014

DOI 10.1179/1432891714Z.000000000967 Materials Research Innovations 2014 VOL 18 SUPPL 6 S6-255
Aziz et al. Characterisation and utilisation of steel slag

competing with natural aggregate, where high-perform- against stripping. A simple test may be conducted by
ance aggregate is limited. This indicates the importance putting the sample into boiling water and the degree of
of alternative aggregates such as steel slag, as valuable stripping is evaluated.10
products, not as waste byproducts. Generally, steel slags
are environmental friendly.10
Specific gravity
Chemical and mineral composition Steel slag contains sufficient amounts of iron oxide, there-
of steel slag fore it has a greater value of specific gravity as compared
with natural aggregates. Researchers have reported that
Generally, steel slags consist of CaO, MgO, SiO2 and the specific gravity of steel slag lies within the range of
FeO, which are found within the range of about 3–4. Steel slag is about 20% heavier than minerals such
88–90%. The total concentration of these oxides in as lime stone and granite.
liquid slags is in the range of 88–92%. The chemical com-
positions of steel slag are given in Table 1.
Both BOF and EAF slags are characterised by dical- Grain size distribution
cium silicate, dicalcium ferrite and wustite. Dicalcium sili-
cate provides stability, thus preventing disintegration of Grain size distribution is an important factor that highly
steel slag. Studies show that the dissolved lime and influences the mechanical properties of the material. It is
MgO present do not affect the volume of steel slag. difficult to break steel slag into particles of different sizes
However, the excess amount of ‘spongy free lime’ and during its generation in the steel mill. During the cooling
MgO may cause volume instability.3 Typical mineralogi- process, it breaks down into different particle sizes
cal composition of steel slag is given in Table 2.
Table 2 Mineralogical composition of steel slag
Physical and mechanical properties Slag Mineralogical composition References
of steel slag
EAF CaCo3, FeO, MgO, Fe2O3, Ca2Al (AlSiO7), 21,22
As can be seen, the physical and mechanical properties of Ca2SiO4
steel slag meet the requirements of a high-class material. … 2CaO·SiO2, 3CaO·SiO2, 2CaO·Fe2O3, 26
As compared with natural aggregates, steel slag provides FeO, (Ca·Fe)O
an ideal durability, permeability, stability and resistance EAF Ca2SiO5, Ca2Al (AlSiO7), Fe2O3, 25
against abrasion, cracking and permanent deformation. Ca14Mg2(SiO4)8, MgFe2O4, Mn3O4,
MnO2
The physical and mechanical properties of steel slag are BOF 2CaO·Al2O3·SiO2, Fe2O3,CaO, FeO 16
presented in Table 3. EAF MnO2, MnO, Fe2SiO4, Fe7SiO10 16
BOF 2CaO·Fe2O32CaO·P2O5, 2CaO·SiO2, CaO 24
BOF β-Ca2SiO4, FeO–MnO–MgO solid solution, 17
Affinity of steel slag with binder MO
Steel slags are hydrophobic (strong affinity with bitumen EAF Ca3MgSiO42, β-Ca2SiO4 spinal solid 17
solution (Mg,Mn)(Cr,Al)2O4 wsuite-type
binder), basic or alkaline in nature having a pH value of
solid solution ((Fe,Mg,Mn)O),
around 12, whereas the bitumen binder is normally acidic, Ca2(Al,Fe)2O5
having a natural chemical affinity with steel slags and the EAF Ca2SiO4,4CaO·Al2O3·FeO3, Ca2Al(AlSiO7), 20
pH value of bitumen binder is less than 7. This property Ca3SiO5, 2CaO·Al2O3SiO2, FeO, Fe3O4,
of steel slag provides good adhesion and helps to resist MgO, SiO2

Table 1 Chemical properties of steel slag

Steel slag CaO SiO2 Al2O3 FeO/Fe2O3 MgO MnO TiO2 SO3 P2O5 Free CaO Reference

BOF 39·30 7·75 0·98 …/38·06 8·56 4·24 0·94 0·02 … … 11

EAF 35–60 9–20 2–9 15–13/… 5–15 0–8 … ·08–·23 ·01–·25 … 9
BOF 47·5 11·8 2·00 …/22·6 6·3 1·90 0·50 … 2·70 … 12
EAF 30–40 10–20 <10 15–35/… < 10 10 ∼0 <0·25 <2 <1·5 13
BOF 41·30 12·50 2·40 …/31·20 4·3 6·10 0·8 … 1·10 … 14
EAF 25–40 10–17 4–7 …/… 4–15 <6 … … <1·5 <3 5
BOF 47·88 12·16 1·22 26·30/… 0·82 0·28 … 0·28 3·33 … 15
EAF 40·78 17·81 4·23 9·25/3·97 8·53 9·79 … 0·3 0·74 … 16
BOF 40·1 17·80 2·04 12·92/6·58 6·32 6·52 … 0·46 1·13 3·9 16
EAF 45·5 32·2 3·7 3·3/1 5·2 2 … … … … 17
BOF 41·3 15·60 2·20 …/… 6·90 8·90 0·50 … … 3·3 4
EAF 32·1 19·4 8·6 …/… 9·4 6·8 0·4 0·6 … … 18
BOF 41·44 15·26 4·35 13·95/9·24 8·06 5·2 0·72 … 1·15 3·9 19
EAF 35·7 17·53 6·25 …/26·36 6·45 2·5 0·76 … … … 20
BOF 45·41 13·71 3·8 21·85/3·24 6·25 3·27 … … 1·42 … 21
EAF 29·49 16·11 7·56 …/32·56 4·96 4·53 0·78 0·63 0·55 … 21,22
BOF 45 11·10 1·90 10·70/10·90 9·6 3·10 … … … … 17
EAF 23·9 15·3 7·4 …/… 5·1 4·5 … 0·1 … 0·45 23
EAF 52·3 15·30 1·30 …/… 1·10 0·39 … … 3·10 10·0 24
EAF 24·4 15·35 12·21 34·36/… 2·91 5·57 0·56 … 1·19 … 25

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 Aziz et al. Characterisation and utilisation of steel slag

Table 3 Physical and mechanical properties of steel slag

Steel Bulk density Water absorp- ACV Polished Stripping

slag GS (kg m−3) tion (%) LAA (%) Soundness (%) AIV stone value CBR (%) Reference

EAF 3–3·7 1800–2000 0·2–2 20–25 <12 … … … … … 27

… 3·69 … … 15 2·2 15 11 … <400 >97 28
… … … … 20–25 <12 … … … 300 … 29
EAF 3·38 … … 24 … … … 0·05 … 0 30
EAF 3·91 … … 15·5–21·5 … … … 0·05 … 0 30
… 3·5 >1900 0–2 14 0–1·5 20 14 … >200 … 10
WCS 3·4 … 1·6 13 0·4 … … … … … 31
ACS 3·3 … 1·8 16 0·8 … … … … … 31

containing larger size as boulders up to the sizes of silt.
Further, it may be processed to obtain proper grade of
steel slag in crushing plants.
The coarse-graded particles may be found in the range
of about 64–200 mm, similarly the medium size particles
are up to 64 mm. Fine-graded steel slag may be aligned to
well-graded sand consisting of varying sizes of gravel up
to the silt size particles, retained on sieve 4·75 mm and
passing through 0·075 mm. The percentage of silt size
particle remains within the range of 10–15%.21,22,32
Compaction characteristics
Limited studies have been carried out on the compaction
of steel slag. The results generally showed higher values of
maximum dry unit weight compared with natural aggre-
gates. Rohde et al.32 have studied the compaction charac-
teristics of EAF steel slag of different grades by standard
proctor compaction test method. The optimum moisture
content and maximum dry weight of EAF steel slag
were found to be within the range of 3–6% and
23–26 kN m−3. Andreas et al.33 worked on compaction
characteristics of ladle and 35% EAF steel slag mixture
and obtained satisfactory results of standard proctor
compaction parameters. The moisture content was 13%
and the maximum dry unit weight was 22 kN m−3.
Thermal properties
It has been noticed that steel slag has the potential to
retain heat for longer periods than natural aggregates.
The heat retention property of steel slag aggregate
(SSA) is an advantage. It helps to prepare hot mix
asphalt concrete to coat the aggregates properly,
especially during repairing of pavements surface in cold
weather.2
Leaching of steel slag
Fällman34 and Proctor et al.8 studied different slag
samples collected from 58 active mills of North
America accounting for more than 47% steel production.
The contents of steel slag in the form of heavy metals were
also tested in compliance with toxicity characteristics
leaching procedure. The results confirmed that the
heavy metals in steel slag cannot be easily separated
even in acidic conditions. In conclusion, it can be said
that the contaminants of steel slag at the tested level do
not have a negative impact on the recommended ground-
water drinking standards.
It has been reported by Chaurand et al.14 that in road
construction the use of BOF slag can cause notable
release of vanadium. A study by Macsik and
Jacobsson26 shows that although the BOF slag may be
used as a mechanical stabilisation agent in cement-stabil-
ised soils, the release of contaminants can be reduced via
chemical reactions in the medium. The alkalinity of steel
slag leachate is also one of their important characteristics.
The increase in pH of steel slag disposed of in landfill sites
has been reported in groundwater. The leaching of alka-
line from steel slag is a major cause of higher pH value
of groundwater. As such, to preserve the ecosystem, the
areas where steel slag is disposed of, requires a careful
analysis.35,36
Worldwide utilisation of steel slag for the
construction of roads in pavement layers
Both BOF and EAF steel slag materials can be chosen for
road construction because of their valuable character-
istics. Sufficient record of their uses and performance
characteristics can be found in major projects around
the world. In Indiana, SSA in asphalt mixtures was
used for 1–1·25 inch thick layer of surface layer in the con-
struction of many roads between 1979 and 1981.2 In a
similar study by Stock et al.,37 it has been reported that
for past 60 years in South Yorkshire and within its locality
steel slag with bitumen was used in road construction.
The results showed that the skid resistance characteristics
of steel slag road surfaces are superior in comparison with
natural aggregate road surfaces under similar traffic con-
ditions. Countries such as Italy, Malaysia, Singapore,
Australia and Saudi Arabia, where high temperature is
experienced, have accepted the use of steel slag.38 The
SSA characterised by more angular grains produce best
interlocking, this is required to provide internal friction
to improve stiffness and more resistance to permanent
deformation.
Australian Steel Mill Services designed and constructed
heavy-duty haul road within the Port Kembala steel
works using SSAs.39 The SSA that was used in haul
road has been found to improve the adhesive character-
istics and internal stability, main reasons for this property
is the vascularity. Pavement thickness could be minimised
because of the self-stabilising characteristics of steel slag.
A study was carried out by Emery40 and reported the
overall review of the current and potential utilisation of
ferrous, non-ferrous and boiler slag in pavement struc-
ture. It was observed that the most advantageous use of
iron ballast and boiler slag was in cements, base

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Aziz et al. Characterisation and utilisation of steel slag
stabilisation and asphalt concrete. The slag obtained from
steel manufacturing can also be used to enhance shoulder
stabilisation. Experiences in the USA, Belgium, Japan,
Netherlands and Germany have shown that properly
selected processed, aged and tested SSA can be used as
a granular base for roads in the above grade applications.
Reasons being that the slag so obtained possesses numer-
ous desirable mechanical properties which make it suit-
able to be used in the granular base.41
In a study of test section, Hunt and Boyle42 used
15–30% steel slag in the test mix. They recommended
additional trials using the Super pave mix design
system, which may help in optimising the gradation and
asphalt demand.
Properly weathered EAF steel slag has been investi-
gated as a base material for the construction of low-
volume roads. Satisfactory results of resilient modulus
were obtained from EAF steel slag as compared with
the natural aggregates.32 Aiban and Abdul Wahhab28
incorporated a mixture of marl and sand with 30– 85%
of steel slag by weight for road base and obtained CBR
values of up to 455%, for use as base and sub-base
courses. Properties of cement stabilised steel slag have
also been studied. The results exhibited high values than
natural aggregate cement stabilisation.43 A mixture of
fly ash and phosphogypsum with steel slag has been
designed for road base. When the properties of this mix
was investigated, long-term shear strength and water stab-
ility indices were found to be much higher than cement
stabilised granular materials.44 It is also proposed by
Mymrin et al. 45 that the construction cost of road base
can be reduced by the use of cement-activated steel slag
with a natural soil mix as it provides maximum strength
and stability with a shorter thickness as compared with
the conventional construction material.
Geotechnical applications of steel slag
Steel slag has favourable properties such as greater fric-
tion angle and self-cementation characteristics. It has
been reported that certain mixtures of cement, lime, fly
ash and steel slag provide good compressive strength
when properly cured.43 De Bock and Bergh46 have
demonstrated the results of a case study in Belgium. In
this study, 4% cement (by weight), natural sand (18%)
and EAF (78%, 0–20 mm size range), in the form of
hydraulic bound mixture, were used in the foundation
layer of an industrial storage area. Mymrin et al.45 experi-
mented a blend of EAF slag (0–5 mm size) and MgO
almost (5%) in combination with cement-stabilised soils.
Mechanical properties of EAF slag and the bonding
effect by its reaction with water are a considerable
improvement in the strength of the stabilised soil. The
replacement of cement with steel slag in soil stabilisation
can reduce the overall cost of projects.
Recommendation
The overall conclusion has been summarised based on the
reviewed literature. Generally, steel slags have proven to
have promising better potential and provides many
advantages. Almost all developed countries in the
world are utilising it in their construction industry.
Generally, it is observed that about 30–70% of steel slag
replaced with natural aggregate helps us to obtain
S6-258 Materials Research Innovations 2014 VOL 18 SUPPL
sufficient density and strength with least construction
cost. Owing to its angularity and rough texture it provides
excellent skid resistance and proper interlocking with
bitumen binders, which prevents unexpected early
damages of pavements. Reuse of steel slag as a construc-
tion material has not shown any negative impact on the
environment so far. The volume instability problem of
steel slag can be avoided to a sufficient extent if the
steel slag is properly weathered/seasoned. The specific
gravity of steel slag is generally higher than that of
natural aggregates. This may create confusion when
blended with natural aggregates for the design of asphal-
tic concrete because of the difference in volumetric and
mass composition. There must be a guideline or specifica-
tion for steel slag to be followed, for the different pro-
portions of steel slag blended with natural aggregates to
obtain an adequate mix design. Literature showed that
steel slag has enough potential and can be utilised in sub-
grade or embankments. However, very little research has
been performed in this area. It is concluded that based on
the chemical and mineralogical composition the proper-
ties of steel slag are different than that of the natural
aggregate. So, the utilisation of guidelines provided for
natural aggregates may not be appropriate or suitable
for steel slag.
Future research recommendations
From the overall literature reviewed in this paper, it is rec-
ommended that further research work is required in this
area. For this purpose, researchers need to explore the
geotechnical properties of steel slag as this needs some
urgent attention, since steel slag has some favourable
properties such as greater friction angle and self-cementa-
tion characteristics.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Higher
Education (MOHE) and the Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia Research grants (vote 4F201) for the financial
support in research projects. Special thanks is dedicated
to laboratory technicians and individuals who offered
their help directly or indirectly.
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