energies
Article
The Beneficial Effect of the Addition of Fly Ash on Reduction of
the Size of Microcracks in the ITZ of Concrete Composites
under Dynamic Loading
Grzegorz Ludwik Golewski






Citation: Golewski, G.L. The
Beneficial Effect of the Addition of Fly
Ash on Reduction of the Size of
Microcracks in the ITZ of Concrete
Composites under Dynamic Loading.
Energies 2021, 14, 668. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en14030668
Received: 4 January 2021
Accepted: 25 January 2021
Published: 28 January 2021
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 668. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030668
Department of Structural Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture,
Lublin University of Technology, Nadbystrzycka 40 str., 20-618 Lublin, Poland; g.golewski@pollub.pl;
Tel.: +48-81-538-4394
Abstract: The paper presents results of tests on the effect of the addition of fly ash (FA) in the amounts
of 0%, 20%, and 30% by weight of cement on the interfacial microcracks in concrete composites
subjected to dynamic loads. The analyses were carried out based on the results of the microstructural
tests using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The average width of the microcracks (W c ) in the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of coarse aggregate with cement matrix was evaluated. During the
studies beneficial effect of the addition of FA on reduction of the size of W c in the ITZ of concrete
composites under dynamic loading were observed. Based on obtained test results, it was found that
using the 20% FA additive causes favorable changes in the microstructure of mature concrete. In this
composite, the average value of W c was lower by more than 40% compared to the result obtained for
the reference concrete. In contrast, concrete containing 30% FA additive had greater microcracks in
the ITZ area by over 60% compared to the material without additive. In all analyzed composites, an
increase in the W c value by almost 70% to over 110% in the case of occurrence of dynamic loads was
also observed. This was the most evident in the case of concrete with a higher content of FA.
Keywords: concrete composite; fly ash (FA); dynamic loading; microcrack; scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM); interfacial transition zone (ITZ); width of the microcrack (W c )
1. Introduction
Among the extensive activities promoting the development of sustainable construction,
special attention is paid to replacing ordinary Portland cement (OPC) with other mineral
components in the composition of the concrete mix. Such proposals are primarily aimed
at reducing the negative effects associated with the burning of Portland clinker, from
which OPC is later produced. Particularly adverse effects associated with the production
processes of traditional cement binder are significant emission of greenhouse gases (GHG),
mainly CO2 , e.g., [1]; their excessive energy consumption, e.g., [2]; and relatively high
production costs, e.g., [3].
Therefore, fly ash (FA) and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) are currently
used all over the world in significant amounts as a substitute for a part of the cement
binder. These materials are the industrial by-products [4]. However, due to the fact that FA
is generated as a waste in the heat and electricity generation processes in coal-fired power
plants—which are still the dominant branch of the energy industry in many countries—this
material is now considered as the most often used substitute for OPC [5–10].
Currently, 800 millions tonnes of the FA is produced in the world each year [11]. In
2031–2032, this quantity is expected to increase to 2100 million tonnes [12]. In Poland,
approx. 20 million tonnes of FA is produced each year [13].
The use of FA as an active mineral additive to concrete results in an environmental and
financial benefits related to, e.g., reduction in emission of harmful GHG to the atmosphere,
reduction of heat and electricity consumption, as well as the reduction of the price of a
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

Energies 2021, 14, 668 2 of 14

The use of FA as an active mineral additive to concrete results in an environmental
and financial benefits related to, e.g., reduction in emission of harmful GHG to the atmos-
phere, reduction of heat and electricity consumption, as well as the reduction of the price
modified binderbinder
of a modified [14–20]. BasedBased
[14–20]. on numerous studies
on numerous to date—conducted
studies on composites
to date—conducted on compo-
with FA for almost 90 years—it has also been proven that these materials have numerous
sites with FA for almost 90 years—it has also been proven that these materials have nu-
advantages compared to traditional concretes. The main benefits of using FA in concrete
merous advantages compared to traditional concretes. The main benefits of using FA in
are given in Figure 1. Furthermore, other relevant directions of recycling of FA are also
concrete are given in Figure 1. Furthermore, other relevant directions of recycling of FA
presented in [21–23], and the examples are the use of FA for aluminum extraction, synthesis
are also presented in [21–23], and the examples are the use of FA for aluminum extraction,
of geopolymers, and production of zeolites.
synthesis of geopolymers, and production of zeolites.

Figure 1. Beneficial properties of concretes with the addition of FA [24–43].

Figure 1. Beneficial properties of concretes with the addition of FA [24–43].

Thebeneficial
The beneficial properties
properties of of concretes
concretes withwith
the the addition
addition of FAofare
FAmainly
are mainly related
related to theto
the grain structure of these materials and their high pozzolanic
grain structure of these materials and their high pozzolanic reactivity. The composition of reactivity. The composi-
FAtion of FA is dominated
is dominated by spherical,
by spherical, fine-grainedfine-grained
particlesparticles with a well-developed
with a well-developed surface.surface.
Their
Their characteristic examples are
characteristic examples are shown in papers [2,38,44].shown in papers [2,38,44].
ItItshould
shouldbebenotednotedthat thatsuch
suchmorphology
morphologyofofFA FAgrains
grainscauses
causestheir
theirfaster
fasterreaction
reaction
duringthe
during the processes
processes of of formation
formation of the
of the cement
cement matrix
matrix structure,
structure, which which implies
implies numer-
numerous
ous advantages
advantages for thefor the mature
mature compositecomposite (see Figure
(see Figure 1). One1).of One of the distinct
the distinct advantages advantages
of usingof
using
this this pozzolanic
pozzolanic additiveadditive in the composition
in the composition of the concrete
of the concrete mixpossibility
mix is the is the possibility
to limitto
limit the development of the negative effects of dynamic loads
the development of the negative effects of dynamic loads in concrete structures. Dynamic in concrete structures. Dy-
namic
loads loadsboth
acting acting both
in an in anand
impact impact and cyclical
cyclical manner manner causeinitiation
cause faster faster initiation
and more and more
rapid
rapid propagation
propagation of microcracks
of microcracks in the concrete.
in the concrete. This applies
This applies primarily primarily to the weakest
to the weakest spots
inspots in the material
the material structure, structure, i.e., contact
i.e., contact layers between
layers between the various
the various phases phases of the com-
of the composite.
Therefore, it is veryitimportant
posite. Therefore, to properly
is very important select theselect
to properly composition of the concrete
the composition mix in
of the concrete
order to obtain the most homogeneous structure of cured concrete.
mix in order to obtain the most homogeneous structure of cured concrete. This should This should apply to
the cement matrix and its interfacial transition zones (ITZ) with the
apply to the cement matrix and its interfacial transition zones (ITZ) with the coarse aggre- coarse aggregate grains.
The
gatepapers
grains. [42,43] present[42,43]
The papers the results
presentof the
the research,
results ofwhich reveal that
the research, whichthe reveal
width that
of thethe
microcracks
width of the (Wmicrocracks
c ) among FA (W grains and the
c) among FAcement
grains paste
and theare cement
several times
paste smaller thantimes
are several the
damages
smaller than occurring in the ITZ
the damages area of coarse
occurring in the aggregate.
ITZ area ofTherefore, it has been
coarse aggregate. shown that
Therefore, it has
concretes with such a composition are a favorable material
been shown that concretes with such a composition are a favorable material for use infor use in dynamically loaded
concrete
dynamically structures.
loaded concrete structures.
However, it should be noted that the destruction of concrete structures subject to static
and dynamic effects is determined by the quality of ITZ in the area of coarse aggregate
grains [45–50]. It was proved in paper [50] that W c in this zone is lower by almost 35%
in the case of concretes modified with 20% FA additive. Increasing the amount of this
microfiller in the binder composition by 10% causes negative effects in the form of an
Energies 2021, 14, 668 3 of 14

increase in the width of microcracks in the ITZ zone by more than 60%. However, the
results presented in [50] relate to concretes subjected to static loads only. However, it
should be emphasized that the situations when it is necessary to take into account dynamic
loads in the analyses of concrete structures are numerous, e.g., [51–61]. Their summary is
presented in detail in Section 2. Moreover, there are no studies in the literature that would
present the microcrack test results in the area of ITZ of FA modified concretes, which would
be the result of dynamic loads. In order to fill this gap in the literature, tests were carried
out that assessed W c occurring at the interface of coarse aggregate with the cement matrix.
The presented experiments were conducted for the impact loads. The research investigated
the changes in the size of microcracks occurring in the ITZ zone for concretes with two
amounts of FA and unmodified composite. The results were compared with W c values
obtained for the same concretes under static load. The aim of the article was to demonstrate
the benefits of using FA in the composition of the concrete mix in relation to structures in
which intra-material damages may occur as a result of the action of dynamic loads. The
proposed solutions are aimed at limiting the negative effects caused by dynamic actions in
concrete and reinforced concrete structures by proposing an appropriate modification of
the binder composition in the concrete mix.

2. Dynamic Loads in Concrete Structures

Modern building concrete and reinforced concrete structures more and more often
require designers to include both static and dynamic loads in the calculations, e.g., [51].
Dynamic effects can be generated in a deterministic way, e.g., through the operation of
machines or cranes and taken into account when designing dynamically loaded founda-
tions, support structures, and crane beams [43,62–67]. Moreover, dynamic loads may also
be the result of non-deterministic impacts such as wind gusts, which are important in
the dynamic analysis of skyscrapers, earthquakes, road traffic, explosions in quarries, the
impact of sea waves, and vibrations resulting from wheeled and railway vehicles [67–69].
The number and variety of dynamic loads acting on buildings and caused by both
human activities and factors independent of human activity are significant [42,67,69].
However, two main criteria can be identified in the scope of building construction dynamics,
mutually interpenetrating and complementing, based on which the breakdown takes place.
Dynamic influences in the civil engineering industry are conventionally divided into:
(a) natural—independent of man, resulting from forces of nature. Such forces are trans-
ferred to the building through the ground or air in the form of wave and they con-
stitute a kinetic extortion. Therefore, they include rapid changes in the air pressure
(wind action) or ground movements (seismic actions).
(b) civilization—resulting from intentional human activity. These forces depend on
humans, but they are not always under their control. Such loads are transferred
similarly as in the case of natural influences through the air and ground.
(c) occurring inside buildings—normally associated with the operation of machines and
equipment. This group includes forces that may cause motion excitation of structural
elements, e.g., ceilings, walls, foundations, or other building’s components. The
source of these loads can be clearly located and fully identified (e.g., fan installed
inside the building) or accidental and not always precisely known (e.g., vibrations
from the operation of the installation or caused by moving people in the building).
Depending on the source, vibrations can be divided into:
(a) seismic—caused by rapid earth movements (earthquakes), which propagate from the
Earth’s interior to the surface and then disperse over it,
(b) paraseismic—caused by human dependent sources.
The above mentioned dynamic loads occurring in concrete structures may have very
different origins. They were characterized in detail in [42]. These loads may also have
a negative impact on the operation of concrete and reinforced concrete structures to a
varying degree.
Energies 2021, 14, 668 4 of 14

Therefore, in order to assess possible risks that may arise as a result of the occurrence of
dynamic loads, a thorough dynamic diagnostics of such structures is needed [46,57,70,71].
After its completion, appropriate guidelines and operating conditions for such structures
should be proposed. Their compliance should guarantee the safe use of a building.
There are four basic conditions for dynamically loaded concrete structures, i.e.,:
• strength,
• stiffness,
• structural,
• technological.
At this point, it should be noted that there are also other dynamic criteria to protect
concrete structures from the harmful effects of this type of load. Such examples can be
found in [72]. Nevertheless, the specificity of concrete structures is related to the occurrence
of cracks in their structure. These discontinuities, under the influence of dynamic loads,
may propagate in an uncontrolled manner, which could pose a risk of sudden failure or
even a construction disaster. The deterioration of concrete structures usually begins when
complex stress states occur in the structure. This implies the development of microcracks in
the material structure under Mode I, Mode II, and Mode III fracture [73,74]. In such cases,
mixed mode loading may also dominate [75,76]. From the above reasons, the structural
condition seems to be the most crucial. This is due to the fact that structural condition
supplements conditions resulting from serviceability requirements. These requirements
include conditions of the limited crack openings, impermeability condition, condition of
tensile stress absence, condition of not exceeding expansion joints openings, and condition
of cracks or flaking plaster. These conditions have been formulated for specific types of
structures or entire classes of structures. They depend to a large extent on the material and
binders used. These issues are thoroughly discussed in [69].
Taking the above into account, the article analyzes how the material modification of the
concrete with the use of pozzolan-active FA has an effect on the size of microcracks in the
ITZ zone between the coarse aggregate and the cement matrix in the case of dynamic loads.
During the studies, new experiments in the evaluation of W c of concrete composites
with FA additives, which were subjected to dynamic loads, were applied. In order to
emphasize the novelty of this research, it should be noted that various methods have
been proposed so far to investigate nature of microcracks in concrete elements. The
following methods were used for the theoretical, experimental, and numerical purposes.
However, measurements of W c with the use of precise Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) technique conducted on concrete specimens containing FA, which resulted from the
impact of dynamic loads, have not been carried out and presented in the literature so far.
Therefore, the proposed solution allowed for a more detailed understanding of cracking
processes occurring in FA modified concretes subjected to dynamic loads. In addition, the
compressive strength (f cm ) of analyzed concrete composites were investigated.

3. Experimental Procedure
3.1. Materials
The tests were conducted with three types of concretes with different FA additives, i.e.,
• without the FA additive (FA-00),
• with 20% FA additive (FA-20),
• with 30% FA additive (FA-30).
Moreover, it should be noted that FA-00 concrete was treated as a reference. The
methodology used to determine the composition of mixtures involved a replacement of a
suitable amount of the cement volume (the weight volume content) in the mixture with
a corresponding amount of the FA to ensure that the total amount of binding material is
always constant. All mixtures had the same water/binding ratio w/B = 0.4.
The materials were taken from different sources in Poland. The following materials
were used in order to prepare concrete mixes:
Energies 2021, 14, 668 5 of 14

• ordinary Portland cement CEM I (OPC), from cement plant in Chełm,

• siliceous fly ash (FA) of class F with 85.09% of SiO2 + Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 , 0.65% of SO3 , and
3.2% of Loss of Ignition (LOI), meeting the requirement of ASTM C618 standard from
Puławy Power Station; moreover, there are (in addition to glass) four major crystalline
components in the phase composition of the FA: quartz (SiO2 ), mullite (Al6 Si2 O13 ),
magnetite (Fe3 O4 ), and hematite (Fe2 O3 ); the size of FA particles was fine grading
with well-developed surfaces, whereas their average particle diameter was 102.035.
• pit sand 0–2 mm as fine aggregate, from natural deposit in Markuszów,
• natural gravel 2–8 mm as coarse aggregate, from natural deposit in Las Suwalski,
• plasticizer Basf Liquol BV-18,
• the laboratory pipeline water.
• The composition of prepared concrete mixes is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Concrete mix design (kg/m3 ).

Concrete Series OPC FA wt. % FA Sand Gravel Water Plasticizer

FA-00 352 0 0 676 1205 141 2
FA-20 282 70 20 676 1205 141 2
FA-30 246 106 30 676 1205 141 2

3.2. Compressive Strength Analysis

The uniaxial compression strengths were tested with the use of the following:
• a compression machine (Walter + Bai ag, type NS19/PA1; Löhningen, Switzerland)
with a maximum load of 3000 kN,
• six cube specimens for each series of concrete with a side length of 150 mm,
• the loading rate of specimens between 0.5 MPa/s and 0.8 MPa/s.

3.3. Experiment with the Use of Dynamical Loads

The methodology of the conducted dynamic experiments was as follows:
• tests were carried out on the MTS 810 servo-hydraulic testing machine,
• concrete cube specimens, with 150 mm long edge, under Mode II fracture were
tested [27,39,68]; a view of specimen presenting: (a) axonometric projection and
loading conditions and (b) detailed dimensions (in mm) was shown in Figure 2,
• during the experiment, a displacement controlled type of test with the MTS head
velocity equal to 800 mm/s with a force equal to 80 kN was applied—this damaged
the concrete specimen in a sudden manner similar to the tests on the impact tower;
dynamic load conditions were in accordance with standards [77,78],
• after fracture toughness tests, fragments obtained from destruction zones of specimens
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
for SEM examinations were gathered.

(a) (b)
Figure 2. View of specimen with: (a) axonometric projection and loading conditions; (b) dimen-
Figure 2. View of specimen with: (a) axonometric projection and loading conditions; (b) dimensions;
sions; F—force.
F—force.
3.4. Microstructural Studies
The stages of microstructural studies and their main assumptions were as follows
[42]:
 the microstructural testing was carried out using the electron scanning microscope
(SEM). The equipment used was the FEI QUANTA 250 FEG scanning microscope,
Energies 2021, 14, 668 6 of 14

3.4. Microstructural Studies

The stages of microstructural studies and their main assumptions were as follows [42]:
• the microstructural testing was carried out using the electron scanning microscope
(SEM). The equipment used was the FEI QUANTA 250 FEG scanning microscope,
which was additionally equipped with a chemical composition analysis system based
on energy dispersion scattering—the EDS EDAX.
• magnifications from 200 to 80.000 times were used,
• the specimens with dimensions of 10 × 10 × 3 mm were prepared,
• specimens were adhered to special holders with a two-sided carbon conductive tape;
the tape’s task was to discharge electrical charges from the specimens while taking
pictures and to achieve specimen surface conductivity; holders with the specimens
were then placed on the microscope table, which had been placed in a microscope
chamber, before the tests started,
• the specimens for testing were taken as raw, which means that the specimens before
the test were not polished or prepared in any other way,
• however, the tests were performed in both the low and high vacuum; prior to testing
in a high vacuum, the specimens were dried for one hour at the temperature of 70 °C,
and then they were sprayed with carbon or alloy of gold and palladium in a high
vacuum sputter coater Q 150 E, the thickness of the coated layer was approx. 50 nm;
the specimens tested in low vacuum did not require drying and spraying before
the tests,
• six specimens were prepared from each series of concrete,
• 30 pictures were taken for each specimen (180 images were taken for each series
of concrete),
• from 180 images the representative pictures were selected,
• pictures for all analyzed materials were taken at the same magnifications,
• approx. 3000 mm2 of each concrete batch area was observed in total,
• the captured pictures were images showing distinct damages in the ITZ area,
• during selection of pictures the attention was mainly drawn to the size of microcracks
occurring in the ITZ area,
• the microcracks occurring in the ITZ area were measured to the nearest thousandth,
• for each specimen, microcracks were measured and shown in two magnifications, i.e.,
1000 and 10,000 times,
• the SEM observation of microcracks in the tested specimens allowed for assessment of
the average Wc for each type of concrete,
• average value of the Wc was calculated after observations of 30 representative SEM images.
• other characteristic spots, such as pores, cavities created after separating the FA grains from
the matrix or cracks in the matrix, were also evaluated during microscopic examinations.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Analysis of Compressive Strength Test Results
Table 2 shows the average results of the compressive strength of FA concretes with
statistic parameters (standard deviation—s and coefficient of variation—v). Based on the
obtained results, it can be concluded that 20% FA additive causes an increase in fcm after
28 days of curing by 3.1%, while 30% FA additive causes a drop of this parameter by 5.1%
(Table 2).

Table 2. Compressive strength of concretes.

Concrete Series f cm (MPa) s (MPa) ν (%)

FA-00 47.51 2.55 4.58
FA-20 48.96 3.02 7.53
FA-30 45.10 3.25 7.87
 Table 2. Compressive strength of concretes.

Concrete Series fcm (MPa) s (MPa) ν (%)

Energies 2021, 14, 668
FA-00 47.51 2.55 4.58 7 of 14
FA-20 48.96 3.02 7.53
FA-30 45.10 3.25 7.87

4.2.
4.2.Evaluation
EvaluationofofMacroscopic
MacroscopicCracks
Cracks
An
Anin-depth
in-depthanalysis
analysisofofthethemacroscopic
macroscopicdamages
damagesininthe
thespecimens
specimenswas wascarried
carriedout
out
before starting the assessment of the microstructure of concretes. It should
before starting the assessment of the microstructure of concretes. It should be noted that be noted that
such
suchtests
testsare
areananimportant
importantelement
elementpreceding
precedingthethemicrostructural
microstructuralanalyses
analyses[79–84].
[79–84].The
The
observed cracks were caused by the impact loads. As a result of this,
observed cracks were caused by the impact loads. As a result of this, the image the image of formation
of for-
ofmation
damages in the specimens
of damages and the manner
in the specimens and theofmanner
their destruction, already atalready
of their destruction, the stage
at of
the
the evaluation of the obtained results, looked different from the case when
stage of the evaluation of the obtained results, looked different from the case when the the same cubes
were
same tested
cubesunder
were static
testedload
under [28,54,73]. The[28,54,73].
static load followingThe
were analyzed:
following were analyzed:
•  thethesize
sizeand
andappearance
appearanceofofcracks
cracksthat
thatformed
formedononthe
thesurface
surfaceofofthe
thespecimens,
specimens,
•  characteristic
characteristiccases
casesofofthe
thedestruction
destructionofofcubes,
cubes,
•  macroscopic
macroscopicdamages
damagesininsections
sectionsofofspecimens.
specimens.
Figure 3 shows a batch of specimens after the conducted fracture toughness test as
Figure 3 shows a batch of specimens after the conducted fracture toughness test as a
a result of the occurrence of dynamic loads. It can be seen that almost all cubes were
result of the occurrence of dynamic loads. It can be seen that almost all cubes were signif-
significantly damaged and most of them were almost completely destroyed (see Figure 4).
icantly damaged and most of them were almost completely destroyed (see Figure 4). The
The specimens usually cracked suddenly on the extension of the initial cracks. Often there
specimens usually cracked suddenly on the extension of the initial cracks. Often there was
was a detachment of the sides of the cubes. In most cases, numerous surface defects were
a detachment of the sides of the cubes. In most cases, numerous surface defects were also
also observed in other parts of the specimens (Figure 3).
observed in other parts of the specimens (Figure 3).

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 15

Figure 4 shows the view of three specimens from various perspectives with charac-
teristic damages resulting from the impact loads. Furthermore, additional damages
formed in various zones of the specimens as a result of strong dynamic actions are marked
in orange in this figure. The characteristic images observed in the research were as follows:
 large crack forms along the entire height of the specimen above the initial crack (Fig-
ure 4a).
 Figure
total
3. shear ofbatch
View of the specimen with
of specimens distinct
after damages
conducted tests. in its lower part (Figure 4b),
Figure 3. View
total of of
shear batch
theof specimenswith
specimen afterdistinct
conducted tests. in its upper part (Figure 4c).
damages

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Examples
Examples ofof macroscopic
macroscopic damages
damages inin the
the tested
tested specimens:
specimens: (a) crack with
(a) crack with aa large
large width;
width; (b,c)
(b,c) total
total shear
shear of
of the
the
specimen: 1—initial crack, 2—crack with a large width, 3—total shear of the side of the specimen.
specimen: 1—initial crack, 2—crack with a large width, 3—total shear of the side of the specimen.

In order
Figure to more
4 shows theaccurately illustrate
view of three the differences
specimens from variousthat occur in the
perspectives macroscopic
with character-
images of the resulting
istic damages destruction
fromof the
specimens, after the
impact loads. conductedadditional
Furthermore, fracture toughness tests, un-
damages formed in
der static
various and of
zones dynamic loads, Figure
the specimens 5 shows
as a result a view
of strong of two cubes
dynamic actionsofare
FA-30 concrete
marked with
in orange
crack
in thiswidths
figure. measured on theirimages
The characteristic surfaces. The figure
observed shows
in the the were
research cubesaswith very similar
follows:
shapes of the surface cracks. Nevertheless, it can be seen that both cases are clearly differ-
ent from each other. First of all, the crack width in the specimen after the impact test,
shown in Figure 4b, is much greater in the lower part in the area of the tip of the initial
crack and in the upper part, at the end of its propagation. The differences in the measured
Energies 2021, 14, 668 8 of 14

(a) (b) (c)

• large crack forms along the entire height of the specimen above the initial crack (Figure 4a).
Figure 4. Examples
• totalofshear
macroscopic damages in
of the specimen the tested
with specimens:
distinct damages(a)incrack with part
its lower a large width;4b),
(Figure (b,c) total shear of t
specimen: 1—initial crack, 2—crack with a large width, 3—total shear of the side of the specimen.
• total shear of the specimen with distinct damages in its upper part (Figure 4c).
In order to more In accurately illustrate
order to more the differences
accurately thatdifferences
illustrate the occur in the macroscopic
that occur in the macro
images of the destruction of specimens, after the conducted fracture toughness
images of the destruction of specimens, after the conducted fracture tests, under
toughness tes
static and dynamic loads, Figure 5 shows a view of two cubes of FA-30 concrete with
der static and dynamic loads, Figure 5 shows a view of two cubes of FA-30 concrecrack
widths measured on their surfaces. The figure shows the cubes with very similar shapes of
crack widths measured on their surfaces. The figure shows the cubes with very
the surface cracks. Nevertheless, it can be seen that both cases are clearly different from
shapes of the surface cracks. Nevertheless, it can be seen that both cases are clearly
each other. First of all, the crack width in the specimen after the impact test, shown in
ent from each other. First of all, the crack width in the specimen after the impa
Figure 4b, is much greater in the lower part in the area of the tip of the initial crack and in
shown in Figure 4b, is much greater in the lower part in the area of the tip of the
the upper part, at the end of its propagation. The differences in the measured crack widths
crack and in the upper part, at the end of its propagation. The differences in the me
are approx. three times greater in the case of the cube shown in Figure 4b. Additionally,
crack widths are approx. three times greater in the case of the cube shown in Fig
numerous other surface damages were observed for the cube visible on the right side
Additionally, numerous other surface damages were observed for the cube visible
(marked in orange) (Figure 5b). Such defects are not visible on the specimen tested under
right side (marked in orange) (Figure 5b). Such defects are not visible on the sp
static load (Figure 5a).
tested under static load (Figure 5a).

(a) (b)
Figure 5.Figure
View 5.
ofView
exemplary specimens
of exemplary after fracture
specimens toughness
after fracture tests: (a)
toughness under
tests: static load;
(a) under static(b) under
load; dynamic load.
(b) under
dynamic load.

The inspection of concrete sections was carried out at the last stage of the macroscopic
assessment of damages in the tested specimens. Figure 6 shows a characteristic example
of damages occurring in the concrete structures exposed to dynamic actions. It shows
that the most of the aggregates sheared as a result of strong dynamic actions. This is also
confirmed by the research presented in paper [42]. Figure 6 shows the colors of different
types of aggregates that underwent sharp-edged damages during the tests. As the gravel
aggregate used to prepare the specimens was a mixture of minerals from different types of
rocks, each color refers to a different type of filler, i.e., red—limestone, blue—basalt, and
violet—dolomite.
On the basis of the cross-section view shown in Figure 6, it is clearly visible that
the damages due to shear concerned fillers from all types of separated rocks. The defects
affected limestone aggregates with low strength parameters and basalt aggregates with very
good mechanical characteristics. On this basis, it could be predicted that the microscopic
images would also show significant damages in the ITZ area between the coarse aggregate
and the cement matrix.
 rocks, each color refers to a different type of filler, i.e., red—limestone, blue—basalt, and
violet—dolomite.
On the basis of the cross-section view shown in Figure 6, it is clearly visible that the
damages due to shear concerned fillers from all types of separated rocks. The defects af-
fected limestone aggregates with low strength parameters and basalt aggregates with very
Energies 2021, 14, 668 9 of 14
good mechanical characteristics. On this basis, it could be predicted that the microscopic
images would also show significant damages in the ITZ area between the coarse aggregate
and the cement matrix.

Figure 6. The sample of cross-section of a concrete specimen after destruction, as a result of dy-
Figure
namic 6. Thewith
load, sample ofdamaged
visible cross-section of atypes
different concrete specimen
of aggregate after(description
grains destruction,in as
theatext).
result of dynamic
load, with visible damaged different types of aggregate grains (description in the text).
4.3. Analysis of Microcrack Width (Wc) in the ITZ Area
4.3. Analysis of Microcrack
The sample WidthSEM
representative (Wcimages
) in the made
ITZ Area
for all types of analyzed composites
are presented
The sample in Figure 7, whereas SEM
representative the observed
imagesaverage
made forWc with error of
all types bars are shown
analyzed in
composites
Figure
are 8. For in
presented comparison, Figure 8 the
Figure 7, whereas alsoobserved
presents the results
average Wof measurements
with error bars of
are mi-
shown in
c
crocracks in the ITZ area, made for concretes subjected to static loads. Furthermore, in
Figure 8. For comparison, Figure 8 also presents the results of measurements of microcracks
order to show the obtained research results even more precisely, Table 3 presents the per-
in the ITZ area, made for concretes subjected to static loads. Furthermore, in order to show
centage increases of analyzed parameter, i.e., Wc in relation to the values that were ob-
the obtained research results even more precisely, Table 3 presents the percentage increases
tained for the reference concrete. As comparison values, representing 100%, the results for
ofFA-00
analyzed
were parameter,
assumed. The i.e., W c inobtained
results relationforto modified
the values that were
concrete wereobtained for the
characterized by reference
a
concrete. As comparison values, representing 100%, the results for FA-00
decrease or increase of given parameters in relation to the base value. The values obtainedwere assumed.
The results
for both obtained
static for modified
and dynamic loads wereconcrete were
taken into characterized
account (Table 3). by a decrease or increase
of given parameters in relation to the base value. The values obtained for both static and
dynamic loads were taken into account (Table 3).

Table 3. Relative changes of microcracks of analysed composites in relation to reference concrete

depending on the type of load.

The Values of Analysed Parameters Compared to FA-00 (%)

Concrete Series
W c (Static Load) W c (Dynamic Load)
FA-00 100 100
FA-20 65.5 56.6
FA-30 240.7 261.5

When analyzing the SEM images shown in Figure 7, it should be stated that in all of the
assessed concretes, the damages in the ITZ area were characteristic for the case of dynamic
loads. They were also consistent with the macroscopic images of the damaged grains
shown in Figure 6. In each of the composites, sharp-edged damages of coarse aggregate
grains (Figure 7) and microcracks of much larger sizes were observed than in the case of
damages caused by static loads (Figure 8). The lowest W c values were recorded for FA-20
concrete, while the highest werein the composites with 30% FA additive. Therefore, such
results were qualitatively consistent with the results obtained when measuring microcracks
that formed under static loads (Figure 8) [50].
Energies 2021, 14, 668 10 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

(a)

(b)

(c)
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Examples
ExamplesofofSEM
SEMpictures
picturesofofanalyzed
analyzedconcretes showing
concretes microcracks
showing in in
microcracks thethe
ITZITZ
area: (a) FA-00;
area: (b) FA-20;
(a) FA-00; (c)
(b) FA-20;
FA-30, “A”—FA grain during pozzolanic reaction.
(c) FA-30, “A”—FA grain during pozzolanic reaction.
Energies 2021, 14, 668 11 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Figure 8. Average values of microcrack width Wc of analysed concretes.

Figure 8. Average values of microcrack width W c of analysed concretes.
Table 3. Relative changes of microcracks of analysed composites in relation to reference concrete
Furthermore,
depending 20%
on the type of load.FA additive caused a distinct strengthening of the concrete structure
in the ITZ area due to the intensive
The Values ofpozzolanic reactions.
Analysed Parameters This phenomenon
Compared to FA-00 (%) was observed in
Concrete
the picture Seriesin Figure 7b, detail “A”. The structure of the matrix in this material was
shown Wc (Static Load) Wc (Dynamic Load)
compact, which FA-00 meant that in this composite, 100 under static and 100dynamic loads, microcracks
in the ITZFA-20 area were the smallest (Figure 65.5 8). The highest W c values 56.6 were recorded for FA-30
concrete. FA-30 Additionally, numerous240.7 unreacted FA grains in this 261.5composite (green border in
Figure 7c) and spots after the separation of FA grains from the matrix were visible. This
When analyzing the SEM images shown in Figure 7, it should be stated that in all of
resulted
the assessed in aconcretes,
weakening of its structure.
the damages in the ITZ area were characteristic for the case of dy-
namic In loads.
all analyzed
They were concretes, the microcracks
also consistent with the macroscopicwere greater
images ofinthe thedamaged
case of dynamic loads.
The values
grains shown Winc increased
Figure 6. In most
each ofclearly in FA-30
the composites, concrete by
sharp-edged over of
damages 110%,
coarsewhile
ag- to the smallest
gregateingrains
extent FA-20 (Figure 7) andonly
concrete, microcracks
by lessofthan
much70%.largerInsizes
thewere observedconcrete,
reference than in thean increase in W
c
case of damages caused by static loads (Figure 8). The lowest Wc values were recorded for
by less than 100% was recorded (Figure 8).
FA-20 concrete, while the highest werein the composites with 30% FA additive. Therefore,
suchAdditionally, the relative
results were qualitatively changes
consistent with the W c compared
inresults obtained when to measuring
the values mi-obtained for the
reference
crocracks that concrete
formed were moreloads
under static pronounced
(Figure 8) [50].in the case of dynamic loads in the concrete
Furthermore,
specimens. It was 20% FA additive
observed caused
that a distinct
W c value forstrengthening
FA-20 concrete of the decreased
concrete struc-
by more than 40%
ture in the ITZ area due to the intensive pozzolanic reactions. This phenomenon was ob-
(more by 10% than in the case of static loads), while for FA-30 concrete it increased by over
served in the picture shown in Figure 7b, detail “A”. The structure of the matrix in this
160%
material(morewas by 20% than
compact, whichinmeant
the case of this
that in static loads) (Table
composite, 3). and dynamic
under static
loads,Therefore,
microcracksthe tests
in the showed
ITZ area that
were the siliceous
smallest (FigureFA8). as
Theactive
highestfiling material
Wc values were has beneficial
effect
recordedon fortheFA-30
delay of the Additionally,
concrete. destructivenumerous
processes in the FA
unreacted material
grains in subjected
this compo-to dynamic loads
site (green
(Table 3) andborderonintheFigure 7c) andof
increase spots
theafter the separation
material’s of FA grains
compressive from the (Table
strength matrix 2).
were visible. This resulted in a weakening of its structure.
Therefore, it can be concluded that concrete with 20% FA additive is—due to the
In all analyzed concretes, the microcracks were greater in the case of dynamic loads.
reduction
The values of Wc intra-material
increased most clearly cracks—an ideal material
in FA-30 concrete to be
by over 110%, used
while in smallest
to the structures subjected to
both
extentstatic andconcrete,
in FA-20 dynamic loads.
only by lessOnthanthe
70%.other hand,
In the it isconcrete,
reference not recommended
an increase in to use concretes
Wc by less than
containing 30% 100%
FAwas recorded (Figure
in structures 8).
exposed to dynamic loads.
Additionally, the relative changes in Wc compared to the values obtained for the ref-
5.erence concrete were more pronounced in the case of dynamic loads in the concrete spec-
Conclusions
imens. It was observed that Wc value for FA-20 concrete decreased by more than 40%
(moreBased onthan
by 10% theinobtained test
the case of results,
static loads), the following
while for FA-30 conclusions can be
concrete it increased bydrawn:
over 160% (more by 20% than in the case of static loads) (Table 3).
• the siliceous FA as an active additive in the amount of 20% and 30% changes the
Therefore, the tests showed that siliceous FA as active filing material has beneficial
microcrack
effect on the delay widths (W c ) ofprocesses
of the destructive concreteincomposites subjected
the material subjected to dynamic
to dynamic loads loads,
• (Table
composite with 20% FA are characterized by smallest microcrack
3) and on the increase of the material’s compressive strength (Table 2). width in the ITZ in
comparison to the unmodified concrete,
• the greatest microcrack width in the ITZ area in concrete containing 30% FA were observed,
• the average values W c were qualitatively consistent with the results obtained when
measuring microcracks caused by static loads (Figure 8),
• in all analysed concretes, the microcracks were greater in the case of dynamic loads
when compared to W c values obtained under static loads (Figure 8),
• sharp-edged damages of the coarse aggregate grains occur (Figure 6) under dynamic
loads in the sections of concrete elements,
• concrete with 20% fly ash additive is an ideal material to be used in structures subjected
to both static and dynamic loads,
Energies 2021, 14, 668 12 of 14

• it is not recommended to use concretes containing 30% fly ash in structures exposed
to dynamic loads,
• it should be mentioned that experiments of concretes with the siliceous fly ash gave
the results presented in this article; composites containing calcareous fly ash may give
different results; therefore, it is also planned to conduct similar tests on concretes
modified with calcareous fly ash.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Acknowledgments: This work was financially supported by Ministry of Science and Higher Educa-
tion of Poland within the statutory research number FN15/ILT/2021.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declare no conflict of interest.

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